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Original Article

Proc IMechE Part D:


J Automobile Engineering
1–8
Towards a test stand for standardized Ó IMechE 2015
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DOI: 10.1177/0954407015616025
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Guido Perricone1, Jens Wahlström2 and Ulf Olofsson2

Abstract
Brake-related particulate matter contributes considerably to the non-exhaust emissions of the transport sector in urban
areas of the world. The airborne particle emissions from automotive brakes currently lack any proper regulations.
Future regulations require test stands, test cycles and particle instruments to be suitable for measuring the brake emis-
sions. This present work focuses on the design of a novel test stand for reliable measurements of the brake emissions
with a high sampling efficiency. A test stand in the form of an inertial disc brake dynamometer was redesigned to allow
control of the cleanness of the incoming air and to assure isokinetic sampling. The cleanness of the incoming air, together
with an over-pressurized chamber around the brake assembly, ensures that all the particles measured originate from the
brake materials. In order to evaluate the novel design, the number and size distributions of the brake emissions are mea-
sured online with and without control of the cleanness of the intake air. The results reveal that this test stand can be
proposed as a standard test stand to assess objectively the emissions of airborne brake particles in future regulations.

Keywords
Automotive brake, non-exhaust emissions, airborne particles, test stand, isokinetic sampling

Date received: 21 May 2015; accepted: 12 October 2015

Introduction by laboratory test stands. Garg et al.12 used a dynam-


ometer bench with a high-efficiency particulate air
The formation of airborne particulate matter (PM) (HEPA) filter to determine the mass emissions rates
from the wear of brake contact pairs (pads and rotor) from brake pads. Sanders et al.13 performed laboratory
is the price that a transport system must pay in order to measurements to determine the brake pad emissions
stop a conventional internal-combustion engine vehicle rate using a dynamometer bench designed with the
safely. focus on the use of isokinetic sampling and arrange-
Brake-related PM greatly influences the non-exhaust ments to minimize sampling losses, including a dilution
emissions of the transport sector.1 The inhalable PM tunnel. Iijima et al.14 conducted abrasion tests using a
fraction consists of particles with an aerodynamic dia- dynamometer bench with an enclosed chamber to
meter smaller than 10 mm (PM10).2,3 Together with determine the antimony emissions factor originating
other contributors, namely the wear emissions from from automobiles. Gasser et al.15 mounted an exposure
tyres and road surfaces including traffic-induced box around a car’s braking system to expose lung cells
resuspension of deposited road dust, the non-exhaust to braking-related particulates. The particle size distri-
emissions may contribute up to 50–85% of the total bution and the brake emissions components such as
traffic-related PM10 emissions.4–6 Yet, the non-exhaust metals and carbon were measured online. Furthermore,
emissions are not currently regulated despite the fact the particles deposited on grids for transmission elec-
that the principal source of PM pollution in many tron microscopy were counted. Wahlström et al.16 used
European cities is road traffic (see, for example, the a laboratory pneumatic-actuated test stand that was
papers by Pey et al.7 and Lonati et al.8) Currently, only
the exhaust emissions have been regulated by European
Commission Directive 2008/50/EC9 and, therefore, the 1
Brembo SpA, Stezzano, Italy
2
non-exhaust emissions are now being targeted for a Machine Design, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Sweden
new European emissions standard.10,11 Corresponding author:
Few studies have been conducted to study the wear Guido Perricone, Brembo SpA, Via Europa 2, Stezzano 24040, Italy.
and particulate emissions at the pad-to-rotor interface Email: guido_perricone@brembo.it

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2 Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering

