SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION
The displaced configuration of many mechanical systems and structures subject to dynamic loads can
be completely described by specifying the time-varying displacement along only one coordinate direction. Such
systems are designated as single-degree-of-freedom systems. Often, the modeling of a system as a single-
degree-of-freedom system is an idealization. How truly the response of the idealized model fits the true behavior
depends on several factors, including the characteristics of the system, the initial conditions, the exciting force,
and the response quantity of interest. Nevertheless, for a large number of systems, representation as a single-
degree-of-freedom model is quite satisfactory from an engineering point of view.

In view of the importance and the simplicity of single-degree-of-freedom systems, this is devoted
exclusively to a discussion of the formulation of equations that relate the response of such systems to one or
more exciting forces. There is another equally important reason for treating the single-degree-of-freedom
systems separately. As we shall see later, the analysis of the response of more complex multi-degree-of-freedom
systems is in many cases accomplished by obtaining the response of several related single-degree- of-freedom
systems and then superimposing these responses.

INERTIA FORCE
Figure 1 shows the simplest of all single-degree-of-freedom systems. It represents a rigid body of mass m
constrained to move along the x-axis in the plane of the paper. The mass is attached to a firm support by a spring
of stiffness k. At any time, the total time-varying force acting on the mass in a horizontal direction is denoted by
Q(t). In general, it is comprised of the externally applied force p(t); the spring force fS, which depends on the
displacement u of the system from a position of equilibrium; and the force of resistance or damping. This last
force, denoted as fD, arises from air resistance and/or internal and external frictions. From Newton's second law
of motion, the applied force is equal to the rate of change of momentum

Figure 1. Forces on a single-degree-of-freedom system

d du
Q(t)= (m ) (1)
dt dt

In Equation 1, the momentum is expressed as the product of mass and velocity. In general, the mass of a system
may also vary with time. An example of a varying mass system is a rocket in flight, where the mass of the rocket
is decreasing continuously as the fuel burns out. For most mechanical systems or structures of interest to us,
however, mass does not vary with time and therefore can be taken out of the differentiation. Using overdots to
represent differentiation with respect to time, Equation 1 can be rewritten as
Q(t)=mü
or
Q(t)-mü =0 (2)

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

Quantity mü has the units of a force. If we define an inertia force as having a magnitude equal to the product of
mass and acceleration and a direction opposite to the direction of acceleration, we can view Equation 2 as an
equation of equilibrium among the forces acting on a body. This principle, known as d'Alembert's principle,
converts the problem of dynamic response to an equivalent static problem involving equilibrium of forces and
permits us to use for its solution all those procedures that we use for solving problems of the latter class.

Figure 2. Inertia force on a moving mass

On a cursory glance, d'Alembert's principle appears simply as a mathematical artifact. Its physical significance
can, however, be appreciated by considering the following simple example. Figure 2 shows a spring balance
bolted to the floor of an elevator. A body having mass m is placed on the scale. First, let the elevator be at rest.
The reading on the scale will indicate the weight of the body, mg, where g is the acceleration due to gravity. Now,
let the body be pulled upward with a force F which is less than the weight mg. The scale will record a new reading
equal to mg – F. Obviously, the downward force of gravity exerted by the body is being counteracted by an upward
force F. Next, let the force F be removed, but let the elevator move downward with an acceleration a. The scale
reading will change from mg to mg – ma. To an observer inside the elevator, the effect on the scale reading of a
downward acceleration is no different from that of the upward force F. The quantity ma thus manifests itself as
a virtual force acting in a direction opposite to the direction of acceleration.

SPRING FORCES
An elastic body undergoing deformation under the action of external forces sets up internal forces that resist the
deformation. These forces of elastic constraints, alternatively known as spring forces, are present irrespective
of whether the deformation is a result of static or dynamic forces acting on the body. The simplest example of
the force of elastic constraint is provided by a helical spring shown in Figure 3. When stretched by a force applied
at its end, the spring resists the deformation by an internal force which is related to the magnitude of the
deformation. The relationship between the spring force and the displacement of the spring may take the form
shown in Figure 3. In general, this relationship is nonlinear. However, for many systems, particularly when the
deformations are small, the force—displacement relationship can be idealized by a straight line. The slope of this
straight line is denoted by k and is called the spring constant or the spring rate. Thus, for a linear spring, the
spring constant can be defined as the force required to cause a unit displacement and the total spring force is
given by

