DRYING OF

SOLIDS
Chemical Process Equipment Design
CE3204
Chemical Engineering
Universitas Pertamina
2019
 MAIN TOPICS OBJECTIVES

• Basic principles • To explain basic principles of drying

• Type of wet solids • To determine moisture content, drying
• Modes of drying rate, and drying period.
• Moisture content in solid
• Drying rate and drying period

REFERENCES

• Chapter 18 - Seader, Henley and Roper, “Separation Process Principles,” 3rd Edition, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 2011
• Chapter 24 - McCabe, Smith, & Harriott, "Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering." 7th
Ed., McGraw-Hill. 2005
• Chapter 12 – Treyball, “Mass Transfer Operation.” 3rd Ed. McGraw-Hill. 1980.
 SOLID DRYING?
Removal of moisture from solids
 DRYING PURPOSE

• To extend shelf life of materials

(Dried fruits and fishes can last
longer than the fresh ones)
• Enhancing calorific value of fuel
(E.g. Natural gas dehydration,
drying of coal)
• Reducing down transportation cost
 PRINCIPLES OF DRYING

• Water contained in a wet solid

exert a certain vapor pressure (P*)
Moisture + air out Fresh air in
• When exposed to a gas (eg. air)
with lower partial pressure of
water (PH2O), solid will lose water DRYER
by evaporation until P* = PH2O (in
equilibrium or saturated) Wet solid Dry solid
• Evaporation of water in solids →
needs heat source.
• Drying can be expensive if a large Heat
amount of water must be
evaporated (high energy process). schematic of a common drying process
 TYPE OF WET SOLIDS
Granular/Crystalline that hold
moisture in open pores
• Solids’ appearance and
properties are almost
unaffected by moisture removal
• Can be dried very rapidly.
• Selection of drying condition is
not a critical factor.
• Mainly are inorganic materials;
such as rocks, sand, catalysts,
TiO2, ZnSO4, and Na3PO4.
Fibrous, amorphous, and gel-like
materials that trap moisture in
their fibers or tissue
• Solids’ appearance and properties
are affected by moisture removal.
• Rapid drying can cause cracking,
shrinking, or case-hardening.
• Selection of drying condition is a
critical factor.
• Mainly are organic materials; such
as plants, vegetables, wood,
leather, starch, cotton, wool, etc.
 DRYING MODES:
B A SED ON METHOD OF OPERATION

1) BATCH DRYERS : Tray Dryer

 DRYING MODES:
B A SED ON METHOD OF OPERATION

1) BATCH DRYERS : Agitated Dryer

 DRYING MODES:
B A SED ON METHOD OF OPERATION

2) CONTINUOUS DRYERS : Tunnel Dryer

 DRYING MODES:
B A SED ON METHOD OF OPERATION

2) CONTINUOUS DRYERS :

Rotary Dryer

Rotating Shelf Dryer

 2) CONTINUOUS DRYERS :
DRYING MODES:
B A SED ON METHOD OF OPERATION Fluidized bed dryer
Spray Dryer
 Tunnel freeze dryer
FREEZE DRYING
• Moisture in feed is first frozen by cooling,
then sublimed by conductive or convective
heating under vacuum.
• Structure and properties of feed are hardly
altered.
• Products an be restored perfectly to their
original state by adding some water.
• Has been adapted widely for perservation
of biological, pharmaceutical,or foodstuff.

Freeze dried blood plasma, first used in World War II

FREEZE
DRYING

Freeze dried space food

 DRYING MODES:
B ASED ON HEAT SOURCE

DIRECT HEATING INDIRECT HEATING

• Direct contact between wet
solids and hot gas into which
evaporation takes place
• Heat is supplied through other
means, gas is only used to carry
away the moisture
• Eg. Heat conduction through metal
wall, infrared radiation, radio
frequency, or microwave
irradiation.
 EQUILIBRIUM MOISTURE CONTENT

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑋 = 𝑥100%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑
X is equal to wt% of moisture on a dry-solid basis
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑊 = 𝑥100%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑

Relation between
X and W

XT = Total Moisture content of solid

When contacted with non
saturated gas (hr <100%)
X* → equilibrium moisture
content
(XT – X*) → free moisture
When contacted with
saturated gas (hr =100%)
X* = XB → bound moisture
(XT – XB) → unbound moisture

Only free moisture or unbound moisture that can be

removed from solid during drying process
 EXAMPLE A wet solid is to dried from 80% to 5% moisture, wet basis.
Compute the moisture to be evaporated, per 1000 kg of
dried product.

