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Petroleum Geoscience
Predicting the impact of sedimentological heterogeneity on gasoil and wateroil
displacements: fluvio-deltaic Pereriv Suite Reservoir, AzeriChiragGunashli Oilfield,
South Caspian Basin
Kevin Choi, Matthew D. Jackson, Gary J. Hampson, Alistair D.W. Jones and Antony D. Reynolds

Petroleum Geoscience 2011; v. 17; p. 143-163

doi:10.1144/1354-079310-013

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 Predicting the impact of sedimentological heterogeneity on gas–oil and
water–oil displacements: fluvio-deltaic Pereriv Suite Reservoir,
Azeri–Chirag–Gunashli Oilfield, South Caspian Basin
Kevin Choi1,2, Matthew D. Jackson1, Gary J. Hampson1, Alistair D.W. Jones3 and
Antony D. Reynolds3
1
Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College London SW7 2AZ, UK
2
Present address: BP, Chertsey Rd, Sunbury on Thames, TW16 7LN, UK
3
BP, Chertsey Rd, Sunbury on Thames, TW16 7LN, UK
Corresponding author (e-mail: g.j.hampson@imperial.ac.uk)

ABSTRACT: The Pereriv Suite reservoir in the Azeri culmination of the

ACG Oilfield is characterized by laterally continuous layers of variable
net-to-gross (NTG) ratio deposited in a channel-dominated, fluvio-deltaic
environment. The reservoir is being developed by down-dip water injection,
with up-dip gas injection on the more steeply dipping central north flank. We
use high-resolution models derived from outcrop analogue and subsurface
data to demonstrate that four key sedimentological heterogeneities control
recovery in both oil–water and gas–oil displacements: (1) local variations in
NTG within low NTG (<55%) layers; (2) the degree of communication
between low NTG layers and adjacent high NTG (>85%) layers; (3) sinuosity
and (4) stacking pattern of channel-fill sandbodies in low NTG layers. The
first three heterogeneities control sandbody connectivity; the fourth controls
sweep efficiency in the connected sandbodies. Two further heterogeneities
control recovery in gas–oil displacements in high NTG layers: (5) vertical-
to-horizontal permeability ratio of channel-fill sandbodies and (6) mud clast
lags at channel bases. Models which omit these small-scale features predict
that sedimentological heterogeneity has little impact on water–oil or gas–oil
displacements in high NTG layers, but fail to capture the effect of hetero-
geneity on the gravity stability of the gas–oil displacement, which signifi-
cantly impacts on recovery.

KEYWORDS: fluvio-deltaic, heterogeneity, reservoir simulation, Pereriv

Suite, ACG Field, South Caspian Basin

INTRODUCTION
The Azeri–Chirag–Gunashli (ACG) Field is a super giant oil
field located in the offshore Azerbaijan sector of the South
Caspian Basin (Fig. 1A). The field occurs in a large, elongate
anticlinal structure with steeply dipping limbs that display
three culminations, Azeri, Chirag and Gunashli (Fig. 1).
Production from the northwestern end of Gunashli, which lies
in shallow water depths, commenced in 1980. The remainder of
the field is operated by BP on behalf of Azerbaijan Inter-
national Oil Company (AIOC) under a 30-year production
license that expires in 2025. Initial production from Chirag and
Azeri began in 1997 and 2005, respectively (Manley et al.
2005). This paper focuses on Azeri, which contains more than
8 billion barrels of oil in place and is being developed using
two production schemes: up-dip gas injection on the steeply
dipping (30–40() north flank and down-dip water injection
elsewhere, where dips are more shallow, as on the south flank
(20–25() (Fig. 1B).
The main reservoir interval in the field is the Lower
Pliocene Pereriv Suite, which forms part of the Productive
Series (tentatively assigned ages from 5.5–3.4 Ma; Jones &
Simmons 1996). The Productive Series strata were deposited
during a period of lowered base level that resulted in delivery
of large sediment volumes via the palaeo-Volga River to the
northern part of the isolated, lacustrine South Caspian Basin
(Reynolds et al. 1998; Morton et al. 2003; Kroonenberg et al.
2005; Abreu & Nummedal 2007; Torres et al. 2007; Green
et al. 2009; Fig. 2A). Fluctuating lake levels resulted in
multiple, high-frequency cycles of advance and retreat of the
palaeo-Volga Delta across a low-gradient, basin-margin ramp;
these cycles are reflected in a strongly layered stratigraphy in
which sandstone-bearing intervals alternate with laterally
extensive mudstones (Abdullaev et al. 1998; Reynolds et al.
1998; Hinds et al. 2004; Kroonenberg et al. 2005; Fig. 2B).
Climate probably controlled fluvial input of water and sedi-
ment to the hydrologically closed South Caspian lake, thus
driving high-frequency variations in both lake level and sedi-
ment supply (e.g. Hinds et al. 2004). Given this unusual
interplay between major controls on sequence architecture, we
have not applied a sequence stratigraphic interpretation to the
Pereriv Suite reservoir. Poor biostratigraphic control, due to

Petroleum Geoscience, Vol. 17 2011, pp. 143–163 1354-0793/11/$15.00  2011 EAGE/Geological Society of London
DOI 10.1144/1354-079310-013
144 K. Choi et al.

Fig. 1. (A) Map of the western South Caspian Basin highlighting oil and gas accumulations, including the ACG Field, and the location of outcrop
analogues on the Apsheron Peninsula (Y, Yasamal Valley, B, Balakhany Quarry, K, Kirmaky Valley) (after Kroonenberg et al. 2005). (B) Map of
the ACG Field highlighting the Azeri, Chirag and Gunashli culminations. Simplified cross-sections and plan-view maps are shown for representative
portions of the north and south flanks of the Azeri culmination. The models presented in this paper are constructed for these reservoir-production
symmetry elements.