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 Figure 3. Force-displacement relationship for a helical spring

fs =ku (3)
A similar definition of spring force can be applied to the forces of elastic constraints exerted by bodies of other
form. For example, consider the cantilever beam shown in Figure 4a, and let the coordinate of interest be along
a vertical at the end of the beam. A vertical load P applied at the end of the beam will cause a displacement in
the direction of the load of PL3/3EI, where L is the length of the beam, E the modulus of elasticity, and I the
moment of inertia of the beam cross section. The spring constant, the force required to cause a unit
displacement, is therefore 3EI/L3. Figure 4b shows a portal frame consisting of a rigid beam supported by two
similar uniform columns each of length L, both fixed at their base. For a coordinate in the horizontal direction at
the level of the beam, the spring constant is easily determined as 24EI/L3.

Figure 4. Definition of spring forces in elastic structures: (a) cantilever beam; (b) portal frame

DAMPING FORCES
As stated earlier, the motion of a body is in practice resisted by several kinds of damping forces. These forces
are always opposed to the direction of motion, but their characteristics are difficult to define or to measure.
Usually, the magnitude of a damping force is small in comparison to the force of inertia and the spring force.
Despite this, damping force may significantly affect the response. Also, in many mechanical systems, damping
devices are incorporated on purpose. These devices help in controlling the vibrations of the system and are
usually designed to provide a substantial amount of damping. For example, the shock absorbers in an
automobile are devices which by providing large damping forces, cut down the unwanted vibrations.

A damping force may result from the resistance offered by air. When the velocity is small, the resistance offered
by a fluid or a gas is proportional to the velocity. A resisting force of this nature is called viscous damping force
and is given by
fD =cu̇ (4)
where c is a constant of proportionality called the damping coefficient. The damping force is, of course, always
opposed to the direction of motion. When the velocity is large, the damping force due to air resistance becomes

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

proportional to the square of the velocity. Therefore, a viscous damping force is either a linear or a nonlinear
function of the velocity. As we will see later, the velocity of a vibrating system is, in general, proportional to its
frequency, and hence a viscous damping force increases with the frequency of vibration.

FORMULATION OF THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION

Figure 5a shows the simplest single-degree-of-freedom system. The mechanism providing the force of elastic
constraint is localized in the massless spring. The mass can be assumed to be concentrated at the mass center
of the rigid block. The mechanism providing the force of resistance is represented by a dashpot. The spring force,
the damping force, the force of inertia, and the externally applied force are all identified on the diagram. The
equation of motion is obtained directly on equating the sum of the forces acting along the x-axis to zero. Thus,

Figure 5. Dynamic equilibrium of a single-degree-of-freedom system.

fI +fD +fS =p(t) (5)

As an alternative, we may reason that the spring forces fs must be balanced by an equal and opposite force, PI
= fs, as shown in Figure 5b. We will find that this line of reasoning makes it simpler to visualize the formulation
of the equations of motion for multi-degree-of-freedom systems. If the spring is assumed to be linear with spring
constant k and the damping is viscous with a damping coefficient c, Equation 5 can be written as
mü +cu̇ +ku=p(t) (6)
Equation 6 is linear because coefficients m, k, and c are constant and because the power of u and its time
derivatives is no more than 1. Further, the equation is a second order differential equation. Its solution will give
u as a function of time.

UNDAMPED FREE VIBRATION

When damping is absent, the equation of motion becomes
mü +ku=0 (7)
A possible solution of Equation 7 is of the form
𝑢 = 𝐺𝑒 𝜆𝑡 (8)
where G and λ are arbitrary constants to be determined. Substitution of Equation 8 to Equation 7 gives
𝐺𝜆2 𝑚𝑒 𝜆𝑡 + 𝐺𝑘𝑒 𝜆𝑡 = 0 (9)
Equation 9 will be satisfied provided that 𝐺 = 0, but as evident from Equation 8, this leads to 𝑢 = 0 and no
motion takes place. For motion to take place, G must be nonzero and can be canceled from Equation 9. On
canceling 𝑒 𝜆𝑡 as well, we obtain the characteristic equation
𝜆2 𝑚 + 𝑘 = 0 (10)
or
𝜆 = ±𝑖𝜔 (11)
where 𝜔 = √𝑘⁄𝑚.