designed to allow control of the cleanness of the sur-


rounding air; in this case, sampling of airborne particu-
lates was performed with online measurement systems
to count and size particles. Both Kukutschová et al.17
and Roubicek et al.18 used a full-scale dynamometer
bench; the wear debris generated during the dynam-
ometer tests was collected in containers placed under
the brake inside the dynamometer chamber in the work
by Kukutschová et al. and from the wind tunnel after
test completion in the work by Roubicek et al.
Kukutschová et al.17 used an environmental chamber.
A scanning mobility particle sizer and an aerodynamic
particle sizer were used simultaneously for in-situ char-
acterization of the airborne particles generated, and a
Berner low-pressure impactor was used to collect the
particle emissions. Alemani et al.19 conducted prelimi-
nary experiments on a full-scale dynamometer bench
and proposed a test protocol for the measurement of Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the disc brake assembly.
airborne particulates. None of the above-mentioned P: low steel brake pads; FC: aluminium fixed caliper; R: cast iron rotor.
studies which employed a full-scale dynamometer
bench combined control of the cleanness of the sur-
rounding air, isokinetic sampling with a high sampling
efficiency and online measurement of the number and
size of airborne particulates.
Test stands, test cycles and particle instruments that
are suitable for studying the brake emissions are
required in order to prepare for new brake emissions
regulations. The present work focuses on the design of
a novel test stand for reliable measurements of the
brake emissions with a high sampling efficiency. This is
achieved by modification of a full-scale hydraulic test
stand in order, first, to have controlled clean air, sec-
ond, to carry out isokinetic sampling with a high sam-
pling efficiency and, third, to present the result of a
pre-test in terms of the number of particles.
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the test stand.
OR: outdoor room; B-1: 180°, 0.4 m bend tube; F: flow measurement
Novel test stand design point and filter (not marked in the figure); BB: bigger box; T: tube; O1:
first outlet gap; V: Venturi flow measurement tube; SO: sampling outlet;
An industrial, hydraulically actuated dynamometric C: dust-box chamber; A: air inlet opening; Cy: cyclone; B-2: 90°, 0.1 m
inertia bench adapted to research and measuring activi- bend tube; E: ELPI + Ò cascade impactor.
ties is used in this work. The set-up of this test stand
was previously described by Alemani et al.19 A front left
disc brake assembly that is representative of a typical A schematic diagram of the test stand is given in
medium-size European passenger car20 is used. Figure 1 Figure 2. A fan takes the air from the outdoor room
illustrates the brake assembly used; the disc brake R OR and passes it into the chamber C, through the air
consists of a ventilated cast iron rotor, an aluminium inlet opening A, a flow measurement system and a
fixed caliper FC with four pistons and two low-steel HEPA filter F. The flow rate can be adjusted from 500
brake pads P.21 m3/h to 2500 m3/h via software control to simulate dif-
In line with the previous work by Wahlström et al.16 ferent air flows. A piping system assures proper con-
and Olofsson et al.22 a box is constructed around the nection between the fan, the Venturi tube V, the filter
brake assembly to isolate it from its surroundings so as F and the chamber C. The chamber has a base dimen-
to be fully certain that the particles sampled originate sion of 1296 mm 3 793 mm while the height is 795
from the wear of the disc brake materials and not from mm; therefore, the volume of the chamber is 0.817 m3.
other external sources. During the test, a fan pumps Starting from the box roof, the sampling outlet SO
outdoor air into the box through a HEPA filter of class is designed to maximize the efficiency of the aerosol
H13, which ensures that the air entering the chamber is sample extraction for the full range (from ultrafine to
clean. Moreover, the box is slightly over-pressurized to coarse particle sizes) of particle sizes expected. The air
prevent the intake of external particles. leaves the chamber via two different outlet sections:

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Perricone et al. 3

Figure 3. Isokinetic probe positioned on the same axle of the


descending section of the tube.
T: tube; IP: isokinetic probe; Cy: cyclone.