endemic faunas and extensive reworking, also hinders corre-
lation beyond the South Caspian Basin (Jones & Simmons
1996).
Within the ACG Field, the Pereriv Suite is subdivided into
five layers (Pereriv A–E; Fig. 2C). Pereriv B and D are
sandstone sheets of high net-to-gross (NTG) ratio (>85%),
whereas Pereriv A, C and E have relatively low and laterally
variable NTG ratio (0–55%). Seismic imaging has resolved the
Pereriv B and D sandstones over much of the ACG Field and
constrained both reservoir structure and gross fluid move-
ments in response to production (Bouska & Johnston 2005;
Howie et al. 2005; Manley et al. 2005; Robinson et al. 2005).
Detailed reservoir architecture is below seismic resolution, but
core and wireline-log data suggest that the reservoir consists
principally of channel-fill sandbodies in a background of
lacustrine mudstones. Formation test pressure data, high-
resolution biostratigraphy, log correlation and palaeomagnetic
analysis of oriented cores constrain the overall abundance,
orientation and vertical stacking of channel-fill sandbodies
that define the Pereriv A–E reservoir layers (Fig. 2C). Numer-
ous channel-fill sandbodies are densely stacked to form the
sandstone sheets of the Pereriv B and D layers, whereas
lacustrine mudstones occur between less abundant channel-fill
sandbodies in the Pereriv A, C and E layers. The internal facies
architecture of the channel-fill sandbodies is constrained by
cores and closely analogous outcrops. However, the dimen-
sions and preserved geometries of channel-fill sandbodies, and
the extent and continuity of inter-channel mudstones are less
well constrained. These various parameters are important in
defining permeability architecture within the Pereriv Suite
reservoir, and may strongly influence the efficiency of both
gas–oil and water–oil displacements in the Azeri structure.
The aims of this paper are threefold: (1) to identify the key
sedimentological heterogeneities which influence recovery by
gas and water injection in the Azeri section of the Pereriv Suite
reservoir; (2) to determine whether these heterogeneities have a
similar impact on flow in both gas–oil and water–oil displace-
ments; and (3) to understand why these heterogeneities are
important. These aims are addressed via a series of numerical
experiments that quantify the impact of heterogeneity on flow
using three-dimensional (3D) reservoir models. The models are
constructed to include progressively more detailed descriptions
of sedimentological heterogeneity, based on subsurface and
outcrop analogue data, and they sample representative inter-
well volumes of the reservoir. This approach allows heterogen-
eity to be explicitly represented at smaller length scales and
higher resolution than is feasible in full-field and field-sector
models, while enabling fluid flow to be simulated without
upscaling to a coarser simulation model. Heterogeneity at and
below the scale of the model grid blocks (c. 10  20  1m) is
not explicitly investigated in our experiments, although we
recognize that such heterogeneities may have a significant
impact on flow (e.g. Kjønsvik et al. 1994; Jones et al. 1995).
Their effect is approximated in modelled permeability aniso-
tropy values (kv:kh ratio) and relative permeability curves.
The work presented here is motivated by production issues
in the Pereriv Suite reservoir; the models used are simple and
generic, and the results are widely applicable. Our modelling
experiments thus provide insights into the behaviour of high
and low NTG channelized reservoirs under different displace-
ment conditions.
SEDIMENTOLOGICAL HETEROGENEITY IN
THE PERERIV SUITE RESERVOIR
Sedimentological heterogeneity in the Pereriv Suite reservoir
occurs across a range of length scales, but is spatially arranged
according to a hierarchy that reflects stratigraphic architecture
(Fig. 3). Subsurface data from the ACG field are insufficient to
describe aspects of heterogeneity at length scales below seismic
resolution (Fig. 4A). However, insights into such heterogeneity
 Controls on gas–oil and water–oil displacements
Fig. 2. (A) Palaeogeographic map of the South Caspian Basin during deposition of the Productive Series (after Reynolds et al. 1998); (B) schematic
stratigraphic column through the Productive Series (after Hinds et al. 2004); and (C) stratigraphic column through the Pereriv Suite reservoir in the
ACG Field.
can be obtained from exposures of the Productive Series on the
Apsheron Peninsula of Azerbaijan (Reynolds et al. 1998),
some 80 km from the ACG Field: the lower interval of the
Productive Series crops out in Kirmaky Valley, and the upper
interval in Balakhany Quarry and Yasamal Valley (Figs 1A,
2B). However, the onshore strata are more proximal, signifi-
cantly coarser grained and display higher NTG ratios than
their offshore counterparts (Reynolds et al. 1998). Thus,
outcrop analogues for different layers in the Pereriv Suite
reservoir have been selected on the basis of their lithofacies
composition, grain size and NTG character, rather than their
age.
Stratigraphic architecture within reservoir zones
Within each of the five layers of the Pereriv Suite reservoir,
core and wireline-log data indicate that sandstones occur in
sharp-based successions that are 5–7 m thick and contain a
subtle upward-fining trend in grain size, where fully preserved.
These successions are interpreted as channel-fill deposits (Fig.
3B). Gradationally based, upward-coarsening sandstone suc-
cessions of similar thickness, which could represent mouth-bar
deposits, are absent. Palaeocurrents interpreted from aligned
cores show little variability, implying that the channels had low
sinuosity. The dimensions, geometries and stacking arrange-
145
ments of channel-fill sandbodies within each of the reservoir
layers are less well constrained, as are the extent and continuity
of shales between the channel-fill sandbodies. These para-
meters define the detailed permeability architecture within each
reservoir zone. In the high NTG Pereriv B and D layers in the
ACG Field, small breaks in the post-production pressure
gradient are observed across some thin shale intervals
(Reynolds 2006; Ibrahimov et al. 2007). Such shales within the
sandstone-rich reservoir layers may either be the preserved
remnants of lacustrine shales of widespread depositional
extent, or record subtle stratigraphic organization of single-
storey channel-fill units into larger bodies.
There are few data available from the ACG Field to
constrain the dimensions of channel-fill sandbodies within the
Pereriv Suite reservoir; however, within the lower part of the
low NTG Balakhany Suite, which directly overlies the Pereriv
Suite (Fig. 2B), channelized sandbodies up to several tens of
metres thick and several hundred metres to two kilometres
wide have been interpreted from seismically derived lithology
volumes (Sadigova et al. 2004) and also using data from closely
spaced wells in the shallow-water Gunashli area (Bagirov et al.
2004) and analogous Bahar Field (Abdullaev et al. 1998).
Sandbodies of similar scale occur in the Productive Series
outcrops of low NTG layers, where they consist of multi-
storey, channel-belt ‘fairways’ with components of both lateral
146 K. Choi et al.

Fig. 3. Conceptual model illustrating the interpreted hierarchy of sedimentological heterogeneity in the fluvio-deltaic Pereriv Suite reservoir of the
ACG Field, based on subsurface data and outcrop analogues. Sub-metre-scale heterogeneities are not portrayed.

accretion and vertical aggradation (Fig. 4C–E), although
smaller, single-storey channel-fill sandbodies also occur. Chan-
nelized sandbodies of both single-storey and multi-storey
architecture are encased in interbedded mudstones, siltstones
and thin (<1 m) sheet sandstones (Fig. 4C). Outcrops of
high NTG layers in Kirmaky Valley, Balakhany Quarry and
Yasamal Valley (Figs 1A, 2B) support the interpretation of
these layers as stacked, multi-storey channel-fill sandstones
(Reynolds et al. 1998) (Fig. 4B). In these analogues, individual
channel-fill storeys are poorly preserved due to erosion at the
base of overlying storeys, but they are shallow (<7 m) and
broad (>100 m) (Reynolds et al. 1998), suggesting deposition
in multi-channel systems.
Lithofacies architecture within channel-fill sandbodies
Channel-fill sandbodies constitute genetic units, and are the
smallest components of stratigraphic architecture considered
 Controls on gas–oil and water–oil displacements 147