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

The general solution of Equation 7 now becomes
𝑢 = 𝐺1 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 + 𝐺2 𝑖 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 (12)
By using de Moivre’s theorem, Equation 12 can be written in the alternative form
𝑢 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑡 (13)
where A and B are arbitrary constants. To determine the arbitrary constants, we use the specified initial
conditions of displacement and velocity at time t = 0.
𝑢 = 𝑢0
𝑢̇ = 𝑢̇ 0 } 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0 (14)
Substitution of initial conditions gives 𝐴 = 𝑢0 and 𝐵 = 𝑢̇ 0 ⁄𝜔, so that Equation 13 becomes
𝑢̇ 0
𝑢 = 𝑢0 cos 𝜔𝑡 + sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜌 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) (15)
𝜔
where

𝑢̇ 0 2
𝜌 = √𝑢02 + ( )
𝜔 (16)
𝑢0 𝜔
tan 𝜙 =
𝑢̇ 0
Equation 15 has been plotted in Figure 6c. It shows an oscillatory motion which repeats itself. Specifically, on
examining the response at two instances of time 2𝜋⁄𝜔 apart, namely 𝑡1 and (2𝜋⁄𝜔) + 𝑡1 , we get
𝑢(𝑡1 ) = 𝜌 sin(𝜔𝑡1 + 𝜙) (17)
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑢 ( + 𝑡1 ) = 𝜌 sin [( + 𝑡1 ) 𝜔 + 𝜙] = 𝜌 sin(𝜔𝑡1 + 𝜙) = 𝑢(𝑡1 ) (18)
𝜔 𝜔
It is easily proved that the velocity ü is also the same at the two instances of time. This implies that the motion
repeats itself after 𝑇 = 2𝜋⁄𝜔 seconds. This interval of time is called the period of motion. It takes T seconds
from the time the system passes through a certain configuration moving in a certain direction until it next passes
through the same configuration moving in an identical direction. This phase of motion is referred to as one cycle
motion. For the simple block-spring system of Figure 6a, the motion from the time the block is, say, in its zero-
displacement position and moving to the right until the next instant of time when it is again in that position and
is moving to the right can be described as one cycle of motion. The system executes f cycles of motion in 1 s,
where f, called the natural frequency, is given by
1 𝜔
𝑓= = ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧 (𝐻𝑧) (19)
𝑇 2𝜋
The maximum displacement of the system is equal to 𝜌 and is called the amplitude of vibration. It remains
constant with time. Angle 𝜙 in Equation 15 is called the phase angle. The motion represented by Equation 15
and shown in Figure 6 is a harmonic motion of the simplest type and is referred to as a simple harmonic motion.

Phase Plane Diagram

For conceptual visualization of a simple harmonic motion, it is useful to imagine a vector of length p starting off
at an angle 𝜙 from the horizontal time axis and rotating anticlockwise with a constant angular velocity 𝜔 rad/s
as shown in Figure 6b. The projection of the rotating vector on the vertical axis at time t is equal to 𝜌 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
and gives the displacement of the system at that time. It is readily seen that as the rotating vector goes through
one complete round, the system completes one cycle of motion. The angular velocity of the rotating vector, 𝜔, is
called the circular frequency of the system and is related to T and to f as follows
2𝜋
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = (20)
𝑇
The rotating vector representation provides a convenient graphical method of obtaining the free-vibration
response. It can also be extended to obtain the response under the action of an applied force.

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 Figure 6. Free undamped vibrations of a single-degree-of-freedom system

As already pointed out, the displacement u of a freely-vibrating system is given by Equation 15, while the velocity
𝑢̇ is obtained by differentiating Equation 15. It is useful to define a velocity function defined by 𝑢̇ ⁄𝜔 and having
the units of displacement. An expression for the velocity function can be obtained by differentiating Equation 15
and dividing by 𝜔. Thus
𝑢̇
= 𝜌 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) (21)
𝜔

Equations 15 and 21 are parametric equations of a circle of radius 𝜌. They represent the circle described by the
rotating vector. The projection of this vector on horizontal axis is equal to the velocity function 𝑢̇ ⁄𝜔 and can be
used to construct the velocity-time diagram shown in Figure 6d. As already noted, the vertical component of the
rotating vector is equal to the displacement u and gives the displacement-time diagram shown in Figure 6c.

