Electric Circuit Analysis Complete PDF

Repeat Prob. 8.42 for (a) v, = We"»•«(?> V and t.
,(0) - 4 V and (I
8.44
50(e ' - e ')u(') V. (tfinr: Use a series connection of iwo sources tor i , I
M 0 100
Use SPICE to plot me output voltage of the circuit of Prob H W foi n, as shown h.i ih. mid
val 0 < / < 4 s.
9
Second-Order Circuits
Hans Christian Oersted

1777-1851
lectromagnetism was discovered in An attempt should be made cation, were accepted by the Univer-
e spring of 1820 by the Danish to see whether electricity, sity of Copenhagen, where Hans
hysicist Hans Christian Oersted in its most latent stage, has studied astronomy, chemistry, mathe-
hen he demonstrated that the nee- any effect on the magnet as matics, physics, and pharmacy. He
je of a compass moved when placed such. completed his training in pharmacy in
i&r a current-carrying wire. By July
Hans Christian Oersted 1797 and two years later received his
that year, he was certain that an doctorate in philosophy. After a brief
fectric current produced about it a stint as a pharmacist, he was at-
Icular magnetic field, and he pub- tracted to the world of science, which
bed his results in a short paper, written in Latin, and was in ferment at the time over Volta's discovery of
rried by the major scientific journals of Europe. the electric battery. Between 1800 and 1820, he was
Oersted was born in the town of Rudkobing, on a university teacher, researcher, publisher, and one of
e Danish island of Langeland, the elder son of an the most sought-after lecturers of his day.
thecary, Soren Christian Oersted. Because of Oersted's great discovery had an enormous im-
jpiily problems, Hans and his younger brother were pact on the scientific world, and he was showered
aced with a German wigmaker white they were still with honors and awards. The Royal Society of London
ung boys. The brothers' intellectual abilities and ex- gave him the Copley Medal, and the French Academy
(ordinary thirst for knowledge were soon apparent to awarded him a prize of 3000 gold francs. In his honor
e townspeople, who did what they could to educate the oersted was chosen as the standard cgs unit of
)Bm. In 1794 the brothers, with no prior formal edu- magnetic field intensify. •
258 Chapter 8 Simple RC and RL Circuits 259

Ml iH
i Wv— -m-
IK.URf ».l ( ircuit with two inductors
I n the case of linear circuits with energy-storage elements the describing equatlM The mesh equations of Fig. 9 I are given by
(those relating the outputs to the inputs) may be expressed as linear differenti.il cqua
tions, because the terminal relations of the elements are such that the terms in thf 2 ^ + 12i, - 4i = t> 2 8
dt
loop or nodal equations are derivatives, integrals, or multiples of the unknown', mil (9.1)
the source variables. Evidently, a single differentiation of an equation will remM
- 4 i , + ~ + Mi — 0
any integrals that it may contain, so that in general the loop or nodal equations l<u a at
given circuit may be considered to be differential equations. The describing eqUltM
then may be obtained from these equations.
The circuits containing storage elements that we have considered so fai wen From the second of these we have (9.2)
first-order circuits. That is, they were described byfirst-orderdifferential equ.it t
This is always the case when there is only one storage element present or whM ii
switching action converts the circuit into two or more independent circuits each hH
ing no more than one storage element.
which differentiated results in (9.3)
In this chapter we consider second-order circuits, which, as we shall sec. i mi
tain two storage elements and have describing equations that are second-order ilillc-i dU =l(d h &\
2 + 4
ential equations. In general, nth-order circuits, containing n storage elements, .in- dt 4\dt dt)2
described by nth-order differential equations. The results for first- and second onlri
Substituting (9.2) and (9.3) into the first equation of (9.1) to eliminate h, we have,
circuits (n = 1 and n = 2) may be readily extended to the general case, but wo slmll
after multiplying the resulting equation through by 2,
not do so here. However, a solution of a third-order differential equation is ouilimil fh + f +
1 0 = 2o. m (9.4)
in Prob. 9.39, which may be used to solve a third-order circuit given in Prob 9 m dr dt
Higher-order circuits are treated in more detail in Chapter 14. The describing equation for the output h is thus a second-order differential equation.
Another, very elegant, method of solving higher-order circuits, as well as HrM That is, it is a differential equation in which the highest derivative is second-order.
and second-order ones, is the Laplace transform method given in Chapter 19. An in For this reason we refer to Fig. 9.1 as a second-order circuit and note that, typically,
terested reader may go directly to this chapter without the need for reading the inter second-order circuits contain two storage elements.
vening chapters. There are exceptions, however, to the rule that two-storage-element circuits
have second-order describing equations. For example, let us consider the circuit of
Fig. 9.2, which has two capacitors. With the reference node taken as indicated,
9.1 FIGURE 9.2 Circuit with two capacitors
CIRCUITS W I T H T W O STORAGE ELEMENTS
To introduce the subject of second-order circuits, let us begin with the circuit of Fig
9.1, where the output to be found is the mesh current i . The circuit contains
2 two
storage elements, the inductors, and as we shall see, i satisfies a second-order
2 dit
ferential equation. Methods of solving such equations will be considered in later set
tions of this chapter.
260 Chapter 9 Second-Order Circuits

Section 9.1 Circuits with Two Storage Units 261
nodal equations at the nodes labeled c i and v.- are given by 9.2
SECOND-ORDER EQUATIONS
dv,
In Chapter X wc consul* n .1 in 1 tiritol 1 In uita in norne dri.nl and saw that their de-
scribing e q u a t i o ns m o In si oulci dillrrcntiiil equations ol the form
av 2
— + 2v = 2v. 2
dt (9.6)
8
1 .;,,< /(')
The choice of the node voltages D, and v as the unknowns has resulted in iwt 2
first-order differential equations, eaclr containing only one of the unknowns WhM In Sec 4 1 we drltncd second ordei circuits as those having two storage elements
this happens, we say that the equations are uncoupled, and thus no elimination pin with describing equation* 1I111I were second-order differential equations, given gen-
cedure is required to separate the variables. It was the elimination procedure which erally by
applied to (9.1), gave the second-order equation of (9.4). The equations of (9 5 i may
be solved separately by the methods of the previous chapter. -—r + a — + aox = f(t)
t (9.7)
Evidently, Fig. 9.2, although it contains two storage elements, is not a second dt 1 dt
order circuit. The same voltage v is across each RC combination, and thus the H I
s
cuit may be redrawn as twofirst-ordercircuits. If the source were a practical l o w t In (9.6) and (9.7) the u's arc real constants, x may be either a voltage or a current,
rather than an ideal source, then the circuit would be a second-order circuit (\m and/(f) 11 a known lunction of the independent sources. As an example, for the cir-
Prob. 9.1). cuit of Fig. 9 1. the describing equation was (9.4). Comparing this equation with
(9.7). wc see that a, = 10, ao = 16,/(r) = 2v , and x = i .s 2
From Chapter 8 we know that the complete response satisfying (9.6) is given
EXERCISES by
x = JC„ + x, (9.8)
9.1.1 Find the equation satisfied by the mesh current i . 2
d h , di
2 , ,.
n 2 dv„
Answer —7-7 + / — ; — I - Ol — —— 2
where x„ is the natural response obtained when / ( f ) = 0 and x is the forced re-
dt dt dt f
sponse, which satisfies (9.6). The forced response, in contrast to the natural re-
sponse, contains no arbitrary constants.
Let us see if this same procedure will apply to the second-order equation (9.7).
By a solution to (9.7) we shall mean a function x which satisfies (9.7) identically.
That is, when x is substituted into (9.7), the left member becomes identically/(r).
We shall also require that x contain two arbitrary constants since we must be able to
satisfy the two conditions imposed by the initial energy stored in the two storage
elements.
EXERCISE 9.1.1 If JC„ is the natural response [i.e., the response when/(0 = 0], it must satisfy
the equation
9.1.2 Let u , = Se V, /,(0 ) = 2 A and / (0 ) = 9 A in Exercise 9.1.1, and find
21 + 2 +
d x„ dx„
di (0*)/dt (the value of di /dt at t = 0 ) .
2 2 +
2
+ OoX„ = 0 (9.9)
dt dt
Answer —23 A/s
2
9.1.3 For the values of / ( 0 ) , di (Q*)ldt, and v given in Exercise 9.1.2, show that i in
2 + 2 s 2 Since each term contains x„ to the same degree, namely 1 (the right member may be
Exercise 9.1.1 is given by thought of as 0 = Qx„), this equation is sometimes called the homogeneous equation.
If x is to satisfy the original equation, as it did in the first-order case, then by
f
12 = 3e-' + 4e' ' 2 + 2<T<" A (9.7) we must have

dx
2 f dxj ..
(Suggestion: Substitute the answer into the differential equation, etc.) (9.10)
262 Section 9.2 Second-Order Equations 263

Chapter 9 Second-Order Circuits
Adding (9.9) and (9.10) and rearranging the terms, we may write
^-Ax. + Xf) + aA(x. + Xf) + «,<*• + x ) = fit) f (9 I T H E N A T U R A t RESPONSI

dt at
The rearrangement is possible, of course, because the equations involved are limm The natural response >.. ol tin >-« ••. i.il solution
Comparing (9.7) and (9.11) we see that (9.8) is our solution, as it was in ill
first-order case. That is, x satisfying (9.7) is made up of two components, a naiuii
response x„ satisfying the homogeneous equation (9.9) and a forced response x, Mil of (9.7) nuisl saiisl\e homogeneous equation, which wc repeat as
fying the original equation (9.10) or (9.7). As we shall see, the natural response wl
contain two arbitrary constants and, as in the first-order case, the forced rcs|>on« & + * « . f (9.12)
at
will have no arbitrary constants. We consider methods of finding the natural an
forced reponses in the next three sections. Of course, if the driving, or fordM Evidently, the solution x • «. must be a function which does not change its form
functions are such that f(t) = 0 in (9.7), then the forced response is zero, and ill when it is diftcicuiiaird I hat is, the function, its first derivative, and its second
solution of the differential equation is simply the natural response. derivative must all have the same form, for otherwise the combination in the left
A reader who has had a course in differential equations will note that the nan member of the equation could not become identically zero for all t.
ral response and the forced response are also called respectively the complemcniai We are therefore led to fry
solution and the particular solution. The complementary solution contains the art)
«, = Ae- (9.13)
trary constants and the particular solution, as its name implies, contains no arbitrar
constants. since this is the ml) function which retains its form when it is repeatedly differenti-
ated. This is. ol come , the same function that worked so well for us in the first-
order case ol ( hapter K Also, as in the first-order case, A and s are constants to be
EXERCISES determined
Substituting (9 13) for x in (9.12), we have
9.2.1 Show that x, - A,e' ' 2
As e" + Asa e" + Aaoe" = 0
2 t
and x = A e" '

2 2 3
Ae"(s 2 + a,s + oo) = 0
are each solutions of Since Ae" cannot be zero [for then by (9.13) x„ = 0, and we cannot satisfy any ini-
tial energy-storage conditions], we have
% + 5 ^ + 6, = 0 s + a,s + oo = 0 (9.14)
dt 2 dt 2
regardless of the values of the constants A, and A . 2 This equation is called the characteristic equation and is simply the result of replac-
9.2.2 Show that ing derivatives in (9.12) by powers of s. That is, x, the zeroth derivative, is replaced
by s°, the first derivative by s \d the second derivative by s . 2
x = x, + x = An?" ' + A e~ '

2 2 2 3
Since (9.14) is a quadratic equation, we have not one solution, as in the first-
is also a solution of the differential equation of Exercise 9.2.1. order case, but two solutions, say s, and s , given by the quadratic formula as
2
9.2.3 Show that if the right member of the differential equation of Exercise 9.2.1 l l -a, ± V a , - 4oo , ,,v
Q
changed from 0 to 12, then = ^ V*-l5)

x = A\e' 21 + A e~* + 2
2
Therefore, we have two natural components of the form (9.13), which we denote by
is a solution. Thus the natural response is Ai<? ' + A <?~ ' and the forced response
2 2 3
is 2.
(9.16)
*„ -
2 A e'*
2
264 Chapter 9 Second-Order Circuits Section 9.3 The Natural Response 265
The coefficients A, and A are, of course, arbitrary Either of the two solution*
2
The unit of natural frrqiicm \. h v. ihr InvtTH ol that of the time constant,
(9.16) will satisfy the homogeneous equation, because substituting either into (9 I.M is the reciprocal of HCOWJI HUM is. M l l I dum-nsionlcss quantity divided by sec-
reduces it to (9.14). onds. Therefore, si is dime niton l«M, at it mum be in c"
As a matter of fact, because (9.12) is a linear equation, the sum of the solution)
(9.16) is also a solution. That is,
X„ = « | + X„2 (9 I / I EXERCISES
is a solution of (9.12). To see this, we have only to substitute the expression ten i„ 9.3.1 Given the lincai ihltcirnii.il equation
into (9.12). This results in ,d'x
l)-77 + (f
d2 d 1 dt' 2
dt
» T = °
T"5C*»i + *«2) + a, — (x„i + x ) + ao(x„i + *„ )

n2 2
dt dt show that X\, 4 ' • '< < * , n "d x + a r e a s o l l : t ' o n s
(d x„,2 dx„, \ x„
2 2 dx„ 2 , \ 9.3.2 Given the nonlinear differential equation
. + fl, T **"J + + ^r "" ")
fli + , dx 2
= 0 + 0 = 0 dt
since both x„, and x satisfy (9.12).

nl
show thai i , r and d = 1 are both solutions but that i , + x is not a solution. 2
By (9.16) and (9.17) we have 9.3.3 Given

dx dx
JC„ = A.e'i' + A e'i' 2 (9.18) 2
which is a more general solution (unless si = s ) than either equation of (9.16). In

2
fact, (9.18) is called the general solution of the homogeneous equation if si and si (b)£ + 6£ + 9, = 0
are distinct (i.e., not equal) roots of the characteristic equation (9.14). find the characteristic equation and the natural frequencies in each case.
Answer (a) - 2 , - 4 ; (b) - 3 , -3
EXAMPLE 9.1 The homogeneous equation corresponding to (9.4) is given by
^ 7 + 1 0 ^ + 16; = 0 2 (9.19)
9.4
dt dt
2 v '
TYPES O F N A T U R A L FREQUENCIES
and thus the characteristic equation is
Since the natural frequencies of a second-order circuit are the roots of a quadratic
s + 10s + 16 = 0
2
characteristic equation, they may be real, imaginary, or complex numbers. The na-
ture of the roots is determined by the discriminant a] - 4a of (9.15), which may be 0
The roots are s = —2 and s = - 8 , so that the general solution is given by positive (corresponding to real, distinct roots), negative (complex roots), or zero
(real, equal roots).
t = A,<T ' + Ate'*'
2 2 (9.20)
The reader may verify by direct substitution that (9.20) satisfies (9.19), regardless of EXAMPLE 9 . 2 Consider the circuit of Fig. 9.3, where the response to be found is the voltage v. For
the value of the arbitrary constants. variety, rather than writing two loop equations or two nodal equations, let us mix the
two. The nodal equation at node a is
Because (9.18) is the natural response, the numbers S\d s are sometimes 2
called the natural frequencies of the circuit. Evidently, they play the same role as
the negative reciprocal of the time constants considered in Chapter 8. There are, of 4 4 dt
course, two time constants in the second-order case as compared to one in the first- and the right mesh equation is
order case. For example, the natural frequencies of the circuit of Fig. 9.1 arc
s = - 2 , and - 8 , as displayed in (9.20); the time constants of the two terms arc- di
Ri + — = v
1
then j and | . dt
266 Chapter 9 Second-Order Circuits Section 9.4 Types of Natural Frequencies 267
D i s t i n c t R e a l R o o t s : Overdamp<'«l < .is<-
If the natural frequencies l i i

(9.18). This case is celled th w hecausc lot a real circuit v, and $2
are negative so that the respti ltd .IS • dumi't (I out. with time. As an exam-
pie, in the case ol i'» .'.') we
A,e " + Ait
FIGURE 9.3 Second-order circuit
(We have thus avoided terms with integrals. The reader is asked to use a strictly C o m p l e x R o o t s : Undertl.nn|M-<l ( .is<-
nodal analysis in Exercise. 9.4.4.) Substituting for i from the first equation into the
second, we have If the natural frequencies are complex, then in general we have
•t.i = a ± jP
-4K£---)BN(S-- *)]- where a and /3 are real numbers. By (9.18) the natural response in the general case
is
Differentiating and simplifying the result, we have
x. = A,e ,<>+ ""' + Ate*-"'* (9.25)
£ (* .)f (* 4), = * „ f
+ + + + +
This appears to be a complex quantity and not a suitable answer for a real current or
voltage. However, because A, and A are complex numbers, it is mathematically
2
The natural component c satisfies the homogeneous equation correct, although somewhat inconvenient.
To put the natural response (9.25) in a better form, let us consider Euler's for-
d ^ + (R+\) ±+(R d + 4)v„ = 0 mula, given by
at at
e" = cos 0 + j sin 8 (9.26)
from which the characteristic equation is
and its alternative form, obtained by replacing 6 by -6
s + (R + l)s + R + 4 = 0
e' = cose - ysinO (9.27)
2
e
Using the quadratic formula, we have the natural frequencies, These results are derived in Appendix D. They are named for the great Swiss mathe-
matician Leonhard Euler (pronounced "oiler"), who lived from 1707 to 1783. Eu-
- ( R ) ± V R 2 R - J 5
ler's greatness is attested to by the fact that the symbol e for the base of the natural
S i 2 = + i 2 z ( 9 2 1 )
logarithmic system was chosen in his honor.

If R = 6 ft in (9.21), the natural frequencies are real and distinct, given by Using (9.26) and (9.27), we may write (9.25) as
i,.a = - 2 , - 5 ( 9 2 2 ) x„ = iTi/Ht** + Aie-'*)
If R = 5 ft, the natural frequencies are real and equal, given by = e'Âdcos fit + j sin fit) + A (cos fit - j sin fit)] 2
= e"'l(A, + A ) cos fit + (jAt - jA ) sin fit]

Ii.j = - 3 , -3 (9.23)
2 2
Since Ai and A are arbitrary, let us rename the constants as

Finally, if R = 1 ft, the natural frequencies are complex numbers, given by
2
A, + A = Bi
*i.2 - - I ± J2 (9.24)
2
where j = V — I . (In electrical engineering we cannot use i, as the mathematicians jA, - jA = 2 B 2
do, for the imaginary number unit, since this would result in confusion with the cur- so that
rent. Complex numbers are considered in Appendix C for the reader who needs to x„ = e°'(Bi cos pt + B sin pt) 2 (9.28)
review the subject.)
Section 9.4 Types of Natural Frequencies 269

•
The case of complex roots is called the underdumped case I 01 .1 real , in mi
is negative so that the response (9.28) is damped out with lime Because ol tha till EXERCISES
soidal terms, however, the damping is accompanied by oscillations, wlmli J I - . I I
guishes this case from the overdamped case. u.4.1 Find the ri.iltn.il lieqiirn< les ol ., , in ml d r s u i h e d by
d'x dx
—r • di -7- + OttX " 0
EXAMPLE 9 . 3 In the case of (9.24) we have a = - 1 and p = 2, so that (//' dt
t>„ = e~'(Bi cos 2t + B sin 2t) 2
if (a) «i - J, oo " 4; (b) a, - 4, a> • 13; and (c) a, = 8, *> = 16.
Answer (a) - I , - 4 ; (b) - 2 t )3; (c) - 4 , - 4
where B, and B are, of course, arbitrary.
2
9.4.2 Find « in I I 1.4.1 with the arbitrary constants determined so that x(0) = 3 and
dx(0)/dt - 0.
Real Equal Roots: Critically D a m p e d C a s e Amwtr (a) 6> ' - 3 * ( b ) *-"(3 cos 3t + 4 sin 3r); (c) (3 + \&t)e"
The last type of natural frequencies we may have are those that are real and equal 9.4.3 Find « it
say ^ + 25x = 0
s, = s = k 2 (9.29) dt 2
These characterize the critically damped case, which is the dividing line between the Answer x = Ai cos 5/ + A sin 5r 2
overdamped and underdamped cases. In the critically damped case, (9.18) is not the 9.4.4 If the node voltage at node b in Fig. 9.3. is v,, show that the two nodal equations
general solution since both x«, and x„ are of the form Ae ", and thus there is onl)
2 1
are
one independent arbitrary constant. For (9.29) to be the natural frequencies, ihe v - v, v - vi \dv
+ + = Q
characteristic equation must be
4 R 4 dt
(4- - kf = s - 2ks + k = 0 2 2
and
and therefore the homogeneous equation must be
^Ljl2 + f dt + i(0) = 0C l
d x„
2 dx, JoR
2 ~ ' (9.30)
dt 2 dt Differentiate the second of these and substitute into the result the value of t>, from
the first equation to obtain the describing equation for Fig. 9.3.
Since we know that Ae" is a solution for A arbitrary, let us try
x„ = h(t)e '
9.5
k
Substituting this expression into (9.30) and simplifying, we have

THE F O R C E D RESPONSE
The forced response x of the general second-order circuit must satisfy (9.10) and
dt
f
2
contain no arbitrary constants. There are a number of methods for finding x , but for f
Therefore, h(t) must be such that its second derivative is zero for all t. This is true if our purposes we shall use the procedure of guessing the solution, which has worked
h(l) is a poly nominal of degree 1, or so well for us in the past. We know from our experience withfirst-ordercircuits that
the forced response has the form of the driving function. A constant source results in
h(t) = A, + A t
a constant forced response, and so on. However, the response must satisfy (9.10)
2
where A, and A are arbitrary constants. The general solution in the repeated-root
2 identically, which means that first and second derivatives of x , as well as x itself,f f
case, st = k, is thus
2 , . . will appear in the left member of (9.10). Thus we are led to fry as x a combination f
x„ = (A, + A t)e 2 (9.31)

kl of the right member of (9.10) and its derivatives.
which may be verified by direct substitution into the homogeneous equation (9.30).
EXAMPLE 9.5 Let us consider the case v„ = 16 V in Fig. 9.1 Then by (9.4), for i = x, we have 2
EXAMPLE 9.4 In the case of (9.23) we have = - 3 , - 3 , and thus

^ + 1 0 ^ + 16* = 32 (9.32)
On = (A 1 + A 2 O * " * dt 2 dt
270 Chapter 9 Second-Order Circuits Section 9.5 The Forced Response 271
The natural response was given earlier in (9.20) by termined by requ.rmg ft ) <""•" 1,1 , h c c a s e U n d e r C O " S i d "
eration, the only term it a cot 4» M B -n" 1
x = A,e * + A e "'
n 2 (• IS)
4 i i H sin 4|
A l l ( s (9.35)
Since the right member of (9.32) is a constant and all its derivatives are consi am ' . , ,, ii i . , , , aive>. i which arc cos 4r and sin 4/times
(namely zero), let us try contains this inm and all Hs | « " l l , l l v , s I W M K n
x =A
f
constants).
From (9.351 we have
where A is a constant to be determined. We note that A is not arbitrary but is • paj
ticular value that hopefully nfakes v, a solution of (9 32). Substituting x, into ('» U 4 5 - -4A sin 4f + 4B cos 4t
dt
yields
16,4 = 32
- - 16A cos 4/ - 16B sin 4f
or w
x = A =2
f
Substituting these values and (9.35) into (9.34) and collecting terms, we have
Therefore, the general solution of (9.32) is 40fl cos 4( - 40A sin 4t - 40 cos At
x(t) = A,<r ' + A <r ' + 2 2 2 8

Since this „,,.s, IK- an identity, the coefficients of like terms must be the same on
both sides ol the equation. In the case of the cos At terms we have
A knowledge of the initial energy stored in the inductors can now be used to evalu-
ate A i and A .
2 40B = 40
In the case of constant forcing functions we may often obtain x from the cir f
cuit itself. In the example just considered, x is the steady-state value of i in Fig. 9.1
f 2 and for the sin 4/ terms we have
when v = 16 V. At steady state the inductors are short circuits, as shown in Fig
g -40A = 0
9.4, so that, from the figure, we have
Thus A = 0 and B = 1, so that
Xf = (j = 2 A (9.36)
Xf = sin At
The general solution of (9.34), from (9.33) and (9.36), is given by

| \\A, ,
0
i = x = A ^ + A e~* + sin At
2 2 (9.37)
^ 4 J2
This may be readily verified by direct substitution.
:
Some of the more common forcing functions/(() which occur in (9.7) are
FIGURE 9.4 Circuit of Fig. 9.1 in the steady state listed inThe firs column of Table 9.1. The general form of the corresponding forced
r e C * is given in the second column, which may be useful for formulattng the
trial solution x .
f
EXAMPLE 9 . 6 Suppose that in Fig. 9.1 we have

v = 20 cos At V
g T A B L E 9.1 Trial Forced Responses
Then by (9.4), again for ij = x, we have f(t) «
A
^ + 1 0 ^ + 16* = 40 cos At (9.34) At + B
dr dt r
»• At + Bt + C
2
The natural response x„ is given by (9.33), as before. To find the forced response x e" Ae"
f
sin bt, cos bt A sin bt + B cos bt

we need to seek a solution which contains all the terms, and their possible deriva- e" sin bt, e" cos bt e"(A sin bt + B cos bt)
tives, in the right member of (9.34). The coefficients of these terms will then be de-
273
272 Chapter 9 Second-Order Circuits Section 9.5 The Forced Response
neous equation . -. n« ' *Ml Hums - substituted into (9.38) inakes its
EXERCISES left member idemualh »ri. trying such a forced response
9.5.1 Find the forced response if as (9 41)
Let us u.nsulcr what happtni If wt multiply by t the part of x, that is duplicated
dx 2 .dx _
i n * , . That is. let u» try
dt 2 dt (9.43)
where/(/) is given by (a) 6, (b) 8e" ', and (c) 6t + 14. 2
instead ol I " H i We then have
Answer (a) 2; (b) -ie-"; (c) 2/ + 2
9.5.2 If JC(0) = 4 and dx(0)/dt = - 2 , find the complete solution in Exercise 9.5.1. ' '
h A(ai ' I)'""
Answer (a) 2<r' + 2; (b) 9 < ? - ie^ + 3c" '; (c) <T' + e " + 2t + 2 3 dt
^4 ' Ma t 2 + 2a)e"
9.6 dt 2
Substituting these values, along with (9.43), into (9.42), we have

EXCITATION AT A NATURAL FREQUENCY
Ae"'[a t 2 + 2a - (a + b)(at + 1) + abt] = e"
Suppose that the circuit equation to be solved is given by
which, upon simplification, becomes
li^ ~ { a + b) Yt + a b x = f { , ) ( 9 3 8 ) A (a - b)e" = e a
where a and b # a are known constants. In this case the characteristic equation is Since this inusl be an identity for all t, we must have
s - (a + b)s + ab = 0
2 1
A = I
from which the natural frequencies are
a - b
si = a, s =b2
The general solution of (9.38), using (9.39), and (9.43), is then

Therefore, we have the natural response
w **
x. = A,e- + Aze" (9.39)
x = Ate" + A2e" + r
where A and A are arbitrary.
EXAMPLE 9.7 Suppose that the excitation in Fig. 9.1 is given by
t 2
Let us suppose now that the excitation function contains a natural frequency,
say v. = 6 V ' + 32 2
f(t) = e- (9.40) Then if i = x, we have, by (9.4),

2
The usual procedure is to seek a forced response, f± + 1 0 * + l 6 x = He" ' + 64 2 (9.44)

dt 2 dt
x/= Ae" (9.41)
and determine A so that x satisfies (9.38), which in this case is
f
The natural response, as before, is
x„ = A e~ ' + A e" '
t 2 2 8
- (a + b)— + abx = e" (9.42) Noting that the right member of the differential equation has the term e' 21 in com-
mon with x„, we try
However, substituting x into (9.42) yields
f
x, = Ate' 21 + B
0 = e"
The factor t has been inserted into the natural trial solution of Xf to remove the dupli-
which is an impossible situation. cation of the term e~ '. Substituting jc/into (9.44) and simplifying, we have
2
This difficulty could have been foreseen by observing that x in (9.41) has the f
form of one of the components of x in (9.39), and thus x will satisfy the homoge-
n f 6Ae 21 + 16B » 12<r ' + 64 2
274 Chapter 9 Second-Order Circuits Section 9.6 Excitation at a Natural Frequency

275
• » **
9.6.2 Find the forced responie if
Therefore, we have A = 2 and B - 4, so that
x = 2te ' +4 + 4 ^ • 4* - / ( I )
f 2
dt' dt
The general solution is now where/(f) is given by (a) 6r '' and (b) (tie '' [Suxxestion: In (b), try x = Af e " . ] f 3
ii — x = x„ + x/ Answer (a) 3 r Y (b) I V ''
Finally, let us consider the case of (9.38) where b = a and/(f) is given hv 9.6.3 Find the complete responie if
(9.40). That is, both natural frequencies and the frequency of excitation are all the d'x
same. In this case we have —r + 9x=l» sin 3f
dt 2
dx 2„ dx , ,„ and Jt(0) dx (0)/<ft = 0. [Suggestion: Try x, = t(A cos 3f + B sin 3f).]

