Australian Journal of Earth Sciences (1997) 44, 421^32

Computer-aided structural targeting ¡n mineral exploration:

two- and three-dimensional stress mapping.
P. W. H O L Y L A N D ' A N D V. J. O J A L A ^

^ Terra Sancta Research, 48 Peoples Avenue, Gooseherry HUI, WA 6076, Australia.

~Key Centre for Strategic Mineral Deposits, Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Western
Australia, Nedlands, WA 6907, Australia.

This paper examines a geomechanical approach to predict the location of structurally controlled hydrothermal
Mississippi Valiey-type Pb-Zn mineralisation and Archaean gold mineral i sation using the Stress Mapping
Technique. Two-dimensional modelling used the finite difference/distinct element code in the UDEC program and
three-dimensional used the indirect boundary element method in the MAP3D program. Two-dimensional. regional-
scale, stress modelling of the Lennard Shelf, Western Australia shows that most of the known Mississippi Valley-
type deposits and prospects are localed within or near the modelled mínimum principal-stress anomalies using the
gross geology of the Lennard Shelf and an east-northeasl-west-southwest extensión direction. Three-dimensional
stress modelling was used lo model stress tields around the easlern margin of the Granny Smith Granodiorite under
east-wesl compression at the Granny Smith mine, Laverton, Western Australia. At a deposit scale, the patterns of
the simulated mínimum principal-stress correlate well wilh the known áreas of gold mineralisation near the contact
between the Granny Smith Granodiorite and sedimentary rocks.

Key words: computer modelling, mineralisation, Mis.sissippi Valley-type deposits, stress, structure.