The curve described by the rotating vector is also referred to as the phase plane diagram, in which 𝑢̇ ⁄𝜔 is
measured along the abscissa and u is measured along the ordinate. It can be used to obtain the response for
different kinds of initial conditions, for impulses applied during a response era, for sudden support motion, and
even for an arbitrary applied load. In the following paragraphs, we illustrate several different applications of the
phase plane diagram.

As a simple example of the use of phase plane diagram, consider the free vibration response after an initial
displacement of 𝑢0 . In this case, the length of the rotating vector obtained from Equation 16 is 𝜌 = 𝑢0 and the

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

phase angle 𝜙 = 𝜋⁄2. The vector rotates at an angular speed of 𝜔 = √𝑘⁄𝑚 rad/s. The phase plane diagram is
shown in Figure 7b. The response can be obtained directly from the phase plane diagram as
𝜋
𝑢 = 𝑢0 sin (𝜔𝑡 + ) = 𝑢0 cos 𝜔𝑡
2
𝑢̇ 𝜋 (22)
= 𝑢0 cos (𝜔𝑡 + ) = −𝑢0 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜔 2

Alternatively, the displacement versus time and velocity function versus time relationships can be constructed
graphically as shown in Figure 7c and d, respectively.

Next, consider the case when the motion is caused by an impulse, I applied at time t = 0. From Newton's law of
motion, we know that the application of an impulse I results in an increase of velocity by 𝐼 ⁄𝑚 . In the case under
consideration, therefore, the motion starts with an initial velocity 𝑣0 = 𝐼 ⁄𝑚. The length of the rotating vector is
𝑢̇ 0 ⁄𝜔 and 𝜙 = 0. The resulting phase plane diagram is as shown in Figure 8b. The response is obtained either
by graphical construction or by the following mathematical expressions derived from the phase plane diagram
𝑢̇ 0
𝑢 = sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜔 (23)
𝑢̇ 𝑢̇ 0
= cos 𝜔𝑡
𝜔 𝜔
The displacement and velocity responses are shown in Figure 8c and d, respectively.

As another example, consider a system undergoing free vibration from initial conditions 𝑢0 and 𝑢̇ 0 . After 𝑡1
seconds, its velocity changes by 𝑣1 = 𝐼1 ⁄𝑚. It is required to obtain the response of the system. The phase plane
diagram for the system is shown in Figure 9b. The starting length of the rotating vector 𝜌 = √𝑢02 + (𝑢̇ 0 ⁄𝜔)2 and
its initial position is established by scaling 𝑢̇ 0 ⁄𝜔 on the horizontal axis and on the vertical axis. In 𝑡1 seconds,
the vector has rotated through an angle 𝜔𝑡1 radians. At this time, impulse 𝐼1 causes the velocity to change by
𝐼1 ⁄𝑚. On the phase plane diagram, a horizontal line of length 𝐼1 ⁄(𝑚𝜔) is drawn to the right from the tip of the
current position of the rotating vector. The new position of the rotating vector as well as its new length is now
obtained by joining the origin to the end of the horizontal line just drawn. The second era of response begins
from this new position of the vector. Since the frequency of the system is unchanged, the vector continues to
rotate at the initial speed of 𝜔 radians per second. The response can be obtained from the phase plane diagram
either by graphical means or in the form of mathematical expressions
𝑢 = 𝜌1 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙1 ) ; 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑡1
(24)
𝑢 = 𝜌2 sin[𝜔(𝑡 − 𝑡1 ) + 𝜙2 ] ; 𝑡1 < 𝑡
where 𝜌1 ,𝜌2 , 𝜙1 , and 𝜙2 are as indicated in Figure 7b. The displacement and velocity responses are shown in
Figure 7c and d, respectively.