— - 2a— + a x = e
T 2 a (9.45)
dt dt Answer sin 3f - 3f cos 3f
The characteristic equation is

s 2 - 2as + a = 0 2 9.7
and thus the natural frequencies are THE COMPLETE RESPONSE
si = S2 =a In the previous sections we have noted that the complete response of a circuit is the
sum of a natural and a forced response and that the natural response, and thus the
The natural response is then
complete response, contains arbitrary constants. These constants, as in the first-
x„ = (A i + Azt)e a order cases, of Chapter 8, are determined so that the complete response satisfies
specified initial energy-storage conditions.
We know it is fruitless to try as the forced response x given in (9.41) because it is f
duplicated in the natural response. In this case, (9.43) will not work either because
it, too, is duplicated. The lowest power of t that is not duplicated is 2; thus we are EXAMPLE 9 . 8 Let us find x(t), for f > 0, which satisfies the system of equations
led to try
dY + 2x + sixdt= I6e"
x = At e"'
f 2
° J (9.46)
JC(0) = 2
Substituting this expression into (9.45) we have
To begin, let us differentiate the first of these equations to eliminate the integral; this
2Ae" = e"
results in
so that A = j . The forced and complete responses foilow as before. d^ + d*
2 + 5 x = _ -,48e 3
dt 2 dt
A general rule of thumb is that if a natural frequency term of x„ is duplicated in
Xf, the term in x is multiplied by the lowest power of t required to remove the dupli-
f The characteristic equation is
cation. s + 2s + 5 = 0
2
with roots
EXERCISES = - I ± j2
9.6.1 Find the forced response if Therefore, the natural response is

dx 2 dx „ , x = e~'(A, cos 2f + A sin 2f)
n 2
_ + 4 - + 3, = / ( f )
Trying as the forced response
where / ( f ) is given by (a) 2e + 6e and (b) 4c ' + 2e
31 * = Ae" 31
Answer (a) 2<r ' - f<T '; (b) t(2e-' - <T ')
4 3 3
Section 9.7 The Complete Response

277
wc sec that
8Ac" ' = - 4 8 c " '
3 3
so that A = - 6 . The complete response is therefore

x(t) = c"'(A, cos It + A? sin 2t) - 6c" " 3 (9.47) I kit
O V A
To determine the arbitrary constants we need two initial conditions. One,

*(0) = 2, is given in (9.46). To obtain the other we may evaluate the first equation I 111
of (9.46) at t = 0, resulting in
FIGURE 9.5 Example
^ + 2x(0) + 5 j T^ f = 1 6
Noting the value of x(0) and that the integral term is zero, we have 4u, - t; + 2 x l O " ^ = 2v, = 10 cos 2000t 3 1 (9.50)
dt
^ ) . 1 2 (9.4,3)
at and the nodal equation at the inverting input of the op amp is
Applying the second equation of (9.46) to (9.47), we have i x l 0 - 3 C l + i x . 0 - f = 0

x{0) = A, - 6 = 2
or
or Ai = 8. To apply (9.48) we may differentiate (9.47), obtaining
C l = - Ix 10'$ (9.51)
4 dt
^7 = c " ' ( - 2 A , sin 2t + 2A cos 2t) - c"'(A, cos 2t + A sin 2t) + 18c" '
2 2 3
at Substituting (9.51) into (9.50) and simplifying, we have

from which
— + 2 x 10 — + 2 x l(fv = -2 x 10 cos 2000t
3 7
dx{0) dt 2 dt
*> 2A - A, + 18 = 12
2 (9.49)
dt The characteristic equation is
From this, knowing A,, we find A = 1. 2 s + 2 x 10 s + 2 x 10 = 0
2 3 6
At this point let us digress for a moment to note a very easy way to get (9.49).
We may differentiate x(t) and immediately replace t by 0 before we write down so that the natural frequencies are » .j » 1000(-1 ± f The natural response is
the result. That is, in (9.47), the derivative of x at t = 0 is c"' at t = 0 (which is 1) therefore
times the derivative of (A, cos 2r + A sin 2t) at t = 0 (which is 2A ) plus
2 2
V r = e-"x»(A, cos lOOOr + A sin lOOOr) 2
(A, cos 2t + A sin 2t) at t = 0 (which is A,) times the derivative of c~' at t = 0
2
(which is - 1 ) plus the derivative of - 6 c " ' at / = 0 (which is 18). These steps are
3
For the forced response we shall try
written down in (9.49) and can be done mentally, avoiding the intermediate prior V/ = A cos 2000t + B sin 2000r
step.
Returning to our problem, we now have the arbitrary constants, so that by which substituted into the differential equation yields
(9.47), the final answer is (-2A + 4fl) cos 2000/ + (-4A - 2B) sin 2000/ = -20 cos 2000r
x = c"'(8 cos 2t + sin 2r) - 6 c " ' 3
Therefore, equating coefficients of like terms, we have
-2A + 4B = - 2 0
EXAMPLE 9.9 Let us find v, t > 0, in the circuit of Fig. 9.5 if t),(0) = u(0) = 0 and v g
5 cos 2000r V. The nodal equation at node t>i is -4A - 2B = 0

from which A = 2 and B = - 4 . The complete response is then
2 x 10" t), - lO" !), - I x 10" o + 1 0 " ^ i = 0
3 3 3 6
2 dt „ = ( . ' " " ( A , cos lOOOr + A sin lOOOr) + 2 cos 2000f - 4 sin 2000t
2 (9.52)
278 Chapter 9 Second-Order Circuits Section 9.7 The Complete Response 279
Prom (9.51), for / = 0 , we see that +
9.8
MTU.-'x,o->*$2 THE PARALLEL KLC CIW UI1
4 <# One ol the most impottanl •< cl ordci i in mis is (he parallel Rl.C circuit of Fig.
and since vi(0*) = vi(0 ) = 0 we have 9 ota) Wc sh.ill assume thai .ii i n Ihric is an initial inductor current.
rfc((T) i(0) - /„ (9.55)
= 0 (9.53)
dt
and an initial capacitor voltage,
Like t3,, t3 is also a capacitor voltage (across the §-îF capacitor), so that
t3(0) = V„ (9.56)
i;(0*) = v(0~) = 0 (9.54)
and analyze the circuit by finding v for r > 0.
From (9.52) and (9.54) we have
A, + 2 = 0
or A, = - 2 , and from (9.52) and (9.53) we have
1000A - 1000A, - 8000 = 0
2
from which A = 6. Thus the complete response is

2
v = e l 0 0 0 , ( - 2 cos lOOOt + 6 sin lOOOf) + 2 cos 2000f - 4 sin 2000, V (a)
EXERCISES
9.7.1 Find x, t > 0. where Li1 c '
§ + 4* + 4 [ xdt = f(t)
dt
'*«» = 2 (b)
and (a) f(t) = 1 and (b) f(t) = It . 1
F I G U R E 9.6 (a) Parallel RLC circuit, with (b) the source killed
Answer (a) (2 - 3/)f- '; (b) 3(1 - Oe^ + t - 1
2
9.7.2 Find i, c , rfi'/dr, and dt3/dr at f = 0 .

The single nodal equation that is necessary is given by
+
Answer 0, 0, 2 A/s, 40 V/s

«> I f , + Io + C^ = i, (9.57)
at
which is an integrodifferential equation that becomes, upon differentiation,
2u(t) A
r— 4-1— + - = ii d
dt 2Rdt L V dt
To find the natural response we make the right member zero, resulting in
EXERCISE 9.7.2
9.7.3 For r > 0 in Exercise 9.7.2, find (a) t; and (b) i. (Suggestion: Because of Kirch-
hoff's laws and the terminal relationships of the elements, i has the same natural fre- ^•.Hf fc-» + ">
S8
quencies as t3. Thus t3„ is easily obtained after i, is found: its forced response is evi- This result follows also from killing the current source, as in Fig. 9.6(b), and writ-
dent by inspection of the circuit.) ing the nodal equation. From (9.58) the characteristic equation is
Answer (a) e~ '{-6 cos 4t + 1 sin 4f) + 6 V;
2
(b) e" '(-2 cos 4r - \n 4f) + 2 A

2 Cs + ^s + j = 0
2
280 Chapter 9 Second-Order Circuits Section 9.8 The Parallel RLC Circuit 281
from which the natural frequencies are
(9.59)
As in the general second-order case already discussed, there are three types ol
responses, depending on the nature of the discriminant, \/R - 4C/L, in (9.59)
2
We shall now look briefly at these three cases. For simplicity we will take t» = 0 and
consider the source-free case of Fig. 9.6(b). The forced response is then zero and
the natural response is the complete response.
Overdamped Case
FIGURE 9.7 Sketch of an overdamped response

If the discriminant is positive, that is,
1 4C The reason for the term overdamped may be seen from the absence of oscilla-
R 2 L > 0 tions (fluctuations in sign). The element values are such as to "damp out" any oscil-
or, equivalently, latory tendencies. It is, of course, possible for the response to change sign puce, de-
pending on the initial conditions.
L > 4R C 2 (9.60)
Underdamped Case
then the natural frequencies of (9.59) are real and distinct negative numbers, and we
have the overdamped case, If the discriminant in (9.59) is negative, that is,
v = A,e'i' + A e'i' 2 (9.61)
L < 4R C 2 (9.63)
From the initial conditions and (9.57) evaluated at ( = 0 , we obtain +
dv(0+) V + RIa
0 then we have the underdamped case, where the natural frequencies are complex, and
(9.62)
dt RC the response contains sines and cosines, which of course are oscillatory-type func-
tions. In this case it is convenient to define a resonant frequency,
which together with (9.56) can be used to determine the arbitrary constants.
EXAMPLE 9.10 Suppose that R = 1 n , L = \, C = J F, V = 2 V, and /„ = - 3 A. Then by

0
(9.64)
VLC
(9.59) we have s\,i = - 1 , - 3 , and hence
v = A e~' + A e~ '
t 2 3
a damping coefficient,
Also, by (9.56) and (9.62) we have
c(0) = 2 V
and a damped frequency,
;— = 4 V7s \/u>l - a 2 (9.66)
dt Each of these is a dimensionless quantity "per second." The resonant and damped
which may be used to obtain Ai = 5 and A = - 3 , and thus
2 frequencies are defined to be radians per second (rad/s) and the damping coefficient
is nepers per second (Np/s).
v = 5c"' - 3e-* Using these definitions, the natural frequencies, by (9.59), are
This overdamped case is easily sketched, as shown by the solid line of Fig. 9.7, by
sketching the two components and adding them graphically. *i,2 = -<* ± jtDd
282 Chapter 9 Second-Order Circuits Section 9.8 The Parallel RtC Circuit 283
and therefore the response is MM I • I I I I , • I H, C - J F, V = 0, a,.
0
EXAMPLE 9.12 As an exainpl •<"•« «• " 1 , , 4 Thus the response is

v = e"'(A\s o)dt + Ai sin u> t) d (967) /„ = - 1 A In ihis case we hava n i. m
which is oscillatory in nature, as expected.
T h l s !„ , , s „ I' I I , PM..IV 4< «nd . - and n.ult.p.y.ng the two together. The
EXAMPLE 9.11 Suppose that R 5 f l , L = 1 H, C = & F, V = 0, and /„ = 1 A. Then we have
0 H-SHII is shown HI I in 9 '>
v = e~'(A\s 3f + A sin 3f)2
From the initial conditions we have u(0) = 0 and dv(Q*)/dt = 15 V/s, from which
Ai = 0 and A = 5. Therefore, the underdamped response is
2
v = 5e~' sin 3/
This response is readily sketched if it is observed that since sin 3f varies be-
tween +1 and - 1 , v must be a sinusoid that varies between 5e~' and -5e~'. The re-
sponse is shown in Fig. 9.8, where it may be seen that it is oscillatory in nature. The
response goes through zero at the points where the sinusoid is zero, which is deter-
mined, in general, by the damped frequency w . d
i)
F I G U R E 9.9 Sketch of a critically damped response
a < 0.
EXERCISES
9.8.1 In a source-free parallel RLC circuit, R = 1 k f l and C = 0.25 fiF. Find L so that
the circuit is (a) overdamped with j , , = -1000, -3000 »"', (b) underdamped with
2
a)j = 1000 rad/s, and (c) critically damped.

Answer (a) j ; (k) } ; (C) 1 H
9.8.2 Find the differential equation satisfied by i in Fig. 9.6(b). Use this result to find i ,
for t > 0, if R = 10 ft, L = 2 H, C = 0.05 F, v(0) = 0, and i(0) = 6 A.
F I G U R E 9.8 Sketch of an underdamped response Answer —A + -—; -j + 77; 1 = 0; ?~'(6 cos 3( + 2 sin 3t)
dt RC dt LC
1
Critically D a m p e d Case 9.8.3 The larger the value of R, the less damping there is in the underdamped case of the
parallel RLC circuit (because a = X/1RC). Let R = °° (open circuit) and show that,
When the discriminant of (9.59) is zero, we have the critically damped case, for
in the source-free case.
W h i c h L = 4R C2 (9.68)
^ + o*v = 0
In this case the natural frequencies are real and equal, given by
= —at, - a For this case, find the general solution for v.
where a is given by (9.65). The response is then Answer A, cos o>< + A sin u>o» 0 2
v = (A, + A t)e' (9.69)

285
2 a
Section 9.8 The Parallel RLC Circuit

in which case $, « I t • Kill., and •>« " I • 1
T H E S E R I E S RLC C I R C U I T i • (A, I A,t)*'<' (9.76)
The series RLC circuit, shown in Fig. 9.10, is the dual of the parallel circuit, con- I I l \ lit i in ml IN undi iilmii|H'd il
sidered in the previous section. Therefore all the results for the parallel circuit have _ _ 4L
dual counterparts for the series circuit, which may be written down by inspection. In (9.77)
R
this section we simply list these results using duality and leave to the reader their
verification by conventional means. III win* h i use Ihr M ' s n i u i n i frequency is
1
akj (9.78)
VLC
the damping coefficient is
R^
a (9.79)
= 2L
and the damped frequency is
FIGURE 9.10 Series RLC circuit
o)
d = Va>o - a 2
(9.80)
Referring to Fig. 9.10, the initial conditions will be taken as The underdamped response is
t>(0) = V 0 i = e"°'(Ai cos Wit + A sin <o t) 2 d (9.81)
i(0) = /o
The single-loop equation necessary in the analysis is EXAMPLE 9.13 Suppose that it is required to find v for t > 0 in Fig. 9.11, given that
di 1 f o(0) = 6 V, i(0) = 2 A
(9.70) We know that
L dt + R i + c \t + V o =
•'o
which is valid for t > 0. The resulting characteristic equation is V — t>„+ Of
where the natural response v contains the natural frequencies. The natural frequen-
n
Ls 2 + Rs + - = 0 (9.71) cies of the current i are the same as those of v because obtaining one from the other,
in general, requires only Kirchhoff's laws and the operations of addition, subtrac-
and the natural frequencies are tion, multiplication by constants, integration, and differentiation. None of these op-
erations changes the natural frequencies. Therefore, since the naturalfrequenciesof i
are easier to get (only one loop equation is required), let us obtain them. Around the
(9.72) loop we have
2L v\2L/ LC
The series RLC circuit is overdamped if

I +'+
di 2 [ 5 idt + 6 = 10 (9.82)
(9.73) F I G U R E 9.11 Driven series RtC circuit

and the response is 2 il
(9.74)
i = A i e ' i ' + A e'*' 2
10 V
The circuit is critically damped if
(9.75)
L R2
286 Chapter 9 Second-Order Circuits Section 9.9 The Series RLC Circuit 287
The characteristic equation, following differentiation, is and that across the otkJM " ounw In either case, the result by KVL is
s + 2s + 5 = 0
2
at' ' ' . I , ' " * * '

with roots
V , n
Si.2 = - 1 ± ;2 I hi natural l a a n t m a a Is t h a a a m r aj ,n n„ previous example To get the forced

I hull Ir v
Thus we have
11 - A cos / + B sin r
t>„ = e~'(A\s 2/ + A sin 2/) 2
"hi.li nl.-.nil I inlo Hie diHeiential equation results in
[We could have obtained Si.i from (9.72) directly, but it is probably easier to write
the characteristic equation, since it can be done by inspection] (4A t 2fl) cos l + (AB - 2A) sin t = 20 cos t
The forced response ty is a constant in this case and may be obtained by in- 1 <l"i g hke 11K'IlielenIs and solving for A and B. we have
spection of the circuit in the steady state. Since in the steady state the capacitor is an
A = 4, B =2
open circuit and the inductor is a short circuit, t> = 0 and v = 10. Therefore, the
f
complete response is Therefore, the general solution is

t; = <T'(A, cos 2/ + A sin 2/) + 10 2 v = c"'(Ai cos 2t + A sin 2r) + 4 cos t + 2 sin t
2
From the initial voltage, we have From the initial voltage, we have
v{0) = 6 = A, + 10 v(0) = 6 = A, + 4
or A\= -A. Also, we have or A, = 2. From the initial current and (9.83), we have
1 ^ 2 = ,•(()) = 2 dv(0+)
= 10 = 2A - A, + 2 2
5 dt dt
orA = 5.2
f ^ = 1 0 = 2A -A, 2
dt The complete response is therefore
Therefore, A = 3, and we have

2
v = e '(2 cos 2r + 5 sin 2t) + A cos t + 2 sin t
v = e''(-A cos 2/ + 3 sin 2t) + 10 V
EXERCISES
EXAMPLE 9.14 Let us find v in Fig. 9.11 if the source is
9.9.1 Let R = 6 ft, L = 1 H, v, = 0, o(0) = 8 V, and i(0) = 4 A in Fig. 9.10 Find i
v = A cos t V
g for t > 0 if C is (a) J F, (b) £ F, and (c) $ F.
In this case we need the differential equation for 6, which we may get from (9.82) Anwer (a) 7c~ ' - 3<--' A; (b) 4f-"(cos 5r - sin * ) A; (c) (4 - 20r)e" ' A
5 3
9.9.2 Find v for t > 0 if R = AO ft, L = 10 mH, and C = 5 /i,F.

and
Anmw - ' ( 4 cos 4000/ - 3 sin 4000/) V
e M 0 O
, = I^H (9.83)
5 dt
We may also obtain it directly from the figure since the voltages across the inductor
and resistor are IOOu(-() mA
di 1 dv = 2
dt 5 dt 2
and EXERCISE 9.9.2
2dv 9.9.3 Find v for / > 0 if the circuit is in steady state at / = 0.

2i = - —
5 dt Answer 8 - eîS cos At - 6 sin At) V
Section 9.9 The Series RLC Circuit

288 Chapter 9 Second-Order Circuits 289
1 H 4n
r= 0"^ +
;F T v
I K i i»T t i l i in ml with two storage elcnents
EXERCISE 9.9.3
I In- Hint method wr shall discuss is a systematic way of obtaining a describing
9.9.4 Find c for t > 0 if (a) C - \ and (b) C • • (>•.•< .u. | .is ( f I S ) , Iron the circuit equations, such as (9.84). To develop the
i.MI
Answer (a) -25<T' + «** + 24 V; (b) 24 - (24 + 36r)e-" V M I I ihod let us l i n t introduce the differentiation operator D, which is defined by
6R;
D =
+ dt
4u(f) A j
) 1 Hj
C ;— V
That is, Dx = dx/dt, D(Dx) = D x = d x/dt ,
ample,
2 2 2 and so on. Also, we have, for ex-
dx
EXERCISE 9 . 9 . 4 a— + bx = aDx + bx = (aD + b)x
dt
9.10 It is important here to note that x is factored out of the middle member and placed
after the operator expression, indicating that the operation is to be performed on x.
ALTERNATIVE METHODS FOR OBTAINING Otherwise the meaning is changed radically.
THE DESCRIBING EQUATIONS With these ideas in mind, let us rewrite (9.84) in operator form. This result,
after first differentiating the second equation, is
In this section we consider two methods of expediting the process of obtaining the
describing equation of the circuit. In the case of the parallel and series RLC circuits, I I
a single equation is required, which after differentiation, is the describing equation. 6< V = 4> V
However, in many second-order circuits there are two simultaneous circuit equa-
tions from which the describing equation is obtained after a tedious elimination
process.
--Dp
6
+
0-) 0
which when cleared of fractions becomes

EXAMPLE 9.15 Let us consider the circuit of Fig. 9.12 for t > 0. Taking node b as reference and
(3D + 5)p - 2P, = 3o,
writing nodal equations at nodes a and v\e have (9.86)
- D P + (D + 6)p, = 0
o - P, P ~ Pi idv _
4 6 4 dt To eliminate P i , let us "operate" on the first equation with D + 6, by which we
f (9.84) mean multiply it through by D + 6 on the left of each term. Then let us multiply the
^-r-^ +
Pi dt + i(0) = 0 second equation by 2, resulting in
Jo
(D + 6)(3D + 5)p - 2(D + 6)o, = 3(D + 6)p,
6
If we are interested in finding v we must eliminate Pi and obtain the describing equa-
tion in terms of p. The result, as the reader may verify, is -2Do + 2(D + 6)p, = 0
^ + 7 d v + l Q v = dv£ +
[We note that constants such as 2 commute with operators, i.e., (D + 6)2JC =
dt 2 dt dt 2(D + 6)x, but variables do not.] Adding these last two equations eliminates v, and
results in
In this case the process is not overly complicated but it can be shortened by the
methods we shall consider in this chapter. [(D + 6)(3D + 5) - 2D]p = 3(D + 6)p, (9.87)
290 Chapter 9 Second-Order Circuits Section 9.10 Alternative Methods for Obtaining the Describing Equations 291
Multiplying the operators as if they were polynomials, collecting terms, and dividing
out the common factor 3, we have IIH hod " H i i tying •" Inul agihi dt itlhlng aquation of the circuit of
I l | | 9 I in Sc. ') I
(D 2 + ID + 10)c = (D + 6)v s
which is the same as (9.85). id' "" .| • ol ii IHMI UII ih. Ii-giuls. ap|K'iii (Ihus no second
The procedure may be carried out in a more direct manner by using determi- i till ill illfl n.il I one unknown is easily lound in terms
nants. For example, we may use Cramer's rule to obtain the expression for v from i I|K illi 1.i .i i i. lite In si deiivativcs are easily obtained for
(9.86), given by i h. irhlttaii ..n.i.mis in the general solution. For example, it
i .i ' i .mi I A and ti(0) = 6 V Thus from (9.91) and
v =^ (9.88) I he vallM II i we have
where A is the coefficient determinant * f i - M O ' ) - .0

dt
3D + 5
(9.89)
D D + 6 I In . lasi method .an be greatly facilitated, particularly in the case of complex
. II. mi in tiling graph theory. Since we are looking for inductor currents and ca-
and A i is given by panloi voltages (the state variables), we put the inductors in the links, whose cur-
3c, -2 i. n!s constitute an independent set, and the capacitors in the tree, whose branch
3(D + 6)v s (9.90) voltages constitute an independent set, as we recall from Chapter 6. (The tree
0 D + 6
should also contain voltage sources, the links should contain current sources, and so
We note that in this last expression we must be careful to write v after the operator.
g
on, if possible.)
Writing (9.88) as Ivach inductor L is then a link with currenti, which forms a loop whose only
A c = A i
other elements are tree branches. Therefore, KVL around this loop will contain only
one derivative term, L(di/dt), and no integrals. This loop can easily be found since
we see from (9.89) and (9.90) that we have the describing equation (9.87). it is the only loop in the graph if the only link added to the tree is L . For example,
the graph of Fig. 9.12 is shown in Fig. 9.13 with tree branches shown as solid lines
The second method we consider is a mixture of the loop and nodal methods in and links as dashed lines. The loop containing the 1-H inductor is a, vi, b, a
which we select the inductor currents and the capacitor voltages as the unknowns, through the branch labeled v, and KVL around it is (9.92).
rather than the loop currents or the node voltages. We then write KVL around loops
which contain only a single inductor and KCL at nodes, or generalized nodes, to
which only a single capacitor is connected. In this manner each equation contains
only one derivative, that of an inductor current or a capacitor voltage,-and no inte-
grals. The equations are then relatively easy to manipulate to find the describing
equation.
EXAMPLE 9.16 Using Fig. 9.12 again, let i, the inductor current, and v, the capacitor voltage, be
the unknowns. (These unknowns are sometimes called the state variables of the cir-
cuit.) Then for t > 0 the nodal equation at node a is
b
S ^ V i + i ' * Q (9.91)
4 dt FIGURE 9.13 Graph of Fig. 9.12
and the loop equation around the right mesh is

Each capacitor is a tree branch whose current, together with link currents,
v = 6i + % (9.92) constitutes a set of currents flowing out of a node or a generalized node, because if
dt the capacitor is cut from the circuit, the tree is separated into two parts connected
It is a relatively simple matter to solve for i in (9.91), substitute its value into (9.92), only by links. In the example of Fig. 9.13 the three currents, shown crossing the
and simplify the result to obtain (9.85). The reader may note that we have applied dashed line through the capacitor, labeled v, and two links, add to zero by KCL.
This is stated by (9.91).
Section 9.10 Alternative Methods for Obtaining the Describing Equations 293
i mid i is
EXERCISES
i M I I I mi in I i* riG 9 6(B) [underdamped case]
9.10.1 Find the describing equation for v, t > 0, in Exercise 9.9.4 by (a) the first method
of this section using nodal equations and (b) the second method of this section.
H HM
Answer C(d v/dt )
2 2 + 6C(dv/dt) + v = 24
9.10.2 Solve Exercise 9.1.1 using (a) the first method of this section applied to the mesh
equations and (b) the second method of this section. It IV und I (C) = 0 AT T = 0 U S I N G . I C STATEMENT
9.10.3 Solve Exercise 9.7.3(a) using the second method of this section.
III AN II iilM!. IMS U I C
I AN V C 1 I I ( L I
9.11 • Nil
SPICE FOR TRANSIENT RESPONSES
iii iIn . program the IC (initial condition) command sets node voltage V ( l ) = v, the
OF HIGHER-ORDER CIRCUITS
ipw INN voltage, to an initial value of 1 V. The inductor current is zero since it is
SPICE, or any similar computer program, becomes very useful in solving circuits as mil i ~ . died by an IC statement in L. The PSpice solution is shown in Fig. 9.14.
the order of the describing differential equations increases. The application of
SPICE to higher-order circuits involves essentially the same procedure as that of the
first-order networks of Chapter 8.
i s X M I ' I I 'i III I . 1 us lind r„ for 0 < t < 15 ms in the third-order circuit of Fig. 9.15(a). Prior to
lime / 0, Vg = 10 V and the switch is closed, making i» - 0, which requires that
EXAMPLE 9.17 Consider finding i and v in Fig. 9.6(b) for R = 200 ft, L = 10 mH, C = 1 /iF, ihe CCCS have a zero current (an open circuit). The circuit is redrawn in Fig.
v(0) = 1 V, and i(0) = 0 A in the interval 0 < t < 1 ms. A circuit file for a plot of *) 15(b) illustrating these conditions. A circuit file for finding the initial values
i , i ( 0 ) and i (0") is t
INITIAL CONDITIONS FOR C I R C U I T OF F I G . 9.15(b)

FIGURE 9.14 Transient response for circuit of Fig. 9.6(b)
LEGEND: * DATA STATEMENTS
VG 10 0 DC 1 0
*: V(l)
•I 1(L) Rl 10 1 IK
R2 1 2 2K
TIME V(l) CI 2 0 1UF
(•) -1.0000E+00 -5.0000E-01 0.0000E+00 5.0000E-01 1.0000E+00
(•) -5.0000E-03 O.OOOOE+00 5.0000E-03 1.0000E-02 1.5000E-02 L 1 4 0. 1H
R3 4 0 IK
O.OOOE+00 1.OOOE+00
5.000E-05 6.750E-01 » S O L U T I O N CONTRO L S T A T E M E N T
1.000E-04 2.781E-01 • D C C G 10 10 1
1.500E-04 9.158E-02
2.000E-04 3.602E-01 * OUTPUT C O N T R O L S T A T E M E N T
2.500E-04 4.926E-01
3.000E-04 4.892E-01 . PRINT DC V ( C 1 ) I (L)
3.500E-04 3.816E-01
. END
4.000E-04 2.149E-01
.500E-04 3.86SE-02
.0O0E-04 1.073E-01
.500E-04 1.982E-01 The resulting, initial values are
.00OE-04 262E-01
.500E-04 995E-01
VG V(C1) • I (L) '
.00OE-04 355E-01
.500E-04 639E-02 1.000E+1 5.000E+00 5.OOOE-03
.00OE-04 753E-02
.500E-04 149E-02
.000E-04 -9.810E-02 We can now write a circuit file for t > 0 for Fig. 9.15(c) using these values to find
.S00E-04 -9.783E-02
.OOOE-03 -7.660E-02
v„ — V(4) in the desired interval. Note that a dummy voltage source v has been in- d
serted to allow i, for the CCCS between nodes 0 and 3.
294 Chapter 9 Second-Order Circuits Section 9.11 SPICE for Transient Responses of Higher-Order Circuits 295
I = 0
Nl
MM
IM.cn I KAN C II 11
r.Nli
I he plot ol 1., lor this program is shown in Fig. 9.16.
I I Ml V(RJ)
I) -J . 0000E»00 0 . 000OE*OO 2 . O00OE . 0O 4 . 0000E . OO 6.0000E+00
i.un i . 111 4 . ««7E»00

0001-03 1 . inc..! .III!
.".111 .1 1 7 . 111E-01
0001-03 4 . 4U3E-01
OOOE-03 2 . 855E-01
OOOE-03 1 . 378E-01
000E-03 4 . 932E-02
OOOE-03 -1 . 149E-02
OOOE-03 -5 . 280E-02
OOOE-03 -7 . 984E-02
1 . 000E-02 -9 . 747E-02
I . I 11 HI 11; - 1 . 0 8 3 E - 0 1
1 . 200E-02 - 1 . 1 4 3 E - 0 1
I . .Ill III-. U2 - 1 . 1 7 0 E - 0 1
1 . 400E-02 - 1 . 1 7 5 E - 0 1
I .111.1- 112 - 1 . 1 8 4 E - 0 1
FIGURE 9.16 Transient response for circuit of Fig. 9.15(a)
EXERCISES
9.11.1 Use SPICE to plot v in Fig. 9.6(a) for 0 < t < 500 /us with i = 0.1 u(t) A , g
L = 10 mH, C = 1 /nF, i(0) = - 1 0 mA, v(0) = 0, and (a) R = 25 f l , (b) R =

50 f l , and (c) R = 75 ft.
9.11.2 Use SPICE to plot 1 for 0 < t < 4 s in Example 9.13 with the 10-V source replaced
by 10[u(f) - u(t - 1)] V.
9.11.3 Use SPICE to plot v in Fig. 9.5 for 0 < / < 100 ms if
v, = me-"*» - e**)u(t) V
9.11.4 Plot v„ in Fig. 9.15 in the interval 0 < t < 20 ms for
v = -I0u(-t)
s - 1000[» - 0.01][u(t) - u(t - 0.01)] V
FIGURE 9.15 (a) Third-order circuit; (b) redrawn at t = CT; (c) redrawn for t > 0
Chapter 9 Second-Order Circuits Section 9.11 SPICE for Transient Responses of Higher-Order Circuits 297
9.12
1
SUMMARY
In this chapter we have considered circuits with two storage elements, whose analy-
sis entails the solution of second-order differential equations. As in the first-order
case, the solution consists of a natural plus a forced response. The natural response
exhibits two time constants, or equivalently, two natural frequencies. The natural
r m Mil i A I ' I i,
frequencies may be real and distinct, complex, or real and equal, resulting respec-
tively in the overdamped, underdamped, and critically damped cases. In the under-
damped case, the response is oscillatory and displays a resonant frequency, a damp-
ing coefficient, and a damped frequency. Special important cases of second-order
circuits are the parallel and series RLC circuits.
The describing equations for second-order circuits are obtained by eliminating
unwanted variables from two or more equations. A special, direct method is to use a
differentiation operator D and Cramer's rule. Another method uses state variables 2 (1 4n
and graph theory. Finally, as was the case for first-order circuits, SPICE was shown
to be an effective tool for graphing the transient circuit responses.
PROBLEM 9.7
PROBLEMS
9.1 Insert a 1-fl resistor in series with «, in Fig. 9.3 Find i for t > 0 if the circuit is in steady state i N I lit- circuit is in steady state at / = 0'. Find v 9.12 The circuit is in steady state at / = 0 . Find
9.2. thereby making the source a practical at t = 0~. and I for / > 0. v for / > 0 if L is (a) 8 H, (b) 6 H, and
rather than an ideal one. Show that in this case 9.4. Find i for t > 0 if t'(0) = 4 A and c(0) = «J F i n d i lor / > 0 if the circuit is in steady state (c) 4.8 H.
r . satisfies the second-order equation, 8 V. at / - 0".
9.13 Find i for / > 0 if the circuit is in steady state
4 H
9 l<» I ind i for / > 0 if the circuit is in steady state at / = 0".
5—r- + 11— 1 + 4v2 = 4 — + 4th at / « 0". 9.14 Find t> for / > 0 if the circuit is in steady state
dt dt dt i Tfty\
r
2
Ml I'ind i for / > 0 if the circuit is in steady state at t = 0".

9.2 Find ii for t > 0 if i,(0) = 9 A and i(0) = + at / = 0".
3 A. 2 CI : I * .
> 4 ' - V *
2H
r
Mnnp —'Tnnp—
P R O B L E M 9.4 •
'• 4 u ; 20 9.5 Find v in Prob. 9.4 if i'(0) is changed to 1 A.

9.6 Find v for t > 0 if the circuit is in steady state
at / = 0-.
9.7 Find i for / > 0 if t>,(0) = MO) = 12 V.
PROBLEM 9.2
PROBLEM 9.8
0 >'. 912
-VW-
16 v ;
6 :
912 :F J - F ; 6S2<
PROBLEM 9.3 PROBLEM 9.9
298 Chapter 9 Second-Order Circuits Chapter 9 Problems

299
i ii _2_
IIIIII nrtnp
I' I
'Jil
I'Nl l l l l I M
P R O B L E M 9.16
P R O B L E M 9.10 P R O B L E M 9.11
4ft 6n
1.25 mF
PROBLEM 9.12
PROBLEM 9.17
PROBLEM 9.18
9.15 Find i for t > 0 if u(0) = 2 V, i(0) = 1 A, 9.18 Find i for t > 0 if the circuit is in steady state
ÂAv lMT!r
and (a) L = 1 H and ft = 1 f l , (b) L = 1 H when the switch is opened at / = 0. r x
and R = 3 (1, and (c) 1 = 2 H and ft = 5 f l . 9.19 Find i for t > 0 i f o, =12«(t) V.
9.H Find t, for t > 0 if i,(0) = 3 A , i (0) = 2
9.20 Find v for t > 0 i f the circuit is in steady state
- 1 A, and (a) v = 15 V, (b) u = 10<r ' V,
s s 2
at t = <T.
and (c) v = 5e~' V.
g
9.21 Find v, and v for t > 0 if the circuit is in
2
9.17 Find i for / > 0 if the circuit is in steady state steady State at t = 0~
at I = (T. PROBLEM 9.19
300 Chapter 9 Second-Order Circuits Chapter 9 Problems 301

llM
P R O B L E M 9.20
I ' H O H I I M "I IA
PROBLEM 9.21
26 cos 3t V
9.22 Find v for r > 0 if the circuit is in steady state 9.25 Find i for t > 0 if i = 10 A and the circuit is
8
at t = 0". in steady state at I = 0

9.23 Find i , i > 0, if there is no initial stored en- 9.26 Find the maximum value of the critically
P R O B L E M 9.25 P R O B L E M 9.27
ergy and (a) R = 2 If, n = 2; (b) R = 2 f l , damped response i of Prob. 9.25 and the time
H = 1; and (c) R = 1 fl, u. « 2, at which it occurs if i , = 10u(-r) A.
9.24 Find i , t > 0, if there is no initial stored en- 9.27 Find i for t > 0 if i(0) = 2 A and v(0) =
ergy and (a) C = T5 F, (b) C = TS F, and (c) 6 V. 9.28 Find v for t > 0 if (a) i, = 2u(t) A, and (b) 9.30 Find v for » > 0.
C = AF. I, = 2e-'u(t) A.
4 u(r)A
2!)
P R O B L E M 9.28
PROBLEM 9.22
9.29 Find i, t > 0, if t>(0) = 6 V and i(0) = 2 A. 12u(r)V
-If- P R O B L E M 9.30
Se~ ' A2
9.31 (a) Find o for t > 0. (b) Replace the cur-

-G- rent and voltage sources by 2 cos 2r A and
2fl i 2H 6 cos 2/ V, respectively, with the same polari-
ties, and find t: for l > 0 if there is no initial
stored energy.
:' 6 J 2
9.32 Find v, t > 0, if the circuit is in steady state
at I = 0 . (Note that this is the circuit of Fig.
PROBLEM 9.23
P R O B L E M 9.29 9.12.)

