Rifle Training-Observer PDF

ADVANCED RIFLE TRAINING
for the
OBSERVER/SNIPER
Special Agent Urey W. Patrick

Firearms Training Unit
FBI Academy
Quantico, Virginia
FirearmsTactical.com
Reprinted with Author’s Permission
Advanced Rifle Training for the Observer/Sniper
Table of Contents
1. Definition ................................................................ 1
2. Concept and Utilization.............................2
3. Capabilities...............................................................5
4. Internal Ballistics ............................................5
5. External Ballistics ......................................... 22
6. Terminal Ballistics......................................... 33
7. Optics......................................................................... 37
8. Support Equipment ......................................... 42
9. Basics of Marksmanship ............................. 43
10. Appendices.............................................................. 49
1. Definition In addition to shooting, the military

sniper's mission includes a function that is
The military definition of a sniper is shared in its entirety with the law en-
"an individual highly trained in field forcement sniper. This is the observation
craft and marksmanship who delivers and reporting of intelligence, a function
long range, precision fire at selected tar- which is crucial to the success of law en-
gets from concealed positions." Although forcement operations.
accurate for the military sniping mission,
this definition is too broad in scope for By virtue of training, position, and op-
the concept of snipers in law enforce- tical equipment the sniper has the best
ment. vantage point and ability to observe and
report activities and information about
Military snipers act independently subjects, hostages, and the locations in
against a wide variety of both specified which they are situated. This intelligence
targets and targets of opportunity. They has unique value to all facets of crisis
need not be concerned with questions of management in law enforcement, includ-
authority to act, criminal and civil liabili- ing assault planning, negotiations, and
ties, innocent bystanders, or the necessity decision-making.
to justify their actions in court after the
fact. They operate in a hostile environ- Accordingly, the mission of the sniper
ment in which friends and foes are in law enforcement is more specific and
clearly delineated. detailed. It must account for the need to
operate in a friendly civilian environment
Military snipers will generally en- in which indiscriminate destruction is not
gage targets at extreme ranges in order allowed. It must account for the responsi-
to better avoid detection and counterac- bility to act in a manner that does not un-
tion by the enemy. Thus a military sniper necessarily endanger the lives of hostages
need not be concerned about the effects or bystanders. It must account for the
of shooting. A killing shot is as good as a need to operate within the law and have
wounding one. Either will remove an those operations subsequently reviewed
enemy from action. There are no hos- in court. Further, the law enforcement
tages or victims whose welfare would be sniper must be absolutely sure of the
imperiled by a miss or a wounding shot. identity of any target to be engaged.
Further, identification of the target is not
as critical as it is in civilian law enforce- The requirement for absolute identifi-
ment. cation is the single limiting factor that
governs the range at which the law en-
In war, everyone on the other side of forcement sniper can reasonably be re-
the line is an enemy against whom the quired to engage a target. Although the
application of force is proper. Destruc- marksmanship skills necessary to hit a
tion of the enemy is the goal, and to at- man sized target at extreme range are
tain that goal military force is brought to readily taught, positive identification is
bear against both the enemy and the en- difficult if not impossible at ranges in ex-
vironment in which the enemy operates. cess of 200 yards.
1
The law enforcement sniper is an in- Examples of the specific intelligence

dividual highly trained in marksman- available are listed in the table below.
ship, field skills, and observation who
delivers precision fire on positively iden- Examples of Specific
tified targets ONLY upon command from Intelligence
legitimate authority. This individual is Subject descriptions
called an Observer/Sniper. Hostage descriptions
Subject/Hostage locations
2. Concept and Utilization
Weapons
The Observer/Sniper is an integral Entry points
element of Specialized Weapons and Location description
Tactics Training, and as such is a vital Construction details
part of crisis management. Crisis manag-
Photographs
ers are taught to take two immediate ac-
tions in the event of a crisis such as a Activities
hostage situation or barricaded subject. Patterns of behavior

These actions are to deploy Observer/ Avenues of approach
Sniper Teams and initiate contact with Avenues of escape
trained Hostage Negotiators.
Obstacles to approach
The immediate deployment of the Booby traps

Observer/Sniper Teams is twofold in Alarm systems
importance. First and foremost, from Animals
their positions and with the optical Ventilation systems
equipment available to them, they can
Water supplies
collect and relay vital intelligence about
the situation. The primary intelligence Power sources
objectives are to identify all the players Flammable substances

in the crisis situation; to identify any and Door/window details
all weapons and explosives; to develop
group and individual profiles including An excellent, and often overlooked,
patterns, locations, and tendencies; and role that can be played by Observer/
to analyze the crisis point. Snipers is providing photographic intelli-
gence from their advantageous positions.
The greatest errors committed by Ob-
The more detailed the intelligence that is
server/Sniper Teams are failing to report
reported, the better and more effective are
what is seen in complete detail; failing to
the planning and subsequent actions of
report the intensity of observed activity;
the decision makers in command.
and failing to utilize the optics. There is a
tendency to try to be too physically close Secondly, by putting Observer/ Sniper
to the target area. Teams in place, the option of resolving the
incident by sniper fire is available should
innocent lives be in imminent danger of
2
loss and the option of tactical assault ei- However, in actuality it is extensions
ther unwanted or unavailable. of the well accepted, and legitimate, pol-
icy of shooting to protect life and prevent
When a tactical assault is to be made,
grievous bodily harm. Sniper fire should
the assault teams will approach under
be authorized only in accordance with
the covering surveillance and control of
that policy. Where feasible, and within
the Observer/Sniper Teams. In direct
the guidelines of protecting innocent
communication with the assault teams,
lives, the utilization of sniper fire is far
the Observer/Sniper Teams will advise
preferable to making a tactical assault. It
them when it is clear to move; when they
is a tactically clean measure that does not
should maintain position for fear of dis-
expose other officers and agents to the
covery; and if the element of surprise has
risks and hazards of a close range assault.
been lost, order the assault executed
immediately. Prior to deployment several opera-
tional matters must be defined relative to
The latter is called "Compromise" au-
the Observer/Sniper Teams. Teams
thority. Once an assault team has passed
should be thoroughly briefed regarding
the point of no return and loses the ele-
their missions for the periods before, dur-
ment of surprise prior to the assault, the
ing, and after any assault. Key times for
"Compromise" signal keys the immediate
supply, relief, and rotation must be de-
execution of the assault plan. The "Com-
cided. Proposed initial positions must be
promise" signal can be initiated by any
identified, as well as the locations of other
member of the tactical unit who identi-
Teams and elements. Each Team must be
fies the loss of the element of surprise.
allowed to select its own position, subject
Coordinated sniper fire can also be only to the needs of the mission as de-
utilized as a planned diversion for as- fined for the incident.
sault team entries, or against targets of
It is vital that the position chosen be
opportunity in concert with the entry.
sufficiently close to allow effective obser-
After assault team entry, the Ob-
vation yet far enough from the site to in-
server/Sniper Teams are responsible for
sure concealment of the team. Positions
identifying subject escape attempts; at-
must be at a sufficient distance from the
tempts at rescue or assistance by confed-
target site to avoid detection and remain
erates or sympathizers outside the
concealed, yet close enough to allow posi-
location; and hostage/victim escapes.
tive identification of targets and to assure
The reluctance of command authority a first shot kill. Communications and re-
to authorize the use of Observer/ Sniper porting codes must be standardized. And
fire must be resolved prior to any actual lastly, the authority and rules of fire must
utilization of Observer/Snipers. The kill- be defined.
ing of one or more subjects can be per-
The latter is a critical matter. The au-
ceived as an execution when done by
thority to order sniper fire must be spe-
sniper fire from distant and hidden posi-
cifically defined and invested in one
tions.
command figure. There is no margin for
3
any confusion among deployed Ob- Ideally, two Teams (four men) will be
server/Sniper Teams as to whether or assigned each subject in an incident to
not an order to fire is duly authorized. better assure a killing shot should one be
Often, the tactical commander will be the ordered, and to better insure that each
individual to order sniper fire after au- subject is in view of at least one Team at
thorization is given by higher command. all times. In reality, that many trained in-
This is done because the tactical com- dividuals are seldom available, nor is a
mander's voice will be readily recog- four hour duty cycle always possible.
nized and thus eliminate possible
confusion over the validity of the order. For example, in a Midwestern city a
police Observer/Sniper who made a suc-
Further, rules of fire must be decided cessful shot had been in position by him-
for exigent situations. Observer/Sniper self for almost 12 hours before the shot.
Teams must know when and under what By his own account, the only reason he
circumstances they can fire. To illustrate: was able to make the shot was because the
what if hostages are being harmed, or subject happened to peek out an opening
the assault team is about to be am- at the precise moment the officer hap-
bushed, or if outside confederates appear pened to be looking there through his
and threaten violence, or if subjects pre- scope. He had been authorized to shoot
sent the clear opportunity to fire? These hours before, but the subject never
examples are a few of the issues that showed himself until that moment.
must be considered in establishing rules
of fire. As a guide, rules of fire should be Realistically, almost all crisis situations
grounded in policies of clear defense of in the United States involving hostages or
self and others. innocent lives are resolved through nego-
tiation. Accordingly, the intelligence func-
An Observer/Sniper Team is com- tion of the Observer/Sniper Teams in
posed of two men, both equally trained concert with the efforts of the Hostage
in marksmanship, field craft, and obser- Negotiators is the most important func-
vation. The duty cycle for an Ob- tion of the Teams in actual situations.
server/Sniper Team should be four Nevertheless, the potential to resolve the
hours in position, with responsibility on situation by sniper fire remains real and
the rifle rotating every 30 minutes. The viable. The consequences of being unpre-
team member not on the rifle is the pri- pared, or unable, to exercise the requisite
mary observer, log keeper, and commu- marksmanship are severe. Sniper training
nicator. Time on the rifle is devoted to must emphasize skill and ability with the
maintaining the critical concentration rifle.
necessary to make the shot no matter
how suddenly it might be ordered. That 3. Capabilities
level of necessary concentration cannot
be maintained longer than approxi- Skill and ability with the sniper rifle is
mately 30 minutes at a time. a matter of equipment, training, knowl-
edge of ballistics, and expertise in the ef-
fects of environmental conditions that can
4
only be acquired through practice and 100 yards, a two inch target at 200 yards,
experience. The shooter and the rifle or a five inch target at 500 yards, ignoring
should be capable of firing groups no the effects of other factors like wind,
larger than one minute of angle (MOA) sights, and ammunition. Given a nominal
out to 300 yards as a minimum. diameter of eight inches for a man's head,
a MOA rifle/shooter could expect to
Accuracy with a rifle is customarily make consistent headshots out to 800
expressed in MOA. MOA is a unit of an- yards.
gular measurement that increases di-
rectly with range. One MOA at one In actuality, the effects of factors such
hundred yards is approximately equal to as wind, sights, position, and ammunition
one inch, three inches at 300 yards, 10 combine to make 800 yard head shots ex-
inches at 1000 yards, etc. For example, if tremely difficult. At realistic law en-
a group is fired at 100 yards measuring forcement ranges of 200 yards or less, one
one inch in its greatest spread, then the MOA (or better) capability affords the
group measures one MOA. If its greatest precision and certainty necessary to make
spread is four inches, it is a four MOA a shot with confidence, minimizing risks
group. However, at 300 yards, a one to any bystander or hostage in close prox-
MOA group will measure three inches imity to the target. In addition to having
across its greatest spread. the skill and equipment to shoot one
MOA or better, the Observer/Sniper must
It should be noted that groups are be well versed in ballistics, external ef-
measured from center to center of the fects, and the capabilities and limitations
two most widely separated holes, and of equipment and ammunition. All of
not from outside edge to outside edge. these factors have interrelated effects on
The measurement is made from the out- the ability of the Observer/Sniper to
side edge of one hole to the inside edge shoot accurately and consistently. The
of the other. In groups clustered too first factors to resolve are the rifle and the
tightly to allow this measurement to be ammunition.
made, the measurement is taken from
outside edge to outside edge at the wid- 4. Internal Ballistics
est point, and then the diameter of one
hole is subtracted from the figure ob- Internal ballistics is the science of pro-
tained. In this case, it is best to fire one jectile motion within the rifle. More sim-
shot and measure the resulting hole for ply, it is concerned with all that happens
subtraction rather than to simply sub- within the rifle from the instant of primer
tract the bullet diameter. ignition until the bullet leaves the muzzle
of the barrel. Although its duration is in
Another way to look at it is that the milliseconds, the consequent effects upon
MOA capability of the shooter and/or the inherent accuracy of the ri-
rifle represents the size of the smallest fle/cartridge combination are major. The
target that shooter/rifle combination can effects of the factors of internal ballistics
hit with certainty. Ideally, a one MOA dictate the features of a sniper rifle and
shooter/rifle can hit a one inch target at the elements of its manufacture. Resolving
5
these effects is the job of the gunsmith In the 16th and 17th Centuries, fire-
building the rifle. An understanding of arms development resulted in weapons
internal ballistics begins with ignition. called wheel locks. The ignition system of
a wheel lock consists of a spring-wound
Until the advent of modern "smoke-
serrated wheel pressed against a piece of
less" gunpowder and the centerfire car-
flint or steel called a striker. When re-
tridge design, firearms advances and
leased by pulling the trigger, the wheel
ballistic development were relatively
spins against the striker and the resultant
limited. For hundreds of years black
shower of sparks ignites the powder. The
powder was the only gunpowder used.
same concept is used in modern day ciga-
The powder charge was ignited by a
rette lighters for ignition.
separate powder charge or priming com-
pound. Another development of the 1600's
was the flintlock. This ignition system
Black powder does not cause suffi-
consists of a piece of flint held in the strik-
cient pressure to generate the high ve-
ing hammer of the weapon. When fired,
locities associated with modern calibers.
the hammer would hit a striker plate cov-
Also, the necessity of providing vents
ering the flash pan containing gunpow-
into the breech to allow ignition of the
der. As the flint struck the plate, knocking
main charge by the separate priming
it back from the flash pan, it would send
compound limited the integrity of the
sparks into the flash pan igniting the gun-
breech relative to maximum sustainable
powder. The gunpowder would burn
pressures. The metallurgy of the day also
through the flash hole into the chamber of
limited sustainable pressures. Low-
the rifle and ignite the main powder
pressure black powder charges (under
charge. The flintlock, being far cheaper to
20,000 psi) matched perfectly the sepa-
manufacture than the wheel lock, domi-
rately primed, low-pressure weapons of
nated firearms design for over two hun-
the day. Velocities stayed under 2100
dred years.
feet per second (fps). Because separate
priming is unreliable and inconvenient, Although fulminates of gold and of
the search for a better method was a mo- mercury had been known since the mid-
tive factor in firearms development until 1600s, they were not considered as prim-
the arrival of "smokeless" powder in the ing compounds. These compounds were
late 19th Century. far too sensitive and tended to detonate at
the slightest blow or shock.
The earliest form of ignition was
nothing more than a lighted match held In 1805, the Reverend John Forsyth of
in a serpentine lever which, when Scotland developed a less sensitive fulmi-
pulled, rotated the end of the match until nate that he called "Detonating Powder".
it came in contact with the flash hole He announced it as a way to aid shooters
leading into the chamber of the weapon. too long dependent upon flint and steel.
These early weapons are called match- Several different methods of using it as a
locks. priming compound came about. One of
6
the more unusual was the "scent bottle" main powder charge. Thus was born the
design. percussion cap firearm.
In this system, the Detonating Pow- Initially, Shaw used potassium chlo-
der was contained loose in a small bottle rate as the priming compound. Due to its
shaped like a perfume bottle. A small excessive sensitivity, it was not long lived.
amount was released into the flash pan He finally standardized on a mixture of
and hit by the hammer. It would deto- fulminate of mercury, chlorate of potash
nate and set off the main powder charge. and ground glass. The purpose of the
All too frequently the scent bottle itself ground glass was to increase the effect of
would detonate as well. The effect can be the hammer blow and better insure deto-
likened to a small fragmentation gre- nation. This composition lasted nearly the
nade. entire percussion era.
Another design contained the pow- Shaw's first percussion caps were
der in a soft metal tube. When the ham- made of steel. Next he tried pewter and
mer fell, it would shear off a piece of the finally, in 1816, he used copper. This basic
tube, mashing it under the hammer and design has been in use ever since. Modern
setting it off. This, too, was short lived, percussion weapons and black powder
as the tube would also occasionally go shooters use percussion caps that are
off. An American named Guthrie de- identical in design to those Shaw created
signed "pill locks" using the Reverend in 1816. For the first time, a firearms igni-
Forsyth's powder. He mixed the powder tion system was available that was reli-
with gum, rolled it into small pills and able, waterproof, and safe. Dozens of
sealed it with wax. Placing one under the copies and other claimants followed, but
hammer primed the weapon. Shaw was first.
Numerous attempts followed to en- The next design endeavor was largely
close the pills in better materials. A devoted to eliminating separate priming.
Frenchman named Pauly tried paper For every shot with the then existent
caps. In 1824, a German named Dreyse weapons, the weapon had to be reloaded
developed metal caps. But Joshua Shaw, and reprimed manually. A wide assort-
an Englishman who immigrated to ment of systems was tried, but none sur-
America in 1814, developed the first reli- passed the simple percussion cap system
able and convenient system. devised by Shaw. Shaw's ideas reigned
supreme in firearms usage until the de-
Shaw designed a cup shaped con- velopment of practical, self contained me-
tainer to hold a small amount of priming tallic cartridges. Two of the more notable
compound. He covered the compound alternative systems were the Lawrence
with a piece of foil shellacked in place. disk primer and the Maynard tape
The cups fit onto a nipple and, when hit primer.
by the hammer, would detonate. The re-
sultant flash was directed through the The Lawrence disk primer used small
nipple into the chamber, igniting the copper disks that contained the priming
7
compound. When fired, the system holds a separate primer cup in a primer
would fling one of the disks like a little "pocket" in the center of the base of the
Frisbee under the hammer, hopefully cartridge. Centerfire cartridge cases are
timed so the hammer would hit it. May- reusable after firing, requiring that the
nard developed a tape on which pellets case be resized to original dimensions, the
of priming compound were contained. spent primer cup be replaced in the base,
Every time the weapon was cocked the the powder charge installed and a bullet
mechanism fed the tape under the ham- seated in the case mouth.
mer, presenting a new pellet of priming
compound. The same idea can be seen The Berdan primer was invented by
today in roll caps for children's cap guns. Colonel Hiram Berdan, U.S. Army, at
Frankford Arsenal. It consists of an open
Other efforts involved inside priming metal cup containing the primer com-
in which the priming compound was pound that fits into a "pocket" in the base
contained inside the cartridge case. In of the cartridge case. When struck by the
1858 the first successful rimfire car- firing pin, the priming compound is
tridges were developed. Nevertheless, crushed against an "anvil". The anvil is a
the Civil War (1860-1865) was fought tripod shaped device. The legs of the an-
with percussion caps. Since the case vil rest against the inside of the pocket
heads of inside primed cartridges had to and the top of the anvil is directly under
be soft enough to easily indent under the the priming compound. In Berdan prim-
blow of the hammer/firing pin, they ers the anvil is an integral part of the case
were too weak to contain pressures suffi- head. There are one to three flash holes
cient for effective rifle velocities. How- under the anvil legs in the case head
ever, the Civil War gave considerable through which the resultant flash can en-
impetus to efforts to develop self- ter the case.
contained, inside primed cartridges.
In Britain, Colonel Edward Boxer de-
From the Civil War period into the veloped a different design. In the Boxer
late 1870's, a huge number of priming primer, the priming compound and the
systems were created. Of them all, three anvil are both contained in the primer
survived the test of time and usage. One cup. The cup fits into the primer pocket in
was the venerable rimfire system now the base of the cartridge case. There is one
seen in modern .22-rimfire ammunition. large flash hole in the center of the pocket.
The priming compound is contained in-
side the rim of the case. It is detonated Both primers work the same way. The
when the rim is crushed between the fir- firing pin strikes the base of the primer
ing pin and the breech face of the barrel. cup, mashing the priming compound
Rimfire cases are not reusable after fir- against the anvil and detonating it. The
ing, nor are they suitable for high- resultant flash enters the case through the
pressure loads (20,000 psi or more). flash hole and ignites the powder charge.
Both primers are equally reliable and no
The other two priming systems are discernible difference in accuracy results
centerfire designs. A centerfire cartridge between the two.
8
erated within the cartridge, the faster the

