Define the following terms:

a) hypothesis
Hypothesis is a supposition or explanation (theory) that is provisionally accepted in order to
interpret certain events or phenomena, and to provide guidance for further investigation. A
hypothesis may be proven correct or wrong, and must be capable of refutation. If it remains
unrefuted by facts, it is said to be verified or corroborated.
b) two-tailed predictions
A two-tailed test is a statistical test in which the critical area of a distribution is two-sided and tests
whether a sample is greater than or less than a certain range of values. If the sample being
tested falls into either of the critical areas, the alternative hypothesis is accepted instead of the
null hypothesis. The two-tailed test gets its name from testing the area under both tails of a
normal distribution, although the test can be used in other non-normal distributions.
c) sampling

Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of

observations are taken from a larger population. The methodology used to sample from a larger
population depends on the type of analysis being performed but may include simple random
sampling or systematic sampling.

In business, a CPA performing an audit uses sampling to determine the accuracy of account
balances in the financial statements, and managers use sampling to assess the success of the
firm’s marketing efforts.
d) SPSS
SPSS is the acronym of Statistical Package for the Social Science. SPSS is one of the most
popular statistical packages which can perform highly complex data manipulation and analysis
with simple instructions. It is designed for both interactive and non-interactive (batch) uses
e) Descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics are brief descriptive coefficients that summarize a given data set, which can
be either a representation of the entire or a sample of a population. Descriptive statistics are
broken down into measures of central tendency and measures of variability (spread). Measures
of central tendency include the mean, median, and mode, while measures of variability include
the standard deviation, variance, the minimum and maximum variables
Question 2
Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique in which the researcher selects samples
based on the subjective judgment of the researcher rather than random selection.

In non-probability sampling, not all members of the population have a chance of participating
in the study unlike probability sampling, where each member of the population has a known
chance of being selected.

Non-probability sampling is most useful for exploratory studies like pilot survey (a survey that
is deployed to a smaller sample compared to pre-determined sample size). Non-probability
sampling is used in studies where it is not possible to draw random probability sampling due
to time or cost considerations.
Non-probability sampling is a less stringent method, this sampling method depends heavily
on the expertise of the researchers. Non-probability sampling is carried out by methods of
observation and is widely used in qualitative research.

two (2) components under non-probability sampling

1. Quota Sampling: Hypothetically consider, a researcher wants to study the career goals of
male and female employees in an organization. There are 500 employees in the
organization. These 500 employees are known as population. In order to understand better
about a population, researcher will need only a sample, not the entire population. Further,
researcher is interested in particular strata within the population. Here is where quota
sampling helps in dividing the population into strata or groups.

For studying the career goals of 500 employees, technically the sample selected should
have proportionate numbers of males and females. Which means there should be 250 males
and 250 females. Since, this is unlikely, the groups or strata is selected using quota
sampling.

2. Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling helps researchers find sample when they are
difficult to locate. Researchers use this technique when the sample size is small and not
easily available. This sampling system works like the referral program. Once the researchers
find suitable subjects, they are asked for assistance to seek similar subjects to form a
considerably good size sample.

For example, this type of sampling can be used to conduct research involving a particular
illness in patients or a rare disease. Researchers can seek help from subjects to refer other
subjects suffering from the same ailment to form a subjective sample to carry out the study.

Question 3
a. Null Hypothesis, Ho = There is no significant difference on scholastics aptitude test (data
level: ratio) with presumed population. (Mean of presumed population = 500).
answer:data type
b. Alternative Hypothesis, Ha = There is a significant difference on scholastics aptitude test
(data level: ratio) with presumed population. (Mean of presumed population = 500).
answer:Measurement Scales
Question 4
Between .80 and .90 or can
Used Cronbach’s alpha to measure of internal consistency.
Cronbach's alpha scale of reliability test :

0.9 ≤ α Excellent
0.8 ≤ α < 0.9 Good
0.7 ≤ α < 0.8 Acceptable
0.6 ≤ α < 0.7 Questionable
0.5 ≤ α < 0.6 Poor
α < 0.5 Unacceptable
Question 5
Briefly discuss with appropriate example three (3) types of descriptive statistics.

1. Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of central tendency are the most basic and, often, the most informative description
of a population's characteristics. They describe the "average" member of the population of
interest. There are three measures of central tendency:

Mean -- the sum of a variable's values divided by the total number of values
Median -- the middle value of a variable
Mode -- the value that occurs most often

Example:
The incomes of five randomly selected people in the United States are $10,000, $10,000,
$45,000, $60,000, and $1,000,000.

Mean Income = (10,000 + 10,000 + 45,000 + 60,000 + 1,000,000) / 5 = $225,000

Median Income = $45,000
Modal Income = $10,000

The mean is the most commonly used measure of central tendency. Medians are generally
used when a few values are extremely different from the rest of the values (this is called a
skewed distribution). For example, the median income is often the best measure of the
average income because, while most individuals earn between $0 and $200,000, a handful
of individuals earn millions.
2. Measures of Dispersion
Measures of dispersion provide information about the spread of a variable's values. There
are four key measures of dispersion:

Range
Variance
Standard Deviation
Skew
Range is simply the difference between the smallest and largest values in the data. The
interquartile range is the difference between the values at the 75th percentile and the 25th
percentile of the data.