40
K
W v
P R O B L E M 9.31 PROBLEM 9.32
9.33 Find o for t > 0 i f o(0) = 4 V and i(0) 9.34 (a) Find v for r > 0, i f o„(0) = 0 and I ' H O H I I M 'I I I .
3 A. o»(0) = 2 V. (b) Repeat part (a) if the 4-V
source is replaced by one of 26 cos 2t V. (c)
Repeat part (a) i f the 4-V source is replaced by
I . 3J1 4
one of 2e~' V.
a
H
i — m — l kl2
9.35 Find o for t > 0 i f there is no initial stored I Ml
-AAA,-—
energy. -Wv—
(X) 16 cos 8( 9.36 Find the value, or range of values of
I ,,l
/i. = 1 + R a 1 so that the circuit is (a) over-
damped, (b) underdamped, and (c) critically Hf- 1
damped. (Note: The output is v and u, s 3 to i F
m
PROBLEM 9.33 I kW
insure that the natural response decays rather
— r
than grows with time.)
I kit
.... *
1/6 F
-for
r r
3n 2 n
-VvV-
'» W I'ind o for f > 0 if there is no initial stored has the natural frequencies
energy and o, = 5 V.
s m - 1 , -2, -3
I <K Had u, / > 0, if (a) o,(0) = 4 V, o(0) = 0;
PROBLEM 9.34
(b) o,(0) = 0, o(0) = 2 V; and (c) o,(0) =
as its roots. Thus show that the natural re-
4 V, o(0) = 2 V. (Note that the response is an
sponse is
unforced sinusoidal response. Such a circuit is
.ailed a harmonic oscillator.)
x = A,e~' + A e " ' + A j e " "
n 2 2
9>39 Higher-order differential equations may be

solved in the same manner as second-order Show also that the forced response is
equations. There are more natural frequencies
and thus more terms in the natural response. x,= 2
For example, i f
and that the general solution is
d'x dx
2 dx - M
-it + 6 - r r + 11 — + 6 J = 12 X = X„ + Xf
dt 3 dt 2 dt
9.40 Using the results of Prob. 9.39, find i , t' > 0,
show that the characteristic equation if there is no initial stored energy.
s + 6s + lis + 6 = 0
3 2

10
Sinusoid,.! I \ itation and Phasors
PROBLEM 9.40
COMPUTER APPLICATION PROBLEMS

9.41 Use SPICE to plot i in Prob. 9.11 in the interval 0 < t < 1 s.
9.42 Use SPICE to plot i in Prob. 9.24 in the interval 0 < / < 1 s.
9.43 Use SPICE in Prob. 9.37 to plot v in the interval 0 < t < 5 ms if v, =
15[«(f) - u(t - 0.0005)] V.
9.44 Use SPICE to plot t; in Prob. 9.38 for 0 < I < 5 s.
9.45 Plot i in Prob. 9.23(a) for - 2 s < t < 8 s if the 12-V source is replaced by o, of the graph
shown. (Hint: Replace t by t + 2 s in the SPICE solution.)
v,(V)
10
Cherlm Protoue SHHmut,

1Mf-ttt73
The UM of complex numbers to solve / have found the equation later attracted the attention of the sci-
ac circuit problems—the so-called that will enable us to entific community, his political activi-
PROBLEM 9.45
phaaor method considered in this transmit electricity through ties while he was at the University at
tibapler -was first done by the Ger- Breslau attracted the police. He was
alternating current over
man Austrian mathematician and forced to flee the country just as he
thousands of miles. I have had finished the work for his doctor-
ahMitrical engineer Charles Proteus
Slalnmetz in a paper presented in reduced it to a simple ate, which he never received. He did
11193 He is noted also for the laws of problem in algebra. electrical research in the United
liyateresis and for his work in manu- Charles Proteus Steinmetz States, primarily with the General
factured lightning. Electric Company. His paper on com-
Steinmetz was bom in Breslau, plex numbers revolutionized the anal-
Oarmany. the son of a government railway worker. He ysis of ac circuits, although it was said at the time that
was deformed from birth and lost his mother when he no one but Steinmetz understood the method. In 1897
was 1 year old, but this did not keep him from becom- he also published the first book to reduce ac calcula-
ing a scientific genius. Just as his work on hysteresis tions to a science. •
306 Chapter 9 Second-Order Circuits 307

win. Ii n it i In i in I \y Mi l I he amplitude of the sinusoid is V , which is the m
in II 11 II iliui I hi function attains. The radian frequency, of angular fre-

fHMrv, lit ut, mMMirad In redlins per second (rad/s).
I n Chapters 8 and 9 we have analyzed circuits containing dynamic elements and

have seen that the complete response is the sum of a natural and a forced response.
The natural response for a given circuit is obtained from the dead circuit and there-
fore is independent of the sources, or excitations. The forced response, on the other
hand, depends directly on the type of excitation applied to the circuit. In the case of
a dc source, the forced response is a dc steady-state response, an exponential input
results in an exponential forced response, and so on.
One of the most important excitations is the sinusoidal forcing function. Sinu-
soids abound in nature, as, for example, in the motion of a pendulum, in the bounc-
ing of a ball, and in the vibrations of strings and membranes. Also, as we have seen, FIGURE 10.1 Sinusoidal function
the natural response of an underdamped second-order circuit is a damped sinusoid
and in the absence of damping is a pure sinusoid. The sinusoid is a periodic function, defined generally by the property
In electrical engineering, sinusoidal functions are extremely important for a
number of reasons. The carrier signals generated for communication purposes are v(t + T) = v(t) (10.2)
sinusoids, and, of course, the sinusoid is the dominant signal in the electric power
industry, to name two very important examples. Indeed, as we shall see later in the
study of Fourier series, almost every useful signal in electrical engineering can be where T is the period. That is, the function goes through a complete cycle, or pe-
resolved into sinusoidal components. riod, which is then repeated, every T seconds. In the case of the sinusoid, the period
Because of their importance, circuits with a sinusoidal forcing function will be is
considered in detail in this chapter. Since the natural response is independent of the T =— (10.3)
sources and can be found by the methods of the previous chapters, we shall concen-
trate on finding only the forced response. This response is important in itself since it
as may be seen from (10.1) and (10.2). Thus in 1 s the function goes through 1/7"
is the ac steady-state response that is left after the short time required for the transi-
tory natural response to die. cycles, or periods. Its frequency f is then
Since we are interested only in the ac steady-state response, we shall not limit
ourselves, as we did in Chapters 8 and 9, to first- and second-order circuits. As we / (10.4)
2TT
shall see, higher-order RLC circuits may be handled, insofer as the ac steady-state
response is concerned, in the same way as resistive circuits. cycles per second, or hertz (abbreviated Hz). The latter term, named for the German
physicist Heinrich R. Hertz (1857-1894), is now the standard unit for frequency.
Some older books use the former term, but it is being discontinued. The relation be-
10.1
tween frequency and radian frequency is seen by (10.4) to be
PROPERTIES O F SINUSOIDS
to = 2trf (10.5)
We devote this section to a review of some of the properties of sinusoidal functions.
Let us begin with the sine wave,
A more general sinusoidal expression is given by
v(t) = V sin (10.1) v(t) = V„ sin (u>t + d>) (10.6)

m
308 C h a p t e r 10 S i n u s o i d a l Excitation a n d P h a s o r s
S e c t i o n 10.1 P r o p e r t i e s of S i n u s o i d s 309
where d> is the phase angle, or simply the phase. To be consistent, since (ot is in ra-
dians, d> should be expressed in radians. However, in electrical engineering it is of- sin | (ot + — j = (MIX)
ten convenient to specify <f> degrees. For example, we may write
m
I he only difference between sines and cosines is thus the phase angle, lor example,
v = V sin ^2/ +m ^ we may write (10.6) as
or v (t) = V cos I (ot + d) -

m
v = V sin (2t + 45°)

m
interchangeably, even though the latter expression contains a mathematical inconsis- I XAMI'I I 10.1 To determine how much one sinusoid leads or lags another of the same frequency,
tency. we must first express both as sine waves or as cosine waves with positive amplitudes.
A sketch of (10.6) is shown in Fig. 10.2 by the solid line, along with a sketch For example, let
of (10.1), shown dashed. The solid curve is simply the dashed curve displaced <p/oi v = 4 cos (It + 30°) t
seconds, or d> radians to the left. Therefore, points on the solid curve, such as its
peaks, occur d> rad, or 4>/w s, earlier than corresponding points on the dashed and
curve. Accordingly, we shall say that V sin (a>t + d») leads V sin <ot by d> rad (or
m m
v = - 2 sin (2t + 18°)
2
degrees). In general, the sinusoid

Then, since
i>i = V„t sin ((ot + a)
-sin wt = sin (air + 180°)
leads the sinusoid
we have
v = V „2 sin (tot + B)
2
i5 = 2 sin (2/ + 18° + 180°)

2
by a - 8. An equivalent expression is that V2 lags Vi by a — B.

= 2 cos (2t + 18° + 180° - 90°)
= 2 cos (2t + 108°)
. V sin(w( +
m
Comparing this last expression with c i , we see that vi leads v by 30° - 108° = 2
— 78°, which is the same as saying that vi lags v by 78°. 2
The sum of a sine wave and a cosine wave of the same frequency is another si-
nusoid of that frequency. To show this, consider
B
A cos tot + B sin wt = VA 2 + B 2 : COS (Ot sin (tit
VA + B
2 1
FIGURE 10.2 T w o sinusoids with different phases

which by Fig. 10.3 may be written
As an example, consider A cos tot + B sin (ot = V A + B (cos ait cos 6 + sin ait sin 6)
2 2
t), = 4 sin (2t + 30°) By a formula from trigonometry, this is

and A cos (ot + B sin (ot = VA 2 + B cos (tot - 6)
2 (10.9)
v 2 = 6 sin (It - 12°) where, by Fig. 10.3,
Then V\s v (or v lags i>,) by 30 - (-12) = 42°
2 2 e = tan'^ (10.10)
Thus far we have considered sine functions rather than cosine functions in A
defining sinusoids. It does not matter which form we use since A similar result may be established if the sine and cosine terms have phase angles
other than zero, indicating that, in general, the sum of two sinusoids of a given fre-
(10.7) quency is another sinusoid of the same frequency.
S e c t i o n 10.1 P r o p e r t i e s of S i n u s o i d s 311
AN HI ( IH< l l l l IXAMIMI
n, Icl us hnd the forced compo-
quatton is
/ ' ' i Hi V„ cos tot (10.11)

til
A
IIIIMI H I ( liuptt'i let us assume the trial solution
F I G U R E 10.3 T r i a n g l e u s e f u l in a d d i n g t w o s i n u s o i d s
It m A cos tot + B sin tot
We must be clear on what is meant by (10.10), since some mathematics books
take this expression as the principal value of the arctangent and place 6 in a specific
quadrant. We mean that the terminal side of the angle 0 is in the quadrant where the
point (A, B) is located.
V coi wf
EXAMPLE 10.2 We have
- 5 cos 3? + 12 sin 3t = V 5 + 12 cos |^3f - tan 2 2 1

F I G U R E 10.4 RL c i r c u i t
= 13 cos (3t - 112.6°) Substituting the trial solution into (10.11), we have
L(-toA sin <ot + u)B cos tot) + R(A cos (ot + B sin air) = V„ cos a>f
since tan" (12/—5) is in the second quadrant, because A = - 5 < 0 and B =
1
Therefore, equating coefficients of like terms, we must have
12 > 0. '
RA + (oLB = V„
-ooLA + RB = 0
EXERCISES from which
RV m
10.1.1 Find the period of the following sinusoids:
R + (o L
2 2 2
(a) 4 cos (3f + 33°).

(oLV m
(b) cos + ^ + 3 sin ^2t - B

(it ^j. R + to L
2 2 2
(c) 8 sin 2irt. The forced response is then

Answer (a) 27r/3; (b) IT; (c) 1
10.1.2 Find the amplitude and phase of the following sinusoids: RV„ wLV„
ait +
— "" ' R + (o L sin tot
; COS
(a) 6 cos 2f + 8 sin 2t. R + (o L
2 2 2 2 2 2
(b) (4V3 - 3) cos (It + 30°) + ( 3 V I - 4) cos (It + 60°). which by (10.9) and (10.10) may be written as
[Suggestion: In (b), expand both functions and use (10.9).]
Answer (a) 10, -53.1°; (b) 5, 36.9°
10.1.3 Find the frequency of the following sinusoids: if = (at- tan- Y)
1 * >
1012
VR2 + (o L 2 2
(a) 3 cos (67r< - 10°).

(b) 4 sin 377t. The forced response is, therefore, a sinusoid like the excitation, as we predicted
Answer (a) 3; (b) 60 Hz when we chose the trial solution. We may write it in the form
if = /„ cos (a.» + </>) (10.13)
S e c t i o n 10.2 A n RL C i r c u i t E x a m p l e 313
where iNMall 1 - H I T , we list a lew of these
1 1 iliw method ot analysis
I,- , V ~
VR 2 + <o L 2 2 (10.15)
and •'«• " 'I I nilllih) I ii in.I h in- tin- iml and imaginary parts of
1
<oL A, fM|*> iiv»l> I <|iiivnUMly, w# niiv wv ihui

4> = -tan" — 1 (10.14) a • Re A, b - 1m A
A where H* »ml Im ilanolr ihr rttl /•«"< of and the imaginary part of.
I I " • 11111itN i I \K W I I I I I I I .dsn in the polar form.
Since the natural response is
(„ = Aie' " R L
A'\A c" |A|Za (10.16)
it is clear that after a short time i„ -* 0, and the current settles down to its ac steady I
state value, given by (10.12).
The method we have used is straightforward and conventional but, as the wherr | A \» Ihc magnitude, given by
reader might agree, is rather laborious for such a simple problem. For a second-order | A | = Va 2 + b 2
circuit, the method is more tedious, as was illustrated by the example of (9.34). For
very high-order circuits the procedure is, of course, even more complicated. Evi- ami II is tin- angle or argument, given by
dently, we need a better method. One such method is developed in the remainder of , b
this chapter, and its use allows us to treat circuits with storage elements in the same - a = tan
way we treated resistive circuits in Chapters 2, 4, and 5. a
I IK-SC relations between rectangular and polar forms are illustrated in Fig. 10.5.
EXERCISES
Im
10.2.1 Find the forced response i, in Fig. 10.4 if L « 60 mH, R = 8 left, Vm = 4 V, and A =a + /A
to = 100,000 rad/s.
Answer 0.4 cos (lOO.OOOf - 36.9°) mA
10.2.2 Find the forced component of v.
Answer (RIjVl + \xi R C ) cos (tot - tan"' toRC) V
2 2 2
F I G U R E 10.5 G e o m e t r i c a l representation of a c o m p l e x n u m b e r A
I XAMPLE 10.3 Suppose that we have A = 4 + ;'3. Then | A | = V 4 + 3 = 5 and a = 2 2
tan" 5 = 36.9°. Therefore, the polar form is

1
EXERCISE 10.2.2
A = 5/36.9°
10.3 I XAMPLE 10.4 Consider A = -5 - jl2. Since both a and b are negative, the line segment repre-
senting A lies in the third quadrant, as shown in Fig. 10.6, from which we see that
AN ALTERNATIVE M E T H O D USING COMPLEX NUMBERS
V 5 + 12 = 13
2 2
The alternative method of analyzing circuits with sinusoidal excitations, which we and
consider in the remainder of the chapter, relies heavily on the concept of complex 12
numbers. The reader who is unfamiliar with complex numbers, or who needs to re- a = 180° + tan"' — = 247.4°
view the subject, should consult Appendices C and D, where complex numbers and Thus we have A = 13/247.4°.
314 C h a p t e r 10 S i n u s o i d a l Excitation a n d P h a s o r s S e c t i o n 10.3 A n Alternative M e t h o d U s i n g C o m p l e x N u m b e r s 315

To solve (Ins equation, wc try
ii = Ae
which, substituted into (10.20), yields
(j(oL + R)Ae'°" = V e'" m
from which
V«
A = ~—-rrr
R + j(oL
12 - s
* V/? + (o L 2 2 7
A • -5-/12
using complex number division. Therefore, we have
FIGURE 10.6 Complex number with negative real and imaginary parts ' VR 2 + uL
2 2
Let us now observe that

Other useful results are
Re i , = Re ; V m ^-"--'^/»)
= g
; = 1/90° IVR 2 + a> L 2 J 2
j = -1 = 1/180"
2
V„ / , (oL\
= = cos I cut - tan —
and so on. V/? + w L
2 2 2 \
By Euler's formula, which is discussed in Appendix D and which we have used
in Chapter 9, we know that which, by (10.12), is the correct forced response of Fig. 10.4. That is,
V cos (ot + jV„ sin (ot = V„e

m M
t>=Rei, (10.21)
Therefore, we may say that We have established for this example the interesting result that if i, is the com-
plex response to the complex forcing function v<, then i = Re i i is the response to f
V„ cos tot = Re(V e**) m (10.17) v = Re v,. That is, v, yields i , and Re v, = v yields Re i'i = i>. The reason for
g t
and this is that the describing equation (10.20) contains only real coefficients. Thus,
from (10.20), we have
V sin tot = lm(V„e*")
m
Rei^Z,^ + Ri^j = R
Returning to the RL circuit example of Fig. 10.4, we know that exponentials
are mathematically easier to handle as excitations than sinusoids. Therefore, let us
see what happens if we apply the complex excitation
oi = V e"" (10.18)
at e I'I) + A (
Z,4( ii) " « <»'
m
R R e v c o s
instead of the real excitation

and therefore, by (10.11),
v, = V cos mt = Re u ,
m (10.19)
i = if = Re i , (10.22)
We cannot duplicate such a complex excitation in the laboratory, but there is no rea- Thus we see that it is easier to use the complex forcing function v, to find the
son we cannot consider it abstractly. In this case the forced component of the cur- complex response i i . Then since the real forcing function is Re « i , the real response
rent, which we call i'i, satisfies is Re I'I. This principle holds for all our circuit analyses, since the describing equa-
tions are linear with real coefficients, as may be seen in a development analogous to
L-j + Ri, = c i = V e*"
m (10.20) that leading to (10.22).
S e c t i o n 10.3 An Alternative M e t h o d Using C o m p l e x Number s 317

in.I ii I I . I ii iipli » irsponse i . . as shown in Fig. 10.8. Then we know from the
EXERCISES n Mill'. .. I ili. |M.. rding section thai the real response of Fig. 10.7 is
10.3.1 Replace the real forcing function /„ cos tot in Exercise 10.2.2 by the complex forc- i = Re i , (10.26)
ing function I e'"", find the resulting complex response t)i, and show that the real re-
m
sponse is v = Re v,. I M| li qumft of the fact that the coefficients in the describing equation are
10.3.2 Show that, for a real, i. .ii I I i " .1 "in previously.
Re
a-dt) d,^
=a x)
and use this result to establish (10.22). (Suggestion: Let x = f + jg, where/and g ,.-v «><""
m
are real.)
10.3.3 In Exercise 10.2.2, replace the current source by ii = I e'"' A and show that the re- m
sponse t)i has the property that Re v, = v, where v is the original response.
FIGURE 10.8 G e n e r a l circuit with a c o m p l e x excitation
Ihc de=:ribing equation may be solved for the forced response by the method
10.4 •I i h.ipter 9. That is, since we may write the excitation as
COMPLEX EXCITATIONS v, = V e S»
m J$ (10.27)
Let us now generalize the results using complex excitation functions in the preceding which is a constant times e "', then the trial solution is
J
section. The excitation, as well as the forced response, may be a sinusoidal voltage i'i = Ae* -
or current. However, to be specific, let us consider the input to be a voltage source

and the output to be a current through some element. The other cases may be consid- Comparing (10.24) and (10.26), we must have
ered in an analogous way. Im cos (tot + <!>) = Re[Ae'""]
In general, we know that if
which requires that
v = V cos (ait + 6)
s m (10.23) A = Ime * 1
the forced response is of the form and hence

i, = Imeê"- (10.28)
i = Im cos (ait + <p) (10.24) Taking the real part, we have the solution (10.24), of course.
as indicated in the general circuit of Fig. 10.7. Therefore, if by some means we can
find /„ and <f>, we have our answer, since to, 6, and V are known. m
IXAMI'll 10.5 Let us find the forced response 1/of
To solve for i in Fig. 10.7, let us apply the complex excitation
^ + 2 ^ + 8i = 12V2 cos (2t + 15°)
V e'
m (M+e)
(10.25) dt dt
First we replace the real excitation by the complex excitation,
FIGURE 10.7 G e n e r a l circuit w i t h input a n d output
l>, = 12V2 e ^ m
where for convenience the phase is written in degrees. (This is, of course, an incon-
sistent mathematical expression, but as long as we interpret it correctly it should
v * V
g m cos (ut + 0) f^M I * / „ cos (wr + <t>) present no difficulty.) The complex response U satisfies
^ + 2 ^ + Si, = 12V2 e**

+m
dt 2 dt
318 C h a p t e r 10 S i n u s o i d a l Excitation a n d P h a s o r s S e c t i o n 10.4 C o m p l e x Excitations 319

and it must have the general form
i, = Ae*
Therefore, we must have PMASORS,
(-4 + j4 + S)Ae ' = 12V2 e»'<•»""
J2
The results obtained in the preceding section may he put in much more compact
form by the use of quantities called phasors, which we shall introduce in this see
. l2V2e>> r 12V2/15 0
tion. The phasor method of analyzing circuits is credited generally to Charles Pro-
A = . . = = 3/-30° teus Steinmetz (1865-1923), a famous electrical engineer with the General Electric
4 + j4
Company in the early part of this century.
which gives
To begin, let us recall the general sinusoidal voltage,
i'i = ( 3 / - 3 0 ° ) g ^
v = V cos (wt + B)
m (10.29)
Thus the real answer is
if = Re i, = 3 cos (2» - 30°)
which, of course, is the source voltage v of the preceding section. If the frequency
g
to is known, then v is completely specified by its amplitude V and its phase 6. These
m
EXERCISES quantities are displayed in a related complex number,
10.4.1 (a) From the time-domain equations find the forced response v if v, = 10e^' V (b)
Using the result in (a), find the forced response v if v. = 10 cos 8t V V = Ve m je = V [6m (10.30)
Answer (a) 2e '~" '"> V; (b) 2 cos (8/ - 53 1°) V
M
ion which is defined as a phasor, or a phasor representation. To distinguish them from

J Wv- other complex numbers, phasors are printed in boldface type, as indicated.
The motivation for the phasor definition may be seen from the equivalence, by
Euler's formula, of
V cos (a>t + d) = Re(V e>"e>"")
m m (10.31)
EXERCISE 10.4.1
Therefore, in view of (10.29) and (10.30), we have
10.4.2 Find the forced response v in Exercise 10.4.1 if = 10 sin 8/ V. (Suggestion
sin 8t = Im e'"'.) v = Re(Ve*") (10.32)
Answer 2 sin (8/ - 53.1°) V
10.4.3 Using the method of complex excitation, find the forced response i if v = LE 10.6 Suppose that we have
20 cos 2t V. 8
Answer 2 cos (2t + 36.9°) A v = 10 cos (4t + 30°) V
J-m. 1 H 80
The phasor representation is then
I VW-
V = 10/30° V
since V = 10 and 6 = 30°. Conversely, since oi = 4 rad/s is assumed to be

m
known, v is readily obtained from V.
In an identical fashion we define the phasor representation of the time-domain

EXERCISE 10.4.3 current
10.4.4 Repeat Exercise 10.4.3 if v = 16 cos 4t V. g ; = /„ cos (a>t + 4>) (10.33)
Answer 2 cos 4t A
to be
I = l e>* = l j± (10.34)
m m
S e c t i o n 10.5 Phasors 321

Thus if we know, for example, that to = 6 rad/s and that I = 2/15" A, then we I i a solution, we have
have
jwLU m + RU M * \e *
h
i = 2 cos (6< + 15°) A

:
Dividing out the factor e ", we have the phasor equation

1
We have chosen to represent sinusoids and their related phasors on the basis of
cosine functions using the fact that cos wt = Re(e ). We could have chosen sine iM jwLl + Rl = V (10.36)
functions just as easily, using sin wt = Im (<>*") (see Exercise 10.4.2). Thus if a
function such as Therefore,
v = 8 sin (3t + 30°)

I = n—;——r . - - / -tan ' —
is given, we may change it to R + Jo>L Vj? + w L 1
2 l 2 R
c = 8 cos (3» + 30° - 90°) Substituting this value into the expression for i i , we have
= 8 cos (3t - 60°)
ii =
j(M-im-'o,L/K)
Then the phasor representation is VR 2 + wV 2
V = 8 / -60" Taking the real part, we have i = i>, obtained earlier in (10.12).
Had we chosen to base the phasors on sine functions, then we would keep v as is
and write its phasor as 8/30°, which, of course, would represent 8 sin (3t + 30°) in It is important to note that if we can go directly from (10.35) to (10.36), there
the time domain. An illustration using sine-based phasors is given in Example is a vast saving of time and effort. Also, in the process we have converted the differ-
ential equation into an algebraic equation, somewhat like those encountered in resis-
tive circuits. Indeed, the only difference is that the numbers here are complex,
whereas in resistive circuits they were real. With the hand calculator as commonly
EXAMPLE 10.7 To see how the use of phasors can greatly shorten the work, let us reconsider Fig. available as it is today, even the complexity of the numbers presents little difficulty.
10.4 and its describing equation (10.11), rewritten as In the remainder of the chapter we shall see how to bypass all the steps be-
tween (10.35) and (10.36) by studying the phasor relationships of the circuit ele-
, <* „ ments and considering Kirchhoff's laws as they pertain to phasors. Indeed, as we
dt+ Vm C 0 S °" (-)
10 35 shall see, we may go directly from the circuit to (10.36), bypassing even the step of
writing down the differential equation.
Following our method, we replace the excitation V„ cos wt by the complex forcing
function In general, the real solutions are time-domain functions, and their phasors are
frequency-domain functions (i.e., they are functions of the frequency a>). This is il-
d = V e*
m lustrated by the phasor I of Example 10.7. Thus to solve the time-domain problems,
we may convert to phasors and solve the corresponding frequency-domain problems,
which may be written
which are generally much easier. Finally, we convert back to the time domain by
v, = Ve* finding the time function from its phasor representation.
since 6 = 0, and therefore V = V /0 = V„. Substituting this value and j = i , into
m
(10.35), we have
EXERCISES
+ Ri, = Ve*
at 11,1.1 Find the phasor representation of (a) 4 cos (It + 45°), (b) 8 cos 2/ + 15 sin 2f, and
(c) - 2 sin (5/ - 65°).
whose solution i , is related to the real solution i by
Answer (a) 4 /_45°; (b) 17 / - 6 1 . 9 ° ; (c) 2 [2?
i = Re ii Ill S.2 Find the time-domain function represented by the phasors (a) 1 0 / - 1 7 ° , (b) 6 + j$,
Next, trying and (c) —j6. In all cases w = 3.
Answer (a) 10 cos (3/ - 17°); (b) 10 cos (3f + 53.1°); (c) 6 cos (3/ - 90°)
ii - le*"
322 C h a p t e r 10 S i n u s o i d a l Excitation a n d P h a s o r s 323

S e c t i o n 10.5 Phasors
10.6
V O L T A G E - C U R R E N T RELATIONSHIPS FOR PHASORS
In this section we show that relationships between phasor voltage and phasor current
for resistors, inductors, and capacitors are very similar to Ohm's law for resistors. In
fact, the phasor voltage is proportional to the phasor current, as in Ohm's law, with
the proportionality factor being a constant or a function of the frequency a>.
We begin by considering the voltage-current relation for the resistor,
v = Ri (10.37)
where
v = V cos (tot + 0)
m
III UNI III III \i i i i n e n l w a v e f o r m s for a resistor

(10.38)
I = Im cos ((Ot + (b)
If we apply the complex voltage V„e ' \e complex current which results is
J{<J +e
I e °" *\ substituted into (10.37) yields

m A +
V - lOcosOOOt + 30°) V (10.41)

Ve m Ault+e) = RI e *^
m Au>,+
.elm . with the polarity indicated in Fig. 10.9(a). Then the

Dividing out the factor e "' results in J
V„e* = RI e'* m (10.39) V • 10/30° V
which, since V„e and Ime'* are the phasors V and I , respectively, reduces to
jl> I lie i>li.i .i »i i MI i t u t IN
V 10/30°
V = RI (10.40) = 2/30° A
R 5
I I I . i. I . . i . m the lime domain we have
Thus the phasor or frequency-domain relation for the resistor is exactly like the time-
domain relation. The voltage-current relations for the resistor are illustrated in i = 2 cos (lOOt + 30°) A (10.42)
Fig. 10.9. l in i <>l . ourse, simply the result we would have obtained using Ohm's law.
In the ease of the inductor, substituting the complex current and voltage into
tin- nine-domain relation,
. di
v = L-
dt
five! the complex relation
dt
(a) (b)
FIGURE 10.9 V o l t a g e - c u r r e n t r e l a t i o n s for a resistor R in t h e (a) t i m e a n d (b) f r e q u e n c y = ja>LI e* +*
m M )
domains
Again, dividing out the factor e'"" and identifying the phasors, we obtain the phasor
From (10.39) we have V„ = RI„ and 8 = d>. Thus the sinusoidal voltage and relation
current for a resistor have the same phase angle, in which case they are said to be in
phase. This phase relationship is shown in Fig. 10.10, where the voltage is repre- V = j(oL\)
sented by the solid line and the current by the dashed line.
S e c t i o n 10.6 V o l t a g e - C u r r e n t Relationships for Phasors 325

Thus the phasor voltage V, as in Ohm's law, is proportional to the phasor current I,
gives the complex relation
with the proportionality factor juL. The voltage-current relations for the inductor
are shown in Fig. 10.11.
l *°***) = C—[V„e' '"' "]
me l +<
dt
= jwCVme*"**
Again dividing by e*" and identifying the phasors, we obtain the phasor relation
v = L di/dl V = fuLl
I = jwC\)
or
(a) (b)
FIGURE 10.11 V o l t a g e — c u r r e n t r e l a t i o n s for a n i n d u c t o r L in the (a) t i m e a n d (b) I
frequency domains V = (10.45)
jaiC
If the current in the inductor is given by the second equation of (10.38), then
by (10.43), the phasor voltage is Thus the phasor voltage V is proportional to the phasor current I , with the propor-
V = (j(oL)(l [^
m
tionality factor given by 1/jaiC. The voltage-current relations for a capacitor in the
time and frequency domains are shown in Fig. 10.13.
= b>Ll /<t> + 90"
m
since j = 1/90°. Therefore, in the time domain we have i = C dv/dl