However, by the late 1880's to early
effect. Cartridge case design also has an
1890's, the U.S. designed Berdan primer
effect. Straight walled cases are more
became commonly used outside the
slowly eroded than bottle necked designs.
United States, and the British Boxer
primer was standard within the United The advent of modern powders raised
States. A possible reason is the ease of the need for hotter primer flashes due to
reloading cartridges using the Boxer sys- their significantly higher ignition tem-
tem. Reloading ammunition was com- peratures. Hotter temperatures could only
mon among both civilian and military be attained by using more priming com-
shooters. The difficulty and inconven- pound, resulting in even more salt and
ience of reloading Berdan primed cases mercuric residue. The development of the
may have contributed to the decline in bottle necked, high-pressure case finally
usage within the United States. eliminated mercury from primer com-
pounds.
Priming compound is an explosive
that is detonated by the shock of being Mercuric primers were eliminated
struck with the firing pin, as opposed to from U.S. military ammunition about the
modern smokeless gunpowder, which is turn of the century and from U.S. com-
a combustible and generates its energy mercial ammunition in the 1930's. Some
by burning. Early priming compounds foreign ammunition was still manufac-
were composed of various mixtures, cen- tured with mercuric primers as recently as
tral to which was potassium chlorate. the 1950's. For high-pressure cartridges
When potassium chlorate oxidizes, it and modern smokeless powder, antimony
leaves a residue of potassium chloride, sulfide, lead sulfocyanate and TNT were
which is blown into the pores of the added to the priming mix. These priming
metal. All chloride compounds are hy- mixtures were used through World War
droscopic salts that attract and hold wa- II.
ter. Inattentive or incomplete cleaning
can result in a rusted bore literally over- The first noncorrosive (i.e., free of salt
night. These salts are not soluble in oil or residue) primers were developed in Ger-
solvents used to clean barrels. They are many in 1910 in .22-rimfire ammunition.
soluble in hot, soapy water. The same Switzerland followed in 1911. Remington
cleaning procedure using hot, soapy wa- introduced noncorrosive .22-rimfire am-
ter is required for black powder residue munition in the United States in the
for the same reasons. 1920's. By the 1930's, noncorrosive prim-
ers were standard in all commercial am-
Fulminate of mercury was also used munition. It wasn't until the 1950's that all
in basic priming compounds. It does not military ammunition was made with non-
leave a corrosive salt-based residue, but corrosive primers. Today, all ammunition
the mercury particles amalgamate with (civilian and military) is noncorrosive and
the brass of the cartridge case and erode non-mercuric. Modern primers are built
its strength and malleability. Some cases around lead styphenate.
would be brittle beyond reuse after only
one firing. The higher the pressures gen-
9
explosive, although it can have an explo-

The explosive nature and power of
sive effect if burned in confinement. It
primers cannot be overemphasized.
burns much cleaner than black powder,
Many police departments reload ammu-
which is why it was originally known as
nition for training and for service use.
"smokeless" powder.
Primers should be stored in their original
containers and handled with care. A Modern smokeless powder is of two
glass jar full of primers can detonate if types. Single based powder is composed
dropped on a hard floor with hazardous of nitrocellulose, a mixture of nitric acid
consequences. and cellulose such as cotton. Double-
based powder is a mixture of nitrocellu-
In fact, all incidents of a cartridge go-
lose and nitroglycerin. All modern pow-
ing off when dropped on the ground or
ders are either single based or double
"cooking off" when excessively hot are
based powders. They are manufactured in
caused by the sensitive primer com-
three different forms - flake powders, ball
pound detonating. Modern powder does
powders and extruded powders.
not ignite under the shock of being
dropped or hit. Its ignition temperature The energy generated by smokeless
is sufficiently high (about 600 degrees powder results from combustion. The
Fahrenheit) that it will not ignite by itself powder rapidly converts to gas as it
under accumulated ambient heat, such burns. The volume of the gas produced is
as occurs when a round is left out in the huge, approximately 4700 times the vol-
sun. Of course, when the primer deto- ume of the powder in its solid state. When
nates it ignites the powder charge. In an confined, as in a cartridge case, the resul-
unconfined cartridge, the brass case frac- tant pressure propels the bullet down the
tures like a small fragmentation grenade. barrel. Modern cartridges such as the .308
Sharp, jagged shards of brass can inflict or .223 attain pressures over 50,000
painful cuts and be hazardous to the pounds per square inch (psi) in millisec-
eyes. There is no apparent hazard from onds.
the bullet itself.
Modern powders are progressive in
The primer is the first step in the their combustion rates. This means the
combustion of gunpowder, which starts rate of combustion is controlled. Some
the process of internal ballistics. Origi- powders are fast, some slow. Burning rate
nally, the only gunpowder was black is determined by the manufacturers in
powder. Black powder is a low order "closed bomb" tests wherein a small sam-
explosive. It is a mechanical mixture of ple of the powder being tested is ignited
sulfur, carbon (usually charcoal, hence in an instrumented container (the
the name) and saltpeter, which burns "bomb").
with a great deal of smoke and corrosive
salt residue resulting. Black powder can Burning rate is relative. In actual use it
be detonated by shock. varies with cartridge capacity, tempera-
ture, humidity, primer flash heat, and a
Modern smokeless gunpowder, on host of other variables. It is controlled by
the other hand, is a combustible, not an
10
the size of the powder granules, their that length would be unwieldy, heavy,
shape and chemical retardants added as and impractical. So some potential veloc-
a coating to the powder. Close examina- ity is given up as a practical compromise
tion of extruded and flake powders will for ease of handling and efficiency of rifle
reveal small holes through the center of design.
each granule. These are provided so the
granule will have a constant surface area This explains why the .308 (and com-
while burning. As the outer surface de- parable high-pressure calibers) has a visi-
creases, the inner surface of the hole in- ble muzzle flash. Since the barrel is too
creases, keeping the total surface area short to allow complete combustion of the
constant. powder before the bullet leaves the muz-
zle, combustion is completed in the air
As the powder burns, the pressure behind the bullet. The shorter the barrel,
generated increases. On a graph, it ap- the greater the flash if the powder charge
pears as a rising curve over time to the remains the same. The muzzle blast
maximum, or "peak", pressure. Ideally, (sound and concussion) is caused by ex-
peak pressure will be attained just prior panding gas escaping from the muzzle at
to the bullet exiting the muzzle. Hence supersonic speeds behind the bullet.
the need for various burning rates. Theo-
retically, the shorter the barrel (or lighter The generation of 50-55,000 psi within
the bullet), the faster the powder needed the rifle is the driving force of internal
for best efficiency. The ideal barrel ballistics. It has numerous effects upon
length will be just long enough to allow the cartridge case, the rifle and the bullet,
the peak pressure to form. As the pres- all of which affect the inherent accuracy of
sure rises, it accelerates the bullet to that rifle and cartridge combination. None
higher velocities. of these effects can be eliminated. The
manner in which sniper rifles are built is
Maximum velocity is reached at the intended to control these effects so that
point just past peak pressure. If the bar- they occur in the same way shot after
rel is too short, the bullet exits and the shot.
pressure dissipates to zero before peak
pressure is reached, sacrificing accelera- Accuracy in a rifle is a direct function
tion. In a .22 long rifle, peak pressure is of consistency. Every time a shot is fired,
reached in about 16 inches of barrel. If a the various parts of the rifle, the cartridge
.22 has a barrel longer than 16 inches the case and the bullet all move and interact
bullet is actually retarded by friction with each other. The more nearly these
with the barrel after the moment of peak parts move and interact exactly the same
pressure. However, the loss of velocity is way for each shot, the more accurate that
inconsequential in normal barrel lengths. rifle/cartridge combination will be.
In a modern centerfire such as the The cartridge case has four functions.
.308, a barrel length of roughly 30-36 First, it acts as the container holding the
inches is required to attain complete powder, bullet and primer. Upon ignition
combustion and peak pressure. A barrel of the powder charge, the pressure builds
11
equally in all directions. To the rear and Cartridges which headspace on the
the sides, the pressure expands the case shoulder such as the .308 measure head-
within the chamber of the rifle forming a space from the face of the bolt to a "datum
gas tight seal (the second function). To point" located approximately at the mid-
the front, the pressure pushes the bullet point of the shoulder.
out of the case into the rifling of the bore
and down the barrel. To illustrate, when a .308 cartridge is
in the chamber of a rifle, it is held by the
Cartridge cases are made of brass be- base against the bolt face and the datum
cause brass expands easily and uni- point against the corresponding point on
formly, and when the pressure the chamber wall. A .45 ACP round
dissipates, the brass shrinks enough to would be held by the base of the case at
be easily extracted. It does not return to the back and the mouth of the case at the
its original dimensions, however. If it is front. A .22 rimfire is held by the base
to be reused it must be resized to those against the bolt face and the other side of
original dimensions. The third function the rim held against the back of the
of the case is to provide proper head breech. In all these cases, the bolt face
space for the cartridge. pushes the cartridge forward until the
head spacing point contacts the interior of
Headspace is a critical internal di-
the chamber and further forward move-
mension. It is defined as the fit of a car-
ment is stopped.
tridge in a chamber measured as the
distance from the face of the bolt to that The final function of the case is to pro-
part of the chamber that stops the for- vide uniformity of position within the
ward movement of the cartridge. Insuffi- chamber, both at the base and the neck. If
cient headspace hinders complete the case head is not square to the face of
chambering, and could prevent the bolt the bolt, the pressures generated will
from closing. In effect, the case is too torque the case within the chamber since
long for the chamber dimensions. Exces- the part of the base not in contact with the
sive head space can cause case stretching bolt is free to move. One result is that the
or separation as the case over expands to bullet does not enter the bore concentri-
fill the chamber, or can cause misfires by cally. This alone can cause an increase in
allowing the cartridge to move forward group spread of 0.6 to 2.2 times the aver-
under the impact of the firing pin, cush- age.
ioning the blow.
A second effect is to create lateral vi-
Cartridges are designed to headspace brations which course down the barrel.
one of four ways: on the case rim (exam- These vibrations are due to the buckling
ple: .22 rimfire ammunition); on the of the action in response to the violent, off
mouth of the case (example: .45 ACP); on center push of the cartridge case. Barrel
the shoulder of the case (example: .308) vibrations are discussed more fully be-
or on a raised belt around the base of the low.
case (example: 7mm Remington Mag-
num).
12
bolt back into the lug recesses of the re-

The case must hold the bullet in per-
ceiver. As with the base of the case, the
fect alignment with the bore of the bar-
locking lugs must be square to the bearing
rel, a condition termed concentricity.
surfaces of the recesses, and in full, even
Without concentricity, the bullet will en-
contact. Otherwise the pressure is exerted
ter the bore slightly off-center. This
unevenly and a bending force called
causes a deformation of the bullet in the
"locking lug dispersion" is applied to the
bore. Upon exiting the muzzle, the bullet
receiver.
will not spin true about its longitudinal
axis, causing the trajectory to vary. Generally, locking lug dispersion will
Group size will be expanded up to dou- occur opposite to the plane of the lugs. In
ble the average. a two lug system (examples: M1 Garand,
M14, Mauser and Ruger bolt actions) the
Uniformity of the case neck is also
dispersion will be greater than in a system
important. If the bullets are not held in
employing three or four lugs. In building
the neck of the case with equal resis-
a sniper rifle, care must be taken to insure
tance, then the bullets will get faster or
that the locking lugs of the bolt are square
slower starts into the rifling. Inconsistent
and true within the receiver. Locking lug
resistance causes the rate of pressure in-
dispersion is also a source of lateral vibra-
crease within the cartridge to vary,
tions imposed upon barrel motion
which varies the acceleration of the bul-
through the bending of the receiver.
let down the barrel, increasing average
group size. As the powder charge oxidizes and the
pressure increases, the bullet begins to
These considerations regarding the
move. The initial resistance of case neck
effects of ammunition are resolved by
friction holding the bullet is overcome
using the best quality ammunition avail-
and the bullet enters the rifling. The bullet
able. Commercially manufactured match
will enter the rifling more smoothly and
quality ammunition is readily available
with less distortion if it is allowed to be-
in caliber .308, which is a primary reason
gin moving before impact.
for the prevalence of .308 sniper rifles.
If the bullet is in contact with the ri-
Match ammunition is manufactured
fling at the start, pressure can build up
to higher standards of dimensional uni-
too fast and more randomly as the bullet
formity and component consistency.
is forced into the lands of the rifling. More
Without it, no rifle will realize its full ac-
consistent bullet movement and pressure
curacy potential, regardless of how well
formation is obtained when the bullet has
it is built. For example, a rifle that shoots
a small distance to move before impacting
groups under one half MOA with match
the rifling.
ammunition can shoot groups one or two
MOA or larger with general sporting As a rule, the bearing surface of the
ammunition. bullet (that part which contacts the rifling)
should be 0.010 inches from the rifling.
The tremendous pressure within the
This is accomplished by limiting the over-
chamber forces the locking lugs of the
13
all length of the cartridge and head spac- either replaced or shortened and recham-
ing the rifle to exact dimensions. bered.
For example, the .308 ammunition The Hornady Manufacturing Com-