INTRODUCTION oped for geomechanical purposes to model structural

Many types of hydrothermal ore deposits are formed in
structurally controlled sites in permeable fracture
systems. Typically, mineralisation occurs in discrete
segments of individual structures and within the mineral
deposits some parts of the host structures are belter
mineralised tban otbers. Epigenetic mineral deposits are
related, in general, to structurally focused fluid flow
during active deformation (Hodgson 1989). Hronsky et
al. (1990) reviewed the common structural controls on
localisation of mineralisation and oreshoots: (i) the
intersection of host structure with a particular lithological
unit (e.g. banded iron-formation-hosted gold deposits);
(ii) intersection of two synmineralisation structures; (iii)
dilationai jogs, divergent bends in faults or en echelon
fault segmentation; (iv) fold hinge zones; (v) flexures in
the host structure witb axes oblique to, and commonly at
a high angle to, the movement direction; and (vi) zones
that plunge subparallel to the stretching lineation but in
which the specihc controls on their location are unclear.
If only one control applies to mineralisation, it may be
possible to predict the location of the next mineralised
zone in a particular área or structure. However,
commonly several controls interact, and the complex
three-dimensional geometry of the controlling structures
makes interpretation very difficult. In addition to geo-
metry, competency contrasts and rheological properties of
the host lithologies may have a signitícant influence.
Therefore, even a purely kinematie approach to structural
interpretation of a geological map is commonly based
more on the interpreter's intuition than true geometrical
relationships. Several computer codes have been devel-
behaviour of complex rock masses and this paper
examines the applications of two such codes in computer
simulations to achieve more consistent structural interpre-
tations and for locating structurally controlled Mississippi
Valley-type Pb-Zn mineralisation and Archaean meso-
thermal lode-gold deposits. However, the modelling is
applicable to geometrically similar deposits of other
mineral commodities.
This paper demónstrales that a geomechanical
approach using two and three-dimensional computer
simulations (Holyland i 990a; Oliver el al. 1990) is a
practical way in which to attempt to predict the locations
of the dilationai sites which result from deformation of a
complex rock and fracture geometry. Regional two-
dimensional stress modelling is applied to a part of the
Lennard Shelf in Canning Basin, Western Australia,
which hosts significant structurally controlled Mississippi
Valley-type mineralisation (Eisenlohr et al. 1994;
Vearncombe et al. 1995). A deposit-scale three-dimen-
sional modelling example is the Late Archaean gold
mineralisation at the Granny Smith mine in the Eastern
Goldfields Province, Western Australia.
METHODS AND T H E O R E T I C A L
CONSIDERATIONS
Fluid focusing
Hydrothermal ore deposits are characterised by
channellsed fluid flow and high fluid/rock ratios. Under
low- lo medium-grade metamorphic conditions, fluid
422 P. W. H O L Y L A N D A N D V. J . O J A L A
pressures are buffered cióse to lithostatic pressures and
fluid flow is generally upward directed (Etheridge et al.
1984). Focusing of the upward fluid flow into a discrete
channelway. as required to form an ore deposit. is due to
lateral varialions in hydraulic head. These lateral
gradienis may be induced structurally by either variations
in fracture permeability of active fault zones. or by
variations in mean rock stress. Mineralised extensión
veins indicative of supralithostatic fluid pressures are
commonly present in mesothermal gold systems and
these are compatible with fluid focusing into zones of
low mean rock stress, where relative fluid pressures are
higher than the local rock pressure but absolute fluid
pressures are lower than in surrounding rock {Ridley
1993). Sites of low mean stress can, therefore, be
simuitaneously sites of fluid focusing and of low effective
mean stress.
At higher crustal levéis ambient fluid pressures are
closer to hydrostatic pressures but fluid pressures in fluid
channels might be lithostatic and both relative and
absolute fluid pressures higher than in the surrounding
rock. Consequently. fluid flow is strongly controlled by
permeability. Although high permeability patbways can
be lithologically determined, structurally controlled ore
deposits are more common in crystalline rocks and, in
general, they have formed in reactivated fault systems
(Phillips 1972; Sibson et al. 1975; Sibson el al. 1988). A
failure of a pre-existing weakness. or intact rock, can be
initiated by an increase of differential stress, by an
increase in the pore-fluid pressure, or by combinalion of
both. In most cases, stress changes lead to decrease of
mean stress or, more commonly. decrease of minimum
principal stress.
A model in which fluid focusing in the crust is due to
variations in mean stress, or in which failure of pre-
existing weaknesses and, therefore, enhanced fracture
permeability, is due to lowered mean or minimum stress,
allows for the wide variety of structural settings of
mineral deposits. Tbus, a technique that measures vari-
ations in rock stress has the potential to genérate viable
exploration targets.
Stress-fluid pressure relationship at fracture initiation
Three different modes of brittie failure for homogeneous.
isotropic, intact rock are shown in relation to loading
stress fields on the Mohr diagram in Figure 1 under
condition of high relative fluid pressure (Sibson 1989).
The type of failure depends on the magnitude of the
differential stress relative to the tensile strength of the
rwk. Depending on the stress state and the shape of the
failure envelope. failure may be by: (i) extensional
hydrofracture perpendicular to 0-3; (ü) shear failure along
conjúgate zones about 30° to t r l ; or (iii) extensional
shear failure as conjúgate zones at, or less than, 30° to (TI
(Sibson 1989).
Figure 2 shows the effect of a plañe of weakness. for
instance, on failure using the Mohr-Coulomb failure
criterion. The failure envelopes are constructed assuming
any orientation of the plañe of weakness. A stress regime
in which the Mohr circle overlaps the failure envelope for
planes of weakness, but does not touch the envelope for