Variance is the most commonly used measure of dispersion. It is calculated by taking the
average of the squared differences between each value and the mean.

Standard deviation, another commonly used statistic, is the square root of the variance.

Skew is a measure of whether some values of a variable are extremely different from the
majority of the values. For example, income is skewed because most people make between
$0 and $200,000, but a handful of people earn millions. A variable is positively skewed if the
extreme values are higher than the majority of values. A variable is negatively skewed if the
extreme values are lower than the majority of values.

Example:
The incomes of five randomly selected people in the United States are $10,000, $10,000,
$45,000, $60,000, and $1,000,000:

Range = 1,000,000 - 10,000 = 990,000

Variance = [(10,000 - 225,000)2 + (10,000 - 225,000)2 + (45,000 - 225,000)2 + (60,000 -
225,000)2 + (1,000,000 - 225,000)2] / 5 = 150,540,000,000
Standard Deviation = Square Root (150,540,000,000) = 387,995
Skew = Income is positively skewed
1. Measures of Frequency:
* Count, Percent, Frequency
* Shows how often something occurs
* Use this when you want to show how often a response is given
2. Measures of Central Tendency
* Mean, Median, and Mode
* Locates the distribution by various points
* Use this when you want to show how an average or most commonly indicated response

3. Measures of Dispersion or Variation

* Range, Variance, Standard Deviation
* Identifies the spread of scores by stating intervals
* Range = High/Low points
* Variance or Standard Deviation = difference between observed score and mean
* Use this when you want to show how "spread out" the data are. It is helpful to know when
your data are so spread out that it affects the mean

Question6 List six (4) rules to name your variable in SPSS.

A Variable name is used to refer to a variable (column of the data matrix) for all commands
dealing with data in SPSS.
The following rules apply when creating new variables or changing the name of an existing
variable:
1. Variable names must be unique in a Dataset.
2. Variable names are up to 64 characters long and can only contain letters, digits and
nonpunctuation characters (except that a period (.) is allowed.
3. Spaces are not allowed in a name (traditionally - if intended - an underscore "_"
character is used instead, e.g. trust_in_media, an alternative to this might be
capitalisation: TrustInMedia)
4. Upper and lowercase letters are not distinguished. AA, aa, Aa and aA refer to the
same variable. SPSS keeps case as it is entered, e.g. "SocialStatus"
5. The first character must be a letter. @, #, or $ are also used, but then for a special
purpose (that is beyond this document). It is best to avoid them unless you know
exactly what you are doing).
6. Some names are reserved and cannot be used as names for variables as they are
used as keywords in SPSS command syntax: these words are BY, THRU and WITH,
the logical operators AND, OR, NOT, as well as the relational operators EQ,GE,GT,
LE, LT, NE.

Question 7
a. Which statistical test should be used to analyze the data?
Independent t-test. It statistical test that used to determines whether there is a statistically
significant difference between the means in two unrelated groups
b. Formulate the null and alternative hypotheses.
Formulate Null :
Ho = There is no significant difference strength experimental processes between Group
Statistics in table 1 and Levene's Testt in table 2
alternative hypotheses :
Ha = There is a significant relationship Strength experimental processes between Group
Statistics in table 1 and Levene's Testt in table 2
c. What decision should be made regarding the null and alternative hypotheses?
Ho = Assume for the moment that the null hypothesis is true. There is no relationship
between the strength experimental processes in between the table, the experimental
processes cannot deliver the result. A new method or approach should be done to create a
new experiment.
Ha = Assume for the moment that the alternative hypotheses is true. There is a relationship
between the strength experimental processes in between the table, the experimental
processes should be proceed as per usual.

Question 8
Descriptive statistics is a common first step in data analysis is to summarize information
about variables in your dataset, such as the averages and variances of variables. Show the
steps to produce a table frequency and pie graph in the descriptive menu. Your answer
should be placed in Ms Word. The Frequencies procedure can produce summary measures
for categorical variables in the form of frequency tables, bar charts, or pie charts.
Step 1 : To run the Frequencies procedure, click Analyze > Descriptive Statistics >
Frequencies.
Step 2: Variable(s): The variables to produce Frequencies output for. To include a variable
for analysis, doubleclick on its name to move it to the Variables box. Moving several
variables to this box will create several frequency tables at once
Step 3: Statistics: Opens the Frequencies: Statistics window, which contains various
descriptive statistics. The vast majority of the descriptive statistics available in the
Frequencies: Statistics window are never appropriate for nominal variables, and are rarely
appropriate for ordinal variables in most situations
Step 4: Charts: Opens the Frequencies: Charts window, which contains various graphical
options. Options include bar charts, pie charts, and histograms. For categorical variables, bar
charts and pie charts are appropriate. Histograms should only be used for continuous
variables; they should not be used for ordinal variables, and should never be used with
nominal variables.
Step 5: Format: Opens the Frequencies: Format window, which contains options for how to
sort and organize the table output.
Step 6 : Display frequency tables: When checked, frequency tables will be printed. (This box
is checked by default.) If this check box is not checked, no frequency tables will be produced,
and the only output will come from supplementary options from Statistics or Charts. For
categorical variables, you will usually want to leave this box checked.