used by the FBI is loaded with Sierra pany conducted a test with a 7mm Rem-
Match 168 grain hollow point boat tail ington Magnum test barrel that illustrates
bullets. Overall length is specified at the velocity loss due to erosion. Five
2.800 inches. (Overall length is the length rounds were fired and chronographed
of the loaded cartridge from the base to when the barrel was new. Average veloc-
the tip of the bullet). The chambers of the ity was 3044 fps. Then 2000 rounds were
rifles are then hand cut into the barrels fired through the barrel after which an-
so that the headspace is exactly 1.631 other five rounds were chronographed.
inches. The bearing surface of the bullet Average velocity was 2758 fps.
is then held 0.010 inch from the rifling.
Hornady Throat Erosion Test
The temperature of high-pressure
New (fps): 3038 3074 3024 3039 3050
powder combustion and the repeated
2000 rds: 2729 2765 2769 2765 2762
impact of bullets into the start of the ri-
fling cause barrel throat erosion. The
flash temperature within the chamber The rate of throat erosion and velocity
exceeds 3500 degrees Fahrenheit. The loss will vary with the size of the bore,
melting point of steel is about 2700 de- size of the powder charge being used, rate
grees Fahrenheit. The result is that little of fire, and burning rate of the powder.
by little the throat of the barrel where the Generally, the smaller the bore and/or
rifling starts is eroded away. The start of larger the powder charge, the faster the
the rifling is, in effect, moved farther and rate of erosion. Competitive shooters us-
farther down the barrel. Eventually, the ing large capacity magnum calibers such
distance will be so great that accuracy is as the 7mm Remington or .300 Winchester
destroyed and velocity is decreased. will wash out a barrel throat in 2000
rounds or less. The same rifles in .308 can
The rifling eventually erodes enough last 5000-8000 rounds or more.
that the bullet base leaves the case before
the bearing surface impacts the rifling. The bullet impacts the rifling of the
The bullet is in free flight within the bore with considerable force. The bullet is
chamber for a short distance. Accuracy is larger in diameter than the bore diameter
ruined because the bullet is no longer between the lands of the rifling. It strikes
concentric with the bore. Velocity de- the rifling sharply before being pressed
creases as throat erosion progresses due into the bore. The effect can be likened to
to the increasing volume of space in striking the end of the barrel with a ham-
which the pressure can expand before mer. It creates "longitudinal" vibrations
meeting the resistance of the rifling. The within the barrel.
pressure curve is more gradual in its
At the same time, the rifle is recoiling
slope and acceleration is decreased. To
to the rear in accordance with Newton's
correct throat erosion the barrel must be
Law that for every action there is an equal
14
but opposite reaction. The direction of ment. It can be likened to whipping a fish-
the recoil force is directly opposite to the ing rod.
movement of the bullet down the barrel,
and thus above the point where the butt The actual frequency of the barrel
contacts the shoulder. The impact of the whip will be relatively constant, depend-
bullet into the rifling coupled with the ent upon the steel of the barrel, its mass
impact of the stock against the shoulder and dimensions, the bedding, the bullet,
below the line of recoil force causes the the pressure curve and its magnitude.
rifle to literally buckle in the middle. It Barrel whip can be anywhere within a 360
bends at the junction of the barrel and degree circumference about the axis of the
the receiver, and springs back. The result barrel, but will tend to move predomi-
is an up and down whipping motion of nantly in the vertical plane.
the barrel called "vertical" vibrations.
Barrel whip would be an inconsequen-
Side to side "lateral" vibrations tial consideration if the muzzle of the bar-
caused by any flaws in bedding, incon- rel were always a node (a point of little or
sistencies in the shooter's grip or posi- no motion). If that were the case, the muz-
tion, case head or locking lug dispersion zle would always be at the same point in
will also be imposed on the barrel. Fi- space every time a bullet exited. Such a
nally, as the bullet is forced down the uniform "launching site" would be an ac-
bore against the turning of the rifling a curate rifle. However, the muzzle is al-
fourth, spinning vibration is imparted to ways an anti-node (a point of maximum
the barrel called "torsional" vibration. vibrational motion).
These four different vibrations are The muzzle has the greatest vibra-
simultaneously imposed upon the barrel. tional effect on the direction of the bullet's
The speed of sound in steel is approxi- flight. The stiffer the barrel, the less the
mately 17,000 fps. Accordingly, the vi- angular displacement of the muzzle. Bar-
brations reverberate lengthwise within rel stiffness rises as the cube of barrel di-
the barrel several times before the bullet ameter, and inversely as the square of
leaves the muzzle. The resultant motion barrel length. This explains the use of
is barrel whip. Simply stated, the barrel large diameter, heavy barrels for accu-
is moving in space about its longitudinal racy.
axis while the bullet is moving the length
of the bore and exiting the muzzle. Therefore, in order to be accurate the
barrel must always whip with exactly the
If plotted on an oscilloscope, barrel same motion from shot to shot in order
whip forms a sine wave pattern. The for the muzzle to be always at the same
high points of the pattern are called anti- point in space when the bullet exits. This
nodes or overtones. Anti-nodes are is accomplished in four ways: by using
where the barrel movement is greatest. heavy, large diameter barrels of excep-
The intersecting low points are nodes. tionally high manufacturing quality; by
Nodes are points of little or no move- using ammunition of uniform characteris-
tics and pressures; by building the rifle in
15
such a manner that barrel whip is unim- The vital area on a deer is about 16
peded and no extraneous vibrations are inches in diameter. To hit a 16-inch target
created; and by shooting the rifle in a at normal hunting ranges can be accom-
manner that does not impair the vibra- plished quite effectively with a rifle hav-
tional pattern of the barrel. ing a 3 MOA capability. Mass produced
weapons and barrels made for general
First, although manufacturers make
sporting use shoot 2-3 minutes of angle.
barrels in several different ways, the uni-
This is fine for that purpose, but not for
formity of the steel used and the consis-
the law enforcement observer/sniper.
tency of the bore and rifling are the
primary considerations regardless of the This is not to say that an off-the-shelf
manufacturing method used. Custom rifle is not suitable for sniper utilization.
made barrels are made to more exacting A number of rifles currently available
standards than mass-produced barrels. would make excellent sniper weapons
with some minimal gunsmithing. The un-
For example, Hart Barrel Company of
certainty is that they are not individually
New York estimates that of every 100
built to meet accuracy standards needed
barrels made, no more than six are per-
for sniper rifles.
fect and of the highest possible quality.
This means that they will have steel of There is no way to tell if any one
uniform density and composition, a bore commercially available rifle has a good
perfectly straight through the steel and barrel except by shooting it. Headspace
of unvarying diameter throughout, and can also be excessively generous for ulti-
perfectly cut rifling. Of the remaining 94 mate accuracy because the manufacturers
barrels, approximately 30-40 will be of must insure the rifle will readily chamber
sufficient quality to be sold as lower a wide variety of commercial and re-
grade custom barrels. The remainders loaded ammunition. If the rifle is properly
are discarded. bedded, lugs fitted and it is precisely
headspaced, failure to attain acceptable
On the other hand, mass produced
accuracy indicates an imperfect barrel.
barrels are manufactured to more liberal
standards. They are intended to provide Using a less than perfect barrel creates
sufficient accuracy to hit a deer at 150 vibrational motion that varies randomly.
yards. Mass producers discard few, if The muzzle is not at the same point in
any, barrels. If not perfectly straight or space from shot to shot. A mass produced
uniform, the barrel can still be used be- weapon may have a good barrel, or it may
cause the resultant accuracy remains not. The accuracy achieved can vary
within the nominal standards. Barrels widely even among rifles of the same
can even be bent until they are straight. make and model.
General sporting use does not require
minute of angle accuracy, nor does it re- A variety of flaws can be present. In-
quire the considerable cost of using only consistent steel composition results in
best quality barrels. "soft" or "hard" spots in the steel itself.
Compositional inconsistencies alter barrel
16
vibrations randomly. They also cause the the carton case as well as each individual
barrel to contort as it heats up through box of ammunition. This is important to
firing. Barrels that have been bent tend record, since each lot of ammunition is
to revert to their original lines under the different. When a manufacturer changes
stresses of heat and pressure. Flaws in any single component, a new lot number
the bore and rifling result in high or low is assigned. The internal capacity of the
spots impeding the progress of the bullet brass casing will vary from one manufac-
through the bore and causing variations turing lot to another. The uniformity of
in barrel whip, pressure curve, and bul- the bullets, heat and pressure of the prim-
let deformation. A custom barrel is ex- ers, and burning rate of the powder all
pensive, but the necessary quality is vary to one degree or another every time
guaranteed. they are changed.
Secondly, the ammunition must be It is not unusual to find one lot of

consistent in its composition, dimensions ammunition that shoots extremely well in
and characteristics. Ammunition pro- a particular rifle, and a different lot of the
duced for general sporting use is manu- same ammunition from the same manu-
factured to lower standards than is facturer that is not at all accurate in that
match ammunition. Variations in pres- rifle. Rifle data records must include the
sure are greater from one cartridge to the lot of ammunition used. When an accu-
next. This causes wider disparity in ve- rate lot is discovered, it must be reserved
locity from shot to shot and wider varia- for the rifle that shoots it best. Mixing lots
tions in barrel whip. Any variation in the results in meaningless accuracy records
speed of the bullet means more or less because uniformity of ammunition is lost.
time spent in the barrel. Since the muzzle
is constantly moving, such variations Third, construction of the rifle affects
mean that the bullets are not all leaving the consistency of barrel vibration. The
the barrel at the same point in space. A locking lugs must be precisely fitted to the
variation of 30 fps between two shots by locking lug recesses in the receiver. The
itself can result in a vertical spread on chamber must be precisely headspaced.
the order of one half MOA. All the metal parts move and rebound in
the stock with each shot. If this movement
The bullets used in sporting ammuni- is uniform, the metal parts arrive back in
tion are not of match quality. Variations the same relationship with each other and
in the bullet composition may be accept- with the stock after each shot. And they
able for sporting use, but they can cause will react in the same manner from shot to
an increase in average group size beyond shot while the bullet travels down the
acceptable limits. The importance of the barrel.
bullet to accuracy is discussed in detail
below. (See pages 20-21 and 25-27). The receiver and recoil lug are glass
bedded to assure uniform movement of
Ammunition is manufactured in uni- the action within the stock under recoil.
form lots. Every lot is assigned its own Glass bedding maintains all the major
unique lot number, which is printed on parts of the rifle in the same exact rela-
17
tionship from shot to shot. Also, since through the barrel. The bullet is engraved
glass bedding is impervious to moisture, upon the rifling and is forced to spin as it
there is no warping pressure on the ac- is accelerated down the barrel. Barrel
tion within the stock as occurs with length and the rate of twist of the rifling
wood stocks which change shape as the will affect velocity and accuracy. Given
moisture content of the air changes. The the same powder charge and bullet, the
glass bedding must extend forward from longer the barrel the higher the velocity
the receiver for about one inch under the until the peak pressure is passed, after
barrel. This "pad" supports the barrel at which the bullet is no longer being accel-
its junction with the receiver so the erated. As previously stated, a barrel this
weight of the barrel is not hanging on long may not be practical and does not
the threads in the receiver. contribute to inherent accuracy.
From the pad forward, the barrel is For example, in the sport of benchrest
"free floated" within the stock. The barrel shooting the goal is to fire five or ten shots
channel in the stock is widened so the into as small a group as possible at 100
barrel is clear of any contact with the and 200 yards. Benchrest shooters rou-
stock. Any part of the stock in contact tinely use short, thick barrels of about 20
with the barrel will alter barrel whip pat- inches in length. The loss of velocity is
terns. more than compensated by the reduced,
more uniform barrel whip of the shorter,
Finally, the shooter must insure that thicker barrel.
the rifle is fired in a manner that does
not impair the vibrational patterns. Of greater concern for its affect on ac-
Nothing can be allowed to contact the curacy is the rate of twist of the rifling,
barrel. The point of impact can be expressed as the length (in inches) of bar-
changed by merely resting a pencil on rel necessary for the rifling to make one
the barrel while firing it. The shooter can complete turn. For example, 1 in 12 rifling
also cause vibrational variations by hold- makes one complete turn every 12 inches
ing the rifle differently from shot to shot, of barrel and is called a 12-inch twist. The
by shouldering it with varying pressure, twist controls how fast the bullet will
gripping it differently or resting the rifle spin.
on too hard a surface. For example, if the
rifle is firmly gripped and tightly shoul- The spin stabilizes the bullet in flight
dered for one shot and then held and so it will fly nose first. The longer and
fired with a relaxed grip and shoulder- heavier the bullet in a given caliber, the
ing, a vertical difference of at least 1-2 faster the twist necessary to stabilize it. A
MOA with some lateral dispersion will lighter bullet in that same caliber requires
result. Understanding these aspects of a slower twist to be stable in flight. (The
the barrel and its vibrational characteris- reason for this is explained below on page
tics is vital to accurate shooting. 21). The velocity of the bullet also affects
the choice of twist. Increasing velocity in-
The last factor of internal ballistics creases the revolutions per minute (RPM)
concerns the bullet and its movement of the bullet. Optimum accuracy is ob-
18
tained by using one bullet weight and aerodynamic design, which is discussed
barreling with the best twist for that cali- more fully below. (See pages 26-27).
ber, weight, and velocity combination.
Typical RPM for rifle calibers range from Axial error can also be induced by a
150,000 to 200,000. The .308 cartridge damaged or out of square muzzle, which
loaded with the Sierra 168 grain HPBT allows the high-pressure gas to escape
bullet as used by the FBI is best stabi- from one side of the base sooner or more
lized with a 12 inch twist. forcefully as the bullet exits. For this rea-
son, the muzzle of the rifle is recessed so
The critical feature of the bullet while the bore is countersunk into the end of the
within the barrel is the base. The base of barrel. This is called crowning, and is
the bullet must form a perfect gas seal done to protect the muzzle. This is also
containing the pressure behind it. The why cleaning a rifle must be done from
bullet acts like a piston as increasing the breech end in order to minimize abra-
pressure accelerates it down the barrel. If sion or damage to the muzzle.
the base of the bullet is not square, at the
instant the bullet exits the muzzle an un- As long as the bullet is contained
even push is exerted by the pressure. In within the barrel, it rotates about its cen-
effect, the bullet is tipped slightly off ter of form. Center of form is the center of
line. The result is called "axial error", de- the shape of the bullet. Once the bullet
fined as an angular displacement of the leaves the barrel, it rotates about its center
axis of rotation. Axial error can also be of gravity. Center of gravity is the center
mechanically induced by nonconcentric of the mass of the bullet. In a bullet, the
ammunition, which does not hold the center of form is ALWAYS in front of the
bullet in perfect alignment with the bore. center of gravity. Thus a bullet is not a
An axial error of 0.001" can result in a form stable projectile. In the air, it would
group increase of approximately one tumble in flight putting the center of grav-
MOA. ity in front of the center of form. The spin
imparted by the rifling creates gyroscopic
This is one reason boat tail bullets are stability, which keeps it flying nose first.
better. It is technologically difficult to
manufacture a flat base bullet with a per- By comparison, a dart is a form stable
fectly square base. Some bases can suffer projectile. The center of gravity of a dart is
distortion in the manufacturing process, in front of its center of form, and it will
or the lead core may not fully fill the always fly point first. The greater the dis-
base allowing the pressure during firing tance between a projectile's center of form
to distort the base. In the boat tail design, and its center of gravity, the more unsta-
the "base" is the full diameter circumfer- ble the projectile. This explains why, in a
ence ahead of the stepped down boat given caliber, a heavier bullet needs a
tail. It is technologically easier to manu- faster twist to stabilize than a lighter bul-
facture a perfect boat tail "base" that is let. In a heavier bullet of the same caliber,
square to the bullet axis for the pressure the center of gravity is moved farther
to push against. A second reason to use from the center of form as the bullet is
boat tail bullets is the more efficient lengthened for greater weight.
19
rity of the bullet. An error of 0.001" can