intact rock, will fail along that plañe of weakness.
Analysis of the likely mode of failure requires
consideration of the orientation of the plañe relative to
tbe imposed stress. As for the case of intact rock, failure
may be in one of three modes—extensión hydro-
fracturing. sbear failure. or extensional shear failure.
Generally, there will be a range of orientations of
planes for which failure will occur (Figure 2 ) before
fracturing or shearing of adjacent intact rock. Puré
extensional hydrofracturing in a plañe perpendicular to
o"3 will occur at low differential stress states in which the
Mohr circle touches the failure envelope at the normal
stress axis {Figure I). In this case, the fluid pressure
exceedsCT3plus the tensile strength of the fracture. With
increasing fluid pressure or differential stress, the range
of orientations of planes which can fail increases. As long
as the intersection between the Mohr circle and the
failure envelope is in the tensional field. failure will
involve by dro fracturing and shearing.
During deformation, failure along the plañe or Ihrough
intact rock can be induced by: (i) increasing the fluid
pressure and henee reducing ihe effective siresses and
moving the Mohr circle to the left (Figure 2a);
03
di
a3_ normal stress
(b)
shear
stress
o3
jj al
a3
oí
i normal stress
Figure I Minies of failure in relation to differential slress in
homogeneous, isotropic rock. Mohr diagrams illuslrale ihe general
failure envelope for intaci rock and the stress condilions for the
three modes of failure. Modirted from (Sibson 1989). (a)
Extensional fracturing (hydraulic fracturing). (b) Extensional
shear (conihination of hydraulic fracturing and shear). (e) Shear
fracturing. ( r l . M á x i m u m principal stress; {r3, minitnum principal
stress; 6, angle o f failure to t i l ; , tensile strength ol' the rock.
 STRESS M A P P I N G I N M I N E R A L E X P L O R A T I O N 423
(ii) increasing a l and henee increasing mean and mean [ { o m ^ í o l a2-i-a3)/3] or the minimum princi-
differential stresses (Figure 2b); ( i i i ) increasing the pal (CT3) stress, provided that the orientation of the far-
differential stress at constant mean stress [i?im = field stress can be determined or a reasonable orientation
a l + (J3)/2] (Figure 2c); and/or (iv) decreasing a3 and assumed.
henee decreasing mean and increasing differential The most severe limiting assumption of two-dimen-
stresses (Figure 2d). sional stress modelling is that the plañe of a map does not
The diagrams in Figure 2 demónstrate that a change in
stress State ffom stable to unstable results in a decrease
of mean stress i n cases (a) and (d), an increase in case Range of orientations of
(b) and a constant mean stress in case (c). However, the weak planes possible lo
minimum principal stress (a3) is constant only in case fail (= 35=)
(b) and decreases in all other cases. Therefore, it is
assumed in the analysis that variations in a3 give a
better indication of proximity to failure than the mean
stress.
S T R E S S MAPPING leakness
Stress mapping examines the variation in strain and stress
through an inhomogeneous terrain on imposition of a
regional stress field. When stressed, an inhomogeneous
material develops an inhomogeneous stress field whose
components vary witb rheological properties and
geometry. The modelling is considering only elastic and
elasto-plastic stresses and strains, and, for instance,
deformation dilatancy due to viscous strains is not con-
sidered.
Stress mapping as a basis for prediction of hydro-
thermal fluid flow is based on the following reasonable
assumptions: (i) low minimum principal (a3) stress
indicates proximity to failure and therefore possible
deformation-enhanced permeability (this is more impor-
tant in modelling of high crustal level deformation); (ii)
at depths of more than a few kilometres fluid pressure is
buffered to be cióse to lithostatic pressure and the control
on fluid pressure is mean stress; (iii) variations in mean
stress will be followed by variations in fluid pressure; and
(iv) fluid flow is both upwards and towards zones of low
mean stress.
Combined with the knowledge that structurally
controlled mineralisation is commonly late in the tectonic
history of a terrain and that typical Archaean lode-gold
deposits and Mississippi Valley-type deposits show evi-
dence of fluid overpressuring (Archaean: Groves el ai
1995; Mississippi Valley-type: Eisenlohr É-Í a/. 1994), this
enables stress analysis of two-dimensional map patterns
of rock units and faults to predict those zones of low
Figure 2 Schematic Mohr diagram,s illu.strating possible changes
in the stress state which can lead lo failure of a plañe of weakness.
(a) Increasing fluid pressure. for the stress state 2, tensile failure
w i l l occur along fractures perpendicular to CT3, and shear failure
along a wide range of orientations of pre-existing planes o f
weakness. (b) Increasing a l leads to increasing differential stress
and .shear failure w i l l occur when Mohr circle touches the failure
envelope. (c) Increasing differential stress with constant mean
stress leads to shear failure. (d) Decreasing a3 leads lo increasing
differential stress and shear failure.
424 P. W. H O L Y L A N D A N D V. J. O J A L A
accurately refiect the stress pattem in an área with
complex three-dimensional geometry (Holyland e! al.
1993). In many terrains. such as the Yilgam Craton, this
may not be a eritieal restriction since the vast majority of
the observed structures are upright and the majority of
gold deposits are hosted in steep structures, although
significant exceptions do occur (Hronsky el al. 1990;
Libby el al. 1990). Tbe accuracy of the three-dimensional
geological interpretation becomes especially important in
deposit-scale modelling where the extent of interest of
the vertical dimensión is similar to horizontal dimensions.
Computer programs
Two-dimensional modelling is by a distinct element code
(UDEC program) and Ihe method has three distinguishing
features which make it well suited for discontinuum
modelling (Holyland I99()a, b). These are: (i) the method
simulates an assemblage of blocks which interact through
córner and edge contacts; (ii) discontinuities are regarded
as boundary interactions between these blocks and
discontinuity (fault) behaviour is prescribed for these
interactions; and (iii) the method utilises an explicit time-
stepping (dynamic) algoritbm that does not limit
