FUNGI

Nur Dina Amalina, S.Farm., M.Sc., Apt.

Photo’s courtesy of : Sylvia T.
Pratiwi
What is a fungus?
 Are diverse and widespread
 Are essential for the well-being of most
terrestrial ecosystems because they break
down organic material and recycle vital
nutrients

 Distinguished from other kingdoms by:

 Nutrition
 Structural organisation
 Growth
 Reproduction
What is a fungus?

 Fungi are eukaryotic protista; differ from bacteria and other prokaryotes.
1. Cell walls containing chitin (rigidity & support), mannan & other
polysaccharides
2. Cytoplasmic membrane contains ergosterols
3. Possess true nucleic with nuclear membrane & paired chromosomes.
4. Divide asexually, sexually or by both
5. Unicellular or multicellular
6. heterotrophic organism devoid of chlorophyll that obtains its nutrients by
absorption
7. reproduces by spores.
 Fungi

 Simplest fungus :- Unicellular budding yeast

 Hypha :- Elongation of apical cell produces a

tubular, thread like structure called hypha

 Mycelium :- Tangled mass of hyphae is called

mycelium. Fungi producing mycelia are called
molds or filamentous fungi.

 Hyphae may be septate or non-septate

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 CLASSIFICATION 7

 Depending on cell morphology

1. Yeasts
2. Yeast like fungi
3. Molds and fleshy fungi
4. Dimorphic fungi
 1. Yeasts
 On culture - produce smooth, creamy colonies
e. g Cryptococcus neoformans (capsulated yeast)

 Unicellular fungi, nonfilamentous, typically oval or spherical cells. Reproduce by

mitosis:
 Fission yeasts: Divide evenly to produce two new cells (Schizosaccharomyces).
 Budding yeasts: Divide unevenly by budding (Saccharomyces).
Budding yeasts can form pseudohypha, a short chain of undetached cells.
Candida albicans invade tissues through pseudohyphae.

 Yeasts are facultative anaerobes, which allows them to grow in a variety of

environments.
 When oxygen is available, they carry out aerobic respiration.
 When oxygen is not available, they ferment carbohydrates to produce ethanol
and carbon dioxide. 8
 2. Yeast like fungi 10

 Grow partly as yeasts and partly as elongated cells resembling hyphae which are called
pseudohyphae.
 e.g. Candida albicans
 3. Molds/ Filamentous fungi

 Form true mycelia & reproduce by formation of

different types of spores.

 Vegetative/ aerial hyphae

e.g. Rhizopus, mucor

1
1
Molds and Fleshy Fungi

 Multicellular, filamentous fungi.

 Identified by physical appearance, colony characteristics, and reproductive spores.
 Thallus : Body of a mold or fleshy fungus. Consists of many hyphae.
 Hyphae (Sing : Hypha) : Long filaments of cells joined together.
 Septate hyphae : Cells are divided by cross-walls (septa).
 Coenocytic (Aseptate) hyphae : Long, continuous cells that are not divided by septa.
Hyphae grow by elongating at the tips.
Each part of a hypha is capable of growth.
 Vegetative Hypha : Portion that obtains nutrients.
 Reproductive or Aerial Hypha : Portion connected with reproduction.
 Mycelium : Large, visible, filamentous mass made up of many hyphae.
 4. Dimorphic fungi 13

 Occur in 2 forms
Molds (Filaments) – 25C (soil)
Yeasts – 37C (in host tissue)

Most fungi causing systemic infections are dimorphic:

 Histoplasma capsulatum
 Blastomyces dermatidis
 Paracoccidioides brasiliensis
 Coccidioides immitis
 Penicillium marneffei
 Sporothrix schenkii
Body Structure

 The morphology of multicellular fungi enhances their ability to

absorb nutrients

 Fungi consist of mycelia, networks of branched hyphae adapted

for absorption

 Most fungi have cell walls made of chitin

 Some fungi have hyphae divided into cells by septa, with pores
allowing cell-to-cell movement

 Coenocytic fungi lack septa

 Some unique fungi have specialized hyphae that allow them to

penetrate the tissues of their host
 Fungal hyphae may be septate or aseptate
 Except for yeast, hyphae are organised around
and within food source:
 Composed of tubular walls containing chitin
 Provide enormous surface area: 10cm2 of
soil may contain 1km of hyphae with 314cm2
surface area

 Hyphae of septate fungi are divided into cells by

crosswalls called septa

 Hyphae of aseptate fungi lack cross walls

(coenocytic)

 Parasitic fungi have modified hyphae called

haustoria, which penetrate the host tissue but
remain outside cell membrane
 Hyphae 25 µm
Nematode