For optimum accuracy, the center of
increase group size one MOA.
gravity must be located exactly on the
longitudinal axis of the bullet. Other- One effect of internal ballistics that
wise, as the bullet is spun down the bar- impacts directly upon the shooter is re-
rel centrifugal force progressively coil. It starts the moment the firing pin
increases from the breech to the muzzle. moves forward. The spring propelling the
This can exert considerable force. A 190 firing pin in a rifle will exert a force of 16-
grain .308 bullet at 2550 fps with the cen- 30 foot/pounds. The rifle, in accordance
ter of gravity displaced 0.001" creates a with Newton's law, moves in the opposite
centrifugal force at the muzzle of 26 direction. When the firing pin starts for-
foot/pounds. This magnitude of dis- ward, the rifle starts backward and up-
placement can be caused by the bullet ward. The upward motion is an angle of
jacket being thicker on one side than the moment caused by the location of the
other. It can be caused by some fouling, stock below the line of force of the recoil.
or an imperfection in the barrel "denting"
one side of the bullet. The rifle accelerates to the rear as the
bullet accelerates down the barrel. Fortu-
Regardless, the result is more lead on nately, the acceleration is applied only for
one side of the longitudinal axis than on milliseconds. If the period of acceleration
the other, shifting the center of gravity to lasted half a second, the rifle would be
the "heavier" side. When the bullet exits traveling rearward at a velocity in excess
the muzzle, the centrifugal force creates of 100 miles per hour. The bullet attains
a sideways "hop" as the bullet, freed its high velocity in its equally short time
from the constraints of the barrel, rotates of acceleration because it has a much
around its center of gravity. Instead of smaller mass and less inertia than the ri-
spinning true about the longitudinal fle.
axis, point first through the air, the bullet
will follow a spiraling course about the Recoil effects are produced by the
"true" line of flight and its trajectory will rearward velocity of the rifle and the re-
vary tangent to the spiral. A center of coil energy that results. It is controlled by
gravity displacement of 0.0005" in a .308 a combination of three factors.
match bullet can increase group size ap-
proximately one MOA. This is called Stock design affects the apparent ef-
"radial" error. Axial and radial errors fects of recoil upon the shooter although it
tend to supplement each other. does not change actual recoil energy at all
since energy is a function of velocity and
Mechanical distortions are another mass. However, if a stock design permits
source of error. No centered bullets, non- the point of contact in the shoulder to be
concentric ammunition, imperfect throat, closer to the line of bore, the upward
or flawed rifling are mechanical distor- moment will be reduced. When there is
tions. They misalign the bullet with the less upward moment, the recoil "seems"
centerline of the bore, or displace the less to the shooter, and the rifle is easier to
center of gravity by distorting the integ- control.
20
Increasing the cross sectional area of The third means of resolving recoil is
the butt will reduce apparent recoil. The the shooters position and manner of grip-
actual recoil energy remains the same, ping the rifle. Holding the rifle with a
but spreading it out over a larger butt firm, strong grip and keeping it tightly
area makes it "seem" less. against the shoulder will reduce felt re-
coil. It will also better insure the recoil is
Since energy is a function of mass
engaged the same way shot after shot,
and velocity, it can be increased or re-
which is conducive to more uniform bar-
duced by altering either variable. De-
rel whip and accuracy. A loose grip, or
creasing recoil velocity decreases recoil
relaxed position, allows the rifle to recoil
energy. That can only be accomplished
differently from shot to shot. It also in-
by decreasing the bullet's velocity, since
creases the apparent recoil effects.
the rifle is merely reacting to the forces
accelerating the bullet. Lower velocity If the weapon is firmly shouldered
ammunition is not particularly desirable and gripped, some of the shooters mass is
for the Observer/Sniper. It limits range, added to that of the rifle and the resultant
decreases penetration and killing power, recoil velocity is less. If held 0.25" away
and increases drop and wind drift. from the shoulder and fired, the recoil
would be much worse because the rifle by
Increasing the mass of the rifle will
itself will reach a higher recoil velocity.
decrease recoil. The increased mass has
Accuracy will suffer greatly, as will the
increased inertia, which takes longer for
shooter's shoulder.
the acceleration force to overcome. Since
acceleration continues to be limited in A final factor critical to the accuracy
duration, the result is lower recoil veloc- and life of the rifle is proper cleaning.
ity and energy. The limitation then be- This is totally within the control of the
comes one of size and portability. shooter. Improper or inadequate cleaning
will destroy accuracy and limit barrel life
Generally, a total weight (rifle and
to 25-50% of its potential.
scope) between eleven and fourteen
pounds will be sufficient to dampen re- With each shot fired, powder residue
coil to controllable levels, yet not be too and bullet fouling is blown into the sur-
heavy or bulky for field use. Some ex- face of the bore under extreme heat and
amples are listed below. pressure. The result is that the bore is
gradually made smaller and uneven. The
Recoil Examples pressure curve is altered, the bullet is de-
Rifle Wt Bullet Wt Velocity Recoil formed, barrel whip is randomly altered,
Caliber (lbs) (gr) (fps) (ft/lbs)
and the bore is damaged in the process.
.223 6.5 55 3200 4.1 Thorough cleaning is the only solution,
.308 11.75 168 2600 11.009 and it must be done religiously.
7mm Mag 11.5 168 3000 18.183
As a rule of thumb, one complete pass
300 Mag 11.5 180 3000 21.858
(in and out) should be made through the
bore with a brass brush and solvent for
21
every shot fired, but never less than 20 gravity pulls the bullet down while drag
complete passes. Even better would be to simultaneously slows the bullet.
then leave the bore wet with solvent for
24 hours and repeat the process before Gravity is a constant acceleration of
wiping it dry. the bullet downwards at the rate of 32 feet
per second, per second. A simplified ex-
The bore should be left dry, not oiled, ample is that after one second, a falling
unless the rifle is to be stored for a pe- object has a velocity of 32 fps. After two
riod of months. The bore is sufficiently seconds, its velocity is 64 fps, and so on. It
work hardened by the passage of the acts independently of the bullet's weight,
bullets that it will not rust in normal us- shape or velocity. The instant a bullet ex-
age and climatic conditions. If it is oiled, its the muzzle, gravity accelerates it down
it must be wiped completely dry before at the constant rate of 32 fps/ps.
firing or else the first shot or two will not
be on zero. Theoretically, if a bullet were dropped
from beside the muzzle at the exact in-
5. External Ballistics stant an identical bullet was shot from the
muzzle, they would both hit the ground
External ballistics is the science of the
at the same time, albeit widely spread
bullet in flight. It involves everything
apart. This is true in a vacuum. In actual-
that occurs from the instant the bullet
ity, the fired bullet lands slightly after the
leaves the muzzle until it impacts its tar-
dropped bullet because it generates some
get. An understanding of the factors and
lift as it flies through the air. The lift coun-
effects of external ballistics is imperative.
teracts gravity to a small degree.
Sound marksmanship, experience, and a
solid understanding of those factors and The longer the time of flight, the faster
effects will enable the Observer/Sniper the bullet's falling velocity becomes, until
to compensate and hit the intended tar- it reaches a terminal velocity on the order
get. of 250 fps. "Terminal velocity" is that ve-
locity at which drag has increased to the
Two forces influence the bullet in
point gravitational acceleration is coun-
flight. One is gravity, which is constant.
teracted. Bullets do not have a time of
The other is air resistance; more com-
flight long enough to reach terminal ve-
monly called "drag". Of the two, gravity
locity as they drop. A typical .308 round
has the least effect. If a .30/06 bullet
takes approximately one tenth of a second
were fired in a gravity free atmosphere,
to travel two hundred yards.
it would travel slightly less than two
miles and stop in midair. Drag works in opposition to the direc-
tion of velocity. Although all objects fall at
That same bullet, fired in a vacuum
the same rate regardless of shape, size, or
but with gravity present, would travel
weight, they do not all reach the same
about 43 miles and strike the earth at the
terminal velocity because drag varies with
same velocity it left the muzzle. In the
shape, weight, and surface area. Thus a
world of reality where both forces exist,
feather and a rock do not hit the ground
22
at the same time when dropped simulta- point closer or farther away. The actual
neously, although they would if dropped dimensions involved are very small, yet
in a vacuum. their effects are monumental. For exam-
ple, to be zeroed at 1000 yards, the angle
Gravity gives the bullet's line of of departure for a typical .308 match bul-
flight, called the "trajectory", its curving let will be on the order of 3 degrees. This
shape. The trajectory of a bullet is a also accentuates the large effects of the
"parabolic curve", which is defined as a small errors discussed in the section
constantly increasing curve. The slope of above on Internal Ballistics.
the curve becomes steeper as range in-
creases. The distance a bullet is below Velocity is the only factor that influ-
the line of bore is called "drop". Since the ences the perceived effects of gravity, and
trajectory is a parabolic curve, the drop then only relative to a specific range.
increases with range. For example, at the Gravity acts on the bullet only for the du-
muzzle drop is zero. At 100 yards, the ration of its horizontal flight vector. The
drop of a typical .308 flat base bullet is faster a bullet arrives at the target, the less
2.56 inches. At 200 yards, the drop is time gravity has to pull it down. The re-
11.09 inches, and at 1000 yards it is sult is less drop and a flatter trajectory. As
478.28 inches. an example, if a bullet takes one second to
reach its target it will drop 32 feet. A
In order to hit a target, the line of faster bullet reaching the same target in
bore, as represented by the barrel, must one half second will drop 16 feet. The
be angled up relative to the horizontal. faster bullet will require less sight ad-
This angle is called the "angle of depar- justment, and will travel closer to the line
ture". The result is that the bullet crosses of sight between the muzzle and the tar-
the shooter's line of sight twice. get.
The second force that influences the
Line of sight is a straight line through bullet’s flight is drag. Drag resists veloc-
the sights to the target, and is above the ity, increasing exponentially as velocity
barrel. The bullet crosses it once close to increases. The higher the velocity, the
the muzzle on the way up, and again at greater the drag and the greater the rate at
some point down range on the way which velocity is lost.
down. With scoped rifles the line of sight
is typically 1.5 inches above the muzzle, As an example, a 180 grain .308 flat
and the bullet first crosses it at a range base bullet with a muzzle velocity of 2100
between 22 and 25 yards. fps will have a retained velocity at 1000
yards of 1045 fps - a loss of about 50 per-
The second intersection with the line cent. That same bullet with a muzzle ve-
of sight is the zero point of the rifle. The locity of 3200 fps will have a retained
zero point is altered by raising or lower- velocity at 1000 yards of 1433 fps - a loss
ing one of the sights until it coincides of 55 percent. The faster bullet has a
with the desired zero for the weapon. higher rate of velocity loss. It has a greater
Raising or lowering the sight changes the retained velocity because it had a greater
angle of departure, moving the zero initial velocity. This illustrates the in-
23
crease of drag with an increase of veloc- resent a bullet that did not lose any veloc-
ity. It also affects the trajectory since the ity to drag, an impossibility.
time of flight increases as the velocity
decays, thereby giving gravity more time According to the Sierra Bullet Manu-
to act upon the bullet. facturing Company, their 180 grain .308
round nosed bullet has a ballistic coeffi-
Drag represents energy given up by cient of 0.250. The Sierra 180 grain .308
the bullet pushing the air aside as it flies. hollow point boat tail match bullet has a
The air is compressed by the nose of the ballistic coefficient of 0.538. As would be
bullet and forced out of the way. As the expected, the hollow point boat tail bullet
air stream moves down the sides of the is far more aerodynamically efficient than
bullet, friction with the sides causes tur- its round nosed counterpart. To illustrate
bulence. The turbulence "drags" against this, assume each bullet is started with a
the bullet, another component of the re- muzzle velocity of 2600 fps. At 500 yards,
tarding effect of drag. As the air spills off the round nosed bullet has a retained ve-
the rear of the bullet, more turbulence is locity of 1296 fps - a loss of 50 percent.
created along with a partial vacuum at The boat tail bullet has a retained velocity
the base, both of which act to further of 1853 fps - a loss of 29 percent. The
slow the bullet. Bullet shape and design higher velocity of the boat tail bullet
are the important factors relative to drag. translates into a flatter trajectory and de-
creased wind deflection. It also means
Bullets are designed for various pur- more energy delivered on target. These
poses. A particular purpose may not be are all vital considerations for the Ob-
conducive to an aerodynamically effi- server/Sniper selecting a bullet for use.
cient design. For example, ammunition
intended for use in tubular magazines is .308
loaded with flat nosed or round nosed
180gr
bullets to prevent accidental discharges Bullet B.C. MV 100 200 300 500
in the magazine when recoil bangs the
nose of the bullet against the primer of RN .250 2600 2271 1967 1702 1296
the round ahead of it. Flat nosed or Bullet Path: -1.5 2.64 0.0 -11.66 -74.96
round nosed designs are not aerody-
HPBT .538 2600 2439 2284 2134 1853
namically efficient. A sharp pointed bul-
let would be far more efficient relative to Bullet Path: -1.5 2.17 0.0 -8.82 -50.48
drag, but not at all useful in a tubular
magazine. Ballistic coefficient is independent of
bullet weight and caliber in its effect, al-
The aerodynamic efficiency of a bul- though increasing weight in a specific
let is expressed as "ballistic coefficient". caliber will increase ballistic coefficient.
Ballistic coefficient is a three-digit num- The ballistic coefficient for a 150-grain
ber less than one, which denotes the bul- round nosed .308 is 0.213, and for a 180
lets ability to overcome drag. The higher grain round nosed .308 it is 0.267. If two
the number, the more efficient the bullet. bullets have the same ballistic coefficient,
A ballistic coefficient of 1.000 would rep- and the same muzzle velocity, they will
24
have identical trajectories regardless of and less of a vacuum. That equates to less
their caliber, shape, or weight. Sierra’s drag. A small hollow point will reduce
.224 caliber 45 grain spitzer with a ballis- the compaction of air at the nose and the
tic coefficient of 0.213 and the above resultant turbulence. It acts like a small
cited 150 grain .308 round nosed bullet cookie cutter against the denser, com-
will have the exact same trajectories, pacted air. The shock waves that are
given the same muzzle velocity. caused by the bullet's passage are more
streamlined. In actuality, the improve-
Small differences in ballistic coeffi- ment in aerodynamic performance is not
cient have relatively insignificant effect, significantly greater than that of equal
especially at ranges under 500 yards. For quality flat base bullets except at extreme
example, if the .308 caliber Sierra 168 range, but it is better. Lastly, boat tail bul-
grain HPBT (ballistic coefficient 0.475) lets are less damaging to the barrel of a
and the .375 caliber Sierra 300 grain soft rifle.
point boat tail (ballistic coefficient 0.493)
are both started at 2600 fps, they will Frankford Arsenal ran an extensive
have essentially the same trajectory out test of the effects of bullet design on bar-
to 500 yards. rel life. Their tests determined that using
flat base bullets improved the accuracy of
Comparison of Similar Coefficients a barrel for the first 2000 rounds. The ac-
300gr .375 SPBT v. 168gr .308 HPBT curacy leveled off up to about 5000
rounds. After 5000 rounds accuracy fell
Muzzle Velocity: 2600 fps
off as the barrel deteriorated. With boat
Bullet BC 100 200 300 500 1000
tail bullets, accuracy improved dramati-
300sp .493 2449 2304 2163 1897 1329 cally the first 300-500 rounds. It continued
Bullet Path: 2.14 0.0 -8.67 -49.28 -349.6
to improve up through 3000 rounds.
Through 8000 rounds accuracy showed
168hp .475 2417 2241 2073 1758 1145 minor but continuing improvement before
Bullet Path: 2.22 0.0 -9.13 -53.06 -407.1 leveling off. The barrels did not begin to
deteriorate until about 10,000 rounds
Bullets suitable for the Observer/ were fired. The exclusive use of boat tail
Sniper are of two basic designs. One is bullets coupled with proper cleaning can
the traditional flat base design, the other double the effective life of the barrel.
the boat tail design. Of the two, the boat
Once the trajectory is understood, the
tail is far superior. As discussed in the
rifle can be fired accurately. Knowing the
section on Internal Ballistics above, a
trajectory allows the shooter to know ei-
boat tail bullet has a more uniform base
ther where to aim or how to adjust the
than a flat base design.
sights in order to hit a precise target. For
Secondly, boat tail bullets are more example, the FBI uses .308 ammunition
aerodynamically efficient. They create loaded with Sierra 168 grain hollow point
less drag in their flight. The air stream boat tail (HPBT) bullets to a muzzle veloc-
spills off the tapered rear of the bullet ity of 2650 fps at standard tempera-
more smoothly, creating less turbulence ture/pressure. (Standard temperature and
25
pressure is 59 degrees Fahrenheit at sea 10-20%. On the other hand, currently