Fig. 4. Aspects of sedimentological heterogeneity in the Pereriv Suite reservoir, ACG Field, in subsurface data and outcrop analogues. (A). Seismic
section through the Pereriv Suite reservoir and part of the overlying Balakhany Suite from the north flank of Azeri, with superimposed gamma-ray
logs from two wells indicating sandstone (yellow) and shale (grey) content (modified from Reynolds 2006). The section is flattened on a datum within
the Balakhany Suite, and illustrates the layered Pereriv Suite stratigraphy as resolved in seismic data. (B) Panorama of high NTG layer (Balakhany
VIII) composed of stacked channel-fill sandbodies, Balakhany Quarry (Figs 1A, 2B). Prominent mud clast lags defining the bases of some channels
are highlighted. Note that the vertical scale decreases and apparent tectonic dip increases to the right, due to perspective effects. (C) Multi-storey
channel-fill sandbody encased within siltstones and mudstones in a low NTG layer (Balakhany VI), Yasamal Valley (Figs 1A, 2B). (D) Detailed
architecture of the sandbody margin indicates both vertical aggradation and lateral migration between successive episodes of channel erosion and
filling, whereas (E) mud clast lags at channel bases highlight vertical stacking of channel-fill units in the centre of the sandbody. (F–I) Representative
core sections illustrating an idealized channel-fill succession from base to top: (F) mud clast lag; (G) cross-bedded sandstone with partly
disaggregated mud clasts lining cross-bed foresets; (H) parallel-laminated, clay-bearing sandstone, with comminuted clay clasts defining the laminae,
in a highly deviated well; and (I) climbing current ripples in clay-rich sandstone in a deviated well. (J) Core section through thinly interbedded
mudstones and siltstones occurring in between channel-fill sandstones in a highly deviated well. In general, these deposits lack bioturbation but
contain a wide range of sand-filled cracks (labelled ‘cr’).
148 K. Choi et al.
in this study. Cores from the ACG Field show that most
channel-fill successions contain a consistent vertical arrange-
ment of lithofacies (Figs 3C, 4F–I). The base of each succes-
sion is commonly marked by a mud clast conglomerate lag
(Fig. 4F); such lags are common but discontinuous along the
bases of channel-fill storeys in the Productive Series outcrops
(Reynolds et al. 1998; Hinds et al. 2007) (Fig. 4B, E). Sand-
stones are upper fine-grained, clean and cross-bedded near the
base of each succession (Fig. 4G), but fine gradationally
upwards into planar and low-angle laminated, clay-bearing,
lower fine-grained sandstones (Fig. 4H) that grade upwards
into current-ripple laminated, clay-rich, very fine-grained sand-
stones (Fig. 4I). The vertical trend in lithofacies within
channel-fill sandbodies, together with smaller scale variations
in grain size and sorting associated with cross-stratification
and lamination, results in permeability anisotropy within
channel-fill units. Mud clast lags at channel bases may also act
as baffles to flow.
In core from the ACG Field, mudstones and siltstones
between the channel-fill sandstones are laminated or structure-
less, lack bioturbation and contain thin (<0.5 m), very fine-
grained sandstone beds (Fig. 4J). Wave ripples and root
structures are absent. Thin (c. 1 cm), sharp-sided, downward-
tapering sandstones that are oriented perpendicular to bed-
ding, interpreted as sand-filled cracks, are locally common in
the mudstones and siltstones (Fig. 4J). Very fine-grained
sandstone beds in these fine-grained successions may provide
connectivity between adjacent channel-fill sandstones that are
not directly juxtaposed.
METHODOLOGY
Database
Our modelling experiments are not based explicitly on a
dataset from part of the Pereriv Suite reservoir in Azeri.
Instead, the models are designed to be generic for the reservoir,
and to investigate heterogeneity that lies below seismic resolu-
tion and within inter-well volumes. The models are based on
data from: (1) wireline logs and cores from wells in Azeri,
which constrain reservoir layering and associated NTG ratios,
sandbody thickness, vertical trends within sandbodies, rock
properties from core plugs, and fluid properties; (2) outcrop
analogues, which constrain the dimensions, geometries and
connectivity of channelized sandbodies and inter-channel
shales in high and low NTG layers; and (3) subsurface
analogues from geographical regions of the ACG Field that
are imaged at relatively high seismic resolution, are more
densely drilled, and/or have production history data. These
data are used in combination to constrain the range of values
that are assigned to key heterogeneities in the modelling
experiments, as explained below.
Dietz stability analysis
Prior to numerical modelling, the stability of the gas–oil and
water–oil displacement schemes in Azeri is first assessed using
a simple analytical method that assumes a homogenous reser-
voir, segregated flow and ignores oil–water and gas–oil capil-
lary pressures (Dietz 1953; see Dake 1978, section 10.6 for an
explanation of the analysis). The Pereriv Suite reservoir is
treated as five internally homogeneous layers that are isolated
by field-wide shales (Pereriv A–E layers; Fig. 2C). The Dietz
analysis suggests that both gas–oil and water–oil displacement
schemes are stable: they are marked by a sharp, planar front
between the displacing and displaced fluids which moves at
constant velocity and with a constant angle of dip. This leads
to high sweep efficiency. A displacement may be stable for two
reasons (see Dake 1978, section 10.6). Firstly, it may be
mobility stable, in which case the displacing water or gas is less
mobile than the displaced oil, so that there is no tendency for
it to ‘run past’ the oil. Mobility stable displacements occur in
reservoirs where the end-point mobility ratio (the ratio of the
mobilities of the displaced and displacing phases, measured at
the end-points of the relative permeability curves) is less than 1
(Dake 1978). Secondly, a displacement may be gravity stable,
in which case the density contrast between the displacing water
or gas and the displaced oil suppresses any tendency for the
development of a water or gas ‘tongue’ that under- or over-
runs the oil. Gravity stable displacements occur in reservoirs
with steep dips and large density contrasts between the displac-
ing phase and the displaced oil, so long as the oil production
rate is below the ‘Dietz critical rate’. Above this critical rate,
the displacement becomes gravity unstable (Dake 1978).
Water displacement in the south flank of Azeri (Fig. 1B) is
predicted to be mobility stable, while gas displacement in the
central north flank (Fig. 1B) is predicted to be mobility
unstable but gravity stable for the planned production rate
(c. 9% STOIIP per year) and range of observed reservoir dips.
These results indicate high sweep efficiency for both displace-
ments in the absence of sedimentological heterogeneity within
the reservoir layers.
Hierarchical modelling approach
Following this preliminary analysis, a hierarchical approach to
reservoir modelling was used to design four simulation-based
screening studies that investigate the impact of sedimentologi-
cal heterogeneity on the gas–oil and water–oil displacements.
In this approach, we start with simple models and then
progressively add complexity in the form of heterogeneities at
smaller length scales (cf. Williams et al. 2004), based on the
hierarchy of sedimentological heterogeneity outlined above
(Fig. 3). The various models used in the screening studies
incorporate heterogeneities at the scale of (1) gross reservoir
zonation (Fig. 3A); (2) stratigraphic architecture within reser-
voir zones (Fig. 3B); and (3) lithofacies architecture within
channel-fill sandbodies (Fig. 3C) (respectively corresponding
to levels of heterogeneity 4, 3 and 2 of Kjønsvik et al. 1994).
The first two screening studies assess the impact of strati-
graphic architecture within stacked high NTG and low NTG
reservoir layers (Pereriv B, C and D layers) (Fig. 5). The third
screening study assesses heterogeneity at the same scale within
individual high NTG (Pereriv B) and low NTG (Pereriv C)
reservoir layers (Fig. 5). The fourth screening study incorpo-
rates heterogeneity within channel-fill sandbodies in a single
high NTG layer (Pereriv B) (Fig. 5).
Design of modelling experiments
Ten sedimentological heterogeneities were selected for investi-
gation in the screening studies (Fig. 5), and experimental
design techniques (Box et al. 1978; Damsleth et al. 1992; Jones
et al. 1995; White & Royer 2003) and analysis of variance (Box
et al. 1978) were employed to explore the resulting parameter
space efficiently. A two-level fractional-factorial design was
used in each screening study, in which each factor (heterogen-
eity) can take one of two settings that are chosen to reflect the
range of uncertainty in the Pereriv Suite reservoir (Fig. 5). The
experimental design allows us to quantify efficiently the effect
of varying each factor from setting 1 to setting 2.
 Controls on gas–oil and water–oil displacements