= ;o)CV
t> = (oLI cos (cat + <b + 90°)

m
o —— 1 Ii
+
Comparing this result with the second equation of (10.38), we see that in the case of
an inductor the current lags the voltage by 90°. Another expression that is used is 1
that the current and voltage are 90° out of phase. This is shown graphically in Fig.
10.12.
Finally, let us consider the capacitor. Substituting the complex current and o —
voltage into the time-domain relation,
(a) (b)
-r >
dx
FIGURE 10.13 V o l t a g e - c u r r e n t r e l a t i o n s for a c a p a c i t o r in t h e (a) t i m e a n d (b) f r e q u e n c y
dt domains
In the general case, if the capacitor voltage is given by the first equation of
(10.38), then by (10.44), the phasor current is
I = (j(oC)(V [6) m
= (ocvje + 90°
Therefore, in the time domain we have
i = o>CV cos (wt + 8 + 90°)

m
which, by comparison with the first equation of (10.38), indicates that in the case of
a capacitor the current and voltage are out of phase with the current leading the
voltage by 90°. This is shown graphically in Fig. 10.14.
326 C h a p t e r 10 S i n u s o i d a l Excitation a n d Phasors
327
S e c t i o n 10.6 V o l t a g e - C u r r e n t R e l a t i o n s h i p s for P h a s o r s
o
+
Phasor
1 circuit
-
FIGURE 10.15 G e n e r a l phasor circuit
We define the ratio of the phasor voltage to the phasor current as the
impedance of the circuit, which we denote by Z. That is,
FIGURE 10.14 V o l t a g e a n d c u r r e n t w a v e f o r m s for a c a p a c i t o r Z = v (10.47)
EXAMPLE 1 0 . 9 If the voltage of (10.41) is applied across a 1 -/iF capacitor, then by (10.44) the which by (10.46) is
phasor current is
Z = | Z l/ft, = f/6 - <b (10.48)
I = y(IOO)(IO")(10/30°) A
where | Z | is the magnitude and 6 the angle of Z. Evidently,
= 1/120° mA
2
The time-domain current is then |Z|=y=, e =7 e-4>

/ = cos (100/ + 120°) mA Impedance, as is seen from (10.47), plays the role, in a general circuit, of resistance
in resistive circuits. Indeed, (10.47) looks very much like Ohm's law; also like re-
and therefore the current leads the voltage by 90°. sistance, impedance is measured in ohms, being a ratio of volts to amperes.
It is important to stress that impedance is a complex number, being the ratio of
two complex numbers, but it is not a phasor. That is, it has no corresponding sinu-
EXERCISES soidal time-domain function of any physical meaning, as current and voltage
phasors have.
10.6.1 Using phasors, find the ac steady-state current i if v = 12 cos (1000/ + 30°) V in The impedance Z is written in polar form in (10.48); in rectangular form it is
(a) Fig. 10.9(a) for R = 4 kft, (b) Fig. 10.11(a) for L = 15 mH, and (c) Fig. generally denoted by
10.13(a) forC = \uF.
Answer (a) 3 cos (1000/ + 30°) mA; (b) 0.8 cos (lOOOr - 60°) A; Z = R + jX (10.49)
(c) 6 cos (1000/ + 120°) mA
10.6.2 In Exercise 10.6.1, find /' in each case at / = 2 ms. where R = Re Z is the resistive component, or simply resistance, and X = Im Z is
Answer (a) -2.445 mA; (b) 0.464 A; (c) -3.476 mA
the reactive component, or reactance. In general, Z = Z(ja>) is a complex function
of jto, but R = R{u>) and X = X(u>) are real functions of u>. Both R and X, like Z,
are measured in ohms. Evidently, comparing (10.48) and (10.49) we may write
10.7
| Z | = VR 2 + X 2
IMPEDANCE A N D ADMITTANCE
' „ ,x
Let us now consider a general circuit of phasor quantities with two accessible termi- ft, = t a n ' -
ri
nals, as shown in Fig. 10.15. If the time-domain voltage and current at the termi- and
nals are given by (10.38), the phasor quantities at the terminals are
R = | Z | cos 6 Z
X = | Z | sin 6z
These relations are shown graphically in Fig. 10.16.
328 C h a p t e r 10 S i n u s o i d a l Excitation a n d P h a s o r s S e c t i o n 10.7 Impedance and Admittance 329
Since a /., and C are positive, we see that inductive reactance is positive and
I hat capacitive reactance is negative. In the general case of (10.49), we may have
X • 0, in which case the circuit appears to be resistive; X > 0, in which case its Fe-
ll luce appears to be inductive; and X < 0, in which case its reactance appears to
he capacitive. These cases are possible when resistance, inductance, and capacitance
are all present in the circuit, as we shall see. As an example, the circuit with
FIGURE 10.16 Graphical representation of impedance
ini|)odance given by Z = 4 + y3, which we have just considered, has reactance
X 3, which is of the inductive type. In all cases of passive circuits, as we shall see
EXAMPLE 10.10 Suppose in Fig. ,0.15 that V = ,0/56,9° V and I = 2/20° A. Then we have in Chapter 12, the resistance R is nonnegative.
The reciprocal of impedance, denoted by
™ 10/56.9°
= 2/20° = 5 / 3 6 9 ° f t
In rectangular form this is
Z = 5(cos 36.9° + j sin 36.9°)

= 4 + /3fl is called admittance and is analogous to conductance (the reciprocal of resistance) in
icsistive circuits. Evidently, since Z is a complex number, then so is Y, the standard
The impedances of resistors, inductors, and capacitors are readily found fro, representation being
their V - I relations of (10.40), (10.43), and (10.45). Distinguishing the:
impedances with subscripts R, L , and C, respectively, we have, from these equ Y = G + jB (10.55)
and (10.47),
The quantities G = Re Y and B = Im Y are called conductance and susceptance,

Z* = R respectively, and are related to the impedance components by
Z = ja>L = (oL/90°
t
1 (10.50) ^ g ^ b = I = R-TTX ( 1 0 5 6 )
Zc = = -W-90°
ju>C The units of Y, G, and B are all Siemens, since in general Y is the ratio of a current
o)C (oC
to a voltage phasor.
To obtain the relation between components of Y and Z we may rationalize the
n rte case of a res.stor, the .mpedance is purely resistive, its reactance being z e r o last member of (10.56), which results in
Impedances of tnductors and capacitors are purely reactive h a v i n g ™ ? !
components. The inductive reactance is denoted by ' " ' 8 e S S V (
1 R - jX
G + jB
R + jX R - jX
X = toL
L
(10.51) R - jX
R2 + X
so that
2
Zl = jX L Equating real and imaginary parts results in

and the capacitive reactance is denoted by R
G =
R2 + X 2
(10.57)
(10.52) X
<oC B = —
R2 + X 2
a n d thus Therefore, we note that R and G are not reciprocals except in the purely resistive
case (X = 0). Similarly, X and B are never reciprocals, but in the purely reactive
Zc = jX c
(10.53) case (R = 0) they are negative reciprocals.
S e c t i o n 10.7 Impedance a n d Admittance 331
are (he phasor voltages around the loop. Thus KVL holds for phasors A similar de-
EXAMPLE 10.11 If we have
Z = 4 + ;3 velopment will also establish KC'l
In circuits having sinusoidal excitations with a common frequency a>, if we are
then interested only in the forced, or ac steady-state response, we may find the phasor
v = 1 = ~ > _
4 _ 3 ± ,2 voltages or currents of every element and use Kirchhoff's laws to complete the anal
4 + ;3 4 + 3 25
2 2 25
7 ysis The ac steady-state analysis is therefore identical to the resistive circuit analysis
of Chapters 2, 4, and 5, with impedances replacing resistances and phasors replacing
Therefore, G = ^ and B = - 55.
time-domain quantities. Once we have found the phasors, we can convert immedi-
Further examples are
ately to the time-domain sinusoidal answers.
Yr = G
I 10.12 Consider the circuit of Fig. 10.17, which consists of N impedances connected in se-
Jft»L ries. By KCL for phasors, the single phasor current I flows in each element. There-
Y = ya>C
c fore, the voltages shown across each element are
which are the admittances of a resistor, with R = 1/G, an inductor, and a capacitor, V, = Z , I
V = Z I
2 2
EXERCISES
10.7.1 Find the impedance seen at the terminals of the source in Fig. 10.4 in both rectangu
lar and polar form. V« = Z„I
Answer R + ja>L, VR + a> Z. /tan~' <oL/R
2 2 2
10.7.2 Find the admittance seen at the terminals of the source in Fig. 10.4 in both rectal and by KVL around the circuit,
gular and polar form. V = V, + v + • • • +
2 \
R u)L 1 / wL
Answer — —- — / — —- — — / — tan — = (Z, + Z + • • • + Z„)I
2
10.7.3 Find the conductance and susceptance if Z is (a) 6 - jS, (b) 0.2 + y0.15, and i< 1 Since we must also have, from Fig. 10.17,
V2 V = Z.,1
Answer (a) 0.06, 0.08; (b) 3.2, -2.4; (c) - 4 , -4 where Z*, is the equivalent impedance seen at the terminals, it follows that
Z ^ . = Z, + Z + • • • + Z (10.58)
10.8 2 N
KIRCHHOFF'S LAWS A N D IMPEDANCE COMBINATIONS as in the case of series resistors.

Kirchhoff's laws hold for phasors as well as for their corresponding time-domain
voltages or currents. We may see this by observing that if a complex excitation, SM
FIGURE 10.17 I m p e d a n c e s c o n n e c t e d in s e r i e s
V e "'*"\s applied to a circuit, then complex voltages, such as V c' """i\
m A ] (
V e''""* \, appear across the elements in the circuit. Since Kirchhoff's laws
1 l>1
hold in the time domain, KVL applied around a typical loop results in an equation
—I
such as
Vie'*"'** ' + Vze*" *' ' + • • • + Vse*"**"^ = 0
1 1 2
V
Dividing out the common factor e ", we have Ja
V, + v + • • • + v „ = 0 2
where
V„ = V„/ft,, n = 1, 2, . . . , N
333
S e c t i o n 10.8 Kirchhoff's Laws and Impedance Combinations
An alternative method of solution is to observe that the impedance Z seen at
Similarly, as was the case for parallel conductances in Chapter 2, the eqiiivn
lent admittance Y«, of N parallel admittances is KM source terminals is the impedance of the inductor, jwL, and the res.stor, R, con-
nected in series. Therefore,
Y„, = Y, + Y + • • • + Y/v 2 (10.59) Z = joL + R
and
v_ y»ZQ!
In the case of two parallel elements (N = 2), we have Z R + je>L
as obtained earlier.
1 . 1 Z,Z 2
(10.60)
Y„ Y, + Y 2 Z, + Z,
IXIK( ISES
In like manner, voltage and current division rules hold for phasor circuiti, III M.I Derive (10.59).
with impedances and frequency-domain quantities, in exactly the same way that they 10.8.2 Show in (a) that the voltage division rule,
held for resistive circuits, with resistances and time-domain quantities. The reader i i
asked to establish these rules in Exercise 10.8.2.
z, + z 2
EXAMPLE 10.13 Let us return to the RL circuit considered in Sec. 10.2. The circuit and its phasor and in (b) that the current division rule,
counterpart are shown in Fig. 10.18(a) and (b), respectively. By KVL in the phasor Y 2
circuit we have I 1« — r, . rw *<

Y, + Y Z, + Z
2 8
Z J + RI = V„/0° are valid, where Zi = 1/Yi and Z = 1/Y . 2 2
or
(jtoL + R)l = V /0° m
from which the phasor current is
R + ja>L
= , / -tan - 1 — (a) (b)

VR 2 + a> L / 2 2 * EXERCISE 10.8.2
Therefore, in the time domain we have, as before, 10.8.3 Find the steady-statt current i using phasors.
Answer A cos (4f - 36.9°) A
= = = = = cos wt - tan — I 2fl
VR + a> L 2 \
2 —wv TW^-
FIGURE 10.18 (a) T i m e - d o m a i n c i r c u i t ; (b) equivalent phasor circuit

10 cos 41 V I
EXERCISE 10.8.3
10.8.4 Find the steady-state voltage v in Exercise 10.8.3 using phasors and voltage divi-
Answer 2 cos (4t - 126.9°) V

(a) (b)
335
334 C h a p t e r 10 S i n u s o i d a l Excitation a n d P h a s o r s S e c t i o n 10.8 Kirchhoff's Laws and Impedance Combinations
10.9 Therefore, we have
PHASOR CIRCUITS
1 4 - ;3 5/-36.9° 1
As the discussion in the preceding section suggests, we may omit the steps of finduiji
the describing equation in the time domain, replacing the excitations and response* and by current division,
by their complex forcing functions and then dividing the equation through by <•"•' M
obtain the phasor equation. We may simply start with the phasor circuit, which we j = ( 3 J+ ) I, = V 2 781.9° A
3
will now formally define as the time-domain circuit with the voltages and currentl \ + ji - jv —
replaced by their phasors and the elements identified by their impedances, as illus In the time domain, the answer is
trated previously in Fig. 10.18(b). The describing equation obtained from this circuit
i = V2cos(3r + 81.9°) A
is then the phasor equation. Solving this equation yields the phasor of the answci
which then may be converted to the time-domain answer.
In the case of a dependent source, such as a source kv volts controlled by a x
The procedure from starting with the phasor circuit to obtaining the phasor an- voltage v, it will appear in the phasor circuit as a source * V „ where V, is the phasor
swer is identical to that used earlier in resistive circuits. The only difference is that
representation of »„ because t>, = V„ cos (tot + <b) in the time domain will become
the numbers are complex.
y A^*>
me hen a complex excitation is applied. Then dividing e " out of the
w 1
equations leaves v, represented by its phasor V„e*. In the same way, kv. -
EXAMPLE 10.14 Let us find the steady-state current i in Fig. 10.19(a). The phasor circuit, shown in Jtv„ cos (wt + <b) is represented by its phasor W e», which is * times the phasor m
Fig. 10.19(b), is obtained by replacing the voltage source and the currents by their of c».
phasors and labeling the elements with their impedances. In the phasor circuit the
impedance seen from the source terminals is
I I 10 15 As an example of a circuit containing a dependent source, let us consider Fig.
10 20(a), in which it is required to find the steady-state value of i. The correspond-
Z = i | ( + 3 m-jD
ing phasor circuit is shown in Fig. 10.20(b). Since phasor circuits are analyzed ex-
3 + 73 - ;3 actly like resistive circuits, we may apply KCL at node a in Fig. 10.20(b), resulting
= 4 - j3 ft
FIGURE 10.T9 RLC t i m e - d o m a i n a n d phasor circuits
v,-iv, (10.61)
I + •_* = 3/0!
By Ohm's law we have V , = 41, which substituted into (10.61) yields
-j2l + -(41) = -J6

5 cos
-J6
I =
2 - j2 2V2/-45 V r
(a)
FIGURE 10.20 (a) C i r c u i t c o n t a i n i n g a d e p e n d e n t s o u r c e ; (b) c o r r e s p o n d i n g p h a s o r c i r c u i t
5/_0° V
~ -13 n
4r A
(b)
336 C h a p t e r 10 S i n u s o i d a l Excitation a n d P h a s o r s S e c t i o n 10.9 Phasor C i r c u i t s

337
Therefore, we have
i nnnp 1
I = cos (4/ - 45°) A
V2
2 11 ' 4 11 i
EXAMPLE 10.16 Let us find the steady-state current i, in Example 10.14 if the source voltuga
is v, = 5 sin 3f V. Since v, = 5 cos (3» - 90°) V, the phasor voltage is V, •
5 / - 9 0 ° V, and, as before, the impedance seen by the source is 5 / - 3 6 . 9 ° ft Thui EXERCISE 10.9.2
we have
1/-53.T A 10 t l Find the steady-state voltage v in Exercise 10.4.1(b) using the phasor circuit.
Find the steady-state voltage t; using the phasor circuit, given that v, = 4 cos 10» V.
and
Answer V2COS (10/ + 135°) V
i'i = cos (3f - 53.1°) = sin (3r + 36.9°) A
0 05 F
If we had based the phasors on the sine instead of the cosine, we would save the
steps of first converting the sine to the cosine and then converting the cosine back in -H(-
the sine, or equivalently, of first subtracting 90° and then adding 90° to the phase
Based on the sine, V , = 5/_0° V, and 2 n
I l = V ^ 9 ° = 1 ^ A
or
t, = sin (3f + 36.9°) A

EXERCISE 10.9.4
In the case of an op amp, the phasor circuit is the same as the time-domain cir-
cuit. That is, an ideal op amp in the time-domain circuit appears as an ideal op amp
in the phasor circuit, because the time-domain equations
i = 0, v =0 10.10
which characterize the current into and the voltage across the input terminals retain
SUMMARY
the identical form,
In this chapter we have considered in some detail the sinusoidal function, the domi-
1 = 0, V = 0 nant signal in the electrical power industry. We have defined its amplitude, phase,
in the phasor equations. and frequency, and have considered its phasor representation. We have seen that
As a final note we observe that the phasor method of finding, say i , by first steady-state sinusoidal responses may be obtained using phasors, a shortcut method
finding I = V / Z and then converting I to i, fails to work if Z( ju>) = 0. This is the based on complex excitations. The phasor voltage-current relations for resistors, in-
case when the circuit is excited at a natural frequency ja>, and we must then use the ductors, and capacitors are identical in form to Ohm's law, with impedance, the ra-
method of Sec. 9.6. An example of this case is considered in Prob. 10.38. tio of the element's phasor voltage to its phasor current, playing the role of resis-
tance. The reciprocal of impedance is admittance, the analogy to conductance.
A phasor circuit may be obtained by replacing the voltages and currents in the
EXERCISES given time-domain circuit by their phasors and labeling each passive element with
its impedance. Since KVL and KCL hold for phasors, and impedances behave like
10.9.1 Solve Exercise 10.2.2 by means of the phasor circuit. resistances, the phasor circuit is solved exactly like a resistive circuit. The phasor
10.9.2 Find the steady-state voltage v using the phasor circuit. solutions are then converted to their time-domain counterparts, completing the
Answer 8 cos (8t - 53.1°) V analysis.
338 C h a p t e r 10 S i n u s o i d a l Excitation a n d P h a s o r s S e c t i o n 10.10 Summary 339

JO milt, find the time-domain tunc 10.21 For the phasor circuit shown, find Z^ and use
waaanlrrl by the phasors (a) -5 + y'5, the result to find the phasor current I. If cu =
PROBLEMS
A . ( c ) 5 - ;12, (d) 10. and (e) 7 rad/s, find the forced response i correspond-
10.1 Given the voltage v = 50 cos (200irt + 60°) 10.8 A voltage V„ sin cut V, a resistor R . and an 1 ing to I.
V, find (a) its amplitude, (b) its phase angle in ductor L are all in scries. Show that the for
degrees, (c) its phase angle in radians, (d) its i tolvr I'n* 10 4 using phasors
response < is identical to (10.12) except t
period in ms, (e) its frequency in rad/s, (f) its the cosine is replaced by the sine in the folio I IM. 1 I I K impedance of the circuit of Fig
frequency in Hz, and (g) by how many de- ing two ways, (a) Noting that V, sin cor 10.15 If the time-domain functions repre-
grees it leads or lags the current i = V cos (tot — 90°). use the complex exci
m
MMed by the phasors V and I are
2 cos (20On-/ - 17°) A. tion V e ~'~ > and take the real part of
m l< 9r
-30 cos 2/ + 16 sin It V.
current response, (b) Noting that V„ sin wt ~ ' i - 1.7 cot (2/ + 20°) A.
10.2 Convert the following functions to cosine
functions with positive amplitudes: (a) lm(V e'™), use the complex excitation V„
m
(fc) V - Re| je* ] V, 1
and take the imaginary part of the current I - Re|0 + ^V ***"] mA. PROBLEM 10.21
6 sin (2t + 15°), (b) - 2 cos (4t + 10°), (c) 0
8 cos St - 15 sin 5t. sponse. H 1 1 •• aV cos (wt + B) V,

10.22 Find the reactance X so that the impedance
m
I - V. cos («/ + 8 - a) A. seen by the source is real. For this case, find
10.3 Determine if v, leads or lags v and by what 2 10.9 Find t, from the differential equation and
amount: the result to find the forced response v to • M l that if Re Z = R is positive, then the steady-state current i(t) corresponding to I
(a) v, = 5 cos (4/ - 60°), v = 5 sin 4/, 2 input voltage of (a) 34 cos 4/ V, and Re Y - Re|l/Z] = G is also positive. if cu = 10 rad/s.
(b) d, = 10 cos 4/, 17 sin 4/ V. A circuit has an impedance
Vz = 5 cos 4/ + 12 sin 4t,
a
1
(c) P, = 10 (cos 4/ + V3 sin 4/), 20 z _ 5(1 4 » ( 3 + j*>) a
V2 = 4 cos 4/ + 3 sin 4/. V\ ja>(2 + jo>)

10.4 Find z' , using only the properties of sinusoids,
4
if (a) ii = 6 cos 3/ A, i = 4 cos (3/ - 30°) i) 10 (1 <* 0.02 F ;

4- I MNI the resistance, reactance, conductance,
r
2
•ml susceptance at o> = 1 rad/s. If the
A, and i, = - 4 V 3 cos (3r + 60°) A, (b) PROBLEM 10.22
iinir domain voltage applied to the circuit is
ii = 5 cos (3/ + 30°) A, i = 5 sin 3/ A, and
2
h = 5 cos (it + 150°) A, and (c) 1, = 30 cot / V, find the steady-state current. 10.23 Find the steady-state values of i and c.
25 cos (3t - 53.1°) A, i , = 2 sin 3/ A, and PROBLEM 10.9 A I ircuit has an impedance
h = 13 cos (3/ - 22.6°) A. (Hint: cos 22.6°
10.10 Find the response v, to the source 4e^ A and m 16(2 + » ( 8 - w - j2u>)
2
- n )
use the result to find the response 0 to (a) oi* - \5a> + 64
2
4 cos 8/ A, and (b) 4 sin 8/ A.

Find the resistance and reactance at at = 1,2, 4 cos 2500r V
2uF;±; v
and 3 rad/s. If the time-domain voltage ap-

plied to the circuit is 64 cos cur V,findthe
Meady-state current in each case.
PROBLEM 10.23
It In Prob. 10.9, use phasors, impedance, and
milage division tofindv. 10.24 Find C so that the impedance seen by the
PROBLEM 10.4 Find the steady-state value of i if (a) cu = source is real. Find the power absorbed by the
Irad/sand (b) cu = 2 rad/s. Note that in the 12-11 resistor in this case.
latter case the impedance seen at the terminals 10.25 Find the steady-state current i.
10.5 Find the forced response 1 in Fig. 10.4 if L = PROBLEM 10.10
<>l the source is purely resistive.
4 mH, R = 6 kfl, V = 5 V, and cu = 2 x
m
10.26 Find the steady-state voltage v.
10* rad/s. 10.11 A complex voltage input 10>' ' ' V pro-
10.27 Find the steady-state value of I.
<2 +25 )
duces a current output of Se '~' A. Find the l0 xn
10.6 Find R and L in Fig. 10.4 if the source output current if the input voltage is (a) 10.28 Find the steady-state voltage e.
is 13 cos 60O0t V and the response is i = 40eja,+«r) y ( b ) 20 cos 2/ V, and (c) 10.29 Find the steady-state currents i and Ii using
2 cos (6000/ - 67.4°) mA. (Take tan 67.4° = 4 sin (It - 15°) V. phasors.
Mi K » 1* V
10.12 Find the phasor representations of the time- 10.30 Find the steady-state voltage t> if v, =
10.7 In the figure of Exercise 10.2.2, if the source domain functions (a) 10 cos (5/ + 18°), (b) 2.5 cos 8/ V.
is 4 cos 4000/ mA and the output is t> = - 8 cos 5/ + 6 sin 5/, (c) 18 sin 5/, and (d|
24 cos (4000/ - 53.1°) V, find R and C. PROBLEM 10.20 10.31 Find the steady-state value of v.
- 2 sin (5/ - 10°).
341
340 C h a p t e r 10 S i n u s o i d a l Excitation a n d P h a s o r s Problems
1
16cos8; V I
hr so;
PROBLEM 10.24
>
<l Ml
+
10 cos 10/ V
0.05 F cos 30,000r mA ^ ;0.01/iF < I kn
3l00mH
PROBLEM 10.25
PROBLEM 10.31
IIM2 Find the steady-state values of t> and ci. 10.35 Find the steady-state current i.
• 11 Find the steady-state value of i when (a) at = 10.36 Find the steady-state voltage v if
I rad/s, (b) at = 2 rad/s, and (c) at = 4 rad/s. 10 cos lOOOf V.
| Note that (b) is the resonant case] 10.37'Find the steady-state current i if
PROBLEM 10.26 19.M Find the steady-state voltage v. 2 cos 2000 V.
5 K " IS Ml I -vw-
1 il
10 cos 40,000r V 3 11
PROBLEM 10.27
PROBLEM 10.32
5 cos 2 0 0 0 ; V
342 C h a p t e r 10 S i n u s o i d a l Excitation a n d P h a s o r s Problems

11
PROBLEM 10.34
AC Steady-State Analysis
14 cos 3/ v ( ^ )
PROBLEM 10.35
Samuel f. a. Morse
1791-1S7!
4 kil
I im lirst practical application of elec- What hath God wrought! Design. But the previous year his
PROBLEM 10.36 ti II ity is said by many to be the (The famous message wife had died, in 1826 his father died,
PROBLEM 10.37 telegraph, developed by Samuel F. tapped out on the first and in 1828 his mother died. The fol-
• Morse, an American portrait telegraph] lowing year the distressed Morse
10.38 Find the forced response i . [Suggestion: Note
10.39 Find the complete response i if ;(0) = 2 A and
that I = V / Z fails to work since Z ( j l ) = 0. painter and inventor. Morse built on Samuel F. B. Morse went to Europe to recover and study
Solve the describing equation by the method v (0) = 6 V. (Suggestion: Use phasors to get i) the ideas of the famous American further. In 1832, while returning home
of Sec. 9.6.] and the differential equation to get i„.) physicist Joseph Henry, using the on board the passenger ship Sully,
opening and closing of relays to pro- he met an eccentric inventor and be-
duce the dots and dashes (or Morse code) that repre- came intrigued with developing a telegraph, the princi-
nent letters and numbers. ple of which had already been considered by Henry.
Morse was born in Charlestown, Massachu- By 1836 Morse had a working model, and in 1837 he
setts, the son of a minister and author. He studied to acquired a partner, Alfred Vail, who financed the pro-
I H
20 cos 3/ V ( * be an artist at Yale and the Royal Academy of Arts in ject. Their efforts were rewarded with a patent and the
-^rJ0T>- i "iidon, and by 1815 he was considered to be moder- financing by Congress of a telegraph in 1844, over
ately successful. In 1826 he helped found and be- which Morse—on May 24, 1844—sent his now-
2 cos / V ( _ came the first president of the National Academy of famous message, "What hath God wrought!" •
PROBLEM 10.39
10.40 Determine i(0) and t>(0) in Prob. 10.39 so that
the natural component vanishes and i is simply
PROBLEM 10.38
the forced component.
345
' ODD
FIGURE 11.1 Circuit to be analyzed by the phasor method
I n Chapter 10 we have seen that in the case of circuits with sinusoidal inputs we it a
may obtain the ac steady-state response by analyzing the corresponding phasor cir-
cuits. The circuits encountered in most cases were relatively simple ones that could
be analyzed by the use of voltage-current relations and current and voltage division
rules. It should be clear, because of the close kinship between phasor circuits and re-
sistive circuits, that we may extend the methods of Chapter 10 to more general cir- § 1 n< 15^0° A
cuits using nodal analysis, loop analysis, Thevenin's and Norton's theorems, super-
position, and so on. In this chapter we formally consider these more general analysis
procedures, limiting ourselves to obtaining the forced, or ac steady-state response.
11.1
NODAL A N ALYSIS
As we have seen, the voltage-current relation -/1 n

V = ZI ll f i a 05/0° A
for passive elements is identical in form to Ohm's law, and KVL and KCL hold in 5/0° V -/1 n
phasor circuits exactly as they did in resistive circuits. Therefore, the only difference
in analyzing phasor circuits and resistive circuits is that the excitations and responses
are complex quantities in the former case and real quantities in the latter case. Thus
we may analyze phasor circuits in exactly the same manner in which we analyzed re- (b)
sistive circuits. Specifically, nodal and mesh, or loop, analysis methods apply. We il-
lustrate nodal analysis in this section and loop analysis in the following section. FIGURE 11.2 Two versions of the phasor circuit corresponding to Fig. 11.1
EX A M P LE 11.1 To illustrate the nodal method, let us find the ac steady-state voltages t>i and 02 of
Fig. 11.1. First we obtain the phasor circuit by replacing the element values by their which in simplified form are
impedances for a> = 2 rad/s and the sources and node voltages by their phasors. (2 + /2)V, - /'IV, = 10
This results in the circuit of Fig. 11.2(a). Since we are interested in finding V, and
V 2 , the node voltage phasors, we may replace the two sets of parallel impedances by - / I V , + (1 - /'DV2 = 5
their equivalent impedances, resulting in the simpler, equivalent circuit of Fig. Solving these equations by determinants, we have
11.2(b).
The nodal equations, from Fig. 11.2(b), are 2 +10 j2 - / ' I / 1 5
-
- 5/ I 1 -1 --jl / i
V V — V
2(V, - 5/0°) + + — ~ = 0
2 + j2 10
-/I - / l
-n 5 10 + /'20
y i ^ L + v* = 5/0° 5 5
- j \+/2)/5 ^ 347
Section 11.1 Nodal Analysis
346 Chapter 11 AC Steady-State Analysis
Eliminating V between these two equations and solving lor I , wc h»vc
In polar form these quantities are
I = 24 x 10 3/53.1° A
V, = V 5 / - 2 6 . 6 0 V
= 24/53.1° mA
V = 2V5/63.4" V
2
Therefore, the time-domain solutions are Therefore, in the time domain, we have
c, = V 5 cos (2t - 26.6°) V i = 24 cos (5000t + 53.1°) mA
v2 = 2 V I cos (2/ + 63.4°) V
| u | » | I I 1.3 Let us tind the forced response v in Fig. 11.5 if
AM
EX A M P LE 11. 2 As an example involving a dependent source, let us consider Fig. 11.3, in which it is v, = Vm cos u>t V
required to find the forced response /'. Taking the ground node as shown, we have
the two unknown node voltages v and v + 3000i, as indicated. The phasor circuit in We note first that the op amp and the two 2-kO resistors conrtitotejVCVSwhfc
its simplest form is shown in Fig. 11.4, from which we may observe that only one gain J + = 2 (see Sec. 3.4). Therefore, v = 2t>2, or v2 - v/2, as indicated by
nodal equation is needed. Writing KCL at the generalized node, shown dashed, we the phasor V / 2 in the phasor circuit of Fig. 11.6.
have
V - 4 V V + 30001
FIGURE 11.5 Circuit containing an op amp
* i(10 3 ) | ( 1 - >2)(10 3 ) (2 - 7 1)(10 3 )
Also, from the phasor circuit we have
4 ^
Hio ) 3
o—AV • AAA—
FIGURE 11.3 Circuit containing a dependent source
2 1
•A / vV
3000/
V
4 cos 5000r V
-jiF -r-
FIGURE 11.6 Phasor circuit of Fig. 11.5

-/IOOO/w kfi
FIGURE 11.4 Phasor circuit of Fig. 11.3

l/VIkfi s/l kn v/2
0 0
/ -30001 ^
2 v
-o v
-AAA-
30001 2kS2
/ looo / u k n - p W \ AA-
|(2- / l)kJi
4/iO V
349
348 Section 11.1 Nodal Analysis
Writing nodal equations at the nodes labeled V, and V/2, we have 10 cos It V
v - y„Zo: v, - (v/2) v, - v
= 0
M
(1/V2K10- 1 ) V2(10 3 ) Mil .'' A
(V/2) - V, V/2
V2(10 3 ) -/10 6 /a> = 0
Eliminating V, and solving for V results in EXERCISE 11.1.2
2V m 11.1.3 Find the amplitude of v in (11.3) if Vm = 10 V for (a) *» r 0, (b> a> - 1000 rad/s,
[1 - (&»2/106)] + 7(V2tt)/10 3 ) (c) a) = 10,000 rad/s, and (d) to = 100,000 rad/s.
Answer (a) 20; (b) 14.14; (c) 0.2; (d) 0.002 V
In polar form this is 11.1.4 Find the steady-state value of 0 using nodal analysis.
y - 2 V ^ (11.1) Answer \SV2 cos (At - 135°) V
• V i + wiooo) 4
where
p
W
V2o)/1000
f i
5 11
6 = -tan Wiooo) 2
(11.2) • W v
In the time domain we have ion • If ; | J 2 sin 41 f