level, or 29.92 inches of mercury). The available laser range finders are ex-
bullet has a ballistic coefficient of 0.475. tremely accurate, to plus or minus one
Specifying the temperature and air pres- half of one percent, and are small, conven-
sure is important because the velocity ient, and expensive.
and trajectory will vary. Most published
ballistic tables and trajectory data are Actually measuring distances is a
listed for standard tempera- practical preparatory step to take in loca-
ture/pressure. tions where Observer/Sniper utilization
can be anticipated, such as airports and
When zeroed at 200 yards, the bullet around government buildings. Another
is never more than 2.1" above the line of preparatory step is to measure the dis-
sight from the muzzle to the zero range. tance of various common dimensions,
The zero range is where the point of aim such as the spacing of electric poles, the
and the point of impact coincide - 200 length of street blocks, the width of
yards in this example. At 250 yards, the streets, etc. Knowing these common di-
bullet is 3.5" low. At 300 yards, it is 8.8" mensions allows the Observer/Sniper to
low. The Observer/Sniper will know estimate range by comparing the location
that with this zero, he must aim 3.5" high of the target with known common dimen-
to hit his point of aim at 250 yards, and sions in between the Observer/Sniper and
almost nine inches high to hit at 300 the target. Many locations are accurately
yards. mapped, and these maps can provide de-
tailed range data for the Observer/Sniper.
Knowing the trajectory of the bullet is Again, airports are a prime example.
half the problem facing the Ob-
server/Sniper. The range must also be Estimation by eye is a matter of ex-
known, or accurately estimated, for pre- perience, practice, and learning the ap-
cise shooting. There are a number of pearance of common objects at various
methods for estimating range. An ex- ranges. Estimation by eye can be severely
perienced Observer/Sniper will use a influenced by the nature of the terrain, the
combination of them. light and atmospheric conditions, and the
amount of the target visible.
These methods are: actual distance
measurements using range measuring Looking across a hidden depression,
devices, maps, blueprints, estimation by downward from high ground or along a
eye, comparison with known dimen- straight open road will make objects ap-
sions, and the use of the scope reticle. pear closer than they are. Looking across
The reticle of the scope can be an excel- a visible depression, looking upward
lent range finding device, about which from low ground or when the field of vi-
more is discussed below. (See pages 41- sion is narrowly confined as in forest
42). Most commercially available range trails or crooked streets will make objects
finders sold for sporting use have too appear farther than they are. Objects will
great a margin of error to be effective. appear closer when clearly seen and out-
The readings can be off by plus or minus lined, or when seen over uniform surfaces
26
like snow or water, or when the sun is Using the same example, if the Sierra
behind the observer. They will seem far- 168 grain HPBT were zeroed at 100 yards,
ther away when obscured or small in re- it would be over 4 inches low at 200
lation to the surroundings, when they yards, and over 15 inches low at 300. The
blend into the background, when seen in point blank range is about 160 yards. Any
poor light such as dusk or dawn, when target farther away will require the
seen in the rain, snow or fog, or when shooter to estimate hold over, or adjust
the sun is in the observer's eyes. Estima- the sights. In either case, it needlessly
tion by eye should never be used as the complicates the problem for the Ob-
sole means of estimating range except as server/Sniper and limits his effective
a last resort. range.
Proper zeroing of the rifle can sim- Although gravity and drag are the
plify the range estimation problem only forces that act on the trajectory, there
greatly. Refer again to the example cited are other external factors that influence
above using the Sierra 168 grain HPBT the trajectory relative to the point of aim.
zeroed at 200 yards. Since the bullet is These factors are wind, altitude, tempera-
never more than 2.1" from the line of ture, humidity, and barometric pressure.
sight to about 225 yards, in practice the Wind is by far the most significant.
Observer/Sniper can take headshots out
to 225 yards merely by holding center. Wind is nothing more than air in mo-
This virtually eliminates the problem of tion. Since the bullet is moving in the air,
range estimation at practical law en- as the air moves so does the bullet. If the
forcement ranges. In effect, the Ob- wind is blowing at right angles to the bul-
server/Sniper with a 200 yard zero has a let's line of flight, the deflection will be
"point blank" range of approximately 225 the greatest. Wind deflection is always in
yards. the same direction as the wind. A wind
blowing from the left will move the bullet
Point blank range is that distance to the right. Deflection decreases as the
within which the shooter need not esti- angle of the wind to the line of flight de-
mate range. The bullet is close enough to creases. When the wind is parallel to the
the line of sight that the shooter for all line of flight (either a head wind or a tail
practical purposes can consider the point wind) horizontal deflection is zero. Some
of aim and the point of impact to coin- vertical deflection will occur with a head
cide. Beyond the point blank range, the wind or tail wind, but it is noticeable only
Observer/Sniper must either aim above at ranges in excess of 600 yards. This ver-
the desired target or adjust the sights on tical deflection is caused by the bullet ve-
the rifle to raise the point of impact. locity being augmented by the tail wind
Hold off or sight adjustments are the velocity or diminished by the head wind
only options for targets beyond the point velocity.
blank range. They require accurate range
estimation, thorough knowledge of the The amount of deflection caused by
trajectory, and experience. That is why a the wind is determined by the direction of
100 yard zero is not recommended. the wind, its velocity, and the range to the
27
target. The greater the range, the longer flection for the range at which he is shoot-
the wind will have to move the bullet. ing. If it is a full value wind, the shooter
And the faster the wind blows, the faster must correct for the full value deflection.
it will move the bullet. If the direction of the wind is quartering
to the trajectory, the shooter corrects for
Wind deflection is not a constant half of the full value. The correction is
curve. Just like the trajectory, the wind made by either "holding off", which
deflection curve is parabolic, i.e., con- means aiming into the wind a distance
stantly increasing. Therefore, the deflec- equal to the deflection, or by adjusting the
tion at 400 yards will be more than twice sights an amount equal to the deflection
the deflection at 200 yards. value.
For example, the Sierra 168 grain Wind velocity can be measured by a
HPBT cited above will have a deflection wind meter or estimated by observing its
of three inches at 200 yards in a 10 MPH effects. On a range, estimate the angle of
wind at right angles to the line of flight. the range flag from the flagpole and then
At 400 yards, the bullet will be deflected divide the angle by four. The result is a
over 13 inches. At 1000 yards, an unde- rough approximation of the wind veloc-
tected change in the wind velocity of one ity. The following table lists some com-
MPH by itself can move the bullet more mon effects of various wind velocities,
than 7 inches. which can be used for estimation.
Although wind deflection varies with

Wind Effects Table
the angle of the wind to the line of flight,
Under 3 MPH: Barely felt; drifts smoke
the difference between related angles is
small. Since the greatest deflection oc- 3 to 5 MPH: Lightly felt on the face
curs with right angle winds, these deflec- 5 to 8 MPH: Tree leaves in constant motion
tions must be learned. Winds are 8 to 12 MPH: Raises dust and loose paper
classified according to the direction from 12 to 15 MPH: Causes small trees to sway
which they are blowing. Right angle
winds are called "full value" winds,
Because of obstructions and terrain
which means the full value of the deflec-
features such as buildings, tree lines, hills
tion will apply. Winds at less than right
or valleys, the wind can be blowing from
angles to the trajectory are called "half
several different directions between the
value" winds.
shooter and the target. The differences can
In practical use, the Observer/Sniper be extreme. At the shooter's position there
need only take half the full value for that could be a full value wind from the left
wind velocity. Headwinds and tailwinds while a half value wind from the right is
cause no significant deflection and are blowing at the target. Since the wind de-
called "zero value" winds. flection is minimal close to the shooter,
and maximal at the target, it is necessary
To shoot accurately in wind, the Ob- to determine the wind direction and ve-
server/Sniper must know wind velocity, locity at a point in between which will
wind direction, and the "full value" de-
28
best average out the effects. This is called degree weather, it will shoot high. Point
"reading" the wind. of impact will follow the temperature. A
rule of thumb is to expect to have to make
As a rule, read the wind at a point be- a sight change for every 10 to 15 degree
tween two thirds and three quarters of change in temperature. The amount of the
the way to the target. Estimate the direc- change will vary with the rifle, ammuni-
tion and velocity at that point, and apply tion and shooter. It can only be deter-
correction accordingly. Although various mined by frequent practice in varied
ballistics tables give wind deflection val- temperatures and accurate record keeping
ues, as do the ballistics tables at the end of the results.
of this manual, and there are various
wind charts available which also give Altitude affects the trajectory because
wind deflections for a range of velocities of the decreased air density with eleva-
and directions, there is no substitute for tion. The higher the elevation, the less
practice and experience. dense the air. As air density decreases,
drag decreases. The result is a flatter tra-
The tables and charts are approxima- jectory and higher retained velocity over
tions at best. Several are included in the any given range. The point of impact rela-
appendices of this manual. In order to tive to the point of aim will rise with alti-
learn how to read wind and shoot well tude. Sight corrections should be
in wind, the Observer/Sniper must prac- necessary for approximately every thou-
tice in windy conditions and keep accu- sand feet of change in altitude.
rate records of the effects on him and his
shooting. Barometric pressure is a measure of air
density. Changes in barometric pressure
Temperature will affect both the are no different than changes in altitude.
muzzle velocity of the bullet and its tra- It is measured in inches of mercury. Stan-
jectory. Ammunition will assume the dard sea level air pressure is 29.92 inches
ambient temperature of the environment. of mercury. As air density decreases, the
The hotter it is, the higher the pressure barometric pressure decreases. The stan-
created by the combustion of the powder dard barometric pressure at 1000 feet alti-
and the faster the muzzle velocity. A 30- tude is 28.92 inches of mercury. One inch
degree increase in ambient temperature of mercury is equivalent to one thousand
will increase muzzle velocity by about 50 feet of altitude, up or down.
fps. Ammunition should not be left in
direct sunlight. It will absorb heat and For example, if a rifle is zeroed on a
grow considerably hotter than the sur- day when the barometric reading is 30.15
rounding atmosphere. Dangerous pres- inches then fired when the barometer has
sures can result. fallen to 28.15, the effect will be as if the
shooter had moved to an altitude 2000
Temperature changes can also affect feet higher. The point of impact of the
the point of impact of the bullet relative bullet relative to the point of aim will
to the point of aim. If a rifle is zeroed in move in a direction opposite to the ba-
50-degree weather, then shot in 90- rometer. As with altitude, barometric
29
changes less than one inch of mercury fore flags moving in one direction can
are relatively inconsequential. stop and move in a different direction. In
long range shooting this can be critical be-
Humidity has a small effect on the cause a wind change taking effect be-
flight of the bullet relative to the line of tween pulling the trigger and the bullet
sight, but it is sufficiently small to be of hitting the target can deflect the bullet
little significance. As relative humidity sufficiently to cause a miss.
increases, the density of the air increases
which adds drag. Unless going from one A large number of shooters maintain
extreme of humidity to another, the ef- that mirage also optically affects the
fects can be generally ignored. They are shooter by displacing the target image in
apparent only at extreme ranges. the direction of the mirage flow. Common
sense and simple physics show this view
Mirage is a poorly understood factor to be wrong.
that has limited effect upon the shooter.
Mirage is nothing more than the sight of The speed of light varies with the den-
heat waves in the air, most noticeably in sity of the medium through which it is
sunny conditions. As the sun warms the passing. In a vacuum, light travels at
ground, heat is radiated back into the air. 186,270 miles per second (MPS). In air it
The warmer air, being less dense, rises. travels about 186,000 MPS, and in water
The heat waves are seen as a shimmering about 140,000 MPS. A comparison of the
ripple in the air, and are especially evi- speed of light with the speed of air
dent through the magnified view of a movement caused by wind (represented
scope. by mirage) leads to the inescapable con-
clusion that even if it were possible to
Mirage is a good indicator of wind move or bend light rays by air movement,
velocity and direction. The direction of the effects would be infinitesimally small.
the ripples indicate wind direction while
the amount of ripples vary with wind The refraction (bending) of light rays
velocity. At a velocity of about 12 MPH, is the result of their passing from a me-
the ripple effect disappears and the ap- dium of one density through a medium of
pearance is that of a stream. Velocities in different density at an angle. Refraction
excess of 15 MPH or so will dissipate mi- results from the change in the speed of
rage. Ripples straight up indicate a head light due to differing densities. An exam-
or tail wind, or no wind at all, for example is the apparent displacement of an ob-
ple. This particular mirage is called a ject seen at an angle under water.
"boil".
Mirage is caused by the release of heat
The most valuable use of mirage is as from the earth and other solid objects into
an indicator of changes in wind direction the ambient air. The rate of heat transfer
or velocity. Since mirage is literally noth- and absorption varies with the heated sur-
ing, it will reflect a wind change before face, the shape of the surface, the compo-
more physical effects materialize, i.e., sition of the surface, the moisture content
before leaves can stop fluttering, or be- in the vicinity of the surface, and the vari-
30
ety of air conditions about the various heat transfer and absorption over the
surfaces. Consequently, there are an infi- range in such conditions. At law enforce-
nite variety of heat transfer and absorp- ment ranges, mirage can be safely ignored
tion rates over the course of any specific except as an indicator of wind changes.
range with an equal variety of air densi-
ties resulting. Further, all of these small A final external factor affecting the tra-
air masses are constantly changing in jectory relative to the point of aim is the
size, shape, density, and movement. question of shooting uphill or down. The
Light will be refracted when it passes fact is that regardless of whether the
from one density through another. shooter is aiming up or down, the shot
will always strike high relative to the tra-
Mirage is thus better described as jectory, as it would have been on the hori-
eddies, or turbulence, in an infinite zontal. This means that if the
number of small air masses of differing Observer/Sniper is firing on an angle up
densities. The light from the target to the or down at a slanted range of 100 yards,
shooter is refracted and the target ap- the point of impact will be higher than it
pears to shimmer, waver, and change would be for a level shot of 100 yards.
shape because all the intervening air How high depends on the angle.
masses are constantly changing in size,
density, shape, and their relation to each The reason is that gravity acts on a
other. bullet only during the horizontal compo-
nent of its flight. The horizontal compo-
There cannot be any displacement of nent is the horizontal distance from the
the target any constant amount or con- shooter to the target measured as if they
stant direction, even for periods of time were both at the same level. Since the
as short as fractions of a second under horizontal component will always be less
conditions existing on most rifle ranges. than the slanted range, gravity will not
The best example of the actual, and neg- pull the bullet down as far as it would if
ligible, effects of mirage is the fact that the slanted range were level. The shot is
even in precision surveying mirage is thus high relative to the point of aim.
ignored because the refraction of light in
the line of sight is constantly changing A simple example is a shooter firing
and cannot be "averaged out". up or down on a 45-degree angle at a tar-
get 200 yards away from him on the slant.
Mirage is noticed for the distortion The horizontal component is 140 yards
produced in the outlines of any object since a right triangle with a hypotenuse of
viewed through it, leading to apparent 200 yards will have two equal legs of 140
alterations in shape and size of the ob- yards each. Gravity acts on the bullet for a
ject, but not in its average position. There distance of 140 yards, not 200 yards. The
can be a displacement in situations in- result is that although the slanted range is
volving considerable elevation differ- 200 yards, the trajectory is that which
ences between shooter and target, or would apply to 140 yards. If the rifle were
over water or swampy areas, because zeroed at 200 yards level range, the shot
there is possible widespread, consistent will strike high because at 140 yards the
31
bullet is about 1.5 inches above the line wind deflection based on the slanted
of sight. range.
The rise in the point of impact is al- 6. Terminal Ballistics