displacements or rotations, and general non-constitutive
behaviour for both the matrix and discontinuities.
Modelling can be done at any scale and in addition to
minimum. máximum and mean stresses, total dis-
placement and fault displacements are computed. The
total displacement is the amount of movement experi-
enced by Ihe rock blocks. and Iheir movement directions.
MAP3D® versión 1.29 (Mining Analysis Program in .í-
Dimensions, 1993; Copyright Mine Modelling Limited,
Copper Cliff, Ontario) is used in the three-dimensional
stress analysis to simúlate rock-mass response under the
imposed external stress. The rock-mass can include
múltiple zones with different moduli, and fault slip as
well as crack opening can be simulated.
The formulation of the code is based on the Indirect
Boundary Element Method of Banerjee and Butterfield
(1981) and incorporales simultaneous use of both
lictitious forcé and displacement discontinuity elements.
The elastic rock-mass may contain múltiple non-
homogeneous regions and can be intersected by múltiple
fault planes and joint sets. Results of the simulations are
presented on user-specified grids which may slice
through the three-dimensional model at any desired
location and orientation.
Input for stress mapping
Stress mapping requires tbe following input data:
(I) An interpreted, accurate geological map or three-
dimensional geological model. Geological map data are
converted to a solid geology interpretation which
provides continuous lithological and structural inform-
ation (Figure 3a). The study área is treated as a mosaic of
polygonal blocks (rock units) and joins (faults and shear
zones). When external stress is applied to this system the
blocks are juggled and internally deform until equilib-
rium is attained. This juggling and intemal deformation
resulls in áreas of lower stress (i.e. dilation zones) which
represent favoured áreas for mineralisation and therefore
targets in exploration.
(2) The production of a stress map requires estimates
of the magnitudes and orientations of the far-field hori-
zontal stresses.
(3) RíK'k deformation properties including strength
and moduli, and friclion angle and stiffness for fault
deformation are required for modelling.
Example of two-dimensional stress mapping: Lennard
Shelf
A 1:250 (XX) solid geology interpretation of an área
including Mississippi Valley-type deposits at Cadjebut,
Blendevale and Twelve Milc Bore produced by Dorling
(1995) as a part of his PhD study was used in the two-
dimensional simulation (Figure 3a is a simplified scale
reduction of this map). Structures were divided according
to their size as hrst or second order. First-order structures
include regional faults such as the Pinnacles Fault and
have strike lengths over 10 km; second-order structures
are generally under 10 km in strike length. First-order
structures were modelled as having lowest stiffness. Rock
types include conglomérate, shale, platform limestones,
and basement granite. The basement granites were treated
as the most competent rock type. followed by the
platform limestones. shale and hnally unconsolidated
conglomérate (for commercial reasons the exact para-
meters are not published here). The máximum principal
stress (a 1) direction used in the simulation is at
110-290°, equivalent to an extensión al 020-200° based
on the regional geology of the Fitzroy Trough and
Lennard Shelf.
Sites of low minimum principal stress ((r3) simulated
in the model for the southeast Lennard Shelf are shown
in Figure 3b. Low-stress anomalies show a cióse
correlation with known sites of Mississippi Valley-type
mineralisation and a significant anomaly occurs near
Blendevale. The Cadjebut deposit has a small, less
intense low-stress anomaly, and at Twelve Mile Bore
there is again a prominent anomaly. In addition to
Blendevale, Cadjebut and Twelve Mile Bore, other sites
of known mineralisation which correspond with low-
stress anomalies include the Brooking Spring, Brooking
Springs Station, Fossil Downs. Virgin Hills, and Gap
Creek prospects.
Example of three-dimensional stress mapping: the
Granny Smith mine
At Granny Smith, gold mineralisation is located along a
north-south-striking, moderately east-dipping, reverse
fault. which purtiy follows a gran i lo id-sed i me ntary rock
contact (Figure 4). In different sections of the fault,
mineralisation may be developed in the sedimentary
rocks, in the granitoid and/or along Ihe contact between
them. The orientations of conjúgate sets of mineralised
fractures in the granitoid are variable, indicating that the
ItK'al stress field was heterogeneous and the orientation of
the máximum principal stress í<ri) varied by up to 90°
 S T R E S S MAPPING IN M I N E R A L E X P L O R A T I O N 425
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + -
+ + + + + + + + + + + + -
+ + + + + + + + + + + -
'/ ^ " ^ + + + + + + + + + H
• + + + + + + + H
& + + + + +-i
20 km
Lithofogical contact \
First order fault
— Second order fault
Faull continualion
i Platform facies
Twelve
Conglomérate Mrle Bore
Figure 3 (a) Digiiised solid
Basin facies Zn-Pb prospect
geology interpretation of the
Lennard Shelf between Fitzroy ^ + ^ Precambrian granite Zn-Pb deposit
Crossing and Cadjebut (after
Dorling 1995). The geology is sim-
plified to four mechanical units, the
basenieni granites are treated as
the most competent rock type,
followed by the platform lime-
stones. shale and finally unconsoli-
dated conglomérate. First-order
structures are modelled as having
lowest stiffness. The m á x i m u m
principal stress r r l was simulated
at 110" based on the regional geo-
logical history of the Fitzroy
Trough and Lennard Shelf (b) Plot
showing contoured valúes of
minimum principal stress (CT3);
only the contours below far-field
minimum principal stress are
shown. Anomalously low valúes o f
rr3 show a cióse correlation w i l h
known sites of Mississippi Valley-
type mineralisation. A significant
anomaly occurs near Blendevale.
with the deposit positioned approx-
imately in the northwest .segment
of the low stress anomaly. Other
sites o f Mississippi Valley-type
mineralisation which correspond
with low (r3 anomalies include the
Brooking Springs prospect, Broo-
king Springs Station prospect,
Cadjebut, Fossil Downs prospect,
Virgin Hills prospect, Twelve M i l e
Bore deposit and the Gap Creek
prospect.
426 P. W. H O L Y L A N D A N D V. J . O J A L A