Hyphae adapted for trapping and killing prey

Plant
Fungal hypha cell
wall

Plant cell

Plant cell
Haustorium plasma
Haustoria membrane
 Fungal cell wall composition
 Structural components:
 chitin microfibrils [ß(1-4)-linked polymer of N-
acetylglucosamine]
 ß-linked glucans
 Gel-like components:
 Mannoproteins (form matrix throughout wall)
 Antigenic glycoproteins, agglutinans, adhesions—on cell wall
surface
 Melanins—dark brown to black pigments (confer resistance
to enzyme lysis, confer mechanical strength and protect cells
from UV light, solar radiation and desiccation)
 Plasma membrane—semi-permeable
 Ergosterol is the major lipid component of the underlying
plasma
Common wall constituents found in each
division of fungi

Division Fibrous Gel-like Polymer

Basidiomycota Chitin Xylomannoproteins
β -(1-3), β-(1-6) Glucan α (1-3) Glucan
Ascomycota chitin Galactomannoproteins
β -(1-3), β-(1-6) Glucan α (1-3) Glucan
Zygomycota Chitin Polyglucuronic acid
Chitosan Glucuronomannoproteins
Polyphosphate
Chytridiomycota Chitin Glucan
Glucan

Taken from :
http://bugs.bio.usyd.edu.au/learning/resources/Mycology/StructureFunction/wallComposition.sht
ml
 Reproduction in fungi 21

 Sexual (by meiosis) - formation of zygospores, ascospores or

basidiospores
 Asexual reproduction (by mitosis) – budding or fission
 Asexual spores are formed on or in specialized structures.
 Vary in size, shape & colour but these characteristics are constant
for a particular species.
 Spores are the agent of dispersal responsible for geographic
distribution of fungi:
 Carried by wind or water
 Germinate in moist places with appropriate substrata
 Reproduction in fungi

 Micro conidia - Small, single celled

 Macro conidia – Large, single or many celled

konidia
2
2
Generalised life cycle of fungi

Asexual
Sexual
Sexual Reproduction
 Fungal nuclei are normally haploid, with the exception of transient diploid stages formed during
the sexual life cycles
 Sexual reproduction requires the fusion of hyphae from different mating types
 Fungi use sexual signaling molecules called pheromones to communicate their mating type

 Plasmogamy is the union of cytoplasm from two parent mycelia

 In most fungi, the haploid nuclei from each parent do not fuse right away; they coexist in the
mycelium, called a heterokaryon
 In some fungi, the haploid nuclei pair off two to a cell; such a mycelium is said to be dikaryotic

 Hours, days, or even centuries may pass before the occurrence of karyogamy, nuclear fusion
 During karyogamy, the haploid nuclei fuse, producing diploid cells
 The diploid phase is short-lived and undergoes meiosis, producing haploid spores
 The paired processes of karyogamy and meiosis produce genetic variation
Asexual Reproduction
 In addition to sexual reproduction, many fungi can reproduce asexually
 Molds produce haploid spores by mitosis and form visible mycelia
 Asexual Reproduction

 Other fungi that can reproduce asexually

are yeasts, which are single cells 10 m

 Instead of producing spores, yeasts

reproduce asexually by simple cell division
and the pinching of “bud cells” from a
parent cell
Parent cell

Bud
 A sporangium
is a sac or case
in which spores
are produced.

 This is a Rhizopus sporangium.

 Phylogeny/Classification

Zygote Arbuscular Sac Club

Chytrids
fungi mycorrhizal fungi fungi

 Fungi have radiated

fungi

into a diverse set of

lineages

Ascomycota
Glomeromycota
Zygomycota

Basidiomycota
Chytridiomycota
 The four phyla of
fungi are
identified by the
shape and presence
of their sporangium
Phylogeny/Cl
assification

Five Phyla of Fungi

Chytrids
 The most primitive fungi
 Fungi classified in the phylum Hyphae 25 m

Chytridiomycota, or chytrids
 Are found in freshwater and
terrestrial habitats, but mainly
aquatic
 Can be saprobic or parasitic

 Chytrids are unique among fungi Flagellum

 In having flagellated spores, 4 m

called zoospores
Zygomycetes Bread Mold –
a Zygomycete
Fungi
 Lower fungi;
 Broad, nonseptate hyphae

 Asexual spores - Sporangiospores: present within a swollen sac-

like structure called Sporangium
 They include fast-growing molds, parasites, and commensal symbionts

 The zygomycetes are named for their sexually produced zygosporangia

 Zygosporangia resistant to freezing and drying

 Are capable of persisting through unfavorable conditions
 Can undergo meiosis when conditions improve

 The life cycle of black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer) is fairly typical of
the phylum
Two views of a Zygomycota’s sporangium
 Zygomycota – common molds

The fungal mass of hyphae,

known as the MYCELIUM
penetrates the bread and
produces the fruiting bodies on
top of the stalks.

Mycelia = a mass of hyphae or filaments

Rhizoids = root-like hyphae
The Rhizoids meet underground and mating occurs between hyphae of different molds (SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION)
 Zygomycetes
 Some zygomycetes, such as Pilobolus can actually “aim” their sporangia toward
conditions associated with good food sources

This
decomposer of
animal dung
bends toward
bright light and
shoots its
sporangia up to
2 meters
0.5 mm
Ascomycetes

 Fungi in the phylum Ascomycota

 Include unicellular yeasts and

complex multicellular
(filamentous) cup fungi
 Are found in a variety of marine,
freshwater, and terrestrial
habitats

Morchella esculenta
 Sexual spores called ascospores
are present within a sac like
structure called Ascus.