one outlet gap O1 can be tuned using a shutter device


and has a maximum opening of square section 300 mm
3 300 mm while the second outlet gap is the sampling
outlet SO and has a circular section of diameter 56
mm. In this way, a specific velocity can be obtained in
the circular section by choosing an appropriate clear-
ance of the square section. The former discharges air
directly into the bigger box BB that envelopes the box
and other secondary equipment. Air is finally drawn
from the bigger box BB with a 2500 m3/h pump and
discharged outside. From the latter outlet section, a Figure 4. A photograph of the novel bench design.
BB: bigger box (door open); F: inlet tube from which clean air enter; T:
tube T with a circular cross-section of diameter 56 mm
outlet tube; R: rotor; C: dust-box chamber.
leaves the chamber vertically. It makes a 180° turn after
0.4 m via a bend B-1 having a curvature radius of
0.4 m. The tube then stretches vertically downwards for Sampling efficiency
1 m. A Venturi flow measurement tube V is fitted along
this segment to measure the passing flow. It is crucial that the aerosol sampled is representative
Isokinetic (which mens that the sample velocity is of the emissions generated by the pad-to-rotor contact
equal to the stack velocity) sampling is required to pair. Sampling a representative aerosol sample into an
ensure that all particle sizes are sampled in an unbiased inlet is not trivial23 and, therefore, special care is taken
manner. Figure 3 is a photograph of the isokinetic in designing the sampling system.
Dekati probe IP of 7.62 mm diameter which is Fluid dynamics simulations are performed to ascer-
employed and positioned parallel to the air stream with tain that the aerosol inside the chamber is well mixed
the its tip inserted 5 cm inside the outlet tube T; consid- and that the velocity profile of the sampled aerosol is
ering the sampling flow (10 dm3/min) from the fully developed without any vortices. The StarCCM+Ò
ELPI+Ò E, the shutter device O1 must be adjusted in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) code is used, and
order to obtain a stream velocity of 3.47 m/s at the end the k–e turbulence model is set. As the boundary condi-
of the tube. Note that the use of an instrument having tions, the mass flow inlet condition is imposed at the
a different sampling flow rate (10 dm3/min) or a differ- inlet section F (Figure 2), and the pressure outlet condi-
ent probe diameter requires recalculation and possible tion (the pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure)
redesign to ensure isokinetic sampling. is imposed at the two outlets O1 and Cy (Figure 2).
The isokinetic probe is connected to the Dekati The simulations are run at the standard room tempera-
cyclone Cy which is used to remove the larger particles ture of 300 K. Although the brake assembly is not
from the sampled stream; the cyclone has a 10 mm cut- included in the simulations, the evolution of stream-
out point at 10 dm3/min. Finally, a plastic tube of 10 lines (Figure 5) shows rather chaotic conditions which
mm diameter connects the cyclone outlet to the impac- ensure a well-mixed airborne particle distribution in the
tor inlet with a 90° continuous bend B-2 which has a test box. In addition, these chaotic conditions are prob-
radius approximately equal to 0.1 m. Figure 4 illus- ably increased for the following reasons: the compli-
trates the final appearance of the new designed rig. The cated volume of the front left brake assembly; the
rotor R is visible through the glass window of the dust- spinning movement of the rotor; the high air exchange
box chamber C. rate. This further enhances mixing of the particles

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4 Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering

The curvature ratios of bend B-1 and bend B-2 are


7.1 and 10 respectively. Table 1 lists the calculated sam-
pling efficiencies with respect to the inertial losses as a
function of the aerodynamic particle diameter D at a
flow rate of 10 dm3/min. The total sampling efficiency
is a factor of the transport efficiency calculated for
bends B-1 and B-2 using data from the work of Pui
et al.25 and Crane and Evans.26
The inlet efficiency is defined as the product of the
aspiration efficiency and the transmission efficiency
according to