ways relative to the point of aim. Using
the same example, if the rifle were ze- "Terminal ballistics" is the science of
roed at 100 yards on the horizontal, it the bullet's motion and action from the
would be 4.2 inches low at a level range instant of initial impact with the target
of 200 yards. When fired at a slanted until it stops. It is more properly termed
range of 200 yards, it will be only 2.7 "wound ballistics" when dealing with the
inches low (- 4.2 inches + 1.5 inches). The human target. Wound ballistics includes
change in impact is relative to the point the motion of the bullet through the hu-
of aim, and is always high. man body, its interaction with living tis-
sue, and the effects which gunshot
A simple method for knowing how wounds have on people.
high the bullet will strike when firing on
an angle is to estimate the horizontal dis- Law enforcement Observer/Snipers
tance to the target. Shoot at the target as shoot for one reason, and one reason only
if it were on the same level and the range - to save someone's life or prevent serious
was equal to the horizontal distance. A physical injury. The shot must immedi-
hypothetical and overly simplified illus- ately incapacitate the subject. "Immediate
tration is to imagine shooting from the incapacitation" is the sudden physical or
top of the Empire State Building at a tar- mental inability to initiate or complete
get on the ground across the street. The any physical act. Immediate incapacita-
Empire State Building is 1200 feet tall, so tion requires very precise shooting on the
the slanted range is 400 yards. The street part of the Observer/Sniper.
is 25 yards across. The horizontal dis-
tance from the shooter to the target is The only reliable way to force imme-
therefore 25 yards. The shooter should diate incapacitation on a human target is
aim at the target as if it were 25 yards to destroy the central nervous system by
directly in front of him. hitting either the brain or the spinal col-
umn. All bodily functions and voluntary
A complicating factor in shooting up actions cease when the brain is destroyed.
or down is that the wind will affect the If the spinal column is broken, then all
shot over the entire slanted range. Using functions cease below the break. However,
the Empire State Building example the spinal column is a small, difficult
again, although the shooter should aim target to hit with reliability. Additionally,
at the target as though it were 25 yards muscular functions still exist above the
away, he must correct for wind deflec- break. For example, the arms can still be
tion as if it were a 400-yard shot. The used if the break occurs below the
field expedient method for shooting up- shoulders. A violent subject could still kill
hill or downhill is to hold elevation or injure those about him in such a case.
based on the horizontal range; correct for
A hit anywhere else in the human
body is not certain to force immediate in-
32
capacitation. Even if the heart is com- As with most sudden, severe wounds,
pletely destroyed, there is sufficient oxy- the onset of pain is delayed until some
gen in the brain to support full, time after the injury has occurred. With-
unaffected, voluntary actions for a pe- out pain, there is no awareness of injury
riod of 10-15 seconds. During that time a and there may be no reaction. The indi-
subject can run, fight, or otherwise react, vidual can be devoid of any stimulants,
as he will. It is common on the battlefield narcotics or alcohol, and simply not react
as well as the street to see people with to the shot for an indeterminate period of
grievous, unsurvivable wounds continue time because he is simply unaware an in-
to fight and function for a period of time jury has occurred.
after receiving the wounds.
Psychologically, the individual may
Barring a central nervous system hit, have a strong will to survive that compels
incapacitation is forced upon the unwill- him to continue to fight or flee. Rage or a
ing human target only when hemorrhag- commitment to fight to the death can de-
ing is sufficient to drop blood pressure to lay or prevent incapacitation. There are
zero, and/or deprive the brain of oxy- people who are simply not afraid of pain
gen. That takes time. Although incapaci- or the possibility of dying. Sheer will
tation can occur with a hit other than in power, strong emotion, or a lack of fear
the central nervous system, it is a strictly will all work to keep a subject fighting
fortuitous event. It is not reliable, and it despite severe wounds, or perhaps be-
is not reproducible from one case to the cause of those wounds.
next. The human target is a complex one,
and there are many factors that affect the Physically, a bullet simply is not capa-
likelihood of incapacitation. ble of knocking a man down. The ratio of
bullet mass to target mass is too extreme.
Physiologically, the subject may be This is simple physics. If a bullet had the
under the influence of narcotics, alcohol, energy to knock a man down, there
or just pure adrenalin. Many narcotics would be equal energy exerted back at the
are disassociative in effect. The individ- shooter. The sudden, violent physical re-
ual under the influence of a disassocia- actions to being shot seen in some cases
tive drug such as cocaine, PCP, or are caused by spasmodic muscular con-
heroin, "exists" outside of the body. They tractions, not by the impact of the bullet.
do not experience trauma inflicted on the A change of position can only be forced if
body. They can "see" it and may be the bullet strikes and destroys a load
aware of it, but as an outside observer. bearing structure such as a hip joint or
Adrenalin, a natural stimulant produced knee.
in the body in times of stress, can also
prevent awareness of injury. The indi- These factors can be present singly or
vidual can remain totally unaware of in various combinations. Incapacitation
even a grievous and fatal wound until he may occur, or it may not. In many cases,
eventually collapses from loss of blood, incapacitation occurs regardless of the
often to his great surprise. bullet used or its placement. The reason is
largely psychological. The individual
33
knows he has been shot and he falls This is well within the elasticity limits of
down, perhaps because he believes he is such tissues.
supposed to do so or because he simply
quits. It happens with superficial Two secondary events can occur, ei-
wounds as well as severe ones. Unfortu- ther of which will dramatically increase
nately, the only way to determine the wounding effect of a bullet. The first
whether or not any particular individual is "fragmentation" which occurs if the bul-
will be incapacitated by a gunshot let breaks up. When fragmentation hap-
wound other than through the brain is to pens, the bullet jacket and lead core break
shoot them and see. Given the role of the up into small, jagged, sharp edged pieces,
Observer/Sniper and the purpose of his which are propelled outward radially
shooting, this is unacceptable. with the temporary cavity. The fragments
sever tissue that is already stretched and
A bullet has two primary wounding somewhat weakened by the temporary
effects in flesh. The first, called the cavity. The result is large, seemingly "ex-
"crush" factor, is the destruction of tissue plosive", wounds that are characterized
in the path of the bullet. Tissue is by damage beyond the permanent cavity.
crushed and disintegrated ahead of the Bone fragments caused by the bullet's
bullet as deeply as the bullet penetrates; passage can cause the same effect.
leaving a hole that is called the "perma-
nent cavity". The second, or "stretch" fac- It must be stressed that if there is no
tor, is the temporary cavity that is caused fragmentation, remote damage due to
by tissue around the permanent cavity temporary cavitation is minor, even with
being propelled radially outward from high velocity rifle projectiles. The Sierra
the path of the bullet. The tissue stretches 168 grain HPBT used by the FBI frag-
away from the bullet's path forming a ments reliably. It causes devastating
cavity that is approximately 10-12 times wounds, which are almost explosive in
the bullet diameter, and then collapses to nature due to the extreme fragmentation
its original configuration. The duration of the bullet.
of the temporary cavity is so short that
damage is minimal except in very fragile The second event is bullet tumbling.
brain tissue or inelastic tissue such as When a bullet tumbles in flesh it turns
liver. over and travels base first. In the process
of tumbling, the bullet is traveling side-
Any effects due to temporary cavity ways through the tissue at one point. This
are too short lived to be recognizable by causes a significantly more severe perma-
the brain. Tissues such as muscle, blood nent cavity during that portion of the bul-
vessels and lungs are very elastic and let's passage when it is sideways to its
will be stretched by the temporary cavity track. Tumbling can also cause the bullet
with little or no damage. The outward to change direction erratically within the
velocity of the tissues in which the tem- body.
porary cavity forms is no more than one
tenth of the velocity of the projectile. It is not widely understood that all
bullets tumble in flesh, assuming the bul-
34
let is not significantly deformed by frag- such as bone, glass, or clothing terminally.
menting or expanding. As previously
discussed, a bullet is not form stable. The Secondly, as a bullet deforms or frag-
spin imparted by the rifling (150,000- ments within a target, it loses mass. A
220,000 RPM) is necessary to stabilize the light bullet has little mass to lose before
bullet in air. In the far denser medium of becoming extremely susceptible to ex-
flesh, the bullet simply cannot be spun treme deflections as well as decreased
fast enough to be stabilized. The result is penetration. A 50% loss of mass (which is
that the bullet tumbles in order to fly not unusual) in a 55-grain bullet leaves a
with the center of gravity forward of the progressively smaller bullet to do the
center of form. work. The greatly increased drag of flesh
(far denser than air) will quickly stop the
An expanding bullet may or may not projectile. A similar loss of mass in a 168-
tumble. It depends upon whether the grain projectile leaves a large enough pro-
mushroom-like expansion (which moves jectile to still penetrate to vital organs.
mass to the rear) is sufficient to bring the
center of gravity forward enough to Mass is vitally important externally for
make the bullet essentially form stable. decreased wind deflection and terminally
Although tumbling can significantly in- for reliable penetration, especially
crease the wounding capacity of a bullet, through intervening obstacles such as
it can also cause extreme deflections in glass, clothing, or bones. For this reason,
the path of the bullet within the target. the smallest caliber suitable for Ob-
The best bullet for the Observer/Sniper server/Sniper use is 7mm (.284 caliber).
is a reliable expanding or fragmenting
design. It is obvious that the Observer/Sniper
must strive for a headshot. The shot is
As can be seen, the single most im- made to prevent the death or serious in-
portant wounding criterion is penetra- jury of others. Immediate incapacitation
tion. A bullet absolutely must be able to must be forced upon the subject. That can
penetrate through the major blood bear- be accomplished reliably only by destroy-
ing organs within the body. The mini- ing the brain.
mum penetration necessary is 10-12
inches of soft body tissue. The penetra- The target is best described as a two-
tion required could be greater if the tar- inch diameter area in the center of the
get is unusually large, or includes head, directly behind the eyes. It can be
intervening arm bones, layers of thick envisioned as a two-inch lateral band
clothing or other such obstacles. around the head, centered on the eyes. A
shot in that area which penetrates through
The single most important factor af- the center of the head will invariably re-
fecting penetration is bullet mass. Heav- sult in immediate incapacitation.
ier bullets penetrate more predictably,
and more reliably. The lighter the bullet, One final distinction must be drawn,
the more susceptible it is to deflection, between immediate incapacitation and
both by wind externally and by obstacles "no reflex" death. Ideally, the two are syn-
onymous. In reality, they are not. When
35
the subject is shot, ideally there would be which aids shooter confidence and en-
no reflex action which could result in a ables exact and detailed observation and
trigger being pulled or some other to- identification.
tally involuntary but potentially hazard-
ous physical action. Since scopes are available in a wide
range of magnifications, including vari-
Unfortunately, "no reflex" death is able magnification powers, this is the first
not a reliable product of an instantly in- feature that must be considered for Ob-
capacitating shot. It can occur, but server/Sniper use. Although magnifica-
equally likely is spasmodic muscular tion is an asset, too much can be a severe
twitching, contractions, and contortions. detriment. As a rule, magnification
Such reactions are totally mindless and greater than 10x to 12x power is not suit-
involuntary, but could be enough to pull able.
a trigger.
The higher powers, from 16x on up,
The Observer/Sniper must be aware are too difficult to shoot. In addition to
of any weapons in the subject's hands magnifying the relative size of the target,
and where they are pointed. He must a scope also magnifies the ever present,
plan his shot to minimize the hazard inherent motion of the rifle. A shooter ac-
posed by an uncontrolled, spasmodic customed to the small, regular "wobble"
trigger pull by the subject, should it oc- of iron sights or a low powered scope can
cur. become thoroughly disconcerted looking
through a high powered scope and seeing
7. Optics that same motion magnified 16 times or
more. Although the actual movement is
Optical equipment is vital to the Ob- the same, the magnification creates the
server/Sniper. The most obvious item of illusion that it is far more. With practice, a
optical equipment is the telescopic sight, good shooter can learn to "hold" a 10x or
or "scope", for short. A scope provides 12x scope.
the shooter with two significant assets.
By "hold" is meant the shooter can
The first is the presentation of the control the motion, keep it within the de-
sights (the reticle in the scope) and the sired impact area of the target, and fire an
target on the same focal plane. This al- accurate shot. The magnification effect
lows the shooter to see both the sights and illusion of uncontrollable motion ap-
and the target in focus, presenting a clear parent with a scope of 16x or greater
and unambiguous sight picture. power is so extreme that many shooters
can never learn to hold them. This prob-
The second asset of a scope is magni- lem is further discussed in the Basics of
fication. Magnification aids target identi- Marksmanship section below.
fication. It enhances precision shooting
by enabling the shooter to aim at a small, A second limiting factor that comes
precise spot on the target rather than an with increased magnification is decreased
indeterminate area of the target. Magni- "field of view". Field of view is the diame-
fication brings the target visually closer,
36
ter of the total area that can be seen There is considerable controversy over
through the scope. The higher the power, the use of fixed power scopes versus vari-
the more restricted the field of view. For able powered scopes. The argument in
example, according to specifications for favor of variables is that the lower power
Leupold scopes, the field of view at 100 settings provide greater fields of view for
yards for a 6x scope is 17.7 feet; for a 12x easier target acquisition. Once the target is
scope it is 9.1 feet; and for a 24x scope it acquired in the scope, the higher power
is 4.7 feet. setting can be selected for accurate shoot-
ing.
Thirdly, eye relief for a scope be-
comes increasingly more critical as mag- The argument against variables is that
nification is increased. Eye relief is the they require internal telescoping parts
distance behind the scope's eyepiece at that must be manufactured to looser tol-
which the optimal view through the erances than the internal parts of a fixed
scope is attained. At 16x or greater pow- power scope. The moving parts wear
ers, there is no margin for error. The eye against each other with use. Over time the
must be exactly that distance or the accuracy and reliability of the scope are
scope is optically unusable. reduced. Further, shooters seldom actu-
ally use the low power settings because
Lower powered scopes such as 4x or
they do not shoot as well since real preci-
6x have very forgiving eye relief dimen-
sion aiming is not possible. Neither
sions in that moderate differences of eye
should an Observer/Sniper be trying to
distance behind the eyepiece do not pre-
adjust power settings in a crisis situation
vent a full field of view. However, in-
when he is supposedly concentrating on
consistent location of the eye behind the
the target and the shot. Variable scopes
scope is not conducive to accurate shoot-
can also change point of impact and focus
ing.
as the power setting changes. This effect
A magnification of 10x to 12x power increases in magnitude the more the vari-
is optimum for the Observer/Sniper. able feature is used and the affected parts
This is ample magnification for precision wear against each other.
shooting and for positive identification
Finding a target in a scope is done the
of the target at law enforcement ranges.
same regardless of magnification. The
Shooters can readily learn to hold a
shooter keeps both eyes open and focused
scope of such magnification. The eye re-
on the target, raising the rifle and inter-
lief allows minor inconsistencies in eye
posing the scope in his line of sight. The
distance behind the scope, which means
scope will be immediately on target. With
the shooter will not waste precious time
minimal practice, target acquisition be-
in a critical situation trying to find the
comes as fast and certain as with open
proper eye position to see through the
sights. Since the main argument for vari-
scope. The field of view is sufficient for
able scopes is field of view and target ac-
quick and efficient target acquisition
quisition, clearly a fixed power scope is a
through the scope.
better choice for the Observer/Sniper.
37
order to change zero from one range to