from the far-field east-norlheasl-west-southwest orien- east-northeast-west-southwest compression and obser-

tation. It i.s interpreted that these variations were
controlled by the geometry of the irregular granitoid
contact (Ojala 1995; Ojala el al. 1993a, b).
After mining and extensive drilling at the Granny
Smith mine, it has been possible to construct a detailed
three-dimensional geological model of the mineral-
isation and the eastern contact of the Granny Smith
(Figure 5). As mentioned above, the structural obser-
vations indícate that the local stress field was
heterogeneous, therefore, this deposit should be a good
test for three-dimensional stress analysis on the scale of
a single mineral deposit. The main aims of the computer
simulation were to test correlation between: (i)
computed minimum principal stress lows and dilations
and the áreas of mineralisation at the granitoid margin;
and (ii) computed variations in local stress fields under
ved variations of orientations of mineralised structures
near the granitoid margin.
GEOLOGICAL MODEL
For the geological model, a simple linear triangulation
was used to interpólate the granitoid contact between the
dnllhole intersections and mapped contact locations to
créate the eastern contact of the Granny Smith
Granodiorite. To minimise boundary effects in the área of
interest, the granitoid block was extended from the
present erosión surface 420 RL (metres above sea level)
to 600 RL and from the deepest drillhole intersection at
54 RL to -800 RL. The dimensions of the granitoid
model used in the simulations are about 1.4 km high,
2.1 km long and 1.4 km wide, and it contains 938