hinlet = hasp htrans ð3Þ

The aspiration efficiency depends on how much the air-


Figure 5. Streamlines from the CFD simulations, showing the borne particulates deviate from the streamlines of the
resulting well-mixed air inside the dust chamber. flow approaching the sampling probe. In relation to
the present measurements, the tunnel air flow rate and
the sample probe diameters were chosen to match the
before they are pumped out in a well-developed stream tunnel velocity and the probe flow velocity closely at
through the sampling pipe to the sampling point for an ELPI +Ò flow rate of 10 dm3/min. The aspiration
airborne particles. At the sampling point, the air stream efficiency is 1 (100%) when dealing with isokinetic sam-
shows negligible component velocities across the cross- pling and the absence of stream turbulence that can
section of the tube, while the axial velocity (i.e. along cause lateral motion.
the tube) is well developed. In the case of isoaxial and isokinetic sampling, the
The sampling efficiency is defined as the product of transmission losses arise from only gravitational settling
the inlet efficiency and the total transport efficiency inside the nozzle. The transmission losses from settling
according to are negligible whenever the flow is upward or down-
ward with respect to gravity. However, the sampling
hsample = htransport hinlet ð1Þ velocity must be much greater than the settling velocity
The transport efficiency includes several deposition of the particles. The settling velocity is the velocity that
mechanisms (e.g. settling, inertial and diffusional the particle approaches when falling under the opposing
deposition) that can operate in each flow element (e.g. influences of gravity and fluid drag; in our case, the set-
bends, inclines and contraction). As illustrated in tling velocity23 is 0.002 26 m/s for 10 mm particles.
Figure 2, the sampling ducts are formed by two vertical In brief, the only loss of efficiency of our sampling
tubes, which are used to avoid any gravitational and line is due to the 0.4 m radius bend and to the other
inertial settling and to allow a well-developed air 0.1 m bend from the cyclone to the impactor.
stream, and two bend sections B-1 and B-2. This means
that the only parts of the tubing system in which iner- Test conditions
tial deposition must be considered are, first, the bend
B-1 which has a radius of 0.4 m while the tube has a The same instrumentation as already described by
circular cross-section of diameter 56 mm and, second, Alemani et al.19 is used to measure the brake torque,
the plastic tube B-2 which connects the cyclone to the the hydraulic pressure, the bulk temperatures of the
impactor and has a radius of approximately 0.1 m and pads and the bulk temperature of the rotor during the
a circular cross-section of diameter 10 mm. Cheng and braking events at a sample rate of 50 Hz. The tempera-
Wang24 stated that there is no deposition from inertial tures of the pads are measured using K-type thermo-
effects in the bend for Stokes numbers Stk smaller than couples positioned in the pad centre, 3 mm below the
0.05–0.1; moreover, the curvature ratio should be of back plate, whereas the rotor has two sliding K-type
the order of 4 or higher. The Stokes numbers can be thermocouples on both contact surfaces.
calculated as The particulate emissions are measured using a
Dekati ELPI +Ò impactor.27 This instrument allows
t D vsampling
Stk = ð2Þ real-time measurements of the particle size distributions
d in 14 size stages (from 6 nm up to 10 mm) with a sam-
where t D is the particle relaxation time for a certain pling rate of 1 Hz or 10 Hz. The impactor technology
particle diameter or the time for a particle to reach makes it possible to collect particulates on filters in the
(1 2 1/e) of its final velocity when subjected to an exter- different size stages and to conduct a size-divided
nal force field, vsampling is the sampling velocity or the chemical analysis of the particulates sampled. The
characteristic gas velocity and d is the tube diameter or instrument sampling flow is 10 dm3/min, and its sam-
the characteristic system dimension. pling frequency is set to 1 Hz. The inlet flow rate of the

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Perricone et al. 5

Table 1. Sampling efficiencies for particles with aerodynamic diameters D of 1 mm and 10 mm.

Bend Properties Transport efficiency for the following


D = 10 mm D = 1 mm
t D = 2.3 3 1024 s t D = 3.5 3 1026 s

B-1 180° bend 95.5% (Pui et al.25) 100%


R = 400 mm 99.3% (Crane and Evans26) 99.9%
d = 56 mm Stk = 1.43 3 1022 Stk = 2.17 3 1024
vsampling = 3.47 m/s
dnozzle = 7.62 mm
B-2 90° bend 95.1% (Pui et al.25) 100%
R = 0.1 m 99.3% (Crane and Evans26) 99.9%
d = 10 mm Stk = 4.88 3 1022 Stk = 7.42 3 1024
vsampling = 2.12 m/s
Total efficiency 90.8% (Pui et al.25) 100%
98.6% (Crane and Evans26) 99.8%

Table 2. Test cycle used for evaluation of the particulate emissions.

Braking block Section Initial Final Initial rotor brake Braking Number Number of stops
speed speed temperature (°C) deceleration of stops in the present test
(km/h) (km/h) (units of g)

5 min cleaning
1 Burnish 50 4 100 0.25 100 50
5 min cleaning
2 Town block 1 50 4 150 0.25 200 20
5 min cleaning
3 Highway block 1 150 80 150 0.4 100 10
5 min cleaning
4 Country road block 1 80 4 200 0.35 200 20
5 min cleaning
5 Country road block 2 100 4 125 0.4 200 20
5 min cleaning
6 Highway block 2 180 80 100 0.5 50 5
5 min cleaning
7 Town block 2 50 4 150 0.25 200 20
5 min cleaning
8 County road block 3 100 4 125 0.4 200 20
5 min cleaning
9 Hill descent block 80 4 350 0.35 50 5
5 min cleaning

clean air is 1175 m3/h, which corresponds to a box air


exchange rate of 0.326 times per second.
As illustrated in Table 2, the same test cycle
employed by Alemani et al.19 is proposed with the addi-
tion of a 5 min no-stop period between one braking
block and the subsequent braking block in order to
clean the box completely of particles released during a
single section. Air is deemed clean when the ELPI +Ò
instrument is unable to detect any measurable particles.
One test is conducted with this cycle to examine the
performance of the novel design.