A critical scope feature is the method
another, the shooter must employ a trial
of adjusting the crosshairs, more prop-
and error method of shooting and adjust-
erly called the "reticle". The reticle is the
ing the scope until the new zero is ac-
sight. It combines the functions of front
quired.
and rear sights in one image. The scope
adjustment knobs move the reticle left A positive adjustment system provides
and right, and up and down, which in precise and repeatable adjustments. The
turn moves the point of impact in the scope can be zeroed at one range and then
same direction relative to the point of rezeroed at a different range by simply
aim. By adjusting the reticle, the point of adding or subtracting the necessary sight
impact is shifted until it coincides as de- adjustments. The test of a positive ad-
sired with the point of aim and the rifle justment system is to first zero the rifle
is then zeroed at that range. and shoot a group. Add 6 MOA of "up"
adjustment and shoot a group. Then add 6
Scope adjustments are made by one
MOA of "right" adjustment and shoot a
of two ways: a positive adjustment sys-
group. Adjust the scope 6 MOA "down"
tem or a friction ring system. The friction
and shoot a group. Finally, add 6 MOA
ring system, which is found on most
"left" and shoot. The final group should
scopes, is not suitable for Ob-
be in the same place as the first one.
server/Sniper use. The problem with it is
that sight changes are neither precise nor Ideally the adjustment will be in quar-
repeatable. The system employs two or ter MOA steps, and should never be more
more friction rings which are screwed in than half MOA steps. Otherwise the ad-
or out against each other. There are no justment is too coarse to allow precise ze-
positive stops by which precise adjust- roing of the rifle. Plus or minus more than
ments can be made, nor can there be uni- one half MOA is too much for Ob-
form friction as the rings are tightened in server/Sniper use. Another advantage of
one direction or loosened in the other. the positive adjustment system is that
Since the friction constantly changes, the every change can be heard and felt. For
amount of change in the reticle con- example, a shooter zeroed at 200 yards
stantly varies as well as the rings tighten wants to hit a target at 300 yards. Know-
or loosen against each other. Positive ing his bullet is 6 inches low at 300 (2
sight changes cannot be made with a MOA), he adjusts the scope 8 clicks "up"
friction ring scope. (assuming a quarter MOA scope) and can
hold "point of aim - point of impact" at
A shooter using a friction ring scope
300 yards.
must zero at one specific range and learn
how much to hold off in order to shoot at Reticles come in many forms. The
different ranges. It is not possible to zero most common is the simple cross hair
at 200 yards, for example, and then sim- composed of two intersecting lines. The
ply change the sights to be zeroed at 300 lines may vary from thin and fine to thick
yards. The sight change as reflected by and coarse. A tapered reticle consists of
the scale on the adjustment knobs can cross hairs that are thin and fine at the in-
easily be plus or minus several MOA. In
38
tersection and taper out to thick, coarse distance from the end of one thick line to
lines at the four bases. Dot reticles and the opposing end of another in a duplex
duplex (or four plex) reticles are also reticle subtends 6 inches at 100 yards. If
commonly available. A dot reticle is the shooter then looks at a 12-inch object
merely a small dot in the center of the and it fills the same space, that object is
scope's field of view. It is sometimes 200 yards away. A 6-inch object filling
combined with a fine crosshair. A duplex half the space would be 50 yards away.
reticle consists of four coarse lines that
project towards the center of the field of Subtension values are published by all
view where they abruptly change to thin, scope manufacturers. Of better use would
fine lines forming the intersection. There be knowing how the reticle subtends a
are many other reticle shapes and com- man's head at a specific range such as 100
binations too numerous to list. yards. It would then be easy to later accu-
rately estimate range by observing the
Choice of a reticle must account for subtension of a target's head.
several factors. A fine cross hair or small
dot cannot be seen in moderately poor Being an optical lens system, all scopes
light. A thick cross hair or large dot is are subject to "parallax". Parallax is de-
visible in poor light but covers too much fined as an optical error where the target
of the target, which inhibits precise image, or focal plane, does not coincide
shooting. A coarse cross hair can com- exactly with the plane of the reticle. Like
pletely cover a man's head at 100 yards. the eye, a scope can be focused only at
In such a case, the Observer/Sniper can one specific range. Parallax will exist at all
have no idea exactly where he is aimed other ranges because the focal plane will
or where the bullet will strike. be either ahead of, or behind, the reticle
plane. The effect of parallax is to present a
The best all purpose reticle for Ob- false image of the location of the reticle on
server/Sniper use is the duplex. In good the target. However, the effect only exists
to moderately poor lighting the fine if the eye is not directly centered behind
crosshair intersection is visible. In worse the scope. Better scopes have an adjust-
lighting conditions, the four coarse bases able objective lens to permit focusing the
are still visible and the target can be seen scope at any range.
and centered precisely amid the four
thick ends. The duplex reticle can also be If parallax exists, it can be seen by
used as a range finder. slowly moving the eye around the rear of
the scope while aiming at a small spot on
The dimension covered by a part of a a target. The reticle will appear to move
reticle at a specific range is called "sub- about the point of aim. If there is no paral-
tension". For example, a dot that covers a lax, the reticle will remain on the point of
one-inch circle at 100 yards "subtends" aim regardless of whether the eye is cen-
one inch at 100 yards, two inches at 200 tered behind the scope or not. Parallax
yards, etc. If a shooter knows the subten- induced error is greatest inside the fo-
sion of his reticle he can use the reticle as cused range, decreasing in magnitude
a range finder. For example, assume the outside the focused range. The magnitude
39
of the error is on the order of one half being so used, the rifle and the shooter are
MOA, decreasing slightly as range be- not immediately ready to take a shot
yond the focused point increases. The should one be required.
effect of parallax is relatively inconse-
quential at law enforcement ranges. The Observer/Sniper Team is com-
posed of two trained Observer/Snipers,
Scope lenses are coated with a chemi- one on the rifle concentrating on the tar-
cal compound such as magnesium oxide get and one using the binoculars to con-
to reduce the amount of light lost stantly observe as much of the crisis site
through reflection. An uncoated lens will and subjects as possible, reporting any
reflect three to four percent of the light at and all intelligence. The binoculars are
each surface. Each lens has two surfaces used for regular scanning and observa-
and will lose 6-8 percent of the light tion. The spotting scope is used to closely
passing through it. A scope may have 6-8 examine any specific item, individual, or
lenses. If it were not for the coating, only event, which are found with the binocu-
45-55 percent of the available light lars and need more detailed observation.
would reach the eye. The coatings in- The tripod mount eliminates induced mo-
crease the amount of light through the tion in the spotting scope.
lens system to 90 percent or more.
Eye relief on a spotting scope is zero
The coating is approximately one mil- (place the eye right behind the eyepiece,
lionth of an inch thick and very delicate. almost in contact with it) so there is no
Scope lenses must be cleaned only with faltering or time lost in gaining the view
high quality lens paper, lens cleaning through the scope. The eye relief on a
fluid, and an airbrush such as photogra- riflescope cannot be so close because of
phers use on camera lenses. Great care the recoil of the weapon and scope.
must be taken to avoid getting any oil or
gun cleaning solvents on the lenses. A 8. Support Equipment
solvent will quickly remove the lens
coating. There are a number of items that
should be included as basic support
In addition to the riflescope, two equipment for the Observer/Sniper. The
other items of optical equipment are nec- single most important is a good record
essary for an Observer/Sniper. These are book. Without a record book, any shot
a pair of 7x50 binoculars and a 20x taken in a crisis situation amounts to an
power spotting scope with a tripod educated guess.
mount.
A record book is used to keep a log of
The Observer/Sniper must be every shot fired in practice by the shooter.
equipped to observe and report intelli- The shooter uses the book to record his
gence as well as to shoot. A riflescope is zero, the temperature, wind velocity and
ill suited for intelligence gathering re- direction, light conditions, range, altitude,
sponsibilities. It is unwieldy, being ammunition used, and sight changes ne-
mounted on a long, heavy rifle, and if cessitated by the various factors. As the
shooter continues to practice and maintain
40
the record book, he compiles a compre- shooting aid, a sling is strapped tightly
hensive reference regarding his perform- around the upper arm and then wound
ance and that of his rifle under a variety tautly across the arm and about the wrist.
of conditions. The tightness and tension on the arm can-
not be maintained long without great
When in position during an actual physical discomfort to the shooter. An
crisis situation, the shooter can refer to Observer/Sniper simply cannot stay in a
the record book, find conditions match- sling for the period of time he will be in
ing those he sees about him, and know position. Nor can he wait until he is going
exactly where to aim or how much sight to shoot to get into the sling. It takes too
change is necessary. There is no substi- long to get into a sling.
tute for a record book. The mark of a
professional shooter is a complete, de- 9. Basics of Marksmanship
tailed, and meticulously kept record
book. It is an invaluable asset. Six factors comprise the basics of
marksmanship: Sight Alignment, Sight
Some sort of rifle rest should be in- Picture, Breathing, Trigger Control, Posi-
cluded. Traditionally, small sand bags tion, and Follow Through. These six fac-
are used to provide a solid shooting rest tors are applicable to all forms of rifle
for a rifle. Sand is heavy, however. The shooting. Regardless of the rifle being
same small bags filled with sawdust or used, the course of fire being pursued, or
crumbled Styrofoam serve just as well the conditions under which it is being
and have negligible weight. fired, the basics of marksmanship must be
applied in order to fire effectively and ac-
A detachable bipod is a handy item curately. In order for the shooter to gain
to have in the event the Observer/ proficiency it is necessary to practice ex-
Sniper's position does not lend itself to tensively in both live firing and dry firing
the use of sandbags. Shooting from a bi- exercises.
pod attached to the rifle will change the
point of impact relative to the point of Factors of Marksmanship
aim. The amount of change will vary
1. Sight Alignment
with the shooter, the position, and the
bipod being used. 2. Sight Picture
3. Breathing
A good sling for carrying the rifle is 4. Trigger Control
necessary. It should be mounted with
5. Position
quick detachable swivels so it can be re-
6. Follow Through
moved when in position. Resting the ri-
fle on the sling will affect the zero and
the ability to shoot precisely as the rifle "Sight alignment" is the image formed
is somewhat unstable with the sling be- when the front and rear sights are prop-
tween it and the sandbags. erly aligned with each other. With con-
ventional open sights, the proper sight
The sling should not be used as a alignment is attained when the front sight
shooting aid. When worn properly as a is centered in the rear sight.
41
the sight picture is lost and the shot will

To do so, the shooter should position
not go where the shooter thought it was
the eye directly behind the rear sight and
aimed.
as close as comfortably possible to it.
Look through the rear sight and focus Aperture sights are faster and more ef-
the vision on the top of the front sight. ficient than open sights. The shooter has
The eye will center the top of the sight only to look through the rear sight, ignor-
and keep the proper sight alignment as ing it while focusing upon the front sight.
long as the vision remains focused upon The eye will automatically center the top
it. The shooter must discipline himself to of the front sight in the rear aperture bet-
keep the vision focused solely upon the ter than the shooter can consciously do it.
front sight. If focus on the front sight is Thus there are only two points in space to
not maintained, correct sight alignment align - the front sight and the target. This
is lost. is faster and more accurate than conven-
tional open sights in which the rear sight,
Using a telescopic sight simplifies
front sight and target must be aligned.
sight alignment. The front and rear
sights are combined in the crosshairs of The advantage of a telescopic sight
the scope, called the "reticle". Because the (other than magnification) is that the
reticle represents both sights in the same sights and the target are presented on the
focal plane, there is no alignment re- same focal plane. Instead of two or three
quired. However, the vision must be fo- points in space to align, there is only one
cused on the reticle with the same point at which the sights and the target
concentration used on the front sight of are displayed. However, the eye will be
an open sight system. drawn to the image of the target since that
image is also on the same focal plane as
"Sight picture" is the correct sight
the reticle.
alignment imposed upon the target. Cor-
rect sight alignment requires the vision The Observer/Sniper must be disci-
to be focused upon the front sight, or on plined enough to look AT the reticle, and
the reticle if a scope is being used. The not at the target. Failing to do so means
human eye can only focus upon one the shot will be fired without any aware-
point in space at a time. It can change ness of precisely where on the target the
focus almost instantaneously, but cannot reticle was held. It is the difference be-
focus at two or more distances at once. tween shooting a half MOA group and
shooting a two or three MOA group.
To form a sight picture with open
sights, the shooter is dealing with three Focusing on the reticle is the most dif-
points in space - the rear sight, the front ficult aspect of shooting with telescopic
sight, and the target. By focusing upon sights. If the shooter lapses and looks past
the front sight, the remaining two points the reticle at the target, he should look
(rear sight and target) can be seen well away from the scope for a moment. It is
enough to align all three. If the vision is extremely difficult to regain focus without
focused anywhere other than the front taking the eye away from the scope first.
sight at the moment the weapon fires,
42
shooters muscle relaxation and control.

A second element critical to using a
Rather, a shooter should employ what is
scope is proper eye relief. Proper eye re-
termed the "natural respiratory pause".
lief results in a full, clear, and bright pic-
ture with no noticeable “edges” or In the normal respiration cycle the in-
boundaries visible. If the eye relief is not dividual breathes in for a second or two
correct, fuzzy edges and dark “shadow” then breathes out for a second or two. For
can be seen about the outer limits of the several seconds thereafter no breathing
sight picture. The shadow will appear to occurs at all. This is the natural respira-
slip about the curved edge of the picture tory pause. The shooter should merely
from one side to the other, or to the top extend this pause in order to be still
or the bottom. Any shot fired with through the shot.
shadow in the sight picture will not im-
pact at the point of aim. It will be off to To accomplish this, align the sights
the side opposite the shadow. The shot while breathing normally. Prior to start-
will always be away from the shadow, ing the trigger squeeze, breathe in deeply
relative to the point of aim. The error can and breathe out through the mouth. Dur-
be significant, often exceeding one MOA ing the natural pause that follows, simply
or more. Shadow is a visible symptom of do not breathe while squeezing the trig-
incorrect eye relief. ger. After the weapon fires, resume
breathing. The natural respiratory pause
Of course, a second symptom of in- can be extended easily for 15-20 seconds.
correct eye relief is scope bite. It occurs However, it is important that the shot be
when the shooter’s eye is too close to the fired within 8 seconds, and certainly no
rear of the scope and the recoil of the ri- more than 10, from the start of the respira-
fle drives the rear edge of the scope tory pause. To go longer will begin to in-
against the shooter’s forehead. The result cur blurred vision and inability to retain
is a small scar uniquely identifiable by clear focus upon the sight as the oxygen
its half moon shape. level in the brain is depleted. If the shot is
not fired within the optimum interval, re-
Having attained correct sight align-
sume breathing and begin again from the
ment and the proper sight picture, the
start.
shooter must control breathing. As
breathing occurs, the weapon (and the Breathing is controlled this way even
sight picture) moves up and down in in rapid fire. To do so in a rapid-fire situa-
rhythm with the respiration cycle. In or- tion either extends the pause for all the
der to fire accurately, respiration must be shots or increase the rapidity of the cycle.
controlled at the moment of firing. The latter is done by breathing through
the mouth deeply and quickly. Force the
Conventionally, shooters have been
air in hard, blow it out hard, then shoot;
instructed to let half of their breath out
force it in and out then shoot; repeating
and then hold what is left until the shot
for however many shots are being fired.
is fired. Holding one's breath instills a
tension in the body through the abdo-
men and diaphragm that affects the
43
used, the trigger pull can be either con-

"Trigger control" is pulling the trigger
tinuous or interrupted.
in such a fashion that the sight picture is
not disturbed while the shot is fired. Given a solid, steady position such as
Trigger control is the most critical ele- that gained by shooting from a sand-
ment of marksmanship and the most dif- bagged rest, the trigger pull can be con-
ficult to master. Because the trigger pull tinuous. The weapon is sufficiently stable
of a rifle is short and easy, requiring lit- that the sight picture remains practically
tle strength, the untrained shooter is in- undisturbed throughout the firing proc-
clined to jerk or snap the trigger in an ess. The shooter need only concentrate on
attempt to make the weapon fire when the sight picture, control breathing, and
the sight picture looks perfect. In so do- softly but steadily press the trigger until
ing the weapon is moved, the sight pic- the weapon fires.
ture is misaligned, and the shot does not
go where the shooter thought it was An "undisturbed sight picture" means
aimed. the sights remain aligned within the part
of the target the shooter wants the bullet
As a matter of common sense it to hit. Some motion may be evident but it
should be apparent that since the rifle is remains within the desired target area.
moving any trigger pull started when the
sights are just right is too late anyway. Squeezing the trigger can be likened to
Usually, the shot will strike low and off using an eyedropper from which only one
to one side. Which side depends on drop is wanted. Gradually increasing
whether the shooter is right or left pressure is applied to the bulb of the eye-
handed? This occurs because the weapon dropper while watching the end of it.
is moved and its alignment is changed at When the one-drop forms and falls, no
the instant of firing. The shooter is un- further pressure is added. Shooting is
aware of it because it is masked by the done the same way. Focus on the sight
recoil of the rifle. Dry firing and "ball while adding gradually increasing pres-
and dummy" exercises will amply dem- sure to the trigger until the shot fires.
onstrate to the shooter the effects of jerk-
ing or snapping the trigger. The motion In a less stable position the apparent
imparted to the weapon will be appar- motion of the weapon and the sights are
ent. more evident. This is especially true when
using a scope. The magnification of the
Proper trigger control consists of a scope amplifies all motion of the rifle. A
steady application of pressure to the trig- scope will show some motion even in the
ger until the rifle fires. Initially, the most stable of positions. A lot of the mo-
shooter will not know when the trigger tion visible through a scope is not visible
will release, or "break", to use a rifle- to the naked eye when using open sights.
man's term. A thoroughly trained and As the magnification power of the scope
proficient shooter will in fact know when is increased even more motion will be ob-
the trigger is going to break. Depending served, and the perceived magnitude of
upon the stability of the position being the motion will be exaggerated. Scopes of
44
16x or greater power will display the cular strength alone. For example, if a
shooter's heartbeat. Seeing the reticle shooter holds a rifle in one hand extended
bounce around the target in time with at arm's length away from the body it is
one's pulse is distracting at best. supported by muscular strength alone. In
a short time the muscles fatigue and the
The most extreme example of sight weapon sinks lower and lower. Contrar-
motion is the offhand position in which ily, if the arm is bent so the elbow is di-
the shooter must fire while standing rectly under the weight of the weapon
erect without external support. The and close in to the body, the weight is
shooter must employ an interrupted borne by the bone structure of the arms
trigger squeeze. To accomplish this, and can be held indefinitely without du-
align the sights, control the breathing, ress.
and start the trigger pull. As the sight
alignment moves out of the area the Muscular relaxation means precisely
shooter wishes to hit, the trigger pres- that. Once the position is attained, the
sure should be held. It is essential to nei- shooter should be totally relaxed without
ther relax it nor apply additional any muscular tension or duress in the
pressure. As the sights return to the de- arms, legs, or torso. Given bone support
sired target area, add additional pressure and muscular relaxation, the weapon will
in a gradual and gentle manner. Con- remain aligned on the target without any
tinue in this fashion until the shot is effort or muscular control on the part of
fired. Ideally, the shot will occur as the the shooter, assuming a natural point of
sights are moving into the center of the aim has been established.
target or are at the center. Control of the
trigger is paramount to accurate shoot- Natural point of aim is adjusting the
ing. position so that when the shooter relaxes
and the weapon is fully supported the
As proficiency increases the inter- sights are aligned upon the target without
rupted technique should be employed in any muscular control being exerted by the
all positions. Even in the steadiest of po- shooter. Accomplish this by first aiming
sitions there is some motion imparted to the rifle. Then close the eyes and relax
the rifle and sights. Proficiency in trigger completely. After a short pause, open the
control will result in smaller groups be- eyes and see if the sight picture changed.
ing fired. If the sights have moved, adjust the posi-
tion as necessary to bring the proper
"Position" is the platform by which alignment into effect. Retest the natural
the weapon is held and fired. Common point of aim again.
to all positions are three position ele-
ments: Bone Support, Muscular Relaxa- Position Elements
tion, and Natural Point of Aim. Bone Support
Muscular Relaxation
Bone support means that the weight
Natural Point of Aim
of the weapon is supported by the skele-
tal structure of the body and not by mus-
45
rifle before the bullet exits the muzzle.