As a final example, suppose that the simple single-degree-of-freedom system shown in Figure 8a starts vibrating
due to a sudden displacement 𝑢𝑔 of the support to the right. It is evident that the resulting motion of the block
is the same as if the block were vibrating about a new origin shifted a distance 𝑢𝑔 to the right by an initial
displacement −𝑢𝑔 toward the origin. The resulting phase plane diagram is shown in Figure 8b, from which the
response is seen to be
𝑢 = 𝑢𝑔 (1 − cos 𝜔𝑡)
𝑢̇ 𝑔 (25)
= 𝑢𝑔 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜔
The displacement and velocity responses are shown in Figure 8c and d, respectively. later, we shall see that
these responses are exactly equal to those caused by the sudden application of a constant force of magnitude
𝑘𝑢𝑔 .

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 Figure 7. Vibrations of a single-degree-of-freedom system subjected to an impulse

The potential energy of a system undergoing free vibration is equal to the strain energy stored in the spring, so
that
1 1
𝑉 = 𝑘𝑢2 = 𝑘𝜌2 sin2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) (26)
2 2
At the same time, the kinetic energy of the mass is given by
1 1 1
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑢̇ 2 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝜌2 cos 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) = 𝑘𝜌2 cos 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) (27)
2 2 2
Equations 26 and 27 give
1
𝑉 + 𝑇 = 𝑘𝜌2 (28)
2
Since no energy is dissipated in a system undergoing free vibrations, the sum of the potential energy and the
kinetic energy should be constant. This implies that as long as no external energy is input, the length of the
rotating vector, 𝜌, should be a constant. Circles in a phase plane diagram thus represent constant-energy states.
Application of external excitation such as impulse or a support motion represent input of energy which causes a
change in length of the rotating vector.

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 Figure 8. Response to a sudden movement of support

FREE VIBRATIONS WITH VISCOUS DAMPING

The equation governing the free vibration of a system with viscous damping is obtained from Equation 6 by
setting 𝑝(𝑡) = 0.
𝑚𝑢̈ + 𝑐𝑢̇ + 𝑘𝑢 = 0 (29)
Equation 29 also has a solution of the form of Equation 8. Substitution of this solution in Equation 29 leads to
the following characteristic equation in 𝜆
𝑚𝜆2 + 𝑐𝜆 + 𝑘 = 0 (30)

Solutions of Equation 30 gives the following two values of 𝜆

𝑐 𝑐 2 𝑘
𝜆1 = − + √( ) −
2𝑚 2𝑚 𝑚
(31)
𝑐 𝑐 2 𝑘
𝜆2 = − − √( ) −
2𝑚 2𝑚 𝑚
The characteristics of the damped free-vibration response will depend on the value of damping coefficient c.
three different cases arise:
1. Critically damped system
2. Overdamped system
3. Underdamped system

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

Each of the three cases is discussed in the following paragraphs.

Critically Damped System

A system in which the magnitude of damping is such that the discriminant in Equation 31 is zero is called a
critically damped system. The damping constant, c is, in this case denoted 𝑐𝑐𝑟 and its value is given by
𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐𝑟 = 2√𝑘𝑚 = 2𝑚𝜔 (32)
where 𝜔 = √𝑘⁄𝑚 is the natural frequency of the associated undamped system. The two roots of Equation 30
are now equal, so that
𝑐𝑐𝑟
𝜆1 = 𝜆2 = − = −𝜔 (33)
2𝑚

For repeated roots as in Equation 32, the general solution of Equation 29 is given by
𝑢 = (𝐺1 + 𝐺2 𝑡)𝑒 −𝜔𝑡 (34)

where 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 are arbitrary constants to be determined from initial conditions. Substitution of initial
displacement and initial velocity from Equation 14 leads to the following values for 𝐺1 and 𝐺2
𝐺1 = 𝑢0
(35)
𝐺2 = 𝑢̇ 0 + 𝜔𝑢0
The general solution thus becomes
𝑢 = [𝑢0 + (𝑢̇ 0 + 𝜔𝑢0 )𝑡]𝑒 −𝜔𝑡 (36)
Equation 36 has been plotted in Figure 9. It is noted that motion is not oscillatory. The system displacement
decays exponentially with time and becomes very nearly zero after a while, although theoretically it takes an
infinite time for the displacement to become zero. As we shall see later, critical damping is the least amount of
damping for which the motion is non-oscillatory. Thus, whenever damping is less than critical, motion becomes
oscillatory.