Fig. 5. Ten sedimentological heterogeneities (factors) investigated in the four screening studies, which correspond to three levels in the interpreted hierarchy of heterogeneity in the Pereriv Suite reservoir
(Fig. 3). The right-hand column shows the values of parameters that are varied (grey boxes) and held constant (white boxes) in each screening study. The impact of these ten factors on simulated fluid
flow is assessed by observing the percentage change in average response when each factor is varied from setting 1 to setting 2.
149
150 K. Choi et al.
Modelled heterogeneities and settings
At the scale of gross reservoir zonation (Figs 3A, 5), two key
heterogeneities are investigated:
(1) Lateral variation of NTG ratio within Pereriv C The
average NTG ratio of the low NTG Pereriv C layer across the
ACG Field is approximately 45% (Fig 2C), but it varies locally
from 0% to c. 50%. Oil recovery may be increased in regions
with high NTG ratio, because of the higher oil volume in place.
There may also be enhanced cross-flow between Pereriv C and
the overlying Pereriv B and underlying Pereriv D layers in
these regions, which may reduce sweep efficiency of the high
NTG layers.
(2) Interlayer connectivity The continuity of shale sheets sepa-
rating the individual reservoir layers (Pereriv A–E), and thus
the degree to which they are hydraulically isolated, is only
partially constrained. Where cross-flow between the layers may
be possible, gas could segregate upwards into the overlying
layers, leading to lower sweep efficiency and earlier gas break-
through in the high NTG Pereriv B and D layers.
Five further heterogeneities are considered to characterize
stratigraphic architecture within reservoir zones (Figs 3B, 5).
(3) Channel sinuosity This can have a significant impact on
the connectivity of channel-fill sandbodies in low NTG chan-
nelized environments (Jones et al. 1995; Larue & Friedmann
2005; Larue & Hovadik 2006) and may influence the geometry
of shale bodies preserved between channel-fill sandbodies.
Although channel-fill sandbodies in the Pereriv Suite reservoir
are interpreted to have low sinuosity (1.0–1.3; calculated from
palaeocurrent data in core using the methodology of Le Roux
1992), the exact value is uncertain. A wide range of sinuosities
was considered in the first three screening studies (1.0–1.7);
sinuosity was held constant at 1.2 in the fourth screening
study.
(4) Channel stacking Both single-storey and multi-storey
channel-fill sandbodies occur in the Productive Series. Channel
stacking controls the effective dimensions and aspect ratio of
the sandbodies, and can impact upon sandbody connectivity in
low NTG strata (Jones et al. 1995; Larue & Friedmann 2005;
Larue & Hovadik 2006) and the geometry and distribution
of preserved shale bodies in high NTG strata (Miall 1988;
Moreton et al. 2002; Lynds & Hajek 2006). The internal
architecture of multi-storey channel-fill sandbodies, resulting
from the arrangement of single-storey channel-fill sandbodies
within them, is not investigated in our modelling experiments,
although we recognize that this internal architecture may
constitute a subtle heterogeneity. The arrangement of single-
storey channel-fill bodies within multi-storey complexes would
represent an additional hierarchical level of heterogeneity that
is intermediate between the stacking of multi-storey channel-
fill sandbodies within a reservoir layer (e.g. Fig. 3B, screening
studies 1–3) and the lithofacies architecture of single-storey
channel-fill bodies (e.g. Fig. 3C, screening study 4). Instead,
channel stacking is used as a means of selecting an appropriate
range of effective sandbody dimensions for either single-storey
or multi-storey channel-fill sandbodies, which have non-
overlapping ranges of width-to-depth ratio of 16.7–33.3 and
40–60, respectively.
(5) Channel dimensions Single-storey channel-fill sandbodies
are observed to be c. 6 m thick in cores and wireline logs and
100–200 m wide at outcrop. The dimensions chosen for multi-
storey channel-fill sandbodies in the models are thicker (10–
15 m) and wider (600 m), consistent with subsurface and
outcrop analogue data. Channel dimensions can have a signifi-
cant impact on connectivity in low NTG reservoirs containing
channelized sandbodies (Jones et al. 1995; Larue & Hovadik
2006).
(6) Channel orientation Palaeocurrents from channel-fill sand-
stones in the Pereriv Suite reservoir in Azeri and Chirag are
generally directed towards the south, and range from parallel
to oblique (49( east) to tectonic dip. Channel orientation and
the range of channel orientations may influence connectivity,
particularly in low NTG reservoirs (Larue & Friedmann 2005;
Martinius & Naess 2005; Larue & Hovadik 2006). Moreover,
we hypothesize that on the north flank of the Azeri structure,
injected gas may follow the channel orientation and thus flow
obliquely down the flank rather than directly towards the
nearest producer. In this case, injected gas would experience a
relatively shallow dip (c. 22(, along the channel axes), which,
in conjunction with other heterogeneities, may push the dis-
placement out of the range of gravity stability, leading to lower
sweep efficiency and earlier gas breakthrough.
(7) Internal layering within high NTG layers Post-production
pressure and inflow performance data, calibrated with cores
and wireline logs, demonstrate that thin, widespread shales
occur within the high NTG Pereriv B and D layers (Reynolds
2006; Ibrahimov et al. 2007). These shales locally subdivide
high NTG reservoir layers into several hydraulically separated
sublayers. The absence of cross-flow between these sublayers
may affect sweep efficiency.
Three more heterogeneities are investigated within channel-
fill sandbodies (Figs 3C, 5). These heterogeneities control the
range of permeability values and degree of permeability con-
trast within channel-fill sandbodies (cf. Høimyr et al. 1993;
Jones et al. 1994; Larue & Friedmann 2005).
(8) Mud clast lags at channel bases These may have suffi-
ciently low permeability to form localized barriers or baffles to
flow (Reynolds et al. 1998). If the lags form permeability
barriers at channel bases, they would increase the tortuosity of
vertical flow paths and thus reduce the effective vertical
permeability (Haldorsen & Lake 1984; Begg & King 1985;
Begg & Chang 1985). To investigate the effects of this scenario,
which is an end member, mud clast lags are represented in the
models by assigning zero vertical transmissibility to channel
bases.
(9) Vertical trends in grain size and permeability within channel-
fill sandbodies The upward-fining grain-size trend within
channel-fill sandbodies produces an upward reduction in per-
meability, which may result in poor sweep of the upper, less
permeable parts of these sandbodies (Weber 1986; Høimyr
et al. 1993). This vertical trend was represented in the models
by a linear decrease in permeability from 350 mD at the base of
a channel-fill sandbody to 10 mD at its top, resulting in a mean
permeability of 180 mD. These various permeability values are
based on core-plug data from channel-fill lithofacies in the
Pereriv reservoir.
(10) Permeability anisotropy of channel-fill sandbodies Sedi-
mentary structures such as cross-stratification and lamination
may cause permeability anisotropy within channel-fill sand-
bodies (Weber 1986). The effects of these structures are poorly
represented at the scale of core plug data, but previous
modelling studies have estimated that such heterogeneities
reduce effective vertical permeability by an order of magnitude
(kv:kh ratio = 0.1) in channel-fill sandstones (Jones et al. 1994,
1995). Both the presence of mud clast lags, and the per-
meability anisotropy of the channel-fill sandbodies, may
 Controls on gas–oil and water–oil displacements
impact the stability of the gas–oil displacement, because they
control the effective vertical permeability and hence the rate at
which vertical equilibrium is achieved. At equilibrium, gravity
(buoyancy) forces cause the gas and oil to segregate vertically
into a mobile gas layer, overlying a mobile oil layer, separated
by a planar displacement front. Segregation is required for
gravity forces to stabilize a mobility unstable displacement
(Fayers & Muggeridge 1990; Shook et al. 1992).
Model dimensions, grids and construction
In the first three screening studies, which investigate sedimen-
tological heterogeneity at the scales of gross reservoir zonation
and intra-zone stratigraphic architecture (Figs 3A–B, 5), the
areal dimensions of the models for each flank of the Azeri
structure are based on the location and spacing of injection
and production wells (Figs 1B, 6A). Representative tectonic
dips of 31( and 21( are used in models of the north flank and
south flank, respectively. The Pereriv B, C and D layers are
151
Fig. 6. (A) Line drawing showing
dimensions and well placements in
models of the north flank of the Azeri
structure; larger models, corresponding
to reservoir-production symmetry
elements (Fig. 1B), are used in screening
studies 1 to 3, while smaller, subset
models are used in screening study 4.
Models of the south flank of Azeri used
in screening studies 1 to 3 have lengths
of 478 m (Fig. 1B). (B–E) Oblique views
of selected models used in screening
study 3, illustrating differences in
sinuosity, stacking pattern, dimensions
and orientation of channel-fill
sandbodies in the low NTG Pereriv C
layer: (B) small, sinuous, single-storey
sandbodies oriented parallel to tectonic
dip; (C) large, sinuous, single-storey
sandbodies oriented oblique to tectonic
dip; (D) large, sinuous, multi-storey
sandbodies oriented parallel to tectonic
dip; and (E) large, straight, multi-storey
sandbodies oriented parallel to tectonic
dip. Changes in these sandbody
parameters influence sandbody
connectivity and the distribution and
continuity of shales.
considered in combination in the first two screening studies
(Fig. 5), resulting in a model thickness of 104 m (Fig. 6A). The
grid cells in each model measure 12 m (north flank) and 11 m
(south flank)  20 m  1 m, yielding a total of 1 248 000 cells
in models of gas injection into Pereriv B, C and D layers in the
north flank and 351 000 cells in the corresponding models of
water injection in the south flank. In the third screening study,
the individual Pereriv B and C layers are investigated (Fig. 5),
resulting in thinner models (42 m and 30 m in models of the
Pereriv B and C layers, respectively; Fig. 6A) with the same
grid resolution. The fourth screening study, which incorpo-
rates heterogeneity within channel-fill sandbodies (Figs 3C, 5),
investigates gas injection into the Pereriv B layer in the north
flank of Azeri. For this study, a subset of the reservoir-
production symmetry element volume was extracted (Fig. 6A),
to allow more computationally intensive simulation experi-
ments to be conducted. These simulations include more real-
iztic pressure, volume and temperature (PVT) fluid properties
than those used for the other screening studies. The smaller,
152 K. Choi et al.