2V„ > 60
V i + wiooo) cos (cot
4
+ 0) (11.3)
EXERCISE 11.1.4
We might note in Example 11.3 that for low frequencies, say 0 < to < 1000,
the amplitude of the output voltage v is relatively large, and for higher frequencies,
its amplitude is relatively small. Thus the circuit of Fig. 11.5 filters out higher fre-
quencies and allows lower frequencies to "pass." Such a circuit is called a filter and 11.2
is considered in more detail in Chapter 15.
M ESH A N ALYSIS
EXERCISES I X A M P L E 11.4 To illustrate mesh analysis of an ac steady-state circuit, let us find v, in Fig. 11.1,
11.1.1 Find the forced response v using nodal analysis. which was obtained, using nodal analysis, in the preceding section. We shall use the
Answer 10 sin 3f V phasor circuit of Fig. 11.2(b), which is redrawn in Fig. 11.7, with mesh currents I
and I , as indicated. Evidently, the phasor voltage V may be obtained as
2
V, = 5 - | (11.4)
10 cos 3i V
The two mesh equations are
2 Ii " j HI, " h) = 5
EXERCISE 11.1.1
11.1.2 Find the steady-state value of v using nodal analysis.
Answer 2 5 V l cos (2r - 81.9°) V J _ y l ( l 2 - I l ) - ; i l 2 + (i^) ( l 2 + 5) = o
351
350 Chapter 11 AC Steady-State Analysis Section 11.2 Mesh Analysis
sin It A
I II
FIGURE 11.7 Circuit of Fig. 11.2 redrawn for mesh analysis
Solving these equations for I i , we have (a)

I, = 6 + j2 A
1 / -90" = - ; l A
s
which substituted into (11.4) yields
V, « 2 - /IV
This is the same result that was obtained in the preceding section and may be used to
obtain the time-domain voltage t>i.
The same shortcut procedures for writing loop and nodal equations, discussed — I t —
in Sees. 4.1 and 4.5 for resistive circuits, apply to phasor circuits. For example, in
Fig. 11.7, if I = —5 is the mesh current in the right mesh in the clockwise direc-
3 4/0° A ^) V , g / i -n/ i a /- -v,
tion, the two mesh equations are written down by inspection as 1
( i - ; i ) i , - (-7-1)1,-5 (b)
FIGURE 11.8 (a) Time- domain circuit; (b) phasor counterpart
_ _, , ( .
( llI + J 1 . J 1 + H i?) ,_(Lii2) ,
1 1 = 0
Also, from the figure we see that

These are equivalent to (11.5) and are formed as in the resistive circuit case. That is,
in the first equation the coefficient of the first variable is the sum of the impedances V, = 7 l ( 4 - D
around the first mesh. The other coefficients are the negatives of the impedances Eliminating I from these equations and solving for V,, we have
common to the first mesh and the meshes whose numbers correspond to the cur-
rents. The right member is the sum of the voltage sources in the mesh with polari- - 4 + 7'3
V, = 1/143.1° V
ties consistent with the direction of the mesh current. Replacing "first" by "second"
applies to the next equation, and so on. The dual development, as described in Sec. Therefore, in the time domain, the voltage is
4.1, holds for nodal equations.
p, = cos {It + 143.1°) V
EX A M P LE 1 1 . 5 Let us consider the circuit of Fig. 11.8(a), where the response is the steady-state
value of t>i. The phasor circuit is shown in Fig. 11.8(b), with the loop currents as EXERCISES
indicated.
Applying KVL around the loop labeled I, we have 11.2.1 Find the forced response i in Fig. 11.3 using mesh analysis.
- V , - 7K-7I + ! ) + ( ! + 72KI + 2V,) = 0 11.2.2 Solve Exercise 11.1.4 using mesh analysis.
Section*11.2 Mesh Analysis 353

.2.3 Find the steady-state current i using loop analysis.
Answer V 2 cos (2l - 45°) A
: ii
-Tinr -
1
41' I"
* T
EXERCISE 11.2.3
FIGURE 11.9 ( ireuil with an ac and a dc source
11.3
NETWORK THEOREMS
Because the phasor circuits are exactly like the resistive circuits except for the nature
of the currents, voltages, and impedances, all the network theorems discussed in
Chapter 5 for resistive circuits apply to phasor circuits. In this section we shall illus-
trate superposition, Thevenin's theorem, Norton's theorem, and the proportionality
principle, as applied to linear phasor circuits.
In the case of superposition, if a phasor circuit has two or more inputs, we may
find the phasor currents or voltages due to each input acting alone (i.e., with the
others dead) and add the individual corresponding time-domain responses to obtain
the total. In the case of a circuit like Fig. I l l , we may solve the corresponding
phasor circuit of Fig. 11.2 by mesh or nodal analysis or by superposition because
both sources are operating at the same frequency, namely <o = 2 rad/s. If the 4/0° A
sources have different frequencies, we must use superposition, because the definition
of Z(ju>) allows us to use only one frequency at a time, and thus we cannot even
construct a phasor circuit.
EXAMPLE 11. 6 To illustrate superposition, let us find the forced response i in Fig. 11.9. There are FIGURE 11.10 Phasor circuits representing Fig. 11.9
two sources, one an ac source with ID = 2 rad/s and one a dc source with to = 0.
Therefore,
i = ii + i2 its phasor representation is
where i, is due to the voltage source acting alone and i2 is due to the current source I , = 4/0° A
acting alone. Using phasors, we may find ii and k by finding their respective phasor In short, this is just the dc case considered earlier, as is evident from Fig. 11.10(b).
representations I and I , which are the phasor currents shown in Fig. 11.10(a) and
2
' From Fig. 11.10(a) we have
(b), respectively. Figure 11.10(a) is a phasor circuit representing the time-domain
circuit with the current source killed and to = 2 rad/s. Figure 11.10(b) is also a 5/0°
I 3 + j2 + |(1 + j2)(-j\)/(\ j2 -
phasor circuit, with the voltage source killed and to = 0.
In the latter case, <o = 0, the inductors are short circuits (ZL = jO = 0) and = V2/-8.1°
the capacitor is an open circuit (Zc = 1/ jioC, which becomes infinite as to —* 0).
Also, since the current source is from which
i„ = 4 cos (0/ + 0) A i, = V 2 c o s (2t - 8.1°) A
355
Section 11.3 Network Theorems
• Mil
From Fig. 11.10(b) we have, by current division, 3
* - - ( T 7 l ) w I
from which, since a> = 0,
12 = - 1 A
Therefore, the total forced response is
i = ii + h
= V2 cos (2/ - 8.1°) - 1 A
For an example of a circuit with two sinusoidal sources with nonzero frequen< FIGURE 11.12 C i r c u i t w i t h a d e p e n d e n t c u rr e n t s o u rc e
cies, the reader is referred to Exercise 11.3.1. The procedure is, of course, exactlji
the same as in Example 11.6.
In the case of Thevenin's and Norton's theorems the procedure is identical to
that for resistive circuits. The only change is that vt<- and iK, the time-domain open-
circuit voltage and short-circuit current, are replaced by their phasor representa- FIGURE 11.13 Ph as o r c i r c u i t s f or use i n T h e v e n i n 's t h e o r e m
tions, Voc and In, and Ra,, the Thevenin resistance, is replaced by Zu,, the Thevenin
impedance (of the dead circuit). There must be only a single frequency present, of]
course; otherwise we must use superposition to break the problem up into single-fre-l
quency problems, in each of which Thevenin's or Norton's theorem may be applied,]
In general, the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits in the frequency do-
main are shown in Fig. 11.11. There is, of course, a close similarity with the resis-
tive case.
FIGURE 11.11 (a) T h e v e n i n a n d (b) N o rt o n e q u i v a l e n t p h as o r c irc u i ts
EXAMPLE 11.7 Let us use Thevenin's theorem to find the forced response v of Fig. 11.12. We shall
find its phasor representation V using the Thevenin equivalent of the phasor circuit
to the left of terminals a-b. The open-circuit phasor voltage V* is found from Fig.
11.13(a), and the short-circuit phasor current is found from Fig. 11.13(b). Then the
Thevenin impedance, as for resistive circuits, is
Z* = ^ (11.6)
357
In Fig. 11.13(a), since terminals a-b are open, the current 2/0" flows in the
sistor and the current 2V, flows in the capacitor. Therefore, by KVL we have H Ut us consider the ladder network of Fig. 11.15 and use the proportionality princi
pie to obtain the steady-state response V. This requires, as in the resistive case, that
where
v. - v, - (-;i)(2v,) we assume V to have some convenient value like V = 1 and work backward to find
the corresponding V,. Then the correct value of V is found by multiplying the as-
V, - 2(1) = 2 V sumed value by an appropriate constant.
Thus we have
V„ = 2 + jA V li» in Au. /ia
In Fig. 11.13(b), the two nodal equations needed are Wv 'TOP
+ +
-iia ; ^ v , -fiat 1 n•; v
and
(•
he = - V , + 2
FIGURE 11.15 Phasor ladder network
From these we find
he = 3 + jl A Let us begin by assuming
The Thevenin impedance, by (11.6), is therefore
V = 1V
Then from the circuit we have
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 11.14, with the i -F capacitor, cor- V V
responding to —jl A, connected to terminals a-b. ,,= T + — = 1 + , 1 A
It is a simple matter now to see, by voltage division, that
Continuing, we have
v= [(TT7irrr7T)](2 + ^ V, = / I I , + V = 71(1 + jl) + 1 - jl V
I2 = — r r + Ii = - - 1 + (1 + j l ) - j \
= 4 - jl -/I
= 2V5/-26.6" V V , = 1I2 + V, = jl + jl = J2W
Therefore, in the time domain, we have
Therefore, V = 1 is the response to V, = jl. If we multiply this value of V, by
o = 2V5 cos (3/ - 26.6°) V 6/ jl to get the correct value of V s , then by the proportionality principle, we must
FIGURE 11.14 Thevenin equivalent phasor circuit of Fig. 11.12 multiply the assumed response of 1 by the same factor, 6/72, to get the correct
value of V. Therefore, we have
V =(A)(1)=-,-3V
EXERCISES
11.3.1 Find the steady-state current i.
Answer 1 cos (4r - 36.9°) + 3 cos (2r + 73.7°) A
358 Chapter 11 AC Steady-State Analysis 359
-AAA/
8n JH
'"mnr- The voltage phasors of the circuit are
V, = Rl = R\l\
\ = jwLl = a , L \ l \ / 9 0 °
vc= - AIOiC- ^ HQ)CI Z z W
EXERCISE 11.3.1 and
11.3.2 For the phasor circuit corresponding to Exercise 11.2.3, replace the part to
of terminals a-b by its Thevenin equivalent and find the steady-state current These are shown in the phasor diagram V* + V, + c v
of Fig. 11.17(a), where it is assumed that
Answer V« = °(2 - j\) V, Zu, = ^(18 + jl) ft, r, = cos 2t A |vJ>|V |. The cases, \ \ \ |V -| and |V | = |V |, are shown in Fig.
c C t C
11.3.3 Find V,, I , , and h in Fig. 11.15. 11.17(b) and (c), respectively. In all cases the lengths representing the units of cur-
Answer 3 V, 3 - _/3 A, 3 A rent and voltage are not necessarily the same, so that for clarity I is shown longer
than V».
11.4
PHASOR DIAGRAMS
Since phasors are complex numbers, they may be represented by vectors in a planej
where operations, such as addition of phasors, may be carried out geometrically,
Such a sketch is called a phasor diagram and may be quite helpful in analyzing ac
steady-state circuits.
v, =v.
EXAMPLE 11.9 Let us consider the phasor circuit of Fig. 11.16, for which we shall draw a l l t
voltages and currents on a phasor diagram. To begin with, let us observe that t
current I is common to all elements and take it as our reference phasor, denoting il
by
i-|i|fflr (a) (b) (c)
We have taken the angle of I arbitrarily to be zero, since we want I to be our refer- FIGURE 11.17 Ph as o r d i a g r a m s f or F i g . 1 1 . 1 6
ence. We may always adjust this assumed value to the true value by the proportional-
ity principle discussed in the preceding section. In case (a) the net reactance is inductive, and the current lags the source
voltage" by the angle 6 that can be measured. In (b) the circuit has a net capacitive
reactance, and the current leads the voltage. Finally, in (c) the current and voltage
FIGURE 11.16 RL C s e ri es p h asor c i r c u i t are in phase, since the inductive and capacitive reactance components exactly cancel
each other. These conclusions follow also from the equation
I = (11.7)
Z R + j[a>L - (1/wC)]
Case (c) is characterized by
360 Chapter 11 A C Steady-State Analysis

Section 11.4 Phasor Diagrams 361
or
vie
If the current in Fig. 11.16 is fixed, then the real component of the voltage
is fixed, since it is R\1. In this case the locus of the phasor V, (its possible local'
on the phasor diagram) is the dashed line of Fig. 11.18. The voltage phasor '
up and down this line as to varies between zero and infinity. The minimum a m FIGURE 11.19 RL p h as o r c i r c u i t
tude of the voltage occurs when to — 1/VJLC, as seen from the figure. For a
other frequency, a larger amplitude of voltage is required for the same current. Substituting this value of R into (11.11) we have, after some simplification,
This result may be rewritten as
JTC *2 + {y + £L] - & (1112)
which is the equation of a circle with center at [0, -(Vm/2o)L)] and radius Vm/2wL.
The circle (11.12) appears to be the locus, as R varies, of the phasor
I = x + jy. However, by (11.10), x a 0; thus the locus is actually the semicircle
shown dashed on the phasor diagram of Fig. 11.20. The voltage Vm/(f, taken as ref-
erence, is also shown, along with the phasor I. If R = 0, we have, from (11.10) and
(11.11), x = 0 and y = -VjwL. If R -» °°, then x -» 0 and y - * 0. Thus as./?
varies from 0 to a, the current phasor moves counterclockwise along the circle.
FIGURE 11.18 Locus of the voltage phasor for a fixed current
FIGURE 11.20 Locus of the phasor I
E X A M P L E 11.10 Let us find the locus of 1 as R varies in Fig. 11.19. The current is given by
R + jtoL R2 + w2L2
Therefore, if
I = x + jy (11.9):
we have
RVm (11.10)
x = Re I = R2 + to2L2
-a>LVm
y = Im I = R2 + to2L2 (11.11)
The equation of the locus is the equation satisfied by x and y as R varies; thus we
need to eliminate R between these last two equations.
If we divide the first of these two equations by the second, we have
x R_
toL
from which y
otLx
R = -:
363
362 Chapter 11 AC Steady-State Analysis Section 11.4 Phasor Diagrams
• SOLUTION CONTROL STATEMENT FOR AC ANALYSIS (f = 2 / 2»PI Hzl
If I is as shown in Fig. 11.20, the current phasor may be resolved into two AC L I N 1 . 3183 . 3183
components, one having amplitude lm cos 0 in phase with the voltage and one wi
amplitude /„ sin 0, which is 90° out of phase with the voltage. This construction •OUTPUT CONTROL STATEMENT FOR V l l ) & I ( R 2 I
indicated by the dashed and dotted vertical line. As we shall see in Chapter 12, t . PRINT, AC VM (1) V P d l IR( R2) IKR2)
in-phase component of the current is important in calculating the average power do* END
livered by the source. Thus the phasor diagram gives us a method of seeing at The solution printed in this case is
glance the maximum in-phase component of current. Evidently this occurs at po : FREQ V M UI VP(l) IRIR2) I I (R2)
a, which corresponds to 0 = 45°. This is the case x = -y, or R = a>L. 3.183E - 01 2.236E + 00 - 2 657E+01 2.000E + 00 4 0O0E+OO
EXERCISES LE 11.12 Consider finding the phasor current I in the circuit of Fig. 11.3. A circuit file for
11.4.1 Eliminate <oL in (11.10) and (11.11) and show that as wL varies, the locus of t nodes being numbered sequentially clockwise, beginning with 1 at the positive ter-
phasor I = x + jy is a semicircle. minal of the sinusoidal source, is
AC STEADY-STATE SOLUTION FOR F I G 1 1 . 3 .
Answer 1 x - S ) 2H S ) ^
+ 2 0 * DATA STATEMENTS
11.4.2 Find coL in Exercise 11.4.1 so that Im I has its largest negative value. Also find I for V 1 0 AC 4 0
this case. Rl 1 2 0.5K
R2 2 0 2K
Answer R, (VjV2 R)/-45° C I 2 0 0 2UF
H 3 2 V - 3000
R3 3 4 2K
11.5 C2 4 0 0. 2UF
» SOLUTION CONTROL STATEMENT FOR f = 5 0 0 0 / ( 2 * 3 . 1 4 1 6 )
SPICE F O R A C STEA D Y - ST A TE C I R C U I T S
AC L I N 1 795.77 795.77
SPICE is a powerful tool in the analysis of ac steady-state circuits and is particularly PRINT AC I M (Rl ) IP(Rl)
helpful in performing the many tedious operations of complex arithmetic associated
with obtaining these solutions. The procedure is very similar to that described for . END
the dc case using the .AC solution control statement. SPICE, in this instance, ana- The solution is
lyzes the phasor circuit for the phasor currents and voltages resulting from both in- FREQ I M (Rl ) IP ( R1)
dependent and dependent sources, which are also expressed as phasors. Since SPICE 7.958E + 02 2. 400E - 02 5.313E + 01
uses the phasor circuit in the frequency domain, all ac sources must have the same
frequency. The reader should review the .AC statement of Appendix E before pro-
ceeding with this section. AMPLE 11.13 Let us find the phasor output voltage of the op amp circuit of Fig. 11.5 if the input
voltage is ve = 10 cos (lOOOr + 30°) V. A circuit file for the nodes of the op amp
inverting input, op amp output, and input source, assigned as 3, 4, and 10, respec-
E X A M P L E 11.11 Consider the circuit of Fig. 11.1. Let us find the voltage of node 1 in polar form and tively, with nodes 1 and 2 as shown, is
the current of the 1-fl resistor in rectangular form. A circuit file for calculating
these values is AC STEADY-STATE SOLUTION OF F I G . 1 1 . 5 .
* DATA STATEMENTS USING OPAMP.CKT OF CHAPTER 4
AC STEADY-STATE SOLUTION FOR C IRC UIT OF F I G . 1 1 . 1 .
. L I B OPAMP. CKT
» DATA STATEMENTS
VG 10 0 AC 10 30
VI 100 0 AC 5 0 R l 10 1 0.707K
Rl 100 1 .5 R2 1 2 1.414K
CI 1 0 5 C I 1 4 1UF
C2 1 2 1 C2 2 0 1UF
LI 12 .5 R3 3 0 2K
L2 2 0 25 R4 3 4 2K
R2 2 0 1 XOPAMP 3 2 4 OPAMP
II 0 2 AC 5 0
Section 11.5 SPICE for AC Steady-State Circuits

365
364 Chapter 11 A C Steady-State Analysis
» SOLUTION CONTROL STATEMENT [f = 1000 / (2*3.1410) Hz] 2H
AC L I N 1 159.15 159.15 i runr*-
. PRINT AC VM(4) VP(4) 12(1
. END AAV
This circuit file gives a solution
FREQ VM(4) VP (4)
1 592E+ 02 1.414E + 01 - 5.999E + 01
Our discussion has been limited to solutions for circuits at a single frequency
Plots of responses for varying frequency inputs are discussed in Chapter 15. PROBLEM 11.1
EXERCISES toon 0.1 H 0.1 H

11.5.1 Use SPICE to find the phasor representation of t>i and v2 in Fig. 11.1 f o r / = 1 M / * Tf flP
—nSoV
Answer 3.706/-35.83" V, 4.677/-34.40" V +
11.5.2 Use SPICE to find the phasor current for i in Fig. 11.3 f o r / = 1 kHz.
V
)
Answer 25.79 + y'3.414 mA 20 MF - 100fi < 1
11.6
SU M M A RY PROBLEM 11.2
Since phasor currents and voltages satisfy KCL and KVL, and the voltage-current
relationships for passive elements are identical to Ohm's law, with impedance play-
ing the role of resistance, all the methods of resistive circuit analysis apply to phasor
circuits. Thus nodal analysis and loop analysis techniques are applicable, and The-
venin's and Norton's theorems apply, as well. The open-circuit voltages and short-
circuit currents are phasors and the Thevenin impedance replaces the Thevenin
resistance. 14 cos 2r V
Phasor diagrams, which are sketches displaying operations such as addition of
phasors, are useful in analyzing ac circuits. They show at a glance when magnitudes
and phase angles of phasor quantities reach their maximum or minimum values, and
allow us to find the locus of a given phasor as a circuit element value or a frequency PROBLEM 11.3
changes. Finally, SPICE is also a powerful tool for analyzing ac circuits in the
steady state. It is particularly useful in this case because it relieves us of the tedious
task of dealing with complex numbers by hand.
PROBLEMS
11.1 Find the steady-state voltage v using nodal 11.3 Find the steady-state current i using nodal
analysis. analysis.
11.2 Use nodal analysis to find the steady-state 11.4 Find the steady-state voltage t; using nodal 2 cos It
value of v if vg = V„ cos tot and find the am- analysis.
plitude of v for the cases to = (a) 0, (b) 1000, 11.5 Find the steady-state voltage v using nodal
and (c) 106 rad/s. Compare the results for this analysis.
circuit with those for Fig. 11.6. PROBLEM 11.4
366 Chapter 11 AC Steady-State Analysis Chapter 11 Problems 367
6 cos 8f V
8 cos
PROBLEM 11.10
PROBLEM 11.5
11.6 Find the steady-state current i, using nodal 11.19 Show that the circuit of Prob. 11.13 is a bal-
analysis. anced bridge, with the series combination of 1 It
11.7 Solve Exercise 11.1.1 using loop analysis. 3 11 and 5 H constituting Z 5 in Prob. 11.18. -/TTinp-
Replace Z 5 by a short, and show that the same
11.8 Solve Exercise 11.1.2 using mesh analysis. v is obtained as before.
io n .
11.9 Find the steady-state voltage v using loop anal- 11.20 Note that the corresponding phasor circuit is a 5 cos 5r V
ysis if I,I = 6 cos 4/ A and i,2 = 2 cos 4t A. balanced bridge, and use the method of Prob.
11.10 Find the steady-state voltage v. 11.18 with Z5 replaced by an open circuit to 15 cos
» < * )
11.11 Find the steady-state current i. find the forced response v.
11.12 Find the steady-state current i. 11.21 Find the steady-state current i if vs = 7k
4 cos lOOOr V. 5 n: 0.08 F
11.13 Find the steady-state voltage v. 11.22 Find the steady-state voltage v if u, =
11.14 Find the steady-state voltage v. 2 cos 2l V.
11. IS Find the forced response i if u , = PROBLEM 11.11
11.23 Find the forced response c if u, = 2 cos t V.
8 cos 2000/ V. 11.24 Find the steady-state voltage
11.16 Find the steady-state voltage o.
if
11.17 Find the steady-state value of v. 11.25 5 cos 3» V.
11.18 Show that if Z, Z 4 = Z 2 Z, in the "bridge" Find the steady-state voltage
circuit shown, then I = V = 0 and therefore 11.26 2 cos 5/ V.
all the other currents and voltages remain un- 11.27 Find the steady-state voltage v.
changed for any value of Z 5 . Thus it may be Find the steady-state value of v.
replaced by an open circuit, a short circuit,
etc. In this case, the circuit is said to be a bal-
anced bridge.
40 2 cos
5 cos 30001 V

PROBLEM 11.6
369
368 Chapter 11 A C Steady-State Analysis Chapter 11 Problems
(^) 8 cos 6r V
PROBLEM 11.13
jn
PROBLEM 11.14
PROBLEM 11.15
370 371
Chapter 11 AC Steady-State Analysis Chapter 11 Problems
os2r V
2 O < "
PROBLEM 11.27
Find the steady-state current i if i, = 9 11.34 In the phasor circuit corresponding to Prob.
20 cos t - 39 cos 2/ + 18 cos 3» A. 11.24, replace everything except the 2-fl re-
sistor between terminals a-b by its Thevenin
11.29 Find the steady-state voltage v. equivalent and use the result to find the steady-
II..HI For the phasor circuit corresponding to Exer- state current i.
cise 11.2.3, replace everything except the 2-11 11.35 Solve Prob. 11.2 for the steady-state voltage v
resistor between terminals c-d by its Thevenin by applying the proportionality principle to
equivalent and find the steady-state current i. the corresponding phasor circuit. Assume that
•1.31 For the phasor circuit corresponding to Exer- v, = 2 cos lOOOf V. (Suggestion: Assume that
cise 11.2.3, replace the circuit to the left of the phasor of v is 100 V.)
terminals a-b by its Norton equivalent and 11.36 Find the steady-state current i using die princi-
find the steady-state current i,. ple of proportionality.
11.32 Replace the circuit to the left of terminals a-b 11.37 Find the steady-state current i in Prob. 11.24
by its Norton equivalent, and find V. using the proportionality principle.
11.33 In the phasor circuit corresponding to Prob.
11.10, replace everything except the 1-fl re- 11.38 Find I, the phasor representation of i, using a
sistor by its Thevenin equivalent and use the phasor diagram. Show the phasors of i,, ic,
result to find the steady-state voltage v. and i t , with the phasor of the source voltage
as reference.
8!)
i Vvv 1
> :• in ^
PROBLEM 11.28
1H i F 2 n
PROBLEM 11.29
Chapter 11 Problems 373

J6CI
CO M PUTER APPLICATIO N PROBLEMS
o
11.41 Using,SPICE, find r in Prob. 11-5.
11.42 UsingSPICE, find the Thevenin equivalent circuit in Prob. 11.17 for the network to the Ml
of the 1-fl resistor. (Hint: Find V« and U.)
12 0 11.43 Using SPICE, find t in Prob 11.25 if output e of the circuit of Prob. 11.24 supplies o, to the
-AAA- 6-fl resistor of this network.
-i -n A
11.44 In the circuit shown, find v if vt = 15 sin (10*r + 75°) V.
12 0 > y4(l v <i2n r;-/4n
PROBLEM 11.32
PROBLEM 11.36
PROBLEM 11.38
11.39 Show that the locus of V c in Fig. 11.16 is a 11.40 Find the locus of V c in Prob. 11.39 if L =
circle if R = 4 O, C = J F, V, = V, 1 H, C = { F, V, = 2/f/ V, a> = 2 rad/s, and
w = 2 rad/s, and L varies from 0 to °°. Select /? varies from 0 to °°. Select the value of R for
the value of L that gives the maximum ampli- which 1m V c has its largest negative value, and
tude of the time-domain voltage t>c, and find find vc for this case.
vc in this case.
Chapter 11 Computer Application Problems 375

12
AC Steady-State Power
I n this chapter we consider power relationships for networks that are excited by pe-
riodic currents and voltages. We concern ourselves primarily with sinusoidal cur-
rents and voltages since nearly all electrical power is generated in this form. Instan-
taneous power, as we now well know, is the rate at which energy is absorbed by an
element, and it varies as a function of time. The instantaneous power is an impor-
tant quantity in engineering applications because its maximum value must be limited
for all physical devices. For this reason, the maximum instantaneous power, or peak
power, is a commonly used specification for characterizing electrical devices. In an
electronic amplifier, for instance, i f the specified peak power at the input is ex-
ceeded, the output signal will be distorted. Greatly exceeding this input rating may
even permanently damage the amplifier.
A more important measure of power, particularly for periodic currents and
voltages, is that of average power. The average power is equal to the average rate at
which energy is absorbed by an element, and it is independent of time. This power,
for example, is what is monitored by the electric company in determining monthly
Jam— Pntcott Jout«
rsr8-1889 electricity bills. Average powers are encountered which range from a few picowatts,
in applications such as satellite communications, to millions of watts, in applications
such as supplying the electrical needs of a large city.
Our discussion begins with a study of average power. We then consider super-
The m a n to w h o m w e are indebted The heating of a conductor position once again and introduce a mathematical measure for characterizing peri-
c o n d u c t e d in his h o m e laboratory,
for the familiar expression i R for the odic currents or voltages, known as effective or rms values. Next, we consider the
depends upon its resistance
2
and to maintain the •accuracy of his
power dissipated in a resistor is the power factor associated with a load and present a complex power. Finally, we de-
and the square of the m e a s u r e m e n t s he w a s forced to de-
English physicist J a m e s Prescott
current passing through it. velop his o w n system of units. His scribe the measurement of power.
Joule, w h o published the result as
chief claim to fame is that he did
Joule's law in 1 8 4 1 . He also shared James P. Joule
more tha n any other person to estab-
in the famous discovery of the con- lish the idea that heat is a form of en-
servation of energy. ergy. Throughout most of his life AVERAGE POWER
Joule was born in Salford, England, the second Joule was an isolated amateur scientist, but toward
of five children of a wealthy brewer. He taught himself the e n d of his years his work w a s recognized by hon- In linear networks which have inputs that are periodic functions of time, the steady-
electricity and magnetism at h o m e as a young boy orary doctorates from Dublin a n d Oxford. In his honor state currents and voltages produced are periodic, each having identical periods.
and obtained his formal education at nearby the unit of energy w a s n a m e d the joule, m Consider an instantaneous power
Manchester University. His experiments on heat were
p = vi (12.1)
where v and /' are periodic of period T. That is, v(t + T) = v{t), and
i(l + T) = i(t). I n this case
p{t + T) = vit + D l ( l + T)
= vit)iit) (12.2)
= Pit)
376 377
Section 12.1 Average Power
Therefore, the instantaneous power is also periodic of period T. That is, p repeats n
i(/),p(r)U
self every T seconds.
The fundamental period 7"i of p (the minimum time in which p repeats itself) m
not necessarily equal to T, however, but T must contain an integral number of peri-
ods T]. In other words,
T = ri7", (12.3)
where n is a positive integer.
EXAMPLE 12.1 Suppose that a resistor R carries a current i = l m cos ait with period T = lit/to.
Then
p = Ri 1
= Rli cos (at 2
= ^ = ( 1 + cos 2u>t)
Evidently, 7i = TT/O>, and, therefore, T - 2T\. Thus, for this case, n = 2 in (12.3).
This is illustrated by the graph of p and i shown in Fig. 12.1(a).
I f we now take i = /„(1 + cos tot), then
p = RP (\ cos <atf
m
In this case, T, = T = Itr/m, and n = 1 in (12.3). This may be seen also from the
graph of the function in Fig. 12.1(b).
Mathematically, the average value of a periodic function is defined as the time

integral of the function over a complete period, divided by the period. Therefore,
the average power P for a periodic instantaneous power p is given by
(12.4)
(b)
where t\s arbitrary.
FIGURE 12.1 Graphs of p and i
A periodic instantaneous power p is shown in Fig. 12.2. It is clear that i f we
integrate over an integral number of periods, say mTi (where m is a positive integer),
then the total area is simply m times that of the integral in (12.4). Thus we may
write
FIGURE 12.2 Periodic instantaneous power

P = - \ p d t (12.5)
P<r)
I f we select m such that T = mT (the period of v or i ) , then
t
1
pdt (12.6)
J 'i
i V ' V
Therefore, we may obtain the average power by integrating over the period of t> or i.
378 Chapter 12 AC Steady-State Power Section 12.1 Average Power

Let us now consider several examples of the average power associated with s, Referring to Table 12.1, entry 5, we find, for m = n « 1. o • ^ , i n d « <t> - f).
nusoidal currents and voltages. A number o f very important integrals which often
g T a b I e 1 2 1 V e « o n of these integrals is left as an exercise
P = cos 8 (12.9)
TABLE 12.1 Integrals for Sinusoidal Functions and Their

Products
Thus the average power absorbed by a two-terminal device is determined by the M l
plitudes V and l„ and the angle 0 by which the voltage v leads the current i .
m
/ ( , ) I / ( / ) dt, a » 0 In terms of the phasors of v and i ,
1. sin (ait + a), cos (at + a) 0 V = V [±

m = |V|&
2. sin (mot + a), cos (mot + a)" 0
3. sin (at + a), cos (lot + a)
2 ! „ / a
i = u/<p - 0 = H I M - g
4. sin (mot + a)cos (not + a)' 0
5. cos (mat + a)cos (mot + $y 0 m *n we have, from (12.9),
. , v cos (a - 0)/<u, m = n
'm and n arc integers. f = ^ | V || 11 cos (ang V - ang I) (12.10)
where
First, let us consider the general two-terminal device o f Fig. 12.3, which is as-
sumed to be in ac steady state. I f , in the frequency domain, ang V = d>, ang I = d> - 8
z = \z\(e are the angles of the phasors V and I .