1. Conversion from wet basis to dry basis

2. Calculate bone-dry solid mass
3. Calculate moisture to be evaporated (from initial to final X)
 EQU ILIBRIU M MOIS TU RE C ONTENT:
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE & HYSTERESIS

• Hysteresis : different equilibrium moisture content

during drying and wetting process.
• Possible causes : failure to reach equilibrium;
irreversibility of condensation/evaporation in capillaries
EQU ILIBRIU M MOIS TU RE C ONTENT OF
VA RIOUS SOLIDS AT 1 ATM 25 O C
 Drying Rate Curve

DRYING RATE FLUX

• The decrease of moisture content as a

function of time
• For direct heat dryers:

Constant rate
• mv : mass of moisture evaporated
falling rate
• ms : mass of bone-dry solid
• X : moisture content

Critical moisture content:

Moisture content at the end of constant rate
period

CONSTANT RATE DRYING
• Drying is assumed to take place on a
saturated surface of the material
• Drying rate is determined by the heat
transfer rate to the surface and the mass
transfer rate from the surface to
surrounding air.
or
(App 7)
• The calculations are usually based on heat
transfer due to less uncertainty.
• Estimation of heat transfer coefficient:
(1) For turbulent airflow parallel with the surface
of solid
ℎ𝑦 𝐷𝑒
𝑁𝑢 = = 0.037𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 0.3
𝑘
De : equivalent diameter of airflow channel
k : thermal conductcivity of gas (see App. 12
McCabe, Smith, Harriot)
(2) For parallel airflow at velocities 0.9 – 4.5 m/s
G : mass flux
Constant Rate Drying
Rate Flux (Rc) in kg/h.m2
or equivalent units:
 C ONS TA NT RATE DRYING TIME

• Since :

mv : mass of moisture evaporated

ms : mass of bone-dry solid
X : moisture content

• By integration from t=0 to t=tc :

𝑚𝑠 𝑋0 − 𝑋𝑐
𝑡𝑐 =
𝐴𝑅𝑐

X0 : initial moisture content

XC : critical moisture content (at the end of
constant rate period)
 C ONS TA NT RATE
DRYING

Step:
1) Read all data from appendix
2) Estimate hy
3) Calculate Rc
4) Calculate mass of moisture
to be vaporized
5) Calculate drying time
 Constant rate
FALLING RATE DRYING
falling rate
• After constant rate period is over,
surface now appears dry.
• Drying rate is determined by how fast
moisture can diffuse to the surface, and
not by the conditions in the air.
Constant rate
• The diffusion rate to the surface is
determined by the diffusivity and by the
concentration driving force (dc/dx). falling rate
• With time, concentration gradient is
decrease → lower diffusivity → falling
rate.
• Determination of drying time relies on
experimental data to explain system Constant rate
behaviour (case 1-3) → empiricism
falling rate
 Constant rate

FALLING RATE DRYING

TIME (C ASE -1) falling rate

• Falling rate drying time (tf) can be obtained

by integration from t=tc to t=t :

Drying Rate Curve

• Thus:

X : falling rate moisture content tc, Xc

XC : critical moisture content Constant
rate
Total t, X
Drying falling rate
Time (tT):
 DRYER HEAT DUTY (Q T )

Energy to be provided by dryer to

accomplish the following drying process:
1. Heating solid to vaporization
temperature
2. Vaporizing the liquid/moisture
3. Heating solid to final temperature
4. Heating vapor to final temperature

1,3, and 4 are usually negligible compared

to 2.
SEE YOU IN A FEW MONTHS
GOOD LUCK