6814000N-I-

Fault
Plunging aniilorm
Plunging synform
Bedding
Foliation

Youging direction

Lamprophyre dyke

TU Granitoid
Porphyry dyke
Banded iron formation
Figure 4 Geology of environs o f
Clastic sedimentary rocks ihc Granny Smith mine showing
500 m
Conglomérate the distribution of main rock types
and major structures.
 STRESS M A P P I N G I N M I N E R A L EXPLORATION 427
Structure contours
of the granitoid
6813000N surface
Au gram metres
(0.5 ppm cut off)
30om-
6812800N, _ 6812800N
6812600N 6812600N
6812400N - 6812400N
6812200N e8i2200N
6812000N - 6812000N
Figure 5 Contours o f gold grade 6811800N _ 6811800N
thickness (sum of gold assays
above 0.5 ppm along the hole,
contact ± 50 m) and inferred
máximum principal stress
direction w i t h respect to the
6811600N - 6811600N
structure contour map of the east-
dipping contact between the
granitoid and sedimentary rocks
at Granny Smith. The fracture
vein orientations discussed in this
study have been measured from 6811400N - 6811400N
oriented drillcores and from the
south and west walls of the
Granny pit. Diamond drillcores
have been oriented using
downhole spear, and holes have 6811200N - - 6811200N
been surveyed using Eastman
single-shot camera to record dip
and azimuth o f the hole. Oriented
Windich .A20-__
drillcores intersect most of the
eastern contact of the granitoid to 1
6811OOON 6811OOON
a deplh o f about 1.50 m.
443300E 443506f' 443700E ' 443900E 4441OOE
surfaces defined by 237 control points (i.e. diamond (1993). All materials were modelled as Coulomb
drillhole intersections and mapped contacts). materials. Young's modulus of 50 x 10^ Pa was used for
the Granny Smith Granodiorite and is typical of granilic
MATERIAL PROPERTIES rocks. Assuming Young's modulus ratio of two, as used
by Stromgárd (1973) in his photo-elastic and finite-
The rock properties used for the simulation are shown in element models of a strong body within a weak matrix,
Table 1. Physical properties of rocks were estimated this gives a valué of 25 x lO'' Pa for sedimentary rocks.
using the compilations of Clark (1966) and Engelder This valué can be considered a reasonable approximation
428 P. W. H O L Y L A N D A N D V. J. O J A L A
Table 1 Sumniiiry of materiiil properties for the stress simulation of a granitoid intrusión in a sedimentary rix;k host at Granny Smilh. Valúes
are approximated from the compilations of Clarke (1966).
Granitoid
Young's tiiodulus (MPa) 50 (XK)
Poisson's ralio 0.25
Nonnal stiffness (MPa)
- -
-4
Shear stiffness (MPa)
Tensile strength (MPa)
Compressive strength (MPa) 30
Cohesión (MPa) 6 4
Hriction angle (") 20
Contact between the granitoid and sedimentary rock.
as it is within the lower end of the range measured for
sbaies and siltstones (Clark 1966). These valúes define a
relative rheological scale. such that the granitoid was
stronger than the surrounding sedimentary rocks. The
rock units were assumed to be homogeneous and their
material properties isotropic and constant. The litho-
logical contact was modelled to be weaker than the
surrounding rocks.
INITIAL STRESS STATE
The far-field minimum principal stress (a3) was defined
as vertical and the máximum and intermedíate principal
stresses (al and a2) to be horizontal and oriented 080°
and 170°. respectively. These are ba.sed on tbe orien-
tations of regional foliations and the dominant miner-
alised fracture vein orientation within the Granny Smith
Granodiorite (Ojala 1995). The valúes for a l , a2 and a3
were 100 MPa, 80 MPa and 50 MPa, respectively.
Assuming a hydrostatic pore pressure, the 50 MPa
confining pressure (i.e. a3) corresponds approximately to
the effective stress at a depth of about 4 km (Engelder
1993). A far-field differential stress of 50 MPa, used to
simúlate deformation during mineralisation, is within the
lower end of the range of the differential stress estimated
for ibrust faulting (Engelder 1993). This was considered
as a reasonable assumption considering that the observed
displacements along mineralised fractures in the granitoid
are at most on a decimetre scale (Ojala 1995). When a
much higher differential stress was u.sed, the computer
model became very unstable and simulation a lower
differential stress yielded similar results but witb longer
computing times.
RESULTS
Minimum stress (a3) patterns and a l orientations
produced after 10 load steps. which resulted in about
0.5 m máximum displacement along the contact, are
shown in Figures 6 and 7, respectively.
The most obvious result of the deformation simu-
lations is, as expected for a thrust-fault regime. that a3
valúes are low in the áreas of sballower dipping
Sedimentary rock Lithological conlact*
25 000 _
0,20
-
5
-
omn
3 0
20 0
0
20 10
granitoid contad. TheCT3valúes are also low within the
granitoid cióse to áreas of steeper dipping contact and a
high a3 anomaly is developed in Ihe sedimentary rock
adjacent to the contact at these siles. Discrete low-a3
anomalies also occur in locations where the change in
dip is large in steeply dipping arcas. In addition, within
the áreas of a shallowly dipping contad, variations in the
magnitude of a3 are correlated witb small changes in the
shape of the surface. Within the shallowly dipping but
smooth parts of the contact. the a3 anomalies are not as
strong as in the áreas in which the contact is concave or
convex.
The simulated stress field is also heterogeneous wilh
résped lo a l stress orientations. These helerogeneities
for the deformation simulation at the 380 RL are shown
in Figure 7. Variations in the calculated a l orientations
are greatest in the áreas within the Granny pit área where
the contact is shallowly dipping and irregular. These
áreas correlate with áreas of low a3 valúes. At the
Windich deposit, the contact shape is less complex and,
although there are up lo 90° variations in the modelled
CTI orientation, variations are restricted to very cióse to
the contad and cover smaller volumes than in the
Granny deposit. Importantly, the modelled a l
orientations correlate very well with a l orientations
inferred from fracture vein orientation measurements
(Figure 7).
Figure 6 shows ihat low a3 correlate with the gold
mineralisation over the eastern contact of the Granny
Smith Granodiorite. The anomaly east of the Windich pit
is at a deeper level than the pit and it is solely a result of
the small área of shallowly dipping contact in the three-
dimensional geological model which is outside of the
drilling data. There is an especially good correlation
between the wide low-stress áreas in the granitoid and the
wide low gold-gradc halo. In cross-section, this broad
low-stress volume. which develops in the granitoid where
the contact sharply .steepens, correlates with a wide
mineralised zone of fracturing of lower average grade
than deeper levéis in the deposit (Figure 8).
In summary, the deformation simulation suggests that: (i)
the gold mineralisation is structurally controlled, especially
by the shape of the granitoid surface; (ii) the máximum
compressive far-field stress was oriented at about 080-260°;
and (iii) the variations in the orientations of mineralised
 STRESS M A P P I N G I N M I N E R A L E X P L O R A T I O N 429
443300E 443500E 443700E 443900E 444100E
_ 6813000N
6812800N
- 6812600N
- 6812400N
6812200N
_ 6812000IM
- 6811800N
6811600N
6811400N 6811400N
Figure 6 Contours o f CT3 (shaded) 6811200N _ 6811200N
and gold grade thickness illustrating
the good correlation of the simu-
lated low-stress áreas and gold
mineralisation. Pit outlines show
the broad extent of economic 6811OOON 6811OOON
mineralisation. 443300E ^ 443500&Í — 443700E ^ 443900E 4441 OOE
fracture veins might be related to heterogeneous local stress shows the ability of stress-mapping technology to simúlate
fields which could have resulted from irregularities in the zones of low minimum principal stress (dilation zones)
shape of the granitoid surface. which correspond with known Mississippi Vallcy-typc
deposits, suggesting a structural control on fluid focusing.
The modelling of palaeo-stress patterns on the Lennard
DISCUSSION Shelf supports the model in which the fluid flow and
location of mineralisation is largely the result of gross
The two-dimensional, regional-scale stress modelling of the regional structure and rheological variation of different rock
Lennard Shelf between Fitzroy Crossing and Cadjebut types during 020-200°-directed extensión.
430 P. W. H O L Y L A N D A N D V. J. O J A L A