Table 1. Fluid properties used in flow simulations

Oil Water Gas

3)
Density (k gm 738.1 1038 88
Viscosity (k gm
1 s) 6.3  10
4 4.5  10
4 3  10
5

subset models measure 950 m  750 m  21 m (Fig. 6A) and

contain 62 160 cells of the same dimensions as in the other
models. The cell dimensions were chosen to represent the
ranges of channel-fill sandbody width, thickness and sinuosity,
and also to ensure that gravity segregation of the displacing
and displaced phases (e.g. resulting in gas tongues) was cap-
tured to a reasonable level of accuracy. Use of a refined grid, in
experiments not described herein, has little qualitative effect on
our simulation results.
Models were constructed using a simple object-based algo-
rithm, in which channel-fill sandbodies are placed in a shale
background according to the parameters summarized in
Figure 5. Channel-fill objects are assumed to extend beyond
the model boundaries (Fig. 6B–E). In the first three screening
studies, the internal heterogeneity of the channel-fill sand-
bodies was neglected and their constituent sandstones were
assumed to have uniform petrophysical properties (ø = 20%;
kh = kv = 180 mD); in the fourth screening study, the effects
of a simple upward-decreasing trend in permeability and of
permeability anisotropy in each channel-fill sandbody were
investigated. Shales are modelled to be impermeable. Although
these petrophysical properties are clearly gross simplifications,
their use precludes the effects of petrophysical variability
within lithofacies being convolved with those of lithofacies
architecture. Multi-storey channel-fill sandbodies are modelled
as single, large channel-fill sandstones (Fig. 6D, E), such that
the arrangement of single-storey channels within each multi-
storey channel-fill sandbody is not represented. Although this
means that there is overlap between the sensitivity parameters
describing channel stacking and channel dimensions, this Fig. 7. (A) Oil–water and (B) gas–oil relative permeability curves used
approach captures the range of channelized sandbody in flow simulations.
geometries observed in outcrop and subsurface analogues.
Stochastic uncertainty is inherent to each of the four
screening studies described above. A sensitivity test indicates realistic fluid PVT properties show qualitatively similar results.
that at least 13 stochastic realizations of each reservoir simu- The impact of the underlying aquifer and overlying gas cap
lation model are required to reliably estimate the stochastic was also neglected, and it was assumed that production in each
uncertainty in oil recovery for the third screening study. flank could be simulated separately; in reality, there is com-
However, the same sensitivity test indicates that three stochas- munication between flanks through the gas cap. The relative
tic realizations are sufficient to identify those heterogeneities permeability curves used in all simulations are shown in Figure
with an impact on recovery significantly greater than the 7; capillary pressure was neglected.
level of stochastic uncertainty. Consequently, three stochastic The production rate of each south flank model was set to be
realizations of each reservoir simulation model were generated c. 9% of the model STOIIP per year in the first three screening
in all four screening studies, to enable key heterogeneities studies. This is the target offtake rate for Azeri, although it
to be recognized. Estimates of stochastic uncertainty re- varies locally depending upon how well STOIIP is character-
ported in this paper would be improved by generating more ized. In the north flank, a production rate of 9% of STOIIP
realizations. per year corresponds to between 72% and 120% of the rate
required to maintain a gravity-stable displacement in our
Production simulation initial Dietz stability analysis (i.e. Dietz’s critical rate), depend-
ing on variations in the local tectonic dip around the structure;
Production was simulated assuming incompressible flow and the production rate in our models corresponds to 93% of
no dissolved gas in the oil, using the fluid properties summa- Dietz’s critical rate for the representative tectonic dip of 31(.
rised in Table 1. This is a major simplification of the PVT In the fourth screening study, the production rate is scaled
properties of the Azeri hydrocarbons, but allows us to use a appropriately to that used in the first three screening studies by
streamline simulator which includes gravity effects (Batycky matching the key dimensionless numbers that characterize
et al. 1997). The advantage of this approach is that production immiscible displacements (the effective aspect ratio, dip angle
can be simulated directly on models with a much larger group and buoyancy number; Shook et al. 1992). Production is
number of grid cells than would be possible using conventional simulated for 20 years in the first three screening studies and
simulation methods. Flow simulations that incorporate more for 10 years in the fourth screening study.
 Controls on gas–oil and water–oil displacements 153

Fig. 8. Average percentage change in (A) oil recovered after 20 years, and (B) oil recovery factor after 20 years in models of gas–oil (north flank)
and water–oil (south flank) displacement in the first screening study, observed when each factor in the sensitivity analysis is varied from setting 1 to
setting 2 (Fig. 5). Pereriv B, C and D layers are included in the models. If the bar lies to the right then the change is positive. For example, modelling
Pereriv C with 45% NTG ratio (setting 2) increases cumulative oil recovery by c. 14% compared with modelling it with zero NTG ratio (setting 1).
The dashed lines denote the average percentage change observed from three different stochastic realizations. If the impact of varying a factor is at
or below the level of stochastic uncertainty then modelling decisions are unimportant for the chosen range of parameters.

RESULTS
Screening study 1: analysis of Pereriv B, C and D layers
In the first screening study (Fig. 5), simulated oil recovery in
both north (gas injection) and south (water injection) flanks is
generally high (70–80% and 63–73% of the original oil-in-place
in north and south flank models, respectively). Recovery is
dominated by production from the high NTG Pereriv B and D
layers, and the variation in oil recovery is principally con-
trolled by the variation in NTG ratio in the Pereriv C layer
(Fig. 8A). Modelling Pereriv C with a NTG ratio of 45%
increases oil recovery by c. 14% in both north and south flanks
and delays gas or water breakthrough by c. 9–10%, which
suggests that this layer does not act as a thief zone. Although
oil recovery is increased if net sandstone is present in Pereriv C,
the recovery factor is decreased by c. 4% in both flanks because
the STOIIP is increased (Fig. 8B). This result is caused by the
relatively poor connectivity of channel-fill sandstones in the
low NTG Pereriv C layer, as investigated further in the second
screening study.
Other heterogeneities have much less impact on oil recovery
and recovery factor, with the average effect of varying these
factors over the modelled parameter settings being close to or
below the level of estimated stochastic uncertainty in models of
both flanks (Fig. 8). The second screening study focuses on
models that contain net sandstone in Pereriv C, in order to
understand more fully the impact of stratigraphic architecture
within reservoir zones in regions where Pereriv C is sand
prone.
Screening study 2: analysis of Pereriv B, C and D layers
(models with net sandstone in Pereriv C)
In this refined screening study (Fig. 5), simulated recovery
factors are again high (66–80% and 64–74% in north and south
flank models, respectively). We find that the interlayer connec-
tivity has a significant impact on oil recovery in both flanks
(Fig. 9). In models where the reservoir layers are isolated by
extensive interlayer shales, recovery is lower by c. 8% in the
north flank (gas injection) and c. 4% in the south flank (water
injection) while gas production is higher by c. 6% in the north
flank and water production by c. 3% in the south flank (Fig. 9).
These results suggest that gas or water cross-flow between
layers may increase sweep efficiency. Channel-fill sandstones
within the low NTG Pereriv C layer can be poorly connected
to the injection and/or production wells, in which case produc-
tion from Pereriv C and associated pressure support occurs via
the high NTG Pereriv B and/or D layers, so that recovery is
improved when there is connectivity between the layers.
Both channel sinuosity and channel stacking also have an
impact greater than the estimated stochastic uncertainty (Fig.
9). Decreasing the sinuosity of the modelled channel-fill sand-
bodies, or modelling the sandbodies as individual storeys
rather than as multi-storey bodies, reduces oil recovery by
around 3% in both flanks and increases the volume of gas and
water produced by c. 2% (Fig. 9). Further investigation in the
third screening study shows that channel sinuosity and channel
stacking respectively control sandbody connectivity and sweep
efficiency in the low NTG Pereriv C layer.
The impact of varying channel dimensions and channel
orientation is at, or below, the level of stochastic uncertainty in
both flanks (Fig. 9), which suggests that modelling decisions
are unimportant over the chosen range of parameters for these
two heterogeneities. Further investigation of parameters char-
acterizing heterogeneity within individual reservoir zones is
undertaken in the third and fourth screening studies, which
focus on the low NTG Pereriv C and high NTG Pereriv B
layers in isolation.
Screening study 3A: analysis of low NTG Pereriv C layer
Models of the low NTG (45%) Pereriv C layer exhibit a wide
range of recovery factors in both north (gas injection; 35–76%)
and south (water injection; 20–75%) flanks. Varying the sinu-
osity and stacking of channel-fill sandbodies in these models
154 K. Choi et al.

Fig. 9. Average percentage change in oil recovered and total gas (north flank) and water (south flank) produced after 20 years in (A) north flank
models, and (B) south flank models in the second screening study, observed when each factor in the sensitivity analysis is varied from setting 1 to
setting 2 (Fig. 5). Pereriv B, C and D layers are included in the models; Pereriv C is modelled with a fixed NTG ratio of 45%. The dashed lines denote
the average percentage change observed from three different stochastic realizations.