Results
Figure 6. Emissions overview of the entire cycle as measured
The measured particle concentration during the com- with the ELPI + instrument.
plete test cycle is shown in Figure 6. As an example of b.: block.

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6 Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering

although after a few stops it is not possible to distin-


guish any peak due to a new stop, even if a high air
exchange ratio is used. The explanation for this phe-
nomenon is that the particle concentration of the air
which enters the test stand is at least 10 times higher
than the particle emissions released from this urban
stop. In fact, the background urban particle concentra-
tion is in the range (0.45–4.3) 3 104 cm23 depending
on several factors such as cold and warm seasons, rush
hours, weekdays and weekend, with daily patterns that
show a peak particle concentration28 of up to 105 cm23
Figure 7. Comparison of the particle emissions with clean air while the particle concentration in the town block 2 is
(solid curve) and without clean air (dotted curve) for town between 104 cm23 (peaks) and 2 3 102 cm23 (valleys).
block 2. The above discussion is also valid for the 20 stops of
country road block 3 presented in Figure 8.
Moreover, the first descending peak in the test with-
out a clean air supply in Figure 7 can be explained by
assuming that it originated from the previous block, i.e.
highway block 2; the particle concentration in this
block is greater than 107 cm23; this means that, without
the clean air supply, the result in terms of the particle
concentration in the single block can also be influenced
by the previous block history. The clean air supply
makes it possible to observe all stops as well as their
peaks and valleys. The pattern of all the stops is consis-
tent, and it should be noted that the background parti-
cle concentration is 10–100 times lower than the
particle concentation released from one town block
Figure 8. Comparison of the particle emissions with clean air
(solid curve) and without clean air (dotted curve) for country
stop.
road block 3. Also, because of the high air exchange rate, there is
no particle accumulation effect between one stop and
the background influence, the particle concentration the next (see Figure 7). In addition, a cleaning time of 5
measured during town block 2 with and without a clean min at the beginning of a block assures that there are
air supply19 is shown in Figure 7. Figure 8 shows a sim- no influences originating from a demanding previous
ilar comparison for country road block 3. Note that all block, which in this case is highway block 2.
particle concentrations are given on logarithmic scales. The 5 min cleaning time performed before each
The pressure differential, as measured with the block can easily be observed in Figure 6. The particle
Venturi tube V in Figure 2, varied between 14.7 Pa and concentration measured in this condition is about 102
17 Pa throughout the entire test. Assuming that the air cm23, which is at the same level as the ELPI +Ò impac-
density is equal to 1.225 g/cm3 and assuming the geo- tor background noise level while measuring the particle
metry of the designed Venturi tube, the findings indi- concentration. This means that the particle concentra-
tion measured during one block originates from that
cate that the aerosol stream velocity at the sampling
block, making it possible to rank different brake mate-
point varied between 3.33 m/s and 3.58 m/s. The isoki-
rials with respect to a specific block.
netic condition for the sampling probe used required a
The registered Venturi pressure differential makes it
stream velocity of 3.47 m/s, which means that this con-
possible to affirm that the variation in the inlet effi-
dition is satisfied with an error of between + 0.11 m/s
ciency due to super-isokinetic and sub-isokinetic sam-
and 20.14 m/s.
pling is negligible, as already demonstrated by several
researchers such as Belyaev and Levin29 for the aspira-
Discussion tion efficiency and Liu et al.30 and Hangal and
Willeke31 for the transmission efficiency because the
The results presented in Figure 7 and Figure 8 clearly ratio of the tunnel velocity to the probe flow velocity is
show the difficulty of studying the particulate emissions very close to unity. A complete discussion on the effi-
generated during braking without a system to control ciency is beyond the scope of this paper, but interested
the background concentration of particles. As can be readers are referred to the research by Brockmann.23 In
seen in Figure 7, the 20 stops of town block 2 are rather any case, faced with an extremely low Stokes number
difficult to discern without a clean air supply into the as in our case, the likelihood of small variations in the
box despite almost similar air exchange rates. Several inlet efficiency further decreases. In the same way, the
of the peaks can be found at the beginning of the block, transport efficiency is not affected by minor variations

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Perricone et al. 7

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