I f the two-terminal device is a resistor R, then 0 = 0, and V = RI ,
m m so that
is the input impedance of the device, then for
(12.9) becomes
v = V cos (tot + d>)m (12.7)
we have P„ = | « i
/ = I„ cos (tot + <t> - 0) (12.8) It is worth noting at this point that i f = / , a constant (dc) current, then a> =
d c
where 4> = 0 = 0, and / „ = in (12.8). In this special case Table 12.1 does not apply,
but by (12.6) we have
P„ = Ml
In the case of an inductor, 0 = 90°, and in the case of a capacitor, 0 = - 9 0 ° ,

The average power delivered to the device, taking U = 0 in (12.6), is
and thus for either one, by (12.9), P = 0. Therefore, an inductor or a capacitor, or
_ 0>V . m m
for that matter any network composed entirely of ideal inductors and capacitors, in
r 2ir~ J C O S * <uf + ^ c o s (<°t + <t> ~ 6) dt any combination, dissipates zero average power. For this reason, ideal inductors and
capacitors are sometimes called lossless elements. Physically, lossless elements store
energy during part of the period and release it during the other part, so that the av-
FIGURE 12.3 General two-terminal device erage delivered power is zero.
I A very useful alternative form of (12.9) may be obtained by recalling that
— »
Z = Re Z + j I m Z = | Z \/0
Two-
V terminal and therefore
device
ReZ
cos6 = w
380 Chapter 12 AC Steady-State Power
Section 12.1 Average Power 381
Substituting this value into (12.9) and noting that V = | Z | / „ , we have
m Alternatively, from (12.11),
25 W
P = ^llReZ (12.11)
We may also note that the power absorbed by the 100-ft resistor is
Let us now consider this result i f the device is a passive load. We know from ^ = (100)(1/V2> = 2 5 W
the definition of passivity in (1.7) that the net energy delivered to a passive load I i
nonnegative. Since the average power is the average rate at which energy is delivered
to a load, it follows that the average power is nonnegative. That is, P a 0. This re- This power, of course, is equal to that delivered to Z since the inductor absorbs no
quires, by (12.11), that
power.
Re Z ( » a 0 The power absorbed by the source is
or, equivalently,
Vm I m
cos 0 = - 2 5 W
I f 0 = 0, the device is equivalent to a resistance, and i f 0 = ir/2 (or -ir/2), where the minus sign is used because the current is flowing out of the positive termi-
the device is equivalent to an inductance (or capacitance). For —w/2 <0 < 0, the nal of the source. The source therefore is delivering 25 W to Z . We note that the
device is equivalent to an RC combination, whereas for 0 < 8 < ir/2, it is equiva- power flowing from the source is equal to that absorbed by the load, which illus-
lent to an RL combination. trates the principle of conservation of power.
Finally, i f |01 > 7r/2, then P < 0, and the device is active rather than pas-
sive. In this case the device is delivering power from its terminals and, o f course,
acts like a source.
EXERCISES
12.1.1 Verify the integrals of Table 12.1.
EXAMPLE 12.2 Let us find the power delivered by the source of Fig. 12.4. The impedance across
the source is 12.1.2 For a capacitor o f C farads carrying a current i = L cos ait, verify that the average
power is zero from (12.6). Repeat this for an inductor of L henrys.
Z = 100 + 7100
12.1.3 Find the average power delivered to a 10-ft resistor carrying a current o f
= 100V2/45 n 0 (a) 1 = 5| sin 10/1 m A ,
The maximum current is (b) 1 = 10 sin 10* m A , 0 s i < TT/10 S
= C'I w / 1 0 s t < v/S s; T = i r / 5 s
/ = A = _ L A (c) i = 5 m A , 0 s t < 10 ms
" |Z| V2 = - 5 m A , 10 £ t < 20 ms; T = 20 ms
(d) i = 2t, 0 s f < 2 s; T = 2 s
Therefore, from (12.9), the power delivered to Z is
Answer (a) 125 >iW; (b) 0.25 mW; (c) 0.25 mW; (d) *f W
100 12.1.4 Find the average power absorbed by the capacitor, the two resistors, and the source.
P = —-p cos 45° = 25 W
2V2 Answer 0 , f J , - 4 W
EXERCISE 12.1.4
FIGURE 12.4 RL circuit in the ac steady state
3G
AÂ !
382 Chapter 12 AC Steady-State Power Section 12.1 Average Power 383

12.1.5 I f / i W is periodic of period 7", and f (t) is periodic of period T , show t
2 2
where P and P are the average powers from v , and v, , respectively, acting alone.
t 2 g 2
M') + fi(t) is periodic of period T i f positive integers m and n exist such that (We are assuming, of course, that each component of p is periodic of period / ) Su-
T = mT, = nTi perposition for average power applies when
Extend this result to the function (1 + cos u>t)'\d in this section, to ft P = />, + P 2 (12.12)
its period, T = 2tr/a>.
Clearly, this condition holds i f
12.2 ii i dt = 0
2 (12.13)
SUPERPOSITION AND POWER The most important case in which this equation is satisfied is when i(t) is com-
In this section we consider the power in networks containing two or more sourcei, posed of sinusoidal components of different frequencies. Suppose that
such as the simple circuit of Fig. 12.5. By superposition, we know that it = /„i cos (<D,t + <p,)
i = h + h and
where i, and i are the currents in R due to v., and v ,
2 g2 respectively. The instanu] ii = Imt cos (w t + <p ) 2 2
neous power is
Since we are assuming that i = i, + h is periodic of period T, we must have
p = R(i, + i f 2
/ „ , cos [u>,{t + T) + </>,] + I m 2 cos [a> (t + T) + d> ]

2 2
= Ri , + Ri
2 22 + 2Ri,i 2
= / „ , cos (a>,t + d>i) + l m2 cos (to t + 4> )

2 2
= Pi + p 2 + 2Ri,i 2
which requires that

where p, and p are the instantaneous powers, respectively, due to v acting alone
2 gl
and to v,i acting alone. In general, 2Ri,i * 0; thusp * p , + p , and superposition

2 2
a>] T = 2irm, a> T = 2trn
2
does not apply for instantaneous power. where m and n are positive integers. Therefore, i f <o is a number such that T =
2TT/O>, then a>i = men and a>2 = nto. In this case the integral in (12.13) becomes,
using Table 12.1,
J
rT r ir/w
2
i,i 2 dt = I„\I m2 I cos (mtot + <t><) cos (mat + <t> ) dt 2
o fll
Imdmllt COS (d>| - <t> )2
= 0, m # n
FIGURE 12.5 Simple circuit w i t h t w o sources
Thus i f m = n(o>, = io ), superposition does not apply. However, i f m ^ n,
2
superposition does apply. We may generalize this result to the case of a periodic si-
In the case of p periodic with period T, the average power is nusoid with any number of sinusoidal components of different frequencies. The av-
erage power due to the sum of the components is the sum of the average powers due
to each component acting alone.
It can be shown that superposition of average power holds for sinusoids whose
i r frequencies are not integral multiples of some frequency u>, provided that we gener-
= f \ + Pi + 2RUi ) 2 dt alize the definition of average power to
2R 1 r
P, + P + 2 dt
lim - p dt
'o
384 Chapter 12 AC Steady-State Power 385

Section 12.2 Superposition and Power
This generalization applies to the periodic case just considered as well as to the c Extending the foregoing procedure to a periodic current which il the sum ol
i = ii + i , where
2
N + 1 sinusoids of different frequencies,
11 = cos t i = + /»i cos (o),» + «pi) + / . i cos (a> / + < M
(12.14)
2
+ • • • + /«« cos (a>,vf + d>„)

12 = cos irt
In this case i is not even periodic (the ratio wjuhi = 1/TT is not a rational num we find that the average power delivered to a resistance R is
m/n), but
1 f P = Rll + | ( f t i + fla + • + lis) (12.15)
lim - I hit dt = 0
Jo
T
The first term, in which the factor \s missing, is the special case of zero
EXAMPLE 12.3 Suppose in Fig. 12.5 that t>„ = 100 cos (377* + 60°) V , i> = 50 cos 377. V , a j2
frequency and must be considered separately, as in Sec. 12.1. That is, by (12.6),
R = 100 ft. Since w, = <o , we cannot apply superposition to power. However,
2
can use superposition to find the current and subsequently find the power. T
cos ( w f + 4>,)dt = 0, i = 1, 2, 3, N
phasor currents due to the respective sources are
11 = 1/60! A
and
1 = -0.5 A
2
i f RIl dt = Rll
Therefore, Jo
I = I, + l 2 = 7O.866 A This last expression is P*, the average power delivered by Thus, i f we denote
the other terms in (12.15) by />, (due to i , ) , P (due to i ) , and so on, we have super-
2 2
so t h a t / „ = 0.866 A . From (12.11), we find

position of power in the form
P = Hl00)(0.866) = 37.5 W 2
P = Pic + Pl + Pl + • • • + P"
EXAMPLE 12.4 Let us now repeat Example 12.3 with v = 50 V dc. Since 0 , 1 and v are sinusoid!
s2 s2
with ail = 377 and a> = 0 rad/s, respectively, superposition for the average power
2 EXERCISES
is applicable. Proceeding as before, we find
12.2.1 Find the average power delivered to the resistor in Fig. 12.5 i f R = 10 f l and
I , = 1/60° for 01 = 377 (a) 0(i = 20 cos lOOt and v, = 10 cos (100/ + 60°) V.
2
(b) o,, = 20 cos (r + 60°) and t>, - 100 sin (2. - 30°) V.
2
I 2 = -0.5 for o) = 0
(c) « „ = 50 cos (t + 30°) and v,i = 100 sin (t + 60°) V.
where I is now a dc current. Therefore,
2 (d) o , i = 20 cos (t + 25°) and t),2 = 30 sin (5t - 35°) V.
Answer (a) 15 W; (b) 625 W; (c) 375 W; (d) 65 W
P l = *!k = 50 w 12.2.2 Find the average power absorbed by each resistor and each source.
Answer 8 W , 24 W , - 8 W , - 2 4 W
P = RIi
2 2 = 25 W
and the average power is
P = P, + P = 75 W 2
i—Tinp—' i W v —ripr—
Example 12.4 illustrates a very important case for electronic amplifiers with si
nusoidal inputs. These amplifiers contain dc power supplies that produce dc currents
; i n ;
C^ ) 8 cos 4r V
which provide the energy for the amplified ac signals. Thus superposition is very
useful i n finding the average power associated with each frequency, including
w = 0. EXERCISE 12.2.2
386 Chapter 12 AC Steady-State Power Section 12.2 Superposition and Power 387
12.2.3 l - i n d Ihc average p o w e r absorbe d by the resistor and each source Suppose that w e now oinsulci ;I stniisonl.il c i i i i r n l / /~ CO* (toll * </>) Then,
Answer X W . 4 W. 4 W from (12.16) and Tabic 12.1, we lind
f . - ^2
Thus a sinusoidal current having an amplitude /„ delivers the same average power to
a resistance R as does a dc current which is equal to I . / V 2 . We also see that the rms
EXERCISE 12.2.3 current is independent of the frequency o> or the phase d> of the current t. Similarly,
in the case of a sinusoidal voltage, wc find that
v„
RMS VALUES
We have seen in the previous sections that periodic currents and voltages deliver Substituting these values into the important power relations of (12 9) and (12.11) for
average power to resistive loads. The amount of power that is delivered depends < the two-terminal network, wc have
the characteristics of the particular waveform. A method of comparing the pow
delivered by different waveforms is therefore very useful. One such method is f P = Vtm.lnm COS 6 (12.17)
use o f rms or effective values for periodic currents or voltages.
The rms value of a periodic current (voltage) is a constant that is equal to t1
dc current (voltage) that would deliver the same average power to a resistance K and
Thus i f /m,, is the rms value o f i , we may write (12.18)
P = f L Re Z
p = M L = f j ** d t In practice, rms values are usually used in the fields of power generation and
distribution For instance, the nominal 115-V ac power which is commonly used for
from which the rms current is household appliances is an rms value. Thus the power supplied to our homes is pro-
vided by a 60-Hz voltage having a maximum value of 115V2 « 163 V. On the
other hand, maximum values are more commonly used in electronics and communi-
cations.
(12.16)
Finally, let us consider the rms value of the current in (12.14), which is made
up of sinusoids of different frequencies. In terms of rms currents, (12.15) becomes
P = RUi + /i™. + IU, + • • • + fL.1 (12.19)
In a similar manner, it is easily shown that the rms voltage is
Since P = we see that the rms value of a sinusoidal current consisting of dif-
ferent frequencies is
v ~ = \/? f <"
v2
The term rms is an abbreviation for root mean square. Inspecting (12.16), w«
see that we are indeed taking the square root of the average, or mean, value of the
square o f the current. Similarly, . —,—
= V v i + v?™ + vL» + • • • + vi™
From our definition, the rms value of a constant (dc) is simply the constant it
self. The dc case is a special case (o> = 0) of the most important type of waveform, These results are particularly important in the study of noise in electrical networks,
the sinusoidal current or voltage. a subject of later courses.
388 Chapter 12 AC Steady-State Power Section 12.3 rms Values

389
EXERCISES In the case of purely resistive loads, the voltage and current are in phase
Therefore, 8 = 0, pf = l , and the average and apparent powers are equal. A unity
12.3.1 Find the rms value of a periodic current for which one period is defined by power factor (pf = 1) can also exist for loads which contain inductors and capacitors
(a) i = / , 0 < / < 2 s if the reactances of these elements are such that they cancel one another. Adjusting
= -/, 2< / <4s the reactance of loads so as to approximate this condition is very important in elec-
(b) i = It, Os l <T trical power systems, as we shall see shortly.
(c) i = / „ sin tot, 0 £ t s n/to {T = tr/to). In a purely reactive load, 0 = ± 9 0 ° , pf = 0, and the average power is zero.
Answer (a) / , (b) 2T/V3; (c) 1JV2 In this case, the equivalent load is an inductance (0 = 90°) or a capacitance
12.3.2 Find the rms values of (a) i = 10 cos tot + 20 sin (tot - 30°), (b) (8 = - 9 0 ° ) , and the current and voltage differ in phase by 90°.
8 cos (<ot - 20°) + 6 sin {loot + 10°), and (c) i = 7(1 + cos 377»). A load for which - 9 0 ° < 0 < 0 is equivalent to an RC combination, whereas
Answer (a) 12.25; (b) 7.07; (c) / V | one having 0 < 0 < 90° is an equivalent RL combination. Since cos 0 = cos (-0),
12.3.3 Find V™,. it is evident that the pf for an RC load having f? = -0,, where 0 < 8, < 90°, is
Answer 4 V equal to that of an RL load with 0 = 0,. To avoid this difficulty in identifying such
loads, the pf is characterized as leading or lagging by the phase of the current with
respect to that of the voltage. Therefore, an RC load has a leading pf and an RL load
has a lagging pf. For example, the series connection of a 100-ft resistor and a 0.1-H
inductor at 60 Hz has Z = 100 + ;37.7 = 106.9/20.66° ft and has a pf of
cos 20.66° = 0.936 lagging.
In practice, the power factor of a load is very important. In industrial applications,

for instance, loads may require thousands of watts to operate, and the power factor
EXERCISE 12.3.3
greatly affects the electric b i l l . Suppose that a mill consumes 100 kW from a 220-V
rms line. At a pf of 0.85 lagging, we see that the rms current into the mill is
12.4
/ ~ = V~~pf = (220X0.85) = 5 3 4 8 A
P O W E R F A C TO R which means that the apparent power supplied is

The average power delivered to a load in the ac steady state, repeating (12.17), VU/™, = (220)(534.8) VA = 117.66 kVA
P = cos 0 Now suppose that the pf by some means is increased to 0.95 lagging. Then
The power is thus equal to the product of the rms voltage, the rms current, and
cosine of the angle between the voltage and current phasors. In practice, the
/ n M = (220)(0.95) = 4 7 8 5 A
current and voltage are easily measured and their product, Km,/™, is called the
parent power. The apparent power is usually referred to in terms of its Ui and the, apparent power is reduced to
voltamperes (VA) or kilovoltamperes (kVA), in order to avoid confusing it with
V™/™ = 1 0 5 . 3 kVA
unit o f average power, the watt. I t is clear that the average power can never
greater than the apparent power. Comparing the latter case with the former, we see that 7™, was reduced by 56.3 A
The ratio of the average power to the apparent power is defined as the po (10.5%). Therefore, the generating station must generate a larger current in the case
factor. Thus i f we denote the power factor by pf, then in the sinusoidal case of the lower pf. Since the transmission lines supplying the power have resistance, the
generator must produce a larger average power to supply the 100 kW to the load. I f
the resistance is 0.1 ft, for instance, the power generated by the source must be
pf = = cos 9 (12.21
P„ = 10 + 0 . 1 / L .
3
Therefore, we find
which, o f course, is dimensionless. The angle 8, in this case, is often referred in P g = 128.6 kW, pf = 0.85
the PF angle. We also recognize it as the angle of the impedance Z of the load.
= 122.9 kW, pf = 0.95
Section 12.4 Power Factor 391
which requires that the power station produce 5.7 kW (4.64%) more power to su
I 12.6 As an example of the application of (12.22), let us change the power factor lor the
the lower pf load. It is for this reason that power companies encourage a pl exC
circuit of Fig. 12 4 to 0.95 lagging We have already found that
ing say 0.9 and impose a penalty on large industrial users who do not comply
Z = 100 + 7 100 = 141.4/45°
Let us now consider a method of correcting the power factor of a load hav
Therefore, before a parallel reactance is added across Z , the power factor is
an impedance
pf = cos 0 = cos 45° = 0.707 lagging
Z = R + jX
Since we desire a power factor of 0.95 lagging, tan (cos ' PF) is positive, so that by
We may alter the power factor by connecting an impedance Z, in parallel with S
(12.22) we have
shown in Fig. 12.6. For this connection, it is clear that the load voltage dins
change. Since Z is fixed. I does not change, and the power delivered to the lof I00 + 100
2 2
X, = = -297.92 f l
not affected. The current I , supplied by the generator, however, does change 100 tan (cos 1 0.95) - 100
Since X, < 0, the reactance is a capacitance C =
impedance now becomes - I / a ) * , = 33.6 u.F. The load
_ (100 + yTOOX- /297.92)

Z,
100 + y 100 - >297.92 190.0/18.2°
Therefore, the power to the corrected load is
100 2
P = cos (18.2°) = 25 W
2(190.0)
FIGURE 12.6 Circuit for correcting the power factor
which is the same as that delivered to Z in Fig. 12.4. The current, however, is
Let us denote the impedance of the parallel combination by U = = 0.372 A

I90V2
T Z Z ' as compared to that of Fig. 12.4, given by
In general, we select Z , so that ( I ) Z, absorbs zero average power, and (2) Z, A™ = - 4 = = 0.5 A
lies the desired power factor pf = PF. The first condition requires that Z, be VI
reactive. That is, We see, therefore, that the current has been reduced by 0.128 A , or 25.6%.
Z , = jXi
The second condition requires that

EXERCISES
[ ,/Im ZA
= PF
COS [ TAN IrTz tV
12.4.1 Find the apparent power for (a) a load that requires 20 A rms from a 115-V rms line
and (b) a load consisting of a 100-11 resistor in parallel with a 25-/xF capacitor con-
Substituting Z T in terms of R, X, and X , into this equation, we find that (see nected to a 120-V rms 60-Hz source.
Answer (a) 2.3 kVA; (b) 197.9 VA
12.25)
12.4.2 Find the power factor for (a) a load consisting o f a series connection of a 10-ft resis-
R 2 + X 2
tor and a 10-mH inductor operating at 60 Hz, (b) a capacitive load requiring 25 A
(121
R tan (cos' PF) - X 1 rms and 5 kW at 230 V rms, and (c) a load that is a parallel connection of a 5-kW
load with a power factor of 0.9 leading and a 10-kW load with a 0.95 lagging power
factor.
where we note that tan "(cos ' PF) is positive i f PF is lagging and negative i l
Answer (a) 0.936 lagging; (b) 0.87 leading; (c) 0.998 lagging
leading.

Section 12.4 Power Factor 393
From (12.25), wc see that
12.4.3 Use (12.22) to correct the power factor seen by the source of Fig. 12.4 to (a)
leading and (b) 0.9 lagging. Q = Im S = V J m mn sin 8 (12.26)
Answer (a) C = 74.22 /uF;«(b) C = 25.78 p-f
For an-impedance Z , we know that sin 6 = (lm Z ) / | Z | . so that
12.5
COMPLEX POWER
Therefore, since Vrrm/|Z| = A™,, we see that
We shall now introduce a complex power in the ac steady state, which is very u
for determining and correcting power factors associated with interconnected lo Q = lL>lm Z
Let us begin by defining rms phasors for general sinusoidal voltages and curre
ImZ < - >
The phasor representations for (12.7) and (12.8) are
2 1 2 2 7
Izp
V = \e»
A phasor diagram of V ™ and I™ is shown in Fig. 12.7. We see that the phasor
I = l e**-»
m
current can be resolved into the two components 1^ cos 8 and / » , sin 9. The com-
The rms phasors for these quantities are defined as ponent /„„> cos 8 is in phase with V™., and it produces the real power P. In contrast,
Am, sin 8 is 90° out of phase with V ™ , and it causes the reactive power Q. Since
V
V = — - v /„„> sin 8 is 90° out of phase with V™,, it is called the quadrature component of I,ms.
V5 (12.
As a consequence, the reactive power is sometimes referred to as the quadrature
power.
Inns ^ ~ lm\
V2
Let us now consider the average power given in (12.17). Using Euler's
mula, we may write
P = V ™ / ™ cos 8 = ReiV^Jê'")
Next, inspecting (12.23), we see that
V I * = V I e'*
where I™» is the complex conjugate of I™,. Thus
P = Re(VrmsI^) (12.24)
and the product Vrmslrt™ is a complex power whose real part is the average po
Denoting this complex power by S, we have
S = V „ . I * , = P + jQ (12.2S) It is often convenient to view the complex power in terms of a diagram such as
that of Fig. 12.8. It is evident that for an inductive load (lagging p f ) , 0 < 0 £ 90°,
where Q is the reactive power. Dimensionally, P and Q have the same units; he Q is positive, and S lies in the first quadrant. For a capacitive load (leading p f ) ,
ever, the unit of Q is defined as. the var (voltampere reactive) to distinguish it In - 9 0 ° £ 8 < 0, Q is negative, and S lies in the fourth quadrant. A load having a
the watt. The magnitude of the complex power is unity power factor requires that Q = 0 since 8 = 0. In general, we see that
|S| = | V „ „ I * , | = IVrmsHl^sl = VrmsAms

(12.28)
which, of course, is equal to the apparent power.
394 Chapter 12 AC Steady-State Power Section 12.5 Complex Power 395

Mil
It is evident that the addition of Z , does not affect the average power P delivered to
the load. It does, however, affect the net reactive power. We can therefore select
to obtain our desired power factor, which, of course, is usually raised. This causes ;i
reduction j n the current required to produce P, as discussed previously.
I 12.7 Let us again consider the circuit of Fig. 12.4 and change the power factor to
f Re PF = 0.95 lagging. The complex power of the uncorrected load is
FIGURE 12.8 Diagram lor the complex power S = VmJSm = P + jQ = 25 + 725
since
Let us now consider the complex power associated with a load consisting
two impedances Z , and Z , as shown in Fig. 12.9. The complex power deliver*!
2 V™, = 70.7 V
the combined impedances is
Vm,
I = 0.3535(1 - j ' 1) A
S = = + Iw)*
- V I * + V If From (12.28), we see that Q T = Q + Q, must satisfy
Therefore, the complex power delivered by the source to the interconnected l o t J

the sum of that delivered to each individual load, and the complex power is I '
conserved. This statement is true no matter how many individual loads there are
Therefore.
how they are interconnected, because it depends only on Kirchhoff's laws and
definition of complex power. This principle is known as conservation of co
power. cos 8 = PF = cos tan
and
Q T = P tan (cos ' PF)
= 25 tan 18.2° = 8.22 var
The required Q, is
C?i = Qi " Q = 8.22 - 25 = - 1 6 . 7 8 var

Since Q, = V L O m Z , ) / | Z , p and Z , = y X , , we may write
FIGURE 12.9 Load consisting of Z, and Zi in parallel
V 2
Conservation of complex power may be used in a straightforward manner

correct the power factor. As an example, let us consider the circuit of Fig. 12.6 n Solving for X, in the case under consideration, we have
again. The complex power to the uncorrected load Z is
S = P + jQ = -297.9 f l
16.78
Connecting a pure reactance Z , in parallel with Z results in a complex power to which represents a capacitance C 1/oiXi = 33.6 îF. This is identical to our
of previous result in Sec. 12.4.
S, = JQ,
Therefore, from conservation of complex power, for the composite load we have PLE 12.8 Let us find the power factor of two loads connected in parallel, as shown in Fig.
12.9. Suppose that Z , represents a 10-kW load with a power factor pf, = 0.9 lag-
ST = S + S,
ging and Z a 5-kW load with pf = 0.95 leading. For Z , we have
2 2
= P + HQ + G i )
S, = />, + jQ,
396 Chapter 12 AC Steady-State Power Section 12.5 Complex Power 397

where P, = 10 W , 0, = c o s
4 1 pf, = 25.84°, and from (12.28),
Current
(2, = />, tan 0, = 4843 var coil
-AAJkJ
Similarly, for Z we have
2
• Y Y Y V
S = Pi + jQi
2 Voltage
coil
where P = 5 x 10 W , 0 = -cos
2 3 2 1 pf = - 1 8 . 2 ° , and
2
Q 2 = 5 x 10 tan 0 = -1643 var

3 2
FIGURE 12.10 Typical connection of a wattmeter
The total complex power is
respect to its other terminal, then the meter gives a positive, or upscale, reading. In
S, = P, + Pi + J ' ( C + Q ) 2 Fig. 12.10 this corresponds to the load absorbing power. I f the terminal connections
of either the current coil or voltage coil (but not both) are reversed, a negative, or
= 1.5 x I 0 + >3200 4
downscale, reading is indicated. Most meters cannot read downscale—the pointer
Therefore, for the combined loads, simply rests on the downscale stop. Thus such a reading requires reversing the con-
nections of one of the coils, usually the voltage coil. Reversing the connections of
= 12.04° both coils does not affect the reading.
The wattmeter of Fig. 12.10, represented by the rectangle and the two coils, is
and connected to read
pf = 0.978 lagging
P = IVI 111 cos e
EXERCISES where V and I are as indicated and 0 is the angle between V and I (or, equivalently,
12.5.1 Find the complex power delivered to a load which has a 0.85 leading power the angle of the load impedance). This, of course, is the power delivered to the load.
and (a) absorbs 10 kW, (b) 10 kvar, and (c) 1 kVA. Other types of meters are available for measuring the apparent power and the
Answer (a) 1 1 . 7 6 / - 3 1 . 8 ° ; (b) 1 8 . 9 8 / - 3 1 . 8 ° ; (c) 1 / - 3 1 . 8 ' kVA reactive power. A n apparent power or VA meter simply measures the product of the
12.5.2 Find the impedance of the loads in Exercise 12.5.1 i f Km* = 240 V. rms current and rms voltage. The varmeter, on the other hand, measures the reac-
Answer (a) 4 . 9 0 / - 3 1 . 8 ° ; (b) 3 . 0 3 / - 3 1 . 8 ° ; (c) 5 7 . 6 / - 3 1 . 8 ° ft tive power.
12.5.3 Repeat Exercise 12.4.2 using the concept of complex power.