Fig. 10. Average percentage change in oil recovered and total gas (north flank) and water (south flank) produced after 20 years in (A) north flank
models, and (B) south flank models of Pereriv C in the third screening study, observed when each factor in the sensitivity analysis is varied from
setting 1 to setting 2 (Fig. 5). The dashed lines denote the average percentage change observed from three different stochastic realizations.

has a large impact on their simulated production behaviour in
both flanks (Fig. 10). Moreover, these results underestimate
the true range of reservoir architectures and associated pro-
duction behaviours, because they are obtained from realiza-
tions in which there is connectivity of the channel-fill
sandbodies between injector and producers; in other realiza-
tions, the results of which are not included here (Fig. 10), the
channel-fill sandbodies were not connected to either injector or
producer wells.
Channel sinuosity has the greatest impact on recovery;
modelling channel-fill sandbodies as being straight and parallel
to each other in Pereriv C causes a decrease in recovery of
c. 35% in the north flank and c. 55% in the south flank (Fig.
10). Channel sinuosity has a significant effect on oil recovery,
because it changes the connectivity of the channel-fill sand-
stones between injector and producers; in models with parallel,
low sinuosity channels, a much reduced fraction of the
channel-fill sandstone volume (c. 9–22% lower) is connected to
the wells (black bars in Fig. 11). This result is consistent with
previous studies of low NTG channelized reservoirs, which
show that parallel, low sinuosity channels do not areally
intersect with each other in a given layer (Jones et al. 1995;
Larue & Friedmann 2005; Larue & Hovadik 2006). Therefore,
straight, parallel channels yield poor sandbody connectivity,
even though a greater number of such sandbodies is required
to honour the modelled NTG ratio of 45% than for high
sinuosity channel-fill sandbodies, because each of the latter has
a greater along-axis length and, thus, volume. Increased sand-
body connectivity would also result from assigning a range of
non-parallel orientations to low sinuosity channels (e.g. only a
small segment of each sinuous channel is included in the model
volume shown in Fig. 6D, such that each segment approxi-
mates a straight channel with a different orientation).
Channel stacking has the second largest impact on oil
recovery, and modelling channel-fill sandbodies in Pereriv C as
individual storeys rather than as multi-storey belts leads to a
decrease in recovery of c. 34% in the north flank and c. 51% in
the south flank (Fig. 10). Channel stacking does not signifi-
cantly alter the connectivity of channel-fill sandstones between
injector and producers (e.g. models containing single-storey
and multi-storey sandbodies have the same connected fraction
of channel-fill sandstones, within the limits of stochastic error;
 Controls on gas–oil and water–oil displacements 155

Fig. 11. Average percentage change in connected fraction of channel-fill sandstones between injection and production wells, and oil recovered after
20 years of tracer injection, in (A) north flank models, and (B) south flank models of Pereriv C in the third screening study, observed when each
factor in the sensitivity analysis is varied from setting 1 to setting 2 (Fig. 5). The dashed lines denote the average percentage change observed from
three different stochastic realizations.

Fig. 12. Plan view of thickness-averaged oil saturation after 5 years of tracer injection in north-flank models of Pereriv C in the third screening study
with (A) single-storey channel-fill sandbodies and (B) multi-storey, channel-fill sandbodies. The two producers and one injector are labelled. Flow
paths in the former model (A) are more tortuous than those in the latter model (B), resulting in poorer areal sweep of the oil.

black bars in Fig. 11). Rather, it controls the tortuosity of flow
paths and, hence, sweep efficiency, as demonstrated by a
comparison of tracer simulations in north and south flank
models (Fig. 11). Tracer simulations omit gravity and relative
permeability effects (e.g. Batycky et al. 1997) and, since all
sandstones have identical permeabilites in these models, pro-
vide a measure of the range of streamline lengths and, thus,
tortuosity. Decreased recovery in tracer simulations, as noted
in models containing single-storey sandbodies rather than
multi-storey sandbodies (grey bars in Fig. 11), reflects
decreased sweep efficiency caused by an increase in the range of
streamline lengths. Flow paths are more tortuous in models
containing single-storey channel-fill sandbodies (e.g. Fig. 12A)
than in models containing multi-storey channel-fill sandbodies
(e.g. Fig. 12B), and consequently more oil remains unswept.
Screening study 3B: analysis of high NTG Pereriv B layer
In contrast to the low NTG Pereriv C layer, the modelled
range of heterogeneities has only a relatively small impact on
simulated production behaviour in the high NTG Pereriv B
layer (Fig. 13). The recovery factor of these models is uni-
formly high for both north (gas injection; 77–79%) and south
(water injection; 70–73%) flanks. In models of the north flank,
the impact of all heterogeneities on oil recovery and gas
production lies within the estimated range of stochastic uncer-
tainty (Fig. 13A), which suggests that modelling decisions are
unimportant for gas injection in high NTG layers, over the
chosen range of parameters (Fig. 5). The same is also true for
heterogeneities in the south flank models, except for channel
orientation, which has a small but noteworthy impact on oil
156 K. Choi et al.
Fig. 13. Average percentage change in oil recovered and total gas (north flank) and water (south flank) produced after 20 years in (A) north flank
models, and (B) south flank models of Pereriv B in the third screening study, observed when each factor in the sensitivity analysis is varied from
setting 1 to setting 2 (Fig. 5). The dashed lines denote the average percentage change observed from three different stochastic realizations.
recovery; when the channel-fill sandbodies are oriented parallel
to tectonic dip, there is a c. 1.5% increase in recovery (Fig.
13B). Channel-fill sandbodies oriented parallel to tectonic dip
provide a direct route between injector and producers, but flow
must move laterally from one channel-fill sandbody to another
if they trend oblique to tectonic dip, which subtly decreases the
sweep efficiency (Fig. 14). This effect is not so significant in the
north flank (Fig. 13), because the mobility of the displacing gas
is higher than that of the displacing water in the south flank.
These results support previous studies of water–oil displace-
ment in high NTG channelized reservoirs, which show that the
geometry and stacking pattern of channel-fill sandbodies have
little impact on recovery, provided that sandbodies are well
connected (Jones et al. 1994; Larue & Friedmann 2005).
However, vertical variations in lithofacies within channel-fill
sandbodies, together with smaller scale variations in grain size
and sorting associated with cross-stratification and lamination,
results in permeability anisotropy within channel-fill units.
Mud clast lags at channel bases may also act as barriers or
baffles to vertical flow. We investigate the impact of these
genetic-unit scale heterogeneities on gas–oil displacements in
the Pereriv B layer in the fourth screening study.
Screening study 4: analysis of Pereriv B layer incorporating
lithofacies architecture within channel-fill sandbodies
In addition to heterogeneity within channel-fill sandbodies,
four inter-linked heterogeneities that characterize stratigraphic
architecture within high NTG reservoir zones were re-
examined in the fourth screening study: (1) channel stacking;
(2) channel dimensions; (3) channel orientation; and (4) inter-
nal layering due to the presence of thin, extensive shales (Fig.
5). For example, channel geometry influences the dimensions
of mud clast lags at channel bases, and may therefore have a
larger influence on reservoir performance than indicated in the
third screening study. All channels were assigned a sinuosity
of 1.2.
Modelling heterogeneities within channel-fill sandbodies in
the high NTG Pereriv B layer results in a wider range of
predicted oil recovery factors (59–73%) in the north flank than
was obtained from the equivalent models used in screening
study 3B. This indicates that such small-scale heterogeneities
are important for gas–oil displacements. Two particular het-
erogeneities have a large impact on oil recovery: the presence
or absence of impermeable mud clast lags at channel bases,
and the degree of permeability anisotropy in the sandstone
lithofacies within the channel fills (Fig. 15). The impact of all
other heterogeneities on oil recovery and gas production lies
either within, or close to, the range of stochastic uncertainty
(Fig. 15). Note that the upper intervals of channel-fill sand-
bodies, which have lower permeability, are swept because of
the gravity-stable nature of the displacement and the tendency
of the gas to segregate upwards. However, the displacement
efficiency in these lower permeability intervals could be lower if
capillary forces were included in our models, which may lead
to trapping of oil (c.f. oil–water displacements; Jones et al.
1994).
Permeability anisotropy within the channel-fill sandstones
has the greatest impact on recovery, and modelling the
channel-fill sandbodies in Pereriv B with a kv:kh ratio of 1
rather than 0.1 causes an increase in recovery factor of c. 14%
(Fig. 15). Permeability anisotropy within the sandstones con-
trols the gas displacement efficiency. In models with sandstone
kv:kh ratio equal to 0.1, most of the gas moves along the bulk
flow direction rather than segregating vertically to displace oil
from the upper part of the invaded reservoir. The gas–oil
displacement is thus not in vertical equilibrium and, as a result,
gas saturations are reduced in the invaded zone compared to
models with sandstone kv:kh ratio equal to 1 (Fig. 16A, B).
Impermeable mud clast lags at the base of channels have
the second largest impact on oil recovery (Fig. 15). The mud
clast lags act as discontinuous barriers to vertical flow, and
thus increase vertical flow tortuosity and decrease the effective
kv:kh ratio (cf. Begg & King 1985). Including mud clast lags in
the models yields a similar effect on displacement as reducing
the sandstone kv:kh ratio; the oil recovery factor is decreased
(by c. 3%) and total gas production is increased (by c. 3%).
Areal and vertical sweep patterns are influenced by the
presence of thin, extensive shale barriers within the high NTG
Pereriv B layer (Fig. 16A, C), consistent with reservoir produc-
tion data which indicate that such shales form the boundaries
between hydraulically separated sublayers (Reynolds 2006;
Ibrahimov et al. 2007). However, there is only a slight reduc-
tion in overall sweep efficiency over the simulated production
period (c. 1% more gas is produced in models that contain the
thin shale barriers, which lies within the estimated range of
stochastic uncertainty; Fig. 15). This result suggests that the
absence of cross-flow between these sublayers does not
 Controls on gas–oil and water–oil displacements 157