 Several asci may be seen within a

fruiting body as seen in
Penicillium, Aspergillus

 Each ascus has 4 to 8 ascospores

In sexual reproduction, haploid mycelia of
opposite mating strains fuse
Asexual spores are called conidia borne
on conidiophore

Hyphae are septate

Aspergillus flavus conidiophore
Yeast is an Ascomycete Fungus
Division Basidiomycota: club fungi

 It is characterized by basidia –
club shaped hyphae that
produce basidiaspores during
sexual reproduction.
 Important decomposers of wood /
plant material
 Include:
 Mycorrhiza-forming mutualists
 Mushroom-forming fungi
 Plant parasites e.g. rusts and smuts
 Characterised by dikaryotic mycelium
that reproduces sexually via
basidiocarps
Basidiomycete or Club Fungi
 PHYLUM DEUTEROMYCOTA
No Longer Exist!!

• 22,000 species.
• No known sexual stage.
• Saprophytic, parasitic and predatory.
• Many produce conidia.
• Most classified as Ascomycota.
• Fusarium wilt of tomato, potato and cotton.
• Athletes foot, ring worm
Division Deuteromycota - No Longer Exist!!

“Imperfect fungi”
(penicillin)
Unrelated group
Asexual
No info on sexual cycle

25,000 species
Penicillin

Woops…
now
Ascomycota
Candida albicans
“yeast infection”
Botrytis: “Noble Rot”
 Kingdom Fungi
Uses:
• medicine About 100,000 species
• Food

Ecological value:
• major decomposers
• symbiotic relationships (N2 fixers)

Problems:
• some strains are deadly
• athletes foot
• destroy library books
• destroy crops
Fungi in Industry

 Fungi produce many products used in the medical field such

as penicillin, cephalosporin antibotics, cortisone
 Fungi are used in genetic engineering – vaccine for hepatitis
B was developed using the yeast plasmid as the vector.
 Yeast is used to make ethanol.
 Yeast are known for making breads rise.
 Mushrooms, morels and truffles are widely consumed by
humans.
 Useful Properties of Fungi 55

Source of food e.g. Antibiotic production

mushrooms e.g. Penicillin from
Penicillium notatum

Fermentation - Production of
alcohol, bread, cheese
e.g. Sacchromyces spps
 56
Useful Properties of Fungi

Ergot from Claviceps purpurea, Vaccines for Hepatitis B –

used to induce uterine Sacchromyces cerevisiae
contractions
Absorptive nutrition enables fungi to live as
decomposers and symbionts
 Fungi are heterotrophs that acquire nutrients by absorption

 Secrete hydrolytic enzymes and acids to decompose complex

molecules into simpler ones that can be absorbed

 Specialised into three main types:

 Saprobes - absorb nutrients from dead organic material
 Parasitic fungi - absorb nutrients from cells of living hosts; some
are pathogenic
 Mutualistic fungi - absorb nutrients from a host, but reciprocate to
benefit the host
Fungi decompose dead plant and animal
matter
 Called saprophytes, they act as recyclers of dead organic matter, obtaining food
from this material.

 Hyphal tips release enzymes that eventually decompose and release organic
materials into the surrounding environment.

 Saprophytic fungi appear on dead trees, logs, plant litter such as leaves, and
even dead insects and animals. Examples: "Gem-studded Puffball" (Lycoperdon
perlatum) and "Turkey Tail"(Trametes versicolor).
Fungi form beneficial partnerships (symbiosis) with
other organisms such as plants:

Algae

hyphae

Lichen – symbiotic relationship between

algae and fungi
Fungus-Animal Symbioses
 Some fungi share their digestive services with animals
 These fungi help break down plant material in the guts of cows and other grazing mammals
 Many species of ants use the digestive power of fungi by raising them in “farms”
Fungus-Algae Symbioses
Some fungi are pathogens

 About 30% of the 100,000 known species of fungi are parasites, mostly on or in plants.

 Many people have allergies triggered by mold.

 Fungal skin infections – skin, nails and hair
 Ringworm, athlete’s foot

 Internal organs – Histoplasmosis

Fungal Infections/ Mycoses 63

 Superficial mycoses:
 2 types: surface and cutaneous mycoses
 Skin, hair & nails.
 Mild but chronic disease

 Deep mycoses:
2 types: subcutaneous & systemic mycoses
 Caused by soil saprophytes
 Infectionis accidental
 Range from a symptomatic infection to fatal disease
Opportunistic infections 64

 Mainly caused by fungi which are common lab contaminant on culture

media
 Aspergillus

 Pencillium

 Mucor

 Rhizopus

 Candida

 Produce serious & fatal infections