Figure 9. Free-vibration response of a critically damped system

Overdamped system
When damping is greater then 𝑐𝑐𝑟 , the system is said to be overdamped. For convenience, we define a damping
ratio 𝜉 given by
𝑐
𝜉= (37)
𝑐𝑐𝑟
For overdamped systems, 𝜉 > 1. Also, the damping constant c can be expressed as

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐𝑟 𝜉 = 2𝑚𝜔𝜉 (38)
Substitution of Equation 30 in Equation 31 becomes
𝜆1 = −𝜔𝜉 + 𝜔√𝜉 2 − 1
(39)
𝜆2 = −𝜔𝜉 − 𝜔√𝜉 2 − 1
If we denote 𝜔√𝜉 2 − 1 by 𝜔
̅, the general solution of Equation 29 becomes
𝑢 = 𝑒 −𝜔𝑡 (𝐺1 𝑒 𝜔̅𝑡 + 𝐺2 𝑒 −𝜔̅𝑡 ) (40)
where the arbitrary constants 𝐺1 and 𝐺2 are again determined by initial conditions.

Equation 40 can be expressed in the alternative form

𝑢 = 𝑒 𝜔𝑡 (𝐴 cosh 𝜔
̅𝑡 + 𝐵 sinh 𝜔
̅𝑡) (41)
where A and B are also arbitrary constants. Equation 41 has been plotted in Figure 10. In this case, too, the
motion is non-oscillatory. The displacement decays exponentially with time, although in comparison to a critically
damped system, it takes longer for the system to return to a zero-displacement position.

Figure 10. Free-vibration response of an overdamped system

Underdamped System
In all structural systems and in a majority of mechanical systems, the damping is less than critical. Such systems
are said to be underdamped. Mechanical systems for which it is required that the system return to a zero-
displacement position in the least amount of time are designed to have critical damping. Examples are a recoiling
gun and a weighing scale. Certain other recoil mechanisms, for example an automatic door closer, are designed
to have overdamping. Leaving aside the few examples of the type cited above, most real systems are
underdamped, and a study of underdamped vibrations is therefore of considerable importance. The damping
ratio is again defined as 𝑐 ⁄𝑐𝑐𝑟 , and the two solutions 𝜆1 and 𝜆2 take the form of Equation 39. The damping ratio
is however less than 1 in this case, the discriminant in Equation 39 is negative, and the two roots becomes
imaginary. Thus
𝜆1 = −𝜔𝜉 + 𝑖𝜔√1 − 𝜉 2
(42)
𝜆2 = −𝜔𝜉 − 𝑖𝜔√1 − 𝜉 2
Denoting 𝜔√1 − 𝜉 2 by 𝜔𝑑 , the general solution of Equation 29 can be written as
𝑢 = 𝑒 −𝜔𝜉𝑡 (𝐺1 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐺2 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑑𝑡 ) (43)
By using de Moivre’s theorem, Equation 43 can be expressed in the alternative form
𝑢 = 𝑒 −𝜔𝜉𝑡 (𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐵 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 (44)

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

Where A and B are arbitrary constants to be determined by the initial conditions. When A and B are determined
from the conditions given in Equation 14, Equation 44 becomes
𝑢̇ 0 + 𝜔𝜉𝑢0
𝑢 = 𝑒 −𝜔𝜉𝑡 (𝑢0 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡) (45)
𝜔𝑑
Equation 45 can be expressed as
𝑢 = 𝜌𝑒 −𝜔𝜉𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙) (46)
where the amplitude 𝜌 and the phase angle 𝜙 are given by

𝑢̇ 0 + 𝜔𝜉𝑢0 2
𝜌 = √𝑢02 + ( )
𝜔𝑑 (47)
𝑢0 𝜔𝑑
tan 𝜙 =
𝑢̇ 0 + 𝑢0 𝜔𝜉

Figure 11. Free vibrations of a damped system

Equation 46 has been plotted in Figure 11c. The motion is oscillatory or cyclic and repeats itself after a period
𝑇𝑑 = 2𝜋⁄𝜔𝑑 , referred to as the damped period. Referring to the simple system of Figure 11a, a cycle of motion
can be described as the motion taking place from the instant the block is at its extreme right position to the next
instant of time, when it is again in that position. However, in this case, the amplitude of displacement at the
second instant of time is lower than that at the first. This amplitude decay is caused by the exponential term in
Equation 46. The natural frequency of the system in cycles per second, denoted by 𝑓𝑑 , is given by 𝑓𝑑 = 1⁄𝑇𝑑 .