Fig. 14. Plan views of (A, D) shale distribution in a single grid layer at the model centre; (B, E) thickness-averaged permeability; and (C, F)
thickness-averaged mobile oil saturation after 5 years of water injection in south-flank models of the high NTG Pereriv B layer in the third screening
study with (A–C) multi-storey channel-fill sandbodies oriented parallel to tectonic dip and (D–F) multi-storey channel-fill sandbodies oriented
oblique (49() to tectonic dip. The two producers and one injector are also labelled. The model with sandbodies oriented oblique to tectonic dip
exhibits a wider range of thickness-averaged permeability (E), which results in a wider range of flow path lengths and, thus, slightly decreased areal
sweep efficiency and earlier water breakthrough (F).
158 K. Choi et al.
Fig. 15. Average percentage change in recovery factor and total gas
produced after 10 years in north flank models of Pereriv B in the
fourth screening study, observed when each factor in the sensitivity
analysis is varied from setting 1 to setting 2 (Fig. 5). The dashed lines
denote the average percentage change observed from three different
stochastic realizations.
adversely affect sweep efficiency to a significant degree over the
chosen range of model parameters and length scales.
DISCUSSION
Which heterogeneities control flow in gas–oil and water–oil
displacements?
In our models that incorporate gross zonation of the Pereriv
Suite reservoir (i.e. Pereriv B, C and D layers) and strati-
graphic architecture within these reservoir zones (screening
studies 1 and 2; Fig. 5), simulated recovery is generally high
because recovery is dominated by the high NTG Pereriv B and
D layers. Within the chosen range of parameters, which do not
incorporate heterogeneity within channel-fill sandbodies,
recovery from these layers is typically greater than 70%, and
modelling decisions that influence the representation of hetero-
geneity in high NTG layers affect recovery by less than 2%
(Fig. 8B). This minor variation in recovery from the high NTG
layers is caused by variations in areal and vertical sweep
efficiency that depend on channel stacking and channel orien-
tation (Fig. 9). When channel-fill sandstones are modelled as
individual storeys oriented obliquely to reservoir dip, then flow
paths are more tortuous than when they are modelled as
multi-storey belts running directly down reservoir dip, so
recovery is marginally lower (cf. Fig. 14). Variations in recov-
ery from these Pereriv Suite models are therefore dominated by
variations in the modelling approach adopted for the low
NTG Pereriv C layer. This layer contributes a relatively small
proportion of the total recoverable oil, so variations in overall
recovery from models which include the Pereriv B, C and D
layers are small. If there is net sandstone present in Pereriv C
then oil recovery is increased, although the recovery factor is
lower (Fig. 8). If Pereriv C is in communication with the
overlying and underlying high NTG Pereriv B and D layers,
then there is also an increase in oil recovery, and an associated
benefit in reduced production of displacing water or gas (Fig.
9). This result is significant, because it suggests that there is no
production penalty associated with communication between
the high NTG layers (Pereriv B and D) and the adjacent low
NTG layers (Pereriv A, C and E).
Recovery in models of the low NTG Pereriv C layer
(screening study 3A; Fig. 5) is dominated by connectivity of
the channel-fill sandbodies, and the tortuosity of fluid flow
paths through the connected sandbodies (Fig. 10), consistent
with the results of previous studies of low NTG channelized
reservoirs (Jones et al. 1995; Friedmann et al. 2001; Larue &
Friedmann 2005; Larue & Hovadik 2006). These findings are
applicable to developments where only a low NTG layer is
produced, including much of the Balakhany Suite that overlies
the Pereriv Suite reservoir in the ACG Field (Fig. 2). However,
our work provides additional insight into the sedimentological
parameters which have an impact when low NTG reservoir
layers are in communication with adjacent high NTG layers.
In cases where channel-fill sandbodies in Pereriv C exhibit zero
connectivity between injectors and producers, these sandbodies
are still swept if they are connected to sandbodies in the
adjacent Pereriv B and D layers, which provide pressure
support and a route for oil production. Thus, connectivity
between sandbodies in adjacent high NTG and low NTG
layers significantly enhances predicted recovery from low NTG
layers.
Recovery in models of gas–oil displacement in the high
NTG Pereriv B layer (screening study 4; Fig. 5) is dominated
by permeability anisotropy within channel-fill sandbodies and
the presence of impermeable mud clast lags at their bases (Fig.
15). Both of these heterogeneity types occur at small length
scales (within channel-fill sandbodies, Fig. 3C). Heterogenei-
ties at larger length scales (within reservoir zones, Fig. 3B)
have little impact on recovery (Figs 13, 15) because channel-fill
sandbodies are well connected to injector and producer wells in
high NTG settings irrespective of their dimensions, sinuosity,
orientation and stacking pattern. Consequently, sweep effi-
ciency is high (Larue & Friedmann 2005), although the pres-
ence of thin, extensive shale barriers, parallel to the boundaries
of the high NTG layer, exerts a strong influence on early sweep
patterns (Fig. 16C). Permeability anisotropy within channel-fill
sandbodies and the presence of impermeable mud clast lags at
their bases are significant because these parameters reduce the
effective vertical permeability of sandstones. Low effective
vertical permeability hinders vertical segregation of gas and
oil, such that the mobility-unstable gas–oil displacement is not
stabilized by gravity. Under such conditions, the displacement
does not reach vertical equilibrium and gas displacement
efficiency is low. Models that lack heterogeneities within
channel-fill sandbodies (screening study 3B; Fig. 5) predict
uniformly high recoveries for gas–oil and water–oil displace-
ments in the north and south flank, respectively. For the
gas–oil displacement, such models significantly overpredict
recovery factor (by up to 20%, comparing the results of
screening studies 3B and 4). Previous studies have found that
heterogeneities within channel-fill sandbodies also have a
significant impact on mobility-stable water–oil displacements
in high NTG channelized reservoirs, because increasing the
range of permeabilities and permeability anisotropy within
channel-fill sandbodies generally results in more irregular sweep
patterns and reduced sweep efficiency (Høimyr et al. 1993;
Friedmann et al. 2001; Larue & Friedmann 2005). Further-
more, oil is trapped by capillary pressure in cross-bedded
sandstones, which reduces displacement efficiency (Jones et al.
1994). However, permeability anisotropy influences displace-
ment efficiency in our models of gas–oil displacement, rather
than sweep efficiency as in water–oil displacements (Høimyr
et al. 1993; Friedmann et al. 2001; Larue & Friedmann 2005);
moreover, the effects of capillary trapping are likely to be less
Controls on gas–oil and water–oil displacements 159

Fig. 16. Central cross-section view of gas

saturation after 2 years of gas injection
in north-flank models of Pereriv B in
the fourth screening study. Channel-fill
sandstones either have (A and C)
isotropic permeability, with kv:kh ratio =
1, or (B) anisotropic permeability, with
kv:kh ratio = 0.1. In (C), a thin, laterally
extensive shale divides the reservoir
into two hydraulically separated
compartments. Model faces across which
oil production and gas injection occur
are labelled. Gas saturation in the
invaded zone is higher in the models
with uniform, isotropic permeability (A
and C) regardless of the presence of the
shale in (C). Models have the correct
structural dip but have been vertically
exaggerated by a factor of 10 for ease of
visualization.
160 K. Choi et al.