12.5.4 Repeat Exercise 12.4.3 using the concept of complex power.
EXERCISES
12.6.1 Determine the power reading of each wattmeter after assigning the terminal mark-
12.6 ings required for a positive reading.
P O W E R MEASUREMENT Answer 100 W , 75 W , 0 W
50 n
A wattmeter is a device which measures the average power that is delivered to VsA
load. I t contains a rotating high-resistance voltage, or potential, coil, connected
parallel with the load and a fixed low-resistance current coil which is connected
series with the load. The device has four terminals, a pair to accommodate «'
coil. A typical connection is shown in Fig. 12.10. We see that the current coil
sponds to the load current, whereas the voltage coil responds to the load volr
For frequencies above a few hertz, the meter movement responds to the avc
power. Ideally, the voltage across the current coil and the current in the voltage o:
are both zero, so that the presence of the meter does not influence the power it
200
rms
V
Mi.
TOT
,4 1.;
HOT
:50 n AM. j4A
rms
6
measuring.
One terminal on each of the coils is marked ± so that i f the current enters t
± terminal of the current coil and the ± terminal of the voltage coil is positive wl EXERCISE 12.6.1
398 Chapter 12 AC Steady-State Power Section 12.6 Power Measurement 399

12.6.2 Repeat Exercise 12.6.1 for the circuit shown.
• \ lc ,il a periodic current is as shown. I f 12.6 Find the average power absorbed by each N
Answer 10, 30 mW
cuircnl flows in a 2 0 - ( l resistor, find the sistor and the power delivered by the SOUTOC
5001! V . I P power
; H
2 n I H
-WA TOT—i
2il
5 cos 3000r V
PROBLEM 12.6
PROBLEM 12.2 12.7 Find the average power absorbed by the resis-
EXERCISE 12.6.2 tors and the source.
I inil the average power dissipated in a resistor
ill icsistance R i f the current is i = 0.5 H
12.7 [ / . ( I + cos wt) A .
Find the average power absorbed by the resis-

SUMMARY tors, the inductor, and the source.
10 cos 800/ A
In this chapter we have defined the average power Pdelivered to an element by ,i |K-
riodic current as the average of the instantaneous power delivered over one period
The average power in the ac case may be expressed quite simply in terms of the maM
nitudes of the current and voltage phasors of the element and the cosine of the anglf PROBLEM 12.7
between them. Alternatively, P may be expressed in terms of the current magnitude
12.8 Find the average power absorbed by the 3 - k i l
and the real part of the impedance of the element. I f two or more sinusoidal sourcili
resistor and the dependent source.
are present and they each have different frequencies, the average power is the sum of
12.9 Find the average power delivered to R i f
the average powers delivered by each source. In other words, superposition holds tut
PROBLEM 12.4 R = 0.4 il.
average powers in this case.
12.10 Find the average power delivered to the 4-11
The computation of average power in the ac case is simplified by the use uf A voltage source v = 4 cos 4r V is applied to
resistor.
rms or effective value of a current or voltage phasor, defined as the square root • i n RL series circuit w i t h R = 4 f l and
/ = 0.5 H . Find the power supplied by the 12.11 Find the average power delivered to R.
the average over a period of the square of the current or voltage. Another usclnl
term in average power computation is the power factor, which is the cosine of lit* source
power factor angle (the angle by which the voltage leads the current). The powa i kn
factor may be corrected (made larger) by adding parallel elements to diminish the
power factor angle.
Complex power is a complex number whose real part is the average power ant) 0.4 H
20 cos 10,000(
whose imaginary part is the reactive power. The magnitude of the complex power I
the apparent power and its phase is the power factor angle. A wattmeter is used to
measure the average power and a varmeter measures the reactive power. Average
power is the power measured by the power company to determine our utility bills, PROBLEM 12.8
and thus is a very important quantity which we consider in the later chapters.
PROBLEMS
6 cos 4r V 3 cos 4r A
12.1 One cycle o f a periodic current is given by I f the current flows in a 2 0 - f i resistor, find If*
average power.
i = 10 A , 0 < / < 1 ms
= 0, I < K 4 m s
PROBLEM 12.9

1.5 H
PROBLEM 12.10
{ ^ ^ 9 cos 4l V
PROBLEM 12.11
PROBLEM 12.18
12.12 Find the power delivered to the 8 - f l resistor i f that
L = 1 8 - 1 0 cos t - 39 cos 2r + 9 cos 3/ A P = P, + P 2 (a) Find R so that it absorbs the maximum 12.23 Find the rms value of the steady-state current
power and find the maximum power, (b) Find through the 2-fl resistor if t>, = 3 cos / V.
where P, and P are the average powers as.
2
the power absorbed by R if R = 2 O.
ciated w i t h i, and i , respectively, acti
2
12.24 Find the rms value of the steady-state current
alone. Note that this includes the case "I /'II Find the rms value of the voltage through the ; - f l resistor.
being nonperiodic. mi i = 5 + 12V2 cos t V. 12.25 Derive (12.22).
12.15 For a Thevenin equivalent circuit consistm
(b) v = 12 cos (2t - 30°) + 4 cos 5f + 12.26 Find the rms value of the steady-state current 1
of a voltage source V„ and an impedan
V 2 cos (8/ + 60°) V. and the power factor seen from the source ter-
(C) v = 4 cos t - 6 V 2 cos (2/ + 45°) + minals. What element connected in parallel
Z , = R , + jXg, (a) show that the circuit <lr
livers m a x i m u m average power to a load Zj
VTO cos (5r - 10°) V. with the source will correct the power lactor
PROBLEM 12.12 RL + jX when R = R , and X = -X,,
L L L «l find the rms value of a periodic current for to 0.8 lagging?
(b) show that the m a x i m u m average power r which one cycle is given by 12.27 Find the power factor seen from the terminals
12.13 We have defined the average power for an i n - delivered to a load R when Rt = | Z , |. This • = 4 A, 0 < t < 1s
L
(•) of the source and the reactance necessary to
stantaneous power p(l), which is not necessar- the maximum power transfer theorem for af = 0, 1 < t < 2 s. connect in parallel with the source to change
ily periodic, by circuits. (I n both cases, V, and Z , are fixed,, (b) = 3r A , 0 < t < 2 s the power factor to unity.
and the load is variable.) = -3(« - 4) A , 0 < t < 4 s.
P = lim 12.28 Find the power factor seen from the terminals
12.16 Using the result o f Prob. 12.15, replace K in 2nt . T
(O = Im sin 0 < t < j s. of the independent source and the reactance
Prob. 12.9 by (a) a resistive load that will' -T -
A
Show for c and i o f ( 1 2 . 7 ) - ( 1 2 . 8 ) that this which must be connected in parallel with the
draw the m a x i m u m power and (b) a general T
definition yields the same result as (12.6).
= 0,
< t <Ts. independent source to change the power factor
load (resistive and reactive elements) that will to 0.8 lagging.
12.14 G i v e n: i = i , + i , where draw the m a x i m u m power. In both cases, find I'll 0 < t < Ts.
2
= / „ sin — A 12.29 Find the real power, the reactive power, and
/ , „ cos 01,t the resulting power.
the complex power delivered by the indepen-
12.17 (a) Find the power absorbed by R i f R = 111 Find the rms value o f the steady-state volt-
!z„ cos ai t dent source. Find also the reactive element to
2
(b) Find the m a x i m u m power that can be dc age c. be placed in parallel with the independent
is the current flowing in a resistor R . Using the livered to R and the value o f R for maximum Find the rms value o f the steady-state current source to correct the power factor seen by the
definition o f Prob. 12.13, show for <u, # ait power. in R source to 0.8 leading.
402 Chapter 12 AC Steady-State Power Chapter 12 Problems 403

1 H
i H * 2n
- nn r 1( vVr
28 cos 16l V 12 n
PROBLEM 12.26
PROBLEM 12.21
211
10 cos
"6 V
6 0
PROBLEM 12.27
10/0° Vrms
PROBLEM 12.28
t,/2V
10 cos
PROBLEM 12.23
PROBLEM 12.29 PROBLEM 12.3Q
Find the real power, the reactive power, and V , = 100/15° V rms, find the current I deliv-
the complex power delivered by the source, ered by the source.
and the reactive element which must be con- 12.32 Three parallel passive loads, Z , , Z , and Z ,
2 3
nected in parallel with the source to make the are receiving complex power values of
power factor seen by the source (a) 0.9 leading 6 - 75, 8 + j 10, and 2 + jl V A , respec-
and (b) 0.8 lagging. tively. I f a voltage source of 50/0° V rms is
S cos (2» - 4 5 » ) V ©
Two loads in parallel draw respectively 420 W connected across these loads, find the rms
at a power factor of 0.6 lagging and 80 W at a value of the current that flows from the source
power factor of 0.8 leading. If the voltage and the power factor seen by the source.
source across the parallel combination is
PROBLEM 12.24

12.33 A load is supplied the complex power rect the power factor to 0.95 lagging l<n
S = 60 + / 80 V A by a voltage source o f combined load.
50 cos 377/ V. F i n d the capacitance that 12.35 Find the real power, the reactive power,
should be connected in parallel w i t h the load the complex power delivered by the sourea
so that the power factor seen by the source is
12.36 F i nd the wattmeter reading.
(a) unity and (b) 0.8 lagging.
12.37 F i n d the wattmeter reading.
12.34 T w o loads i n parallel draw a total o f 3 k W at a
0.9 lagging power factor f r o m a 115-V rms 12.38 Find the wattmeter reading if •
60-Hz line. One load is k n o w n to absorb 4 cos 1000/ V .
1000 W at a 0.8 lagging power factor. Find 12.39 I f Z = 1 0 / 3 0 ° 17, find the wattmeter rea
(a) the power factor o f the second load and (b) 12.40 F i nd the wattmeter reading.
the parallel reactive element necessary to cor-
PROBLEM 12.38
1 H 6 0
i TSTiP w v - -cJtM^
300/rr ( +
-nsw^-
V nil:
300/-120°
PROBLEM 12.35 V rms
PROBLEM 12.39
—'VAA* ( ^ ) -
>2 n
PROBLEM 12.36
PROBLEM 12.40
4 H H
4 4
i — T S W — i — n n n r - ^ 0 0 0 / -
—TSoTT-
) cos 16( V (^M
PROBLEM 12.37
406 Chapter 12 AC Steady-State Power Chapter 12 Problems 407

Three-Phase Circuits
13
. ^ ^ . s we have already noted, one very important use of ac steady-state analysis is
its application to power systems, most of which are alternating current systems. One
principal reason for this is that it is economically feasible to transmit power over
long distances only i f the voltages involved are very high, and it is easier to raise
and lower voltages in ac systems than in dc systems. Alternating voltage can be
stepped up for transmission and stepped down for distribution with transformers, as
we shall see in Chapter 16. Transformers have no moving parts and are relatively
simple to construct, whereas with the present technology, rotating machines are
generally needed to raise and lower dc voltages.
Also, for reasons of economics and performance, almost all electric power is
produced by polyphase sources (those generating voltages w i t h more than one
phase). In a single-phase circuit, the instantaneous power delivered to a load is pul-
sating, even i f the current and voltage are in phase. A polyphase system, on the
other hand, is somewhat like a multicylinder automobile engine i n that the power de-
livered is steadier. Consequently, there is less vibration in the rotating machinery,
which, in turn, performs more efficiently. A n economic advantage is that the weight
Ttwrrms Aiva Edison
1847-1931
of the conductors and associated components required in a polyphase system is ap-
preciably less than that required in a single-phase system that delivers the same
power. Virtually all the power produced in the world is polyphase power at SO or
60 Hz. In the United States 60 Hz is the standard frequency.
T h e greatest A m e r i c a n inventor and Genius is one per cent to get along with the schoolmastM In this chapter we begin with single-phase, three-wire systems, but we concen-
perhaps the greatest inventor in his- inspiration and ninety-nine He w a s e x e m pt from military servi trate on three-phase circuits, which are by far the most common of the polyphase
tory w a s T h o m a s Alva Edison, w h o per cent perspiration. because of deafness, and during systems. In the latter case the sources are three-phase generators that produce a bal-
c h a n g e d the lives of people every-
Thomas A. Edison Civil War he r o a m e d from city to anced set of voltages, by which we mean three sinusoidal voltages having the same
w h e r e with s u c h inventions as the as a telegraph operator. Duhng
amplitude and frequency but displaced in phase by 120°. Thus the three-phase
electric light and the phonograph. He time h e patented improvements
source is equivalent to three interconnected single-phase sources, each generating a
patented over 1100 inventions of his the stock ticker a n d sold the pate
o w n a n d improved many other persons' inventions, for the t h e n astounding price of $40,000. In 1876 voltage w i t h a different phase. I f the three currents drawn f r o m the sources also con-
such as the telephone, the typewriter, the electric gen- moved t o Menlo Park, N e w Jersey, a n d from there h stitute a balanced set, the system is said to be a balanced three-phase system. This is
erator, and the motion picture. Perhaps most impor- steady s t r e a m of inventions m a d e him world famou the case to which we shall restrict ourselves, for the most part.
tant of all, he w a s one of the first to organize re- The electric light w a s his greatest invention, but
search, at one time employing some 3 0 0 0 helpers. supply it to the world he also designed the first elect
Edison w a s born in Milan, Ohio, the youngest of power station. His discovery of the Edison effect,'
seven children. He had only three months of formal m o v e m e n t of electrons in the v a c u u m of his light bulb, SI N GLE - P H A SE, T H REE - W IRE SYSTE M S
education because his mother took him out of school also m a r k e d the beginning of the age of electronics,
Before proceeding to the three-phase case, let us digress i n this section to establish
and taught him herself. He asked too many questions
our notation and consider an example of a single-phase system that is in common
household use. This example w i l l also serve to give us some practice with a single-
phase system, with which we are already familiar and which w i l l serve as an intro-
duction to the three-phase systems to be considered next.
408
Section 13.1 Single-Phase, Three-Wire Systems 409
In this chapter we shall find extremely useful the double-subscript notation
traduced in Chapter 1 for voltages. In the case of phasors, the notation is V.,,, Im
voltage of point a with respect to point b. We shall also use a double-subscript m
tion for current, taking, for example, L , as the current flowing in the direi i \
from point a to point b. These quantities are illustrated in Fig. 13.1, w h i n l
direct path from a to b is distinguished from the alternative path from a •
through c.
This is evident without referring to a circuit since by K V L the voltage between two
points a and b is the same regardless of the path, which in this case is the path a, n,
b. Also, since V^, = - V ( „ , we have
= 100 - 1007-120°
c
FIGURE 13.1 Illustration of double-subscript notation which, after simplification, is
V * = 100V3 /_30! V rms
Because of the simpler expressions for average power that result, we use f These steps are shown graphically in Fig. 13.2(b).
values of voltage and current throughout this chapter. (These are also the val
read by most meters.) That is, i f A single-phase, three-wire source, as shown in Fig. 13.3, is one that has three
V = |V |/0° V rms output terminals a, b, and a neutral terminal n, for which the terminal voltages are
(13. equal. That is,
I = 11 |/_HJ A rms V J > - V r f * V, (13.4)
are the phasors associated with an element having impedance, This is a common arrangement in a normal house supplied with both 115 V and
230 V rms, since i f |V„| = |V,| = 115 V, then |V^| = | 2 V, | = 230 V.
z = |z|/en (13
the average power delivered to the element is
FIGURE 13.3 Single-phase, three-wire source
P = I V I • I I I cos 0 a
• (I3, 1
= |I| 2 Re Z W
In the time domain the voltage and current are
c = V2| V | cos wl V
i = V2\1 cos (tot - 0) A
EXAMPLE 13.1 The use of double subscripts makes it easier to handle phasors both analytically a
geometrically. For example, in Fig. 13.2(a), the voltage is
410 Chapter 13 Three-Phase Circuits Section 13.1 Single-Phase, Three-Wire Systems

411
I
Let us now consider the source of Fig. 13.3 loaded with two identical lo«4| A
both having an impedance Z i , as shown in Fig. 13.4. The currents in the linei
and bB are
Therefore, the current in the neutral wire, nN, by K C L is
Lv = ~(LA + IM) = 0 FIGURE 13.5 Symmetrical single-phase, three-wire system

Thus the neutral could be removed without changing any current or voltage in iht
system.
If the symmetry of Fig. 13.5 is destroyed by having unequal loads at terminals
A-N and N-B or unequal line impedances in lines aA and bB, then there w i l l be a
neutral current.
Let us consider the situation in Fig. 13.6, which has two loads operating at approxi-
mately 115 V and one at approximately 2 3 0 V. The mesh equations are
431, - 2I - 2 40I 3 = 115
-21, + 63I 2 - 60I 3 = 115
-401, - 60I 2 + (110 + j\0)h = 0
Solving for the currents, we have

FIGURE 13.4 Single-phase, three-wire system w i t h t w o identical loads
I , = 16.327 - 33.7° A rms
I f the lines aA and bB are not perfect conductors but have equal impedance! 1 2 = 15.737-35.4° A rms
Z j , then Uv is still zero because we may simply add the series impedances Z , and Z i 1 3 = 14.467-39.9° A rms
and have essentially the same situation as in Fig. 13.4. Indeed, in the more general
case shown in Fig. 13.5, the neutral current l is still zero. This may be seen by
M
writing the two mesh equations FIGURE 13.6 Unsymmetrical single-phase, three-wire system
in A
(Z, + Z 2 + Z )L,., + Z I M -
3 3 z,i 3 = v, 1 Wv -t
Z LA
3 + (Z, + Z 2 + Z )LM + Z , I
3 3 = -V,
115/0° V r m s ( •4on
and adding the result, which yields • ion
2S1
(Z, + Z j + Z,)(L^ + I M ) + ZjfJU + I M ) = 0 -V\ A /-
I /ion
LA + I M = 0
Since by K C L the left member of the last equation is - I ^ v , the neutral current it
zero. This is, o f course, a consequence of the symmetry o f Fig. 1 3 . 5 .
(13.5) 115/0° V rms (
3 1 n
•6on
-Af\A—
Chapter 13 Three-Phase Circuits

Section 13.1 Single-Phase, Three-Wire Systems 413
Therefore, the neutral current is The voltages V„„, V,„,, l l l d V,„ between the line terminals and the neutral ter-
minal are called phase voltagtl u d in most cases we shall consider are given by
I * = I - I , = 0.76/184.3° A rms
2
and of course, is not zero.

V™ = v«/o°
V ta = VV-120° (13.6)
EXER C I SES V,„ = Vp/120 0
13.1.1 Derive (13.5) by superposition applied to Fig. 13.5.

or
13.1.2 Find the power PAO-, Pea, and P\o+jio delivered to the loads, 40 ft, 60 ft, t
10 + j 10 ft, respectively, of Fig. 13.6.
v „ = vvoj;
Answer 249, 181, 2091 W
13.1.3 Find the power P A, PbB> and P„N lost in the lines in Fig. 13.6.
A
V * = VV120° (13.7)
Answer 266.3, 247.4, 1.2 W V „ = V„/-120°
r
13.1.4 Find the power P and P*, delivered by the two sources in Fig. 13.6. Check the r l
m
suits in Exercises 13.1.2 and 13.1.3 for conservation of power.

Answer 1561.4, 1474.5 W In both cases, each phase voltage has the same rms magnitude V , and the phases are
p
displaced 120°, with V „ arbitrarily selected as the reference phasor. Such a set of
voltages is called a balanced set and is characterized by
13.2 V„ + V t a + V„ = 0
e (13.8)
THREE- P H ASE Y-Y SYSTE M S as may be seen from (13.6) or (13.7).
The sequence of voltages in (13.6) is called the positive sequence, or abc se-
Let us consider the three-phase source of Fig. 13.7(a), which has line terminals </. h,
quence, while that of (13.7) is called the negative, or acb, sequence. Phasor dia-
and c and a neutral terminal n. In this case, the source is said to be Y-conm. tr„
grams of the two sequences are shown in Fig. 13.8, where we may see by inspection
(connected in a Y, as shown). A n equivalent representation is that of Fig. 13 7(h),
that (13.8) holds. Evidently, the only difference between the positive and negative
which is somewhat easier to draw.
sequence is the arbitrary choice of the terminal labels, a, b, and c. Thus without loss
in generality we shall consider only the positive sequence.
FIGURE 13.7 T w o representations of a Y-connected source
FIGURE 13.8 (a) Positive and (b) negative phase sequence
M (b) (a) (b)
414 Chapter 13 Three-Phase Circuits Section 13.2 Three-Phase Y-Y Systems

415
Let us now consider the system of Fig. 13.10, which is a balanced Y-Y, three-
By (13.6), the voltages in the abc sequence may each be related to V „
phase, four-wire system, if the source voltages are given by (13.6). The term Y-Y
lationships, which w i l l be useful later, are
applies since both the source and the load are Y-connected. The system is said.to be
v „ = v.y-i2o c balanced since the source voltages constitute a balanced set and the load is balanced
(each phase impedance is equal—in this case—to Z„). The fourth wire is the neutral
V „ = V^120° line nN, which may be omitted to form a three-phase, three-wire system.
by which we mean the indicated angle is added to that o f V „ .
The line-to-line voltages, or simply line voltages, in Fig. 13.7 are V,,,, fl
and V „ , which may be found from the phase voltages. For example,
v„ = V. + V*
= - yj-120°
= V J V,/30°
In like manner,
V* = K/-90°
v„ = V 5 ty-2io°
I f we denote the magnitude of the line voltages by V , we have L
| VL = V3 vT (13.B FIGURE 13.10 Balanced Y-Y system
The line currents of Fig. 13.10 are evidently

and thus
V„» = V^30°, = VJ-W. V„ = V J - 2 1 V I I I LA =
These results also may be obtained graphically from the phasor diagram s h o w f l
Fig. 13.9. W-120 (13.12)
IM 0
FIGURE 13.9 Phasor diagram showing phase and line voltages he = = LA/120°
The last two results are a consequence of (13.9) and show that the line currents also
form a balanced set. Therefore, their sum is
- K v = L A + I M + Ice = 0
Thus the neutral carries no current in a balanced Y-Y four-wire system.
In the case of Y-connected loads, the currents in the lines aA, bB, and cC are
also the phase currents (the currents carried by the phase impedances). I f the mag-
nitudes of the phase and line currents are /, and l , respectively, then h = 1 , and
L P
(13.12) becomes
L A = htli = l<t±
I M = h/-e - 120° = I J - B- 120° (13.13)
he = hl-e + 120° = u-e + 120°

\
where 0 is the angle of Z.
p
416 Chapter 13 Three-Phase Circuits

Section 13.2 Three-Phase Y-Y Systems 417
/
The average power P delivered to each phase o f Fig. 13.10 is

p
M the effective phase load. Since by the foregoing discussion there is no neutral cur-
rent, we have
P. = V.I. cos 0
(II,
= 1} Re Z , U a = 5 / S = 2 0 / - 3 6 - ' 9 A r m s
and the total power delivered to the load is

The currents form a balanced, positive sequence set, so that we also have
P = 3P ,
I m = 20/-156.9° A rms, he = 20/-276.9° A rms
The angle 0 of the phase impedance is thus the power factor angle of the three-
load as well as that of a single phase. Example 13.3 was solved on a "per-phase" basis. Since the impedance in the
Suppose now that an impedance Z is inserted in each of the lines a A, bB,
L neutral is immaterial in a balanced Y - Y system, we may imagine the neutral line to
cC and that an impedance Z not necessarily equal to Z , is inserted i n lint (
N L be a short circuit. We may do this i f it contains an impedance or even i f the neutral
In other words, the lines are not to be perfect conductors but are to c o r f wire is not present (a three-wire system). We may then look at only one phase, say
impedances. Evidently, the line impedances, except for Z<v, are i n series witli "phase A , " consisting o f the source V„, i n series with Z and Z , as shown i n F i g . L p
phase impedances, and the two sets o f impedances may be combined to form 13.12. (The line nN is replaced by a short circuit.) The line current L A , the phase
conducting lines aA, bB, and cC with a load impedance Z + Z i n each
p L voltage L A Z , , and the voltage drop i n the line L A Z J . may all be found from this
Therefore, except for Z in the neutral, the equivalent system has perfect condue*
N single-phase analysis. The other voltages and currents i n the system may be found
lines and a balanced load. I f the impedance Z were not present i n the neutt
N similarly, or from the previous results, since the system is balanced.
would be a perfect conductor, and the system would be balanced as i n Fig. 13. V
this case, as we have seen, points n and N are at the same potential, and there
neutral current. Thus it does not matter what is in the neutral line. I t may be a
circuit or an open circuit or contain an impedance such as Z v , and still no i
current would flow and no voltage would appear across nN. Obviously, then,
presence o f equal line impedances in aA, bB, and cC and an impedance in the
tral does not change the fact that the line currents form a balanced set.
FIGURE 13.12 Single phase for a per-phase analysis

EX A M P LE 13.3 Let us find the line currents in Fig. 13.11. We may combine the 1 - f t line i m
and (3 + y'3)-ft phase impedance to obtain Suppose that we have a balanced Y-connected source, having line voltage V = L
Z„ = 4 + y3 = 5/36.9° ft 200 V rms, which is supplying a balanced Y-connected load with P = 900 W at a
power factor of 0.9 lagging. Let us find the line current I and the phase impedance L
Z . Since the power supplied to the load is 900 W , the power supplied to each phase
p
FIGURE 13.11 Balanced system w i t h line impedances is P = ?f = 300 W , and from

p
Al we have
300
Therefore since for a Y-connected load the phase current is also the line current, we
have
3V3
h = l p = 2(b~9) = 2 8 9 A r m s
The magnitude of Z is given by

p
] z l = K = 200/V3 = 4 Q f l
h 3V3/(2)(0.9)
418 Chapter 13 Three-Phase Circuits Section 13.2 Three-Phase Y-Y Systems

419
and since 8 = cos; 1 0.9 = 25.84° is the angle of Z,,. we have
I.2.4 I f in Exercise 13.2.3 Z, = 4 + j 3 ft, Z , = 4 - >3 ft, and the line voltage is
Z p = 40/25.84° ft V, = 2 0 0 V 3 V rms, find the current h in each line.
If the load is unbalanced but there is a neutral wire which is a perfect cod Answer 64 A rms
tor, we may still use the per-phase method of solution for each phase Howcvd
this is not the case, this shortcut method does not apply. There is a very
method employing so-called symmetrical components which is applicable to
anced systems and which the reader may encounter in a course on power syste
is important to note, in any case, that a three-phase circuit is still a circuit and, I I >l I T A CON NECTION
anced or unbalanced, may always be solved by general analysis procedures. Another method of connecting a three-phase load to a line is the delta connection,
or A connection. A balanced A-connected load (with equal phase impedances) is
shown in Fig. 13.13(a), in a way that resembles a A, and in an equivalent way in
EXERC ISES Fig. 13.13(b). If the source is Y-or A-connected, the system is a Y-A or a A-A
13.2.1 Given: = 230/0° V rms is a line voltage of a balanced Y-connected three-p system.
source. I f the phase sequence is abc, find the phase voltages.
Answer 1 3 2 . 8 / - 3 0 , 132.8/-150°, 132.8/-270" V rms
0
13.2.2 In Fig. 13.10 the source voltages are determined by Exercise 13.2.1, and the lot
each phase is a series combination of a 30-ft resistor, a 1-mF capacitor, and 0,.
inductor. The frequency is to = 100 rad/s. Find the line currents and the power
livered to the load.
Answer 2 . 6 6 / - 8 3 . T , 2.66/-203.1°, 2.66/36.9° A rms, 634.8 W
13.2.3 Show that i f a balanced three-phase, three-wire system has two balanced th
phase loads connected in parallel, as shown, the load is equivalent to that of t bo-
13.10 with
FIGURE 13.13 T w o versions of a A-connected load
A n advantage of a A-connected load over a Y-connected load is that loads may

be added or removed more readily on a single phase of a A, since the loads are con-
nected directly across the lines. This may not be possible in the Y connection, since
the neutral may not be accessible. Also, for a given power delivered to the load the
phase currents in a A are smaller than those in a Y. O n the other hand, the A phase
voltages are higher than those of the Y connection. Sources are rarely A-connected,
because i f the voltages are not perfectly balanced, there w i l l be a net voltage, and
consequently a circulating current, around the delta. This, o f course, causes undesir-
able heating effects in the generating machinery. Also, the phase voltages are lower
in the Y-connected generator, and thus less insulation is required. Obviously, sys-
EXERCISE 13.2.3 tems with A-connected loads are three-wire systems, since there is no neutral con-
nection.

Section 13.3 The Delta Connection 421
From Fig. 13.13 we see that in the case of a A-connected load the
voltages are the same as the phase voltages. Therefore, if the line voltages are
by (13.11), as before, the phase voltages are
v « = vjw, y K = v j - w , V„ c = VJ-2W I11
where
Vi = V,
If Z p = \ \[0, the phase currents are
l. = = uyr - o
i * = ~ = U-w - e i11
Lp
= ^ = ij-ivr - o
where
(13, FIGURE 13.14 Phasor diagram for a A-connected load
The current in line aA is

13.5 As an example of a three-phase circuit w i t h a A-connected load, let us find the line
LA = L » — LA current h in Fig. 13.13 i f the line voltage is 250 V rms and the load draws 1.5 kW at
a lagging power factor o f 0.8. For one phase, P = Mp = 500 W, and thus
p 9
which after some simplification is

500 = 250/„(0.8)
LA = V3IJ-0
or
The other line currents, obtained similarly, are /, = 2.5 A rms
IM = V3L/-120" - 0 Therefore, we have
he = V 3 7^-240° - 6 h = V 3 /„ = 4.33 A rms
Evidently, the relation between the line and phase current magnitudes in the A c a i i
Finally, in this section, let us derive a formula for the power delivered to a
balanced three-phase load with a power factor angle 6. Whether the load is
h = Vil P (13.l| Y-connected or A-connected, we have
P = 3P„ = 3V IP P cos 0
and the line currents are thus
I n the Y-connected case, V = V t / V J and /, = h, and in the A-connected case,
P
LA = IJ-0, h* = hi-120° - 8, Lc = / /-240° - 9

t (13. V, = V and
L = / t / V ^ . I n either case, then,
Thus the currents and voltages are balanced sets, as expected. The relations betw
/> = 3 ^ c o s 0
line and phase currents for the A-connected load are summed up in the phasor
gram of F i g . 13.14.

Section 13.3 The Delta Connection
423
or
P = V3 VI L L COS 6
As a check on Example 13.5, (13.21) yields
1500 = V3(250)/ (0.8)

L
or, as before,
lL = 4.33 A rms
EXERC ISES
13.3.1 Solve Exercise 13.2.2 i f the source and load are unchanged except that the 1 FIGURE 13.15 Y-connected and A-connected loads in parallel
A-connected. [Suggestion: Note that in (13.15), (13.17), and (13.20) 30° nr
subtracted from every angle.]
Answer 4.6V3/-83.1°, 4.6V3/-203.1°, 4.6V3/36.9 A rms, 1904.4 W 0
13.3.2 A balanced A-connected load has Z = 4 + 7 3 ft, and the line voltage is
P
200 V rms at the load terminals. Find the total power delivered to the load.
Answer 19.2 kW
13.3.3 A balanced A-connected load has a line voltage of VL = 100 V rms at the load FIGURE 13.16 (a) Y, (bj a connection, ana (c) tne two superimposed
minals and absorbs a total power of 4.8 kW. I f the power factor of the load it I, '1
leading, find the phase impedance.
Answer 4 - j 3 ft
13.3.4 I f in Fig. 13.13, = 100/0° V rms, the voltages are a balanced positive s
set, ZAB = 20 ft, ZBC = 10 ft, and ZCA = 710 ft, find the line currents.
Answer 6.20/233.8°, 13.23/-139.1°, 19.32/45° A rms
13.4
Y-A TRA NSFORM ATIO NS
In many power systems applications it is important to be able to convert fr<
Y-connected load to an equivalent A-connected load, and vice versa. For exam
suppose that we have a Y-connected load in parallel with a A-connected load, 00 (b)
shown in Fig. 13.15, and wish to replace the combination by an equivalent thr
phase load. I f both loads were A-connected, this would be relatively easy since
responding phase impedances would be in parallel. Also, as we saw in Exe
13.2.3, i f both loads are Y-connected and balanced, the phase impedances may I
be combined as parallel impedances.
To obtain Y-to-A or A-to-Y conversion formulas, let us consider the Y and
connections of Fig. 13.16. To effect a Y-A transformation we need expressions
Yd,, Y*f, and Y-„ of the A in terms of Y„, Y,, and Y, of the Y so that the A con r
tion is equivalent to the Y connection at the terminals A, B, and C. That is, i f the
is replaced by the A, the same node voltages V A , V « , and V w i l l appear, and
C
same currents Ii and I2 will flow. Conversely, a A-Y transformation is an express

of the Y parameters in terms of the A parameters.
424 Chapter 13 Three-Phase Circuits Section 13.4 Y-A Transformations 425

Let us begin by writing nodal equations for both circuits. I f node C it I
reference, in the case of the Y network we have z. =
YoVt Y V o — Ii
d
z„.= (13.24)
Y»V. - Y„V = I D 2
-Y.V, Y V, + (Y„ + Y„ + Y,)V =

T D 0 z c =
Solving for V in the third equation and substituting its value into the first two
B
tions, we have, after simplification, where the Z's are the reciprocals of the Y s of Fig. 13.16. The rule is as follows:
/ Y.V» + Y.V,\ / Y.Y, \ The impedance of an arm of the Y is equal to the product of the impedances of the ad-
VY. + Y . + Y . r \Y + Y„
a + YJ " ~ 1 1
jacent arms of the A divided by the sum of the A impedances.
(By adjacent here we mean "on each side of and terminating on the same node as."
\Y. + Y» + Y.) + \Y. + Y. + v J V s 1 2
For example, in the superimposed drawing of the Y and A, Z . lies between Z * and
Z „ and all three have a common terminal A. Thus Z * and Z*. are adjacent arms
The nodal equations for the A circuit are
of Z..)
(Y* + Y„)V - Y^Va = I,
A
Let us find the input impedance Z of Fig. 13.17(a). This is a problem that would
-Y^V^ + (Y* + YtcJV, = I 2
have required us to write loop or nodal equations in the past, because we cannot sim-
Equating coefficients o f like terms in these equations and (13.22) and solving plify the circuit by combining series and/or parallel impedances. Replacing the
admittances o f the A circuit, we have the Y-A transformation 6 , 3 - , and 2-il resistors, which constitute a Y , by their equivalent A, as shown i n
Fig. 13.17(b), however, enables us to solve the problem readily.
Comparing Figs. 13.17(a) and 13.16(a), we see that Y„ = i , Y„ = i , and
Y.Y, Y = { S. Therefore, from (13.23), we have
c
Y, + Y„ + Y c
Yob ~
Y*, = Y„Y C
Y_ + Y» + Y c
(13.
. Y Y„
|
FIGURE 13.17 T w o equivalent circuits
Y„ = C
Y, + Y» + Y C 5 n
a W v -
I f we imagine the Y and A circuits superimposed on a single diagram as in 36 n

36 n
13.16(c), then Y„ and Y» are adjacent to Y„», Y, and Y are adjacent to Y * , a~
f
on. Thus we may state (13.23) in words, as follows:

Z—*•
The admittance of an arm of the A is equal to the product of the admittances o f the
jacent arms of the Y divided by the sum of the Y admittances. 24 SI
To obtain the A-Y transformation we may solve (13.23) for the Y admittan- 0 '—
a difficult task, or we may write two sets of loop equations for the Y and A circul.
In the latter case we shall have the dual of the procedure which led to (13.23),]
either case, as the reader is asked to snow in FYob. 13.28, the A-Y transformation (a) (b)

Section 13.4 Y-A Transformations 427
. id) i _ meed A-connected load with phase impedance Z2 = 12 + j9ft.Find the power
delivered by the source.
\mwer 2.4 kW
\w that the Y-A transformation of (13.23) is equivalent to
£+ 5+ 1~ 12 S
Therefore, in Fig. 13.17(b) we have