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

Figure 5.8c also shows curves representing two other functions of time: 𝜌𝑒 −𝜔𝜉𝑡 and −𝜌𝑒 −𝜔𝜉𝑡 . These curves
envelope the displacement—time relationship and touch the latter at those points where sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙) is equal
to +1 and -1, respectively. These points, however, do not represent maximas on the displacement—time
relationship; the actual maximas lie just a bit to the left of these points. The time at which a maximum occurs is
obtained by equating the derivative of Equation 46 to zero. The relationship giving the time at maximum
displacement is found to be
√1 − 𝜉 2
tan(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙) = (48)
𝜉
or
sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙) = ±√1 − 𝜉 2 (49)
From Equation 49, it is evident that for small values of 𝜉, sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙) is very nearly equal to ±1 at peaks in the
displacement curve.

Phase Plane Diagram

As in the case of undamped free-vibration response, a rotating vector representation can be used for damped
free vibration, too. Imagine a vector of length 𝜌𝑒 −𝜔𝜉𝑡 starting off at an angle 𝜙 from the time axis and rotating
anticlockwise at a constant angular velocity of 𝜔𝑑 radians per second. At any instant of time, the projection of
such a vector on the vertical axis gives the displacement of the system at that instant. Unlike in the case of an
undamped system, the size of the vector is not constant, but decays exponentially with time. The speed of
angular rotation, 𝜔𝑑 , is called the damped circular frequency and it takes the vector one period = 2𝜋⁄𝜔𝑑 seconds
to complete one full rotation. The velocity expression for the system is obtained by differentiating Equation 46.
Thus
𝑢̇ = 𝜔𝜉𝜌𝑒 −𝜔𝜉𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙) + 𝜔𝑑 𝜌𝑒 −𝜔𝜉𝑡 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙) (50)
Equation 50 can be written in the alternative form
𝑢̇ 𝜔𝜉 −𝜔𝜉𝑡
= 𝜌𝑒 −𝜔𝜉𝑡 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙) − 𝜌𝑒 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙) (51)
𝜔𝑑 𝜔𝑑
Now suppose that we define an oblique pair of axes OX and OY, with axis OY inclined from the vertical by an
angle 𝜎 as shown in Figure 11b. The component of the rotation vector of length 𝜌𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑡 on the vertical axis is
𝜌𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙). The component OB along the OX axis obtained by drawing Ab parallel to the axis OY is
𝑂𝐵 = 𝜌𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑡 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙) − 𝜌𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑡 tan 𝜎 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙) (52)
On comparing Equations 51 and 52, we note that OB will be equal to 𝑢̇ ⁄𝜔𝑑 , provided that we select 𝜎 such that
𝜔𝜉 𝜉
tan 𝜎 = = (53)
𝜔𝑑 √1 − 𝜉 2
Figure 5.8b represents the phase plane diagram for a damped single-degree-of-freedom system. In this case,
since the length of rotating vector decreases as 𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑡 , its trace is a spiral rather than a circle. The speed of the
rotating vector is 𝜔𝑑 instead of 𝜔. As noted earlier, the projection of the rotating vector on the vertical axis is
equal to the displacement and can be used to draw the displacement—time diagram of Figure 11c. The velocity
function 𝑢̇ ⁄𝜔𝑑 is obtained by taking an oblique projection of OA on the horizontal axis. The oblique projection is
obtained by drawing AB parallel to a line inclined at an angle from the vertical, where is given by Equation 53.
The projected length 0B can be used to construct the velocity function versus time relationship shown in Figure
11d.