443300E 443500E 443700E 443900E 444100E

6813000N - - 6813000N

6812800N/^ -!. _ 6812800N

6812600N - 6812600N

- 6812400N

- 6812200N

- 6812000N

_ 6811800N

- 6811600N

6811400N _ - 6811400N

Figure 7 CTI orientations at 3 8 0

- 6811200N RL calculated using the M A P 3 D ®
6811200N
program and cr 1 orientations
inferred from conjúgate fracture
vein measurements. Note that the
greatest variations in inferred and
calculated orientations occur in
6811OOON 6811OOON
the same áreas.
443300E 443500E 443700E 443900E 444100E

At Granny Smith, the genera! patterns of the simulated
three-dimensional minimum principal stress correlate
very well with gold mineralisation. Also the computed
variations of the a l orientations correlate with the
observed variations of a l as determined by orientations
of mineralised conjúgate fractures. This also suggests that
the important input parameters (three-dimensional geo-
logical model, rock parameters. stress orientations) are
realistic. In some respects. this correlation is quite
surprising as the modelling was completed only to
simúlate the stress pattem before failure. This indicates
that the low-stress zones, where failure is likely to occur
first, remain as low-stress zones even after failure and
during deformation. It also suggests Ihal no through-
 STRESS M A P P I N G I N M I N E R A L E X P L O R A T I O N
West
Figure 8 Seclion through the
northern part o f the Windich
deposit showing the gold + +
mineralisation and low cr3. + +
Note the widening of the gold
-1- -1- -1-
4+
mineralisation and the low-o-3
-1- 4- -1- - i -
área within the granitoid
where the dip of the contact
Drill hole
steepens. The low-(r3 anoma-
lies deeper in the section are fQQ Gold mineralisation (> 0.7g/t)
the result of a curve on the \,\\ Plagiodase porphyry
modelled surface caused by \ * * * \d
interpolation beyond drillhole E Sedimentary rocks
intersections.
goiíig failures, which would have significantly changed
the geometries of structures or rock units, formed during
the mineralisation. The results further supporl the
conceptual model that low rock stress focuses the ore
fluids (Holyland 1990c, d; Ridley 1993). Two main
explanations for this correlation can be drawn: (i)
variations in mean rock stress result in gradients in fluid
pressure; or (ii) rising fluid pressure decreases effective
stress and tbe tensile or extensional shear failure occurs
first in the áreas of low o"3, which, following failure, are
more permeable.
Numerical modelling of rock-mass deformation is not
an exact science and there will always be parameters of
the rock-mass which are not understood. In other words,
rock mechanics models are 'data-limited' and there is
seldom enough data to simúlate the rock-mass behaviour
unambiguously (StarHeId & Cundall 1988). However.
two-dimensional modelling of the Lennard Shelf indi-
cates that good results, which are useful in exploration,
can be obtained with a quite limited geological datábase.
Furthermore, the results of three-dimensional stress
modelling using the Granny Smith data show that it is
possible to simúlale a stress distribution that is very
similar to the stress distribution which is inferred from
field observations of fracturing. Critical to the successful
modelling of stresses during epigenetic mineralisation
and deformation are reasonably accurate input parameters
(rock propenies, far-field stress field, and especially the
three-dimensional geometry).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks are due to Simón Dorling for providing the Lennard
Shelf solid geology map for the mtxielling. Comments by
Mark Barley, William Power and John Ridley improved the
manuscript considerably. We thank David Groves for the
support al the Key Centre, Department of Geology and
Geophysics and Terra Sancta Research for the u.se of
equipment and permission to publish the results.
431
East
• i . \ S . - S S S \
+ +
+ -1-
^
100 m
Three-dimensional stress modelling formed part of
V J O ' s P h D p r o j e c l w h i c h was s u p p o r t e d b y U n i v e r s i t y o f
W e s t e r n A u s t r a l i a and A u s t r a l i a n Overseas Postgraduale
R e s e a r c h s c h o l a r s h i p s , s u p p l e m e n t e d by an Outokumpu
S a a t i o s t i p e n d . T h e p e r m i s s i o n t o p u b l i s h these data f r o m
Placer Pacific L i m i t e d and D e l t a G o l d N L is g r a t e f u l l y
acknowledged.
REFERENCES
BANERJEE P. K . & BUTTERFIELD R . 1981. ¡ioimJary Element
Meíhods in Enf>ineering Science. McGraw-Hill Book
Company L t d . London.
C L A R K S. R 1966. Handbook of Physical Conslants. Geological
Society o f America. New York.
DORLING S. L . 1995. Structural Evoluiion of Fit/roy Trough and
Lennard Shelf during the Devonian-Early Carboniferous
Pillara Extensión Pha,se: Implications for facies distribution
and Mississippi Valley-type deposit formation. PhD thesis,
University o f Western Australia. Penh (unpubl.).
EISENLOHR B . N . , T O M P K I N S L . A . , CATHLES L . M . . B A I Í L E V M . E .