Once the position has been adjusted
The disruption is masked from the
to the point that the sight picture re-
shooter by the recoil effects. The symptom
mains unchanged after closing the eyes
is a shot or a group consistently below the
and relaxing, then a natural point of aim
point of aim. This is remedied by follow
has been established. This is important in
through.
any position for shooting with the great-
est possible degree of accuracy. To follow through on a shot means the
shooter tries to maintain the sight picture,
If a natural point of aim is not at-
the position, and the grip through the re-
tained, then the sights must be held
coil. Do not relax or let the trigger for-
aligned by muscular effort. When the
ward until the recoil is finished.
weapon recoils, the effects of the recoil
Otherwise the position of the rifle is al-
overcome muscular control of the rifle.
tered while the bullet is traveling down
The rifle reverts to wherever the natural
the barrel. Most expert shooters will fol-
point of aim would be. This movement
low through in slow fire for one or two
occurs while the bullet is in the barrel
seconds after the recoil ends. The process
and causes the shot to be off relative to
is still employed, but more quickly, in
the point of aim.
rapid fire.
In rapid fire a natural point of aim
Another aspect of follow through is
keeps the rifle on target from shot to
the ability to "call" the shot. The shooter
shot. This enhances recovery and makes
concentrates on trying to see the sight pic-
possible faster accurate shots. If a natural
ture through the recoil. At the moment of
point of aim is not established, then the
firing the shooter will have a mental im-
weapon moves in recoil away from the
age of where the sights were the instant
point of aim towards the natural point of
the rifle fired. He must consciously recall
aim, which increases recovery time.
this image or it is quickly lost. By recall-
Follow through is controlling the rifle ing the image of the sight picture the
and the trigger after the trigger breaks in shooter can "call" where the shot struck. If
order to not disturb the alignment of the the rifle is sighted in and the shooter con-
weapon. Once the shot is fired, the bullet trolled the trigger, the shot will strike
must travel the length of the barrel and where it is "called."
exit the muzzle. It is common for a
If a shooter is consistently "on call"
shooter to cause an inaccurate shot after
then the weapon is sighted in and the
"breaking" the trigger.
shooter's techniques are sound. If the
Given good trigger control, more techniques are sound but the shooter is
shots are lost in the few milliseconds be- "off call" (hitting other than where the
tween the time the shooter's senses in- shot is called), then the sights are off. If
form him that he has released the trigger unable to "call" the shot, then the shooter's
and the actual moment the bullet exits techniques are not sound and additional
the muzzle than in any other way. The instruction and practice is necessary.
shooter can disrupt the alignment of the
46
List of Appendices
BALLISTIC TABLES - Sierra 168 grain HPBT at 2650 fps
A1 Explanation of Terms
A2 Ballistics @ sea level, 59 degrees F
A3 Ballistics @ 5333 ft, 59 degrees F
A4 Ballistics @ sea level, 89 degrees F
BULLET PATH TABLES - Sierra 168 grain HPBT at 2650 fps
B1 Explanation of Terms
B2 100 yd zero @ sea level, 59 degrees F
B4 200 yd zero @ 5333 ft, 59 degrees F
47
Appendix A1
Explanation of Terms
1. REMAINING VELOCITY is listed in Feet Per Second (fps).
2. REMAINING ENERGY is listed in foot/pounds (ft/lb).
3. DROP is listed in inches. It is the distance below the line of bore the bullet will drop
at the indicated range.
4. ELEVATION is angle of departure in minutes of angle (moa) necessary to be zeroed

at the indicated range. Additionally, the difference in elevation between two ranges
is the correction necessary to change zero from one to the other. Using Appendix A2
for example, if zeroed at 200 yards (elevation 6.2 moa) and you wish to be zeroed at
400 yards (elevation 12.5 moa) the sight correction is 12.5 - 6.2 = plus 6.3 moa.
5. MAXIMUM HEIGHT is given in inches. It is the maximum height above the line of
sight the bullet will reach, if the rifle is zeroed at the indicated range. For example,
if zeroed at 500 yards, the bullet will be 22.3 inches above the line of sight at its
highest point in the trajectory.
6. WIND DEFLECTION is given in inches, calculated for a 10mph wind blowing at

right angles to the flight of the bullet.
7. Height of sight used in table = 1.5 inches.
48
Appendix A2: Ballistics Table

Ballistics @ Sea Level, 59 degrees F
.308 Winchester -- Sierra 168 gr Hollowpoint Boattail

Ballistic Coefficient: 0.475
Standard Temperature/Pressure -- 59 Degrees F at Sea Level

Range Remaining Remaining Maximum 10 MPH
(yds) Velocity Energy Drop Elevation Height Deflection
0 2650 2619 0.0 0.0 -1.5 0.0
50 2556 2438 0.6 4.3 0.0 0.2
100 2465 2266 2.6 4.1 0.1 0.7
150 2375 2104 6.0 5.0 1.0 1.6
200 2287 1951 10.9 6.2 2.3 3.0
250 2201 1807 17.5 7.6 4.1 4.9
300 2117 1672 25.9 9.1 6.4 7.2
350 2035 1544 36.2 10.8 9.3 9.9
400 1954 1424 48.6 12.5 12.9 13.1
450 1875 1311 63.1 14.4 17.2 16.8
500 1799 1207 80.3 16.4 22.3 21.3
550 1725 1110 100.4 18.5 28.4 26.4
600 1654 1020 123.4 20.8 35.5 32.2
650 1585 937 149.5 23.2 43.7 38.6
700 1518 859 178.7 25.7 53.1 45.5
750 1454 788 211.9 28.4 63.8 53.2
800 1394 724 249.5 31.4 76.2 61.8
850 1337 667 291.9 34.5 90.3 71.3
900 1284 615 339.0 37.8 106.1 81.5
950 1234 568 391.3 41.4 123.9 92.5
1000 1190 528 449.9 45.1 144.0 104.3
49

Ballistics @ 5333 ft, 59 degrees F

59 degrees F at 5,333 feet Altitude

0 2650 2619 0.0 0.0 -1.5 0.0
50 2573 2469 0.6 4.3 0.0 0.1
100 2497 2326 2.6 4.1 0.1 0.6
150 2423 2189 5.9 4.9 0.9 1.3
200 2350 2059 10.7 6.1 2.2 2.4
250 2278 1935 17.1 7.4 3.9 3.9
300 2207 1817 25.2 8.9 6.1 5.7
350 2138 1705 35.1 10.4 8.9 8.0
400 2069 1597 46.8 12.1 12.2 10.5
450 2002 1495 60.5 13.8 16.1 13.4
500 1936 1398 76.3 15.6 20.7 16.8
550 1872 1307 94.4 17.4 26.0 20.6
600 1809 1221 115.2 19.4 32.2 25.1
650 1748 1140 138.8 21.6 39.4 30.1
700 1689 1064 165.4 23.8 47.5 35.6
750 1631 992 194.9 26.2 56.7 41.7
800 1575 925 227.5 28.6 67.0 48.1
850 1519 861 263.2 31.1 78.4 55.1
900 1467 802 303.1 33.8 91.3 62.7
950 1416 748 347.1 36.7 105.7 71.1
1000 1369 699 395.9 39.7 121.9 80.2
50

Ballistics @ Sea Level, 89 Degrees F

89 degrees F at Sea Level

0 2700 2720 0.0 0.0 -1.5 0.0
50 2611 2543 0.6 4.2 0.0 0.2
100 2523 2375 2.5 4.0 0.0 0.7
150 2437 2215 5.7 4.8 0.9 1.5
200 2353 2065 10.4 6.0 2.1 2.7
250 2270 1922 16.7 7.3 3.9 4.4
300 2189 1788 24.7 8.7 6.1 6.5
350 2110 1660 34.5 10.3 8.8 9.1
400 2032 1540 46.2 11.9 12.2 12.0
450 1956 1426 60.0 13.7 16.2 15.4
500 1881 1319 75.9 15.5 20.9 19.2
550 1809 1220 94.5 17.5 26.5 23.8
600 1739 1128 116.0 19.6 33.0 29.1
650 1671 1041 140.3 21.8 40.6 34.9
700 1605 961 167.7 24.2 49.2 41.3
750 1541 886 198.2 26.6 59.0 48.2
800 1479 816 232.4 29.2 70.1 55.8
850 1421 753 270.7 32.0 82.7 64.2
900 1366 696 313.8 35.0 97.0 73.5
950 1314 644 361.7 38.2 113.1 83.5
1000 1265 597 414.3 41.6 131.0 94.1
51
Appendix B1
Explanation of Terms
1. BULLET PATH ABOVE LINE OF SIGHT (LOS) is the distance in either minutes of
angle (moa) or inches the bullet is above or below the line of sight at the indicated
zero range. It also provides the necessary correction to change the zero, or hold off
the point of aim. The positive figures given for ranges less than the zero range indi-
cate the bullet is above the line of sight and the sights must be adjusted lower, or the
point of aim lowered, the indicated amount. The negative figures for ranges greater
than the zero range indicate the bullet is below the line of sight. The sights must be
adjusted higher, or the aiming point raised, the indicated amount. Using Appendix
B3 for example, to hit a target at 500 yards either adjust the sights UP 10.2 moa or
aim 50.9 inches ABOVE the desired point of impact at 500 yards.
2. WIND DEFLECTION is given in inches. It represents the distance the bullet will be
moved by a 10mph wind at right angles to the flight of the bullet at the indicated
range. For example, at 500 yards a 10mph wind from the left will move the point of
impact of the bullet 21.3 inches to the right. A 20mph wind will cause a deflection of
double the amount (42.6 inches), and a 5mph wind will cause half as much (10.7
inches). The wind deflection figures can be interpolated for any wind strength.
52
Appendix B2: Bullet Path Table

100 yd Zero @ Sea Level, 59 Degrees F

100 Yard Zero at Sea Level, 59 Degrees F

Bullet Path Above Line
of Sight
Range Velocity 10 MPH
(Yds) (fps) MOA Inches Deflection
50 2556 -0.2 -0.1 0.2
100 2465 0.0 0.0 0.7
150 2375 -0.9 -1.3 1.6
200 2287 -2.1 -4.2 3.0
250 2201 -3.5 -8.8 4.9
300 2117 -5.1 -15.2 7.2
350 2035 -6.7 -23.4 9.9
400 1954 -8.4 -33.7 13.1
450 1875 -10.3 -46.2 16.8
500 1799 -12.3 -61.4 21.3
550 1725 -14.4 -79.4 26.4
600 1654 -16.7 -100.4 32.2
650 1585 -19.1 -124.4 38.6
700 1518 -21.7 -151.6 45.5
750 1454 -24.4 -182.7 53.2
800 1394 -27.3 -218.3 61.8
850 1337 -30.4 -258.6 71.3
900 1284 -33.7 -303.7 81.5
950 1234 -37.3 -354.0 92.5
1000 1190 -41.0 -410.5 104.3
53



of Sight
50 2556 1.9 1.0 0.2
100 2465 2.1 2.1 0.7
150 2375 1.2 1.8 1.6
200 2287 0.0 0.0 3.0
250 2201 -1.4 -3.5 4.9
300 2117 -2.9 -8.8 7.2
350 2035 -4.6 -16.0 9.9
400 1954 -6.3 -25.3 13.1
450 1875 -8.2 -36.7 16.8
500 1799 -10.2 -50.9 21.3
550 1725 -12.3 -67.8 26.4
600 1654 -14.6 -87.8 32.2
650 1585 -17.0 -110.7 38.6
700 1518 -19.5 -136.8 45.5
750 1454 -22.3 -166.9 53.2
800 1394 -25.2 -201.4 61.8
850 1337 -28.3 -240.7 71.3
900 1284 -31.6 -284.7 81.5
950 1234 -35.2 -334.0 92.5
1000 1190 -38.9 -389.4 104.3
54

200 yd Zero @ 5333 ft, 59 Degrees F

200 Yard Zero at 5,333 Feet, 59 Degrees F

of Sight
50 2573 1.8 0.9 0.1
100 2497 2.0 2.0 0.6
150 2423 1.2 1.8 1.3
200 2350 0.0 0.0 2.4
250 2278 -1.3 -3.4 3.9
300 2207 -2.8 -8.4 5.7
350 2138 -4.4 -15.3 8.0
400 2069 -6.0 -24.0 10.5
450 2002 -7.7 -34.6 13.4
500 1936 -9.5 -47.3 16.8
550 1872 -11.3 -62.4 20.6
600 1809 -13.4 -80.2 25.1
650 1748 -15.5 -100.8 30.1
700 1689 -17.8 -124.3 35.6
750 1631 -20.1 -150.7 41.7
800 1575 -22.5 -180.3 48.1
850 1519 -25.1 -213.0 55.1
900 1467 -27.8 -249.8 62.7
950 1416 -30.6 -290.8 71.1
1000 1369 -33.7 -336.5 80.2
55
Appendix B5 Bullet Path Table



of Sight
50 2611 1.7 0.9 0.2
100 2523 2.0 2.0 0.7
150 2437 1.1 1.7 1.5
200 2353 0.0 0.0 2.7
250 2270 -1.3 -3.3 4.4
300 2189 -2.8 -8.3 6.5
350 2110 -4.3 -15.2 9.1
400 2032 -6.0 -23.9 12.0
450 1956 -7.7 -34.6 15.4
500 1881 -9.5 -47.6 19.2
550 1809 -11.5 -63.2 23.8
600 1739 -13.6 -81.7 29.1
650 1671 -15.9 -103.1 34.9
700 1605 -18.2 -125.5 41.3
750 1541 -20.7 -155.0 48.2
800 1479 -23.3 -186.2 55.8
850 1421 -26.1 -221.5 64.2
900 1366 -29.1 -261.7 73.5
950 1314 -32.3 -306.6 83.5
1000 1265 -35.6 -356.2 94.1
56

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ADVANCED RIFLE TRAINING

Special Agent Urey W. Patrick

2. Concept and Utilization.............................2

4. Internal Ballistics ............................................5

5. External Ballistics ......................................... 22

8. Support Equipment ......................................... 42

9. Basics of Marksmanship ............................. 43

1. Definition In addition to shooting, the military

The law enforcement sniper is an in- Examples of the specific intelligence

hostage situation or barricaded subject. Patterns of behavior

The immediate deployment of the Booby traps

objectives are to identify all the players Flammable substances

erated within the cartridge, the faster the

explosive, although it can have an explo-

bolt back into the lug recesses of the re-

For example, the .308 ammunition The Hornady Manufacturing Com-

Secondly, the ammunition must be It is not unusual to find one lot of

rity of the bullet. An error of 0.001" can

pressure is 59 degrees Fahrenheit at sea 10-20%. On the other hand, currently

Although wind deflection varies with

The rise in the point of impact is al- 6. Terminal Ballistics

order to change zero from one range to

the sight picture is lost and the shot will

shooters muscle relaxation and control.

used, the trigger pull can be either con-

rifle before the bullet exits the muzzle.

BALLISTIC TABLES - Sierra 168 grain HPBT at 2650 fps

BULLET PATH TABLES - Sierra 168 grain HPBT at 2650 fps

2. REMAINING ENERGY is listed in foot/pounds (ft/lb).

4. ELEVATION is angle of departure in minutes of angle (moa) necessary to be zeroed

6. WIND DEFLECTION is given in inches, calculated for a 10mph wind blowing at

7. Height of sight used in table = 1.5 inches.

Appendix A2: Ballistics Table

.308 Winchester -- Sierra 168 gr Hollowpoint Boattail

Standard Temperature/Pressure -- 59 Degrees F at Sea Level

Appendix A3: Ballistics Table

.308 Winchester -- Sierra 168 gr Hollowpoint Boattail

59 degrees F at 5,333 feet Altitude

Range Remaining Remaining Maximum 10 MPH

Appendix A4: Ballistics Table

.308 Winchester -- Sierra 168 gr Hollowpoint Boattail

89 degrees F at Sea Level

Appendix B2: Bullet Path Table

.308 Winchester -- Sierra 168 gr Hollowpoint Boattail

100 Yard Zero at Sea Level, 59 Degrees F

Appendix B3: Bullet Path Table

.308 Winchester -- Sierra 168 gr Hollowpoint Boattail

200 Yard Zero at Sea Level, 59 Degrees F

Appendix B4: Bullet Path Table

.308 Winchester -- Sierra 168 gr Hollowpoint Boattail

200 Yard Zero at 5,333 Feet, 59 Degrees F

Appendix B5 Bullet Path Table

.308 Winchester -- Sierra 168 gr Hollowpoint Boattail

200 Yard Zero at Sea Level, 89 Degrees F

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