As in the case of an undamped system, the speed of angular rotation 𝜔𝑑 is called circular frequency. It takes the
vector one period, that is, 𝑇𝑑 = 2𝜋⁄𝜔𝑑 seconds, to complete one full rotation. The damped frequency 𝜔𝑑 =
𝜔√1 − 𝜉 2 is always less than the undamped frequency 𝜔. However, for small values of 𝜉, the difference between
the two is quite small, and in such cases, 𝜔𝑑 can be taken to be equal to 𝜔 without much error. As an example,
for 𝜉 = 0.1, 𝜔𝑑 is 99.0% of 𝜔.

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

The construction of a phase plane diagram for a damped system involves somewhat more work than it does for
an undamped system because the curve traced by the rotating vector is a spiral rather than a circle. The equation
of the spiral 𝑟 = 𝜌𝑒 −𝜔𝜉𝑡 shows that the shape of the spiral depends on the damping ratio. For a given value of
𝜉, a spiral has to be drawn only once. Using this drawing as a template, the spiral can be transferred to the phase
plane diagram by selecting the required value of 𝜌 on the spiral. Thus, referring to Figure 12, if the starting length
of vector is 𝜌 = 𝜌1 , the spiral will begin from line OA, which is of length 𝜌1 , and the angle 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 will be
measured from that line. At the end of time t, the vector will be in position 0B and its length will be given by
𝑂𝐵 = 𝜌1 𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑡 = 𝜌1 𝑒 −𝜉𝜃𝜔⁄𝜔𝑑 = 𝜌1 𝑒 −𝜃𝜉 ⁄√1−𝜉
2
(54)
For small values of 𝜉, 𝑂𝐵 = 𝜌1 𝑒 −𝜃𝜉 .

2
Figure 12. Spiral 𝑟 = 𝜌𝑒 −𝜃𝜉 ⁄√1−𝜉

Logarithmic Decrement
In the free vibration of an undamped system, displacement amplitude decays exponentially with time. The rate
of decrease depends on the damping ratio 𝜉. If we denote the displacement at time 𝑡1 by 𝑢1 ≡ 𝑢(𝑡1 ), then
𝑢(𝑡1 ) = 𝜌𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑡 sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡1 + 𝜙) (55)
The displacement at time 𝑡1 + 2𝜋⁄𝜔𝑑 is given by
2𝜋
𝑢 (𝑡1 + ) = 𝜌𝑒 −𝜉𝜔(𝑡1+2𝜋⁄𝜔𝑑) sin(𝜔𝑑 𝑡1 + 𝜙) (56)
𝜔𝑑
The ratio of 𝑢(𝑡1 ) to 𝑢(𝑡1 + 2𝜋⁄𝜔𝑑 ) provides a measure of the decrease in displacement over one cycle of
motion. This ratio is constant and does not vary with time; its natural log is called logarithmic decrement and is
denoted by 𝛿. The values of 𝛿 is given by
𝑒 −𝜉𝜔𝑡1 𝜔 𝜉
𝛿 = ln [ ] = 2𝜋𝜉 = 2𝜋 (57)
𝑒 −𝜉𝜔(𝑡1+2𝜋⁄𝜔𝑑 ) 𝜔𝑑 √1 − 𝜉 2
For small values of 𝜉, 𝛿 ≈ 2𝜋𝜉. If 𝛿 is obtained from measurements and 𝜉 is to be evaluated, we can use

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP

 𝛿
𝜉= (58)
2𝜋
or more accurately
𝛿
𝜉= (59)
√4𝜋 2 + 𝛿2
Over n cycles of motion, the displacement will decrease from 𝑢1 to 𝑢𝑛 , the ratio of the two values being
𝑢1
= 𝑒 2𝜋𝜉𝑛𝜔⁄𝜔𝑑 (60)
𝑢𝑛
Equation 60 gives
𝑢1
ln ( ) = 𝑛𝛿 (61)
𝑢𝑛
The number of cycles N over which the displacement amplitude will decay to half its value at the beginning can
be obtained from Equation 61 and is given by
ln 2
𝑁= (62)
𝛿
The value of N obtained from Equation 62 is plotted in Figure 13 as a function of 𝜉.

Figure 13. Amplitude decay versus damping

EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING MARC ERICK VON A. TIOSING, CE, MP