& GROVES D . I . 1 9 9 4 . Mississippi Valley-type deposits:
producís of brine expulsión by eustatically induced hydro-
carbon generalion? A n example from northwestem Australia.
Geoloí-y 22.315-318.
ENGELDER T . 1993. Stress Redimes in the Lithosphere. Princeton
University Press. Princeton.
ETHERltx¡F. M . A.. W A L L V. & Cox S. F 1984. High Huid
pressures during regional meiamorphism and deformation:
implications for mass transpon and deformation mechanisms.
Journal of Geophysical Research 89, 4344--f358.
GROVES D . I . . R I D L E Y J. R., B L O E M H . M . J. ICTAI.. 1995. Lode-gold
deposits of the Yilgam Block: producís of Late-Archaean
crustal-scale overpressured hydrothermal systems. Geological
Society of London Special Puhlication 95, 155-172.
HODGSON C , J. 1989. The structure of shear-relaled. vein-lype
gold deposits: a review. Ore Geology Reviews 4. 231-273.
H O L Y L A N D P. W . 1990a. The nature of the lithosphere: cracks and
blocks? Terra Sancta, Perth.
H O L Y L A N D P. W . 1990b. Simulation of the dynamics of Archaean
deformation in the Yilgam Block. Western Australia, ¡n:
Glover J. E . & Ho S. E . eds. Third ¡niernaiiontil Airlitiean
432 P. W. H O L Y L A N D A N D V. J. O J A L A
Syinpri.siiim. Perth. Abstraéis pp. 347-349. Geoconferences
(WA) Inc.. Perih.
HOLYI.AND P. W. I99()c. Stress mapping in Ihe M i . Isa región. In:
Mí ¡su Inlier Geolof-y Confereme, Melhourne, Absiracis. pp.
Monash University. Melbourne.
H O L Y L A N D P. W. 199üd. Targeting o f epithermal ore deposits
using stress mapping techniques. In: Proceeilings Pacific Rim
90 Congress. Melbourne. I I I , pp. 337-341. Australasian
Institute of M i n i n g and Melallurgy, Melbourne.
H O L Y L A N D P . R I D L E Y J . R . & V E A R N C O M B E J . R . 1993. Stress
mapping technology, In: Parnell J., Ruffel A . H , & Molos
N . R . eds. Geofiuids '93:Contributions to au Internatiomd
Conference on Fluid Evoluiion, Migration and Inleracíion in
Rocks. Torquay. England, Ahsiracts. pp. 272-275. Geological
Socieiy of London.
HRONSKY J . M . A . , CA,SSIDY K . R . GRIGSON M . W . ICT AI.. 1990.
Deposit- and mine-scale structure. In: Ho S. E . , Groves D . I .
& Bennet J. M . eds. Gold Deposits of the Arvhuean Yilgam
Block. Wí'.vfíTíí Australia: nature. génesis and exploration
guides 2 0 , pp. 38-54. University of Western Australia, Perth.
LIHRY J- W . . B A R L E Y M . E . , EISENLOHR B . N . . GROVES D.L.
HRONSKY J, M , A . & V E A R N C O M B E . J . R . 1990. Cralon-scale
deformation /ones. In: Ho S. E., Groves D. I . & Bennet J. M ,
eds. Gold Deposits of the Archaean Yilgam Block. Western
Australia: nature. génesis and e.xploration giiides, 2 0 , pp.
.30-37. University of Western Australia. Perih.
OJALA V , J. 1995. Siruclural and depositional controls on gold
mineralisation at the Granny Smilh Mine. Laverton, Western
Australia- PhD thesis, University o f Western Australia. Perth
(unpuhl.).
OJALA V . J.. R I D L E Y J . R . . GROVES D . I . & H A L L G . C . 1993a. The
Granny Smith gold deposit: the role o f helerogeneous stress
distribution al an irregular granitoid contact in a greenstone
facies lerranc. Mineraliuni Deposita 2 8 , 4 0 9 ^ 1 9 .
OJALA V . J., R I D L E Y J . R . . GROVES D . I . & H A L L G . C . 1993b.
Granny Smith: an example o f a graniloid-hosted Archaean
lode-gold deposit. Geological Society of Australia Abstraéis
3 4 . 55-56.
O i . l V E K N , H . S - VALKNTA R , K . & W A L L V . J , 1990. The effect o f
heterogeneous stress and sirain on metamorphic fluid flow,
Mary Kalhleen, Australia, and a model for large-scale fluid
circulalion. J<nirntil of Metamorphic Geology 8 , 311-331.
PHILLIPS W . J . 1972. Hydraulic fracturing and tninerali/ation,
Journal ofthe Geological Society of Umdon 1 2 8 , 337-359.
R I D L E Y J . R . 1993. The relationship between mean rock stress and
fluid ftow in the crust: with reference to vein- and lode-style
gold deposits. Ore Geology Reviews 8, 23-37.
SIBSON R . H . 1989. Structure and Mechanics of Fault Zones in
Relation to Faull-Hosted Mineralizatitm. Australian Mineral
Foundalion, Glenside.
SIBSON R . H . . MOORE R. M . & RANKIN A . H . 1975. Seismic
pumping—a hydrothennal Huid transpon mechanism. Journal
ofthe Geological Society of Umdtm 1 3 1 . 653-659.
SIBSON R . H . . ROBERT F. & POULSEN K . H . 1988, High angle
reverse faults. fluid-pressure cycling. and mesothermal gold-
quartz deposits, Geology 1 6 . 551-555.
STAREIELD A , M . & C U N D A L L P, A . 1988, Towards a meihodology
for rock mechanics modelling, Iniernaiional Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Mining Sciences and Geomechanics Abstraéis
25.99-106.
SlROMílARD K, E, 1973, Stress distribution during deformation o f
boudinage and pressure shadows. Tectonophysies 16,
21.5-248,
V E A R N C O M B E J . R , . D E N T I T H M , C . D O R L I N G S, L , ET M.. 1995.
Regional- and prospect-.scale controls on Mississippi Valley-
type Zn-Pb minerali/alion at Blendevale, Canning Basin,
Western Australia. Economic Geology 9 0 , 181-186.
Received 22 April ¡996: aecepied 2 July ¡996