Fig. 17. Impact of different heterogeneities on flow within Pereriv B, C and D in (A) the north flank and (B) the south flank in the second screening
study (Figs 5, 9). Absolute percentage change in oil recovered after 20 years is plotted as distance from the centre of the chart for each heterogeneity,
to enable comparison between simulations of tracer flow, gas injection, and water injection. The area around the centre of each chart represents the
average percentage change observed from three different stochastic realizations. The tracer simulations capture the rank order of heterogeneities
above stochastic uncertainty for both gas–oil and water–oil displacements, suggesting that gravity segregation and relative permeability effects are
small.

significant in gas–oil displacements than in water–oil displace-
ments. Thus small-scale heterogeneities influence recovery in
gas–oil and water–oil displacements in high NTG channelized
reservoirs for different reasons.
Do the same heterogeneities impact on gas–oil and water–oil
displacements?
In the first three screening studies (Fig. 5), the same hetero-
geneities generally have a significant impact on both the
gravity-stable gas–oil displacement in the north flank and the
mobility-stable water–oil displacement in the south flank (Figs
8, 9, 10, 13). This result arises because both displacements are
stable for the proposed production rates, and because the
heterogeneities investigated impact on sandbody connectivity
to injector and producer wells, and the tortuosity of fluid flow
paths in connected sandbodies, but not on the gravity stability
of the gas–oil displacement. The results of tracer simulations
support the interpretation that heterogeneities influencing flow
path tortuosity control the behaviour of the stable displace-
ments, because they closely reproduce the rank order of key
heterogeneities in both flanks (Fig. 17). The results of the
fourth screening study indicate that additional small-scale
heterogeneities control the stability of the gas–oil displace-
ment, because they control the kv:kh ratio in the sandbodies.
We infer that varying the kv:kh ratio is likely to have relatively
little impact on the water–oil displacement, because flow is
principally parallel to stratigraphic layering.
The results of our first three screening studies are similar in
some respects to those obtained by Larue & Friedman (2005),
who found that stratigraphic architecture (channel geometry,
dimensions and spatial distribution) had only a small impact
on waterflood recovery, because sandbody connectivity was
generally high even in their low NTG (35%) models. However,
we find that heterogeneity (particularly channel sinuosity and
stacking; Fig. 9) in the low NTG Pereriv C layer has a much
more significant impact on recovery than in their low NTG
models. Channel sinuosity is important because it controls
connectivity, while channel stacking is important because it
controls flow path tortuosity and hence sweep efficiency within
the connected sandbodies. Channel-fill sandbodies are gener-
ally large relative to the model dimensions in our experiments
(Figs 5, 6), such that the resulting connectivity between sand-
bodies for a given NTG ratio is a local value that may not be
characteristic of sandbody connectivity in a larger, represen-
tative model volume. This effect explains why channel sinuos-
ity and stacking have a greater impact on recovery in our
models than in those of Larue & Friedman (2005), which
contain smaller sandbodies relative to model volume, and also
why percolation thresholds for sandbody connectivity in low
NTG reservoirs (King 1990; Larue & Hovadik 2006) do not
apply consistently to our models. Larue & Friedman (2005)
found that end-point mobility ratio was the most important
control on recovery in their modelling experiments. In con-
trast, our work suggests that heterogeneity affects mobility
unstable gas displacements in a similar way to mobility stable
water displacements despite their very different end-point
mobility ratios, so long as the gas–oil displacement is gravity
stable. The overall stability of a displacement is thus the most
important factor controlling its interaction with heterogeneity,
rather than the end-point mobility ratio.
We investigated the impact of displacement stability on
recovery during gas injection from the Pereriv B layer in the
north flank of Azeri by varying the production rate in the
fourth screening study models from 47–187% of Dietz’s critical
rate for a gravity-stable displacement (Fig. 18). Permeability
 Controls on gas–oil and water–oil displacements 161

Fig. 18. Average percentage change in (A) recovery factor and (B) total gas produced after 10 years in north flank models of Pereriv B used for the
fourth screening study (Fig. 5). A range of production rates was applied, with 93% of Dietz’s critical rate for a gravity-stable displacement
corresponding to the production rate used in the fourth screening study (Fig. 15). The points plotted show the response when each factor
(heterogeneity) in the sensitivity analysis is varied from setting 1 to setting 2 (Fig. 5), for the various production rates. The dashed lines denote the
average percentage change observed from three different stochastic realizations. Data points that lie within the estimated range of stochastic
uncertainty are not shown.

anisotropy within channel-fill sandbodies has the largest second largest impact. All other heterogeneities have impacts
impact on recovery factor and total gas produced across the that lie around or within the range of stochastic uncertainty.
range of simulated production rates, while the presence or Although variations in the displacement stability do not
absence of impermeable mud clast lags at channel bases has the affect the rank order of sedimentological heterogeneities, the
162 K. Choi et al.
magnitude of response to each heterogeneity is highest at
sub-critical rates (e.g. 47% of Dietz’s critical rate) and
decreases significantly as the production rate increases (Fig.
18). As the displacement becomes less stable, the influence of
heterogeneity becomes less significant. At sub-critical rates,
permeability anisotropy within channel-fill sandbodies and the
presence of impermeable mud clast lags at their bases are
important because they control whether gravity can stabilize
the mobility-unstable gas–oil displacement. At supra-critical
rates, the displacement is unstable irrespective of the influence
of heterogeneity on vertical segregation of gas and oil. In
contrast, simulations of oil–water displacements suggest that
the opposite is true; the impact of permeability variations is
emphasized in unstable water–oil displacements (Jackson &
Muggeridge 2000). In stable water–oil displacements in high
NTG channelized reservoirs, permeability heterogeneity also
has a greater influence at higher production rates, causing both
sweep efficiency and displacement efficiency to decrease
(Høimyr et al. 1993; Larue & Friedmann 2005).
CONCLUSIONS
The results of our modelling experiments indicate that sedi-
mentological heterogeneities in the channel-dominated, fluvio-
deltaic Pereriv Suite reservoir of the Azeri Field impact on oil
recovery only if they control: (1) sandbody connectivity and (2)
flow path tortuosity in mobility- or gravity-stable displace-
ments, or (3) vertical segregation in mobility-unstable displace-
ments that may be stabilized by gravity. The stability of the
displacement is the most important factor controlling its
interaction with heterogeneity.
Three heterogeneities control sandbody connectivity and
one heterogeneity controls flow path tortuosity through the
connected sandbodies. These four heterogeneities thus control
oil recovery by both the mobility-stable water–oil displacement
in the south flank of the field and the gravity-stable gas–oil
displacement in the north flank: (1) local variations in NTG
ratio (0–55%) within generally low NTG (c. 45%) reservoir
layers such as Pereriv A, C and E; (2) the degree of communi-
cation between the low NTG layers and adjacent high NTG
(>85%) layers such as Pereriv B and D; (3) sinuosity; and (4)
stacking pattern of channel-fill sandbodies in low NTG layers.
In regions where net sandstone is present in low NTG
layers, total oil recovery increases due to the locally increased
STOIIP, but recovery factor decreases due to poor sweep
efficiency within the low NTG layers. If the low NTG layers
are in communication with adjacent high NTG layers, then
there is also an increase in oil recovery because channel-fill
sandbodies within the low NTG layers that are poorly con-
nected to the injection and/or production wells are swept via
production and associated pressure support from the adjacent
high NTG layers. Consequently, recovery is improved when
there is connectivity between the layers. There is also an
associated benefit in reduced production of water or gas.
Recovery from individual low NTG layers is primarily con-
trolled by the connectivity of channel-fill sandbodies between
injection and production wells, which largely depends on
channel sinuosity, and sweep efficiency within the connected
sandbodies, which depends principally on channel stacking.
Within high NTG layers, changes in stratigraphic architecture
due to the presence of thin, extensive shale barriers, channel-fill
sandbody stacking and orientation produce only small and
subtle variations in areal and vertical sweep efficiency.
Two further heterogeneities control the vertical segregation
of oil and gas, and thus the efficiency with which gravity forces
can stabilize the mobility-unstable gas–oil displacement; (5)
vertical-to-horizontal permeability ratio of channel-fill sand-
bodies; and (6) the presence of mud clast lags at channel bases
in high NTG layers. The impact of these two small-scale
heterogeneities is large at low production rates when the
displacement is stable, but decreases with increasing produc-
tion rate as the displacement becomes unstable regardless of
the heterogeneities. Models which omit these small-scale fea-
tures predict that sedimentological heterogeneity has little
impact on water–oil or gas–oil displacements in high NTG
layers, but fail to capture the effect of heterogeneity on the
gravity stability of the gas–oil displacement, which signifi-
cantly impacts on recovery.
We thank the following colleagues with whom we have discussed
sedimentological heterogeneity and simulated production behaviour in
the Pereriv Suite reservoir: Elmira Aliyeva, Andrew Bowman, Gary
Jerauld, Richard Jolly, Steve Lowe and Greg Riley. KC acknowledges
the financial support of the UK Engineering and Physical Science
Research Council and BP. We also acknowledge BP and partners on
the Azeri development for permission to publish this study. We are
grateful to Roxar for providing the IRAP RMS software with which
the models were constructed, and Streamsim for providing the 3DSL
software with which recovery was simulated. The constructive and
insightful reviews of Tom Manzocchi and Allard Martinius, and
editorial comments of John Underhill are gratefully acknowledged.
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