Z . Z + Zc.Zc + ZcZ„
t
= 18 11, Z* = 6 ft, Zc a = 12 ft Zc
Thus R g . 13.17(b) may be simplified by combining parallel and series resin
Z* =
Z = 12 ft Z Z + Z Z + Z Z„
Zee =
a t t c C
z„
EX A M P L E 13. 7 Suppose that we have a balanced Y-connected load with phase impedance ZJ or in words:
wish to convert it to an equivalent A-connected load. By (13.23), since Y„ Y,.,
Y are all equal to Y,, the reciprocal of Z , the equivalent A-connected load is
c v
balanced because The impedance of an arm of the A is equal to the sum of the products of the
impedances of the Y, taken two at a time, divided by the impedance of the opposite
arm of the Y.
Y Y
= ll
2
= V
I be = V
X co =
Yab ^
y
1 • I f the lines in Exercise 13.3.2 each have a resistance of 0.1 ft, find the power lost in
Thus i f Z j is the phase impedance of the equivalent balanced A-connected load, the lines.
Answer 1.44 kW
Z , = 3Z, ( l l
which may be used to convert from Y to A, and vice versa.
EXERC ISES ™ ~ — ~ ™ > W !R MEASUREMENT
13.4.1 Find the input impedance seen by the source using a Y-A or A-Y transformatiod It appears to be a simple matter to measure the power delivered to a three-phase load
5»s- ,ow t h i s resultfindtheaverage ^-Xrr by using one wattmeter for each of the three phases. This is illustrated for the three-
wire Y-connected load in Fig. 13.18. Each wattmeter has its current coil i n series
with one phase of the load and its potential coil across one phase of the load. The
connections are theoretically correct but may be useless i n practice because the neu-
| vw , tral point N may not be accessible (as, for example, i n the case of a A-connected
load). It would be better, i n general, to be able to make the measurements using
only the lines a, b, and c. In this section we shall show that this is, i n fact, possible
1 H 5 ii 1 H
and that, moreover, only two wattmeters are required, instead of three. The method
-wv—'TSOIP—f
is general and is applicable to unbalanced as well as balanced systems.
Let us consider the three-wire Y-connected load of Fig. 13.19, which has
three wattmeters connected so that each has its current c o i l in one line and its poten-
F 1 5n 25 T* tial coil between that line and a common point x. I f T is the period of the source
T 25
voltages and i , ib, and i are the time-domain line currents, directed into the loads,
a c
then the total power P, indicated by the three meters is

EXERCISE 13.4.1
1 r
1 3 ' 4 ' 2 „~H v
a A " ,
l a e d t h r e eVi = 100 V rms is delivering power to a
p h a s e s o u r c e w i t h
anced Y-connected load with phase impedance Z , = 8 + , 6 ft in parallel wi.hl .Pi = - (tw'a + v Jb + v„ic) dt
b (13.26)
0

Section 13.5 Power Measurement
429
Regardless o f the point Jt, which is completely arbitrary, we have
Vox = OoN + VN*

, Ob = Vm + VN,
Vc, = VcN + VHI
J
Substituting these results into (13.26) and rearranging, we obtain
By K CL we have
f ( t W „ + Omit + Vcnic) dt +
0
OAfcO. + J* + «r) dt
i a + ib + ic
so that
If (VONL + vwib + Vcnic) dt (13.27)
Thus the sum of the three wattmeter readings is precisely the total average power de-
livered to the three-phase load, since the three terms in the integrand of (13.27) are
the instantaneous phase powers.
Since the point x in Fig. 13.19 is arbitrary, we may place it on one of the
lines. Then the meter whose current coil is in that line w i l l read zero because the
voltage across its potential coil is zero. Therefore, the total power delivered to
the load is measured by the other two meters, and the meter reading zero is unnec-
essary. For example, the point x is placed on line b in Fig. 13.20, and the total
power delivered to the load is
P = PA + Pc
FIGURE 13.20 T w o wattmeters reading the total load power
430 Chapter 13
Section 13.5 Power Measurement
431
where PA and P are the readings o f meters A and C It is important to note t
C
or the other o f the two wattmeters may indicate a negative reading, and thus t
of the two readings is the algebraic sum. t X I K ( ISES
The proof of the two-wattmeter method of measuring the total three U.S.I In Fig. 13.18, let Z, = Z = Z = 20/30" ft, and let the line voltages be a bal-
2 3
power has been carried out for a Y-connected load. However, it holds also anced abc sequence set, wit h V * = 100/0° V rms. Find the reading o f each meter.
A-connected load, as the reader is asked to show in Prob, 13.30. Answer 2 5 0 / V 3 W
11.5.2 I f the power delivered to the load o f Exercise 13.5.1 is measured by the two
EX A M PLE 13.8 In Fig. 13.20 let the line voltages be a balanced abc sequence with wattmeters A and C connected as shown in Fig. 13.20, find the wattmeter readings.
Check for consistency with the answer o f Exercise 13.5.1.
V * = 100V3/iT V rms Answer 2 5 0 / V 3 , 5O0/V5 W
and phase impedances given by IJ.5.3 Find the wattmeter readings PA and P and the total power P in Fig. 13.20 i f the line
c
voltages are as given in Exercise 13.5.1 and Z i = Z = Z3 = 20/75" ft. Check the
z, = z = z =
2 3 10 + / i o n 2
answer by using P = iP . p
Then we have Answer - 7 4 . 7 , 204.1, 129.4

Vrf, = -V k = - 1 0 0 V 3 / - 1 2 0 = 100V3/60 V rms
o 0
. \AN 100V3/V3/-30° - |3.t>

1*A = — = ' " = 5V2/-75 A rms 0
UM< I FOR THREE-PHASE CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
z i 10V2/45 0 L The analysis o f three-phase networks presented previously has been restricted to bal-
Ice = 5V2/-315° A rms
anced systems whose solutions can be expressed in terms o f a single phase. The ap-
The meter readings are thus plication o f SPICE is easily used for both balanced and unbalanced systems when ap-
PA = IV* || 1,A I cos (ang - ang I*,)

plied to the entire network. A l l principles necessary for using SPICE have been
presented in previous chapters.
= (10OV3)(5V2) cos (0° + 75°)
= 317 W IE 13.9 Consider finding the line voltage and phase current at the load for phase A of the bal-
anced Y - Y system o f Fig. 13.21. The transmission line for interconnecting the gen-
and
erator and load has losses that are represented by 2-ft resistors. A circuit file for this
Pc = I Veil LcI cos (ang \ t - ang he) network is
3-PHASE V - Y SYSTEM WITH TRANSMISSION LINE LOSSES
= ( 1 0 0 V 3 ) ( 5 V 2 ) cos (60° + 315°) « DATA STATEMENTS VOLTAGES E X P R E S S E D I N RMS
= 1183 W VAN 1 0 AC 120 0

VBN 2 0 AC 1 2 0 - 1 2 0
with a total o f
VCN 3 0 A C 1 2 0 120
RLOSSA 1 4 2
P = 1500 W RLOSSB 2 5 2
As a check, the power delivered to phase A is RLOSSC 3 6 2

RLOSSN 10 0 2
Pp = lYwIIUl cos (ang Yw - ang \) RA

LA
4 7 10
7 10 0 . 1
RB 5 8 10
= (^)(5V2)cos(-30° + 75') LB 8 10 0 . 1
RC 6 9 10
IX 9 10 0 . 1
= 500 W
* SOLUTION CONTROL S T A T E M E N T F O R f = 6 0 Hz
Since the system is balanced, the total power is
AC L I N 1 6 0 6 0
P = 3P = 1500 W
P • OUTPUT CONTROL STATEMENT
.PRINT AC V M ( 4 , 5 ) VP(4,5I IM(VAN) IP(VAN)

which agrees with the previous result.
END

Section 13.6 SPICE for Three-Phase Circuit Analysis
433
/=60Hz
/= 400 Hz
©
120 ziQ! Vnns
0
120 / 0 ° V r r n i
^ 0 0
2 n 10(1 0.1 H
: 12 n ion
iy—:—^—r
120/^120-Vrrni' © n ©
'© ©
120 / - 1 2 0 ° V r 2
iy—t—^—r
2fl ion 0.1 H
- W v •AVv- fjq) •8tl
20 0.05 H
120 / 120° V rms.
1000 j i F
3« ® 0 T
® ©
120 / 120° V rms
2u ion 0.1 H
Ky—?—™—?—
FIGURE 13.22 Unbalanced Y-A system
u
©
FIGURE 13.21 Balanced V-V system for SPICE analysis
IXERCISES
The computer output yields
13.6.1 Find the line voltage and phase current for the load of phase A of the system of Fig.
FREQ VM(4, 5) V P ( 4 , 5) IM(VAN) 13.21 i f the load of phase C is short-circuited (called a phase fault).
6.0OOE+01 2.049E+02 3.280E+01 3.033E+00 Answer 204.9/32.8° V, 4.07/90.54° A
13.6.2 Repeat Exercise 13.6.1 i f the 2-fJ neutral line between nodes 0 and 10 is removed.
EX A M P LE 13.10 Let us find the line voltage and line current for the unbalanced Y-A sys Answer 204.9/32.8° V, 5.33/82.41" A
Fig. 13.22. The transmission line losses are denoted by the 1-, 2-, and 3-i
tors, respectively. A circuit file is
3-PHASE Y-D UNBALANCED S Y S T E M WITH T - L I N E LOSSES
• DATA STATEMENTS WITH VOLTAGES IN RMS VALUES

MMARY
VAN 1 0 AC 120 0
VBN 2 0 AC 120 -120 In this chapter we have considered three-phase circuits, which are excited by a bal-
VCN 3 0 AC 120 120 anced three-phase sequence of voltages. This is the common system used in the
RLOSSA 1 4 1
power industry to supply electricity to homes and businesses. The sources are gener-
RLOSSB 2 5 2
RLOSSC 3 6 3
ally Y-connected, consisting of three generators connected in a Y w i t h phases dis-
RAB 4 5 12 placed 120°. A system may be Y-Y, in which case the load consists of three
RBC 5 7 8 impedances also Y-connected. There may be three wires connecting the three-phase
CBC 6 7 1000UF source to the load, or there may be a fourth wire or neutral line. I f the load
RAC 4 8 10
impedances are identical, the system is a balanced Y-Y system. We may also have a
LAC 6 8 0.05
Y-A system in which the three-phase load is connected in a delta. A n analysis of a
» OUTPUT CONTROL STATEMENT FOR f = 400 Hz
three-phase circuit often entails finding phase currents, phase voltages, line cur-
.AC L I N 1 400 400 rents, line-to-line voltages, and three-phase power.
We may convert a Y to an equivalent A, or vice versa, by means of a Y-A
.PRINT AC V M ( 4 , 5 ) VP(4,5) IM(VAN) IP(VAN) transformation. This transformation may also be used in ordinary circuits, enabling
. END us to find input impedances without writing Kirchhoff's laws. Three-phase power
measurements may be made with three wattmeters, one for each phase of the load.
The computer output contains
As we have seen, however, it is also possible to find the total power with only two
FREQ VM(4. 5) V P ( 4 , 5) IM(VAN) IP (VAN) wattmeters. Finally, SPICE is also very useful in three-phase circuit analysis be-
4.0O0E+02 1. 6 0 1 E + 0 2 2.219E+01 1.255E+01 -1.627E+02 cause the numbers involved are often quite complicated.

Section 13.7 Summary
435
A balanced three-phase positive-sequence
13.25
V A irystem o f Prob 13 17, Z r = source w i t h V „ = 240/0° V r m s is supplying
11 ,,,,1 (he power delivered to the load a parallel combination o f a Y-connected load
PROBLEMS |.Vs 1 ind the line current /, and the and a A-connected load. If the Y and A loads
.1,.,.., voltages i f V.,„ is the reference, are balanced with phase impedances of
13.1 I f in F i g . 13.4 V „ = V r t = 100/0° V r m s , 13.11 A balanced Y-connected source,
balanced Y - A system, the load draws 8 - jt fl and 24 + ; 2 4 fl, respectively, find
the impedance between terminals A-N is 200/0° V rms, positive sequence, is
I a power factor o f 0.8 lagging. L i k e the line current /, and the power supplied by
10/60° fl, and that between terminals N-B is by four perfect conductors to an unhal
us are connected across each phase the source, assuming perfectly conducting
10/—60° 11, find the neutral current L * Y-connected load, Z A « = 8 + j 6 11
HHSC ihe load power factor to 0.9 lag- lines.
>20 fl, and Z,.« = 10 fl. Find the neuli
13.2 I n F i g . 13.5, let V, = 100/0° V r m s , Z , = in,l |hc value o f capacitance required i f
rent. balanced three phase positive-sequence
5 + y 5 n , Z = 0.5 a , Z , « 1 f l , and Z. =
2
juency is 6 0 Hz and the line voltages 13.26 A
13.12 I f the neutral wire is removed in the sy4 'source'wUh V * - 240/0°. V rms supplies
10 - j5 fl. Find the average power absorbed I V rm§.
Prob. 13.11 , find the line currents 43 2 kW at unity power factor to a parallel
by the loads, lost i n the lines, and delivered by
Y A system o f Prob. 13.17 the source combination o f a balanced Y-connected load
the sources. 13.13 I f i n Exercise 13.2.3, Z , = 3 - j4 11,
3 + j4 ft, and the line voltage is
1 V „ = 100/y V rms and Z P = w i t h phase impedances 4 + ) 4 fl and a bal-
13.3 A balanced Y - Y three-wire, positive-sequence I I . Find the line voltage, the line cur-
1 0 0 V 3 V r m s , find the current l in etch I anced A-connected load. Determine the phase
system has V„j, = 200/0° V rms and frequency t
he load current magnitudes, and the impedances o f the A-connected load.

200 rad/s. I f the load i n each phase is a series 13.14 A balanced three-phase Y-connected delivered to the load Find the line currents L * , L>». Lc
connection o f a 4 0 - A resistor, a 0 . 1 - H induc- draws 3 k W at a power factor o f 0.8 l a g g l M ^ 13.27
tor, and a 100-/U.F capacitor, find the line cur- i» line current h
balanced Y o f capacitors is to be placed mf^l
rents and the power delivered to the load. allel w i t h the load so that the power facltj^H ir power delivered to the load in Prob. 100/0° Vrms
the combination is 0.85 lagging I f the If the magnitude o f the source voltages
13.4 I n F i g . 13.10 a balanced, positive-sequence
source has V„t = 120/0° V rms and L A = quency is 6 0 H z and the line voltages i^H V rins and Z = P ~ "
10/-60° A rms. Find Z and the power deliv-
P
balanced 200-V rms set, find the capacita^H •need three-phase, positive-sequence
ered to the three-phase load. required. w i t h V * = 200/0° V r m s is supplying /ion
13.15 I n F i g . 13.13 the source is balanced with pdH onnected load, ZAB = 20 fl, Z « c = 100 / -120 Vrms
13.5 A balanced three-phase Y-connected load
live phase sequence and V „ = 100/0° V nH • fl, and Z o , = 50/30° fl. Find the b
draws 1.2 k W at a power factor o f 0.6 leading. -/ion
I f the phase impedance is 3 V 3 / 3 0 I I , • :line currents and the power delivered
I f the line voltages are a balanced 200-V rms 0
the line current and the power delivered t<H ! load (Assume perfectly conducting
set, find the line current h-
load. 20 n
13.6 A balanced Y-Y system with Z = P
13.16 I n F i g . 13.13 the positive sequence s y s t e ^ H lanced three-phase, positive-sequence 100/120° Vrms
3V3 /30° fl delivers 9.6 kW to the load. Find
V „ = 200/0° V rms. Find Z„ i f the sourcl M : w i t h V * = 200/0° V rms is supplying
the line voltage V and the line current h •
L
livers 2.4 k W at a power factor of 0.8 lag||H onnected load, Z « = 50 fl, Z » c =

13.7 I n F i g . 13.10, the source is balanced, w i t h
, 2 0 fl, and ZCA = 30 - y 4 0 fl. Find
positive phase sequence, and V«, = 13.17 I n the Y - A system shown, the source is p f l PROBLEM 13.27
•it currents and the power absorbed by
100/0° V rms. Find Z i f the source delivers
P
tive sequence w i t h V™ = 100/0° V r m s ^ H
the phase impedance is Z = 3 - j4 11. H f l id.
3.6 k W at a power factor o f 0 . 6 leading. P
the line voltage V , the line current /,., umiW

L
13.8 A balanced Y - Y three-wire, positive-sequence

power delivered to the load 120/0° Vrms
system has V „ = 200/0° V rms and Z , =
-o-
1 n
3 + j i 11. The lines each have a resistance o f ^vVv-
1 fl. Find the line current l , the power deliv-
L
ered to the load, and the power dissipated i n 9-/12n

the lines.
120 / -120° V rms
.._e_s.
13.9 A balanced Y-connected source, V„, = 1 n
200/0° V rms, positive sequence, is connected -Wv- 9-ma
by four perfect conductors (having zero
impedance) to an unbalanced Y-connected 9 -;T2n
-e-
load, Z W= 10 fl, Z,s = 10/-30° fl, and 120/120° Vrms
1 n
ZCN = 2 0 V 2 /75° fl. Find the neutral current
-Wv-
and the power absorbed by the load.
13.10 I f the neutral w i r e is removed in the system o f PROBLEM 13.21
Prob. 13.9, find the line currents. PROBLEM 13.17

13.28 Derive (13.24). 13.34 Find the readings l\d P of the wallir
B
i ilns ii-sult show that 13.38 Find the readings o f the wattmeters connected
13.29 For a balanced three-phase system, i f the and the total power delivered to the In as in Prob. 13.34 for the system o f Prob.
the source is a balanced Y-connected
phase voltages are tan e = V3 13.23.
sequence source w i t h V „ = 100/0° V Pc + PA 13.39 Repeat Prob. 13.38 for the system of Prob.
««(») = V cos tut
m and the phase impedances are each
we may find the power factor, cos 9, o f 13.27.
30/30° fl.
Mt) = V cos (cur -
m 120°) mi from the t w o wattmeter readings, 13.40 Find the wattmeter readings.
v (t)
c = V„ cos (ait - 240°) h*. 13.36, find the pf of the load i f
L - Pc, (b) PA = -Pc, (C) PA = 0 , (d)
then the phase currents are • 0, and (e) PA = 2P - C
««(') = L cos (cur - 6)

i„(t) = /„ cos (a>t - 6 - 120°)
ic(t) = /„ cos (at - 6 - 240°)
Show that the total instantaneous power,
p(t) = t)„i„ + vtit, + vi

c c
is a constant given by PROBLEM 13.34
pit) = iv i cot em m
13.35 For the system shown, the line voltages I N
balanced positive sequence set w i t h V«t
which is also P, the total average power. [Sug-
300/0° V rms. F i n d the meter readings P„»
gestion: Recall that cos a + cos (a - 120°) +
P and the total power delivered to the lo.nl
B
cos (o - 240°) = 0.)

Z , = 10/30° fl.
13.30 Show that P given by (13.26) is equal to the
x
total average power delivered to a A-connected COMPUTER APPLICATION PROBLEMS

load.
13.41 Use SPICE to solve the system o f Fig. 13.21 i f the 0.1-H inductor o f phase A is replaced by
13.31 I n the system o f F i g . 13.20, the line voltages
are a balanced, positive-sequence set, w i t h a 1000-ftF capacitor.
V * = 200/0° V rms, and Z, = Z = Z = 2 3
13.42 Use SPICE to find the current o f the phase A source i f phase voltage C is zero (phase C gen-
10/30° fl. Find the power delivered to the erator fault) in the Y - Y system o f Fig. 13.21.
load (a) by finding the readings o f the t w o 13.43 Use SPICE to find the current in the 1 2 - f l load o f Fig. 13.22 i f the load between phases B
wattmeters and (b) by P - iP . p and C (8 fl and 1000 p.F) is open-circuited.
13.32 Repeat Prob. 13.31 i f Z , = Z = Z = 2 3 13.44 Repeat Prob. 13.42 for the system o f Fig. 13.22.
10/60° fl. Note that in this case wattmeter C
reads the total power since wattmeter A reads
zero.
13.33 Show that in Fig. 13.20 i f V,* = V [a, V = L k
Vja - 120°, V „ = V /a - 240° V rms, and

L
PROBLEM 13.35
Z i = Z = Z = | Z1/60°, then wattmeter A
2 3
13.36 Show that i f a balanced, positive-sequeixi
reads zero and wattmeter C reads the total aver-
source is connected by three perfectly conJ
age power delivered to the load,
ducting wires to a balanced load having phaal
impedance Z , = | Z , the t w o wattmeteri]
VI
P = connected as i n Fig. 13.20, read, respectively]
2|Z|
PA and P , where
C
This is a generalization o f the result o f Prob. cos (30° + 8)

13.32. cos (30° - 0)
438 Chapter 13 Three-Phase Circuits Chapter 13 Computer Application Problems 439

1 4
Complex Frequency
and Network Functions
Ln the previous chapters we have considered resistive circuit analysis, natural and
forced responses of circuits containing storage elements, and, in particular, ac
steady-state analysis. The excitations we have considered were, for the most part,
constants, exponentials and sinusoids. In this chapter we consider an excitation, the
damped sinusoid, which includes all these excitations as special cases. From this
function we develop generalized phasors and general network functions which in-
clude, as special cases, the phasors and impedances of Chapters 10-13.
The network functions are expressed in terms of a complex frequency that in-
cludes the frequency jco as a special case. The concepts of complex frequency and
general network functions enable us to combine all of our earlier results into one
common procedure. Both the natural and forced responses of a circuit may be found
from its excitation and its network function, as we shall see. In addition, the net-
work function may be used to determine the frequency-domain properties of the cir-
cuit, which are the subject of Chapter 15.
14.1
I HI DAMPED SINUSOID
If Thomas A. Edison has a rival for In this section we consider the damped sinusoid.
the title of the world's greatest inven- He [Tesla] was the greatest ability to recite by heart entire bocj
tor, it is certainly the Croatian-Ameri- inventor in the realm of and poems. He spent two years I
can engineer, Nikola Tesla. When the electrical engineering. v = V e"' cos (wt + 0) (14.1)
the Polytechnic Institute of Gr«
m
tall, lanky Tesla arrived in the United W. H. Eccles Austria, where he conceived the id«
States in 1884, the country was in the of the rotating magnetic field that WM which is a sinusoid, like those of the previous chapters, multiplied by a damping fac-
middle of the "battle of the currents" the later basis for his induction motfll
between Thomas A. Edison, promoting dc, and tor e . The constant a (the Greek lowercase letter sigma) is real and is usually nega-
m
At this point in Tesla s life his fatha

George Westinghouse, leading the ac forces. Tesla died, and he decided to leave school, taking a job • tive or zero, which accounts for the term damping factor.
quickly settled the argument in favor of ac with his Paris with the Continental Edison Company I wo] The damped sinusoid contains, as special cases, most of the functions we have
marvelous inventions, such as the polyphase ac years later he came to America, where he remain*! considered thus far. For example, if a = 0, we have the pure sinusoid
power system, the induction motor, the Tesla coil, and until his death. During his remarkable lifetime he h M
fluorescent lights. v= V„ cos (tat + <£) (14.2)
over 700 patents, settled the ac versus dc dispuHJ
Tesla was born in Smiljan, Austria-Hungary and was primarily responsible for the selection of 69 of the previous chapters. If w = 0, we have the exponential function
(now Yugoslavia), the son of a clergyman of the Hz as the standard ac frequency in the United Stattl
v = Voe"' (14.3)
Greek Orthodox Church. As a boy Tesla had a talent and throughout much of the world. After his death hfl
for mathematics and an incredible memory, with the was honored by the choice of tesla as the unit of magi and if a = m = 0, we have the constant (dc) case
netic flux density. •
v = V 0 (14.4)
where, in both (14.3) and (14.4), V = V cos </>. These functions are sketched in
0 m
Fig. 14.1 for the various cases of a and to.

440
Section 14.1 The Damped Sinusoid 441
dimensionless unit, neper (Np), was used for at Thus < ^ t h e _ ^ j N f f g ^
nepers per second (Np/s). The neper was chosen in honor of the Scottish mathemati-
cian John Napier (1550-1617), who invented logarithms.
14 1 As an example of a circuit having a damped sinusoidal excitation, let us find the

forced response i in Fig. 14.2. The loop equation is
2* + - = 25c
5l 1 cos It (145)
dt
lie 1 cos It V ( *
F I G U R E 14.2 Circuit excited by a damped sinusoid
Trying as a forced response

I = e~'(A cos 2l + fl sin It)
which is the excitation and all its possible derivatives, we have
le~'{-2A sin It - A cos It + 2B cos It - B sin It)

+ 5e~'{A cos 2r + B sin It) = 25e"' cos It
Since this must be an identity, we have

3A + 4fl = 25
- 4 A + 35 = 0
or A — 3 and B = 4. Therefore, the forced response is
i = e~"'(3 cos 2l + 4 sin 2r) A
or equivalently,
< c ) o = 0 (f)»-w-0
F I G U RE 14.1 Various cases of (14.1) i = 5e ' cos (2» - 53.1°) A (14.6)
As expected, the forced response is, like the excitation, a damped sinusoid.
As we see from Fig. 14.1. <r > 0 represents growing oscillations (b) or t
growing exponential (e), and a < 0 represents decaying oscillations (a) or a de-
c k i n g exponential (d). Finally, cr = 0 represents ac steady state (c) or dc steady EXERCISES
state (t).
14.1.1 Excite the circuit of Fig. 14.2 by the complex function
The units of to are radians per second and of d> are radians or degrees, as be-
t>, = 25e"e*'
tore. Since at is dimensionless, cris in „ f 1 per second (1/s). This unit was en-
u l t s 0
countered earlier, in connection with natural frequencies, in Chapter 9 where the = 25e -
, ,+j1) *
442 Chapter 14 Complex Frequency and Network Functions 443

Section 14.1 The Damped Sinusoid
and show that the forced response is nusoids? It seems plausible that we can, because the properties of sinusoids that
made the phasors possible are shared by damped sinusoids. That is, the sum or dif-
i, = ( 5 / - 5 3 . 1 V - " * 1
ference of two damped sinusoids is a damped sinusoid, and the derivative, indefinite
14.1.2 Show that if i, is the response to Ci in integral, or constant multiple of a damped sinusoid is a damped sinusoid In all these
operations only V and d> may change. This is exactly the case with undamped sinu-
m
2— + 5ii = ui soids
at
Let us see what follows if we write (14.10) in the form analogous to (14.9).
then Re i, is the response to Re v,. Apply this result to the functions of Excrcl
14.1.1 to obtain i given by (14.6). That is,
14.1.3 Find the forced response t using the methods of Exercises 14.1.1 and 14.1.2 if v = V e" cos (tot + d>)
m
dv
2 dv = RelVê"^-**']
-TT + 2— + v = Se 'cos 2t
dt 2 dt
= Re[V„<?'V "j +>,
Answer —2e~' cos 2/ If we define the quantity

14.1.4 Use the method of Exercise 14.1.3 to find the forced response v if s = a+ja> (14.11)
then we have
where v = Re(Ve") (14.12)
i = 4<r ' cos (t - 60°)

2
where V is the phasor of (14.8).
Evidently, since V is the same for both, the undamped sinusoid given by
/ I n s n w 2 e c o s (« + 30°)
(14.9) is identical in form to the damped sinusoid of (14.12). The only difference is
that the number jto is used in one case and the number s is used in the other. Obvi-
14.2 ously, then, we may do anything with the damped sinusoids that we did with un-
damped sinusoids as long as we use s instead of jto. We may define the phasor V of
COMPLEX FREQUENCY A N D GENERALIZED PHASORS (14.8) to be the phasor representation of v in (14.10) and use it for damped sinu-
In Chapter 10 we considered circuits with sinusoidal excitations such as soidal circuit problems in exactly the same way that we used it for the sinusoidal
problems. In the damped sinusoidal case we may wish to write the phasor as \{s) to
v, = V cos (tot + d>)
m (14.71 distinguish it from the undamped sinusoidal case, \(j<o).
which we also wrote in the equivalent form
The damped sinusoid
v, = Re(V„,«>*e*")
t; = 25e-' cos It V (14.13)
Using the phasor representation of t>,,
of Fig. 14.2 has the phasor representation
V = V„e* = V [£ (14.8)1
V = V ( i ) = 25/0! (14.14)
m
we may also write

where s = - 1 + y'2. Conversely, if V is given by (14.14) and s is as specified, then
t>, = Re(Ve**) (14.9) v is given by (14.13).
The phasor representation was extremely useful in solving ac steady-state circuits in
Some authors prefer to call \(s), corresponding to v (t) in (14.10), a general-
which the voltages and currents were sinusoids of the form of (14.7).
ized phasor, even though it is identical to the phasors of sinusoidal functions. It is,
In this chapter we wish to consider circuits in which the excitations and forced
responses are damped sinusoids, such as however, a function of a generalized frequency, namely s, given by (14.11). Since s
is a complex number, it is more often called a complex frequency. Its components
v = V . ^ ' c o s (tot + <p) (14.10) are
A good question at this point is: Can we define phasor representations of damped si-
a = R e s Np/s
nusoids that will work as well for us as the phasors, such as (14 8). of undamped si-
to = I m s rad/s
444 Section 14.2 Complex Frequency and Generalized Phasors
445
Chapter 14 Complex Frequency and Network Functions
which have units of frequency, and, indeed, s is the coefficient of t in an exponetH
function, as was the case in Chapter 9 for the natural frequencies of a circuit f l
units of s are I /second and are sometimes called complex nepers per second or i ufl
plex radians per second. IMPI DANCE AN D ADMITTANCE
It might be worth noting at this point that a function which can be written! Because of the identical form of the phasor representations for sinusoids and damped
the form sinusoids, we may find forced responses to damped sinusoidal excitations using
phasors precisely as we did in the previous chapters. All the concepts and rules, such
/ ( f ) = K,t' ' 1 + Kit'*' + • • • + K.e'"' as impedance, admittance, K C L , K V L , Thevenin's theorem, Norton's theorem, and
where the K, and s, are independent of r, may be said to be characterized by superposition, carry over to the damped sinusoidal case exactly. We need only to use
complex frequencies l\, si,. . . , s„. For example, writing (14.10) in the form s = a + jto rather than jto.
It follows that in the J domain, the phasor current \(s) and voltage \(s), asso-
ciated with a two-terminal device, are related by
2 )
results in \(S) = Z(5)I(J)
where Z(s) is the generalized impedance, or simply impedance, of the device. We

where K, = V e*/2 and K = V e~»/2 = Kf (the complex conjugate). Thus
m 2 m
may obtain Z(s) from Z(jto), the impedance in the ac steady-state case, by simply
possesses not one but two complex frequencies, namely *i = a + jto • replacing jto by s.
s = s* = a - jto. This concept of complex frequency is consistent with that dj
2
For a resistance R, the impedance is, therefore,
the natural frequencies considered in Chapter 9.
R
EXERCISES
In the case of an inductance L , the impedance is
14.2.1 Find the complex frequencies associated with (a) 5 + 3e *', (b) cos tot,
(c) sin (oil + fl), (d) 6e " sin (4t + 10°), and (e) e~'(l + cos 2t).
Answer (a) 0, - 4 ; (b) ± jto; (c) ± jto; (d) - 3 ± j4; (e) - 1 , - 1 ± j2 Ms) = sL
14.2.2 Show that if i is a damped sinusoid,
and for a capacitance C , it is
i = I me" cos (tot + d>)
then r, defined by
1
Zeis) =
sC
v = L ~ + Ri
dt
is also a damped sinusoid of the same complex frequency. In a similar manner the admittances are, respectively,
Answer
Y * « = ^ = G, VL(S) = 4 . Y c W = sC
v = I V(Rm + trLf + to L 2 2 e" cos (tot + <p + t a n -1 „ m L . | sL
14.2.3 Find s and \(s) if v(t) is given by (a) 6, (b) 6<r ', (c) oe" ' cos (4/ + 10°), and (d)
2 3
6 cos (2t + 10°).

M PLE 14.3 Impedances in series or parallel are combined in exactly the same way as in the ac
Answer (a) 0, 6 / 0 ° ; (b) - 2 , 6/CT; (c) - 3 + J 4 , 6/10°; (d) j2, 6 / 1 0 ° steady-state case, since we merely replace jto by *. Let us reconsider the circuit of
14.2.4 Find c(<) if (a) V = 8/0!, * = - 3 ; (b) V = 5 / 1 5 ° , s = y4; and (c) V = 6/30°, Fig. 14.2, whose phasor circuit is shown in Fig. 14.3, where J = — 1 + j2. The
s = - 3 + ;'2. impedance seen from the source terminals consists of the impedances 2s and 5 in se-
Answer (a) 8<T '; (b) 5 cos (4r + 15°); (c) oe" ' cos (2l + 30°)
3 3 ries and thus is given by
Z(s) = 2s + 5 n
446
Chapter 14 Complex Frequency and Network Functions
Section 14.3 Impedance and Admittance 447
F I G U R E 14.3 Phasor circuit of Fig. 14.2
Therefore, since the input voltage phasor is
V,(j) = 25/0° V
we have
V,W _ _ 25/0°
IW = 5/—53,1° A
2s + 5 2 f - i + jl) + 5
Thus in the time domain the forced response, as before, is
«(») = 5 e - ' c o s ( 2 / - 53.1°) A
EX A M P LE 14.4 Let us consider the time-domain circuit of Fig. 14.4(a), where it is required to fi
the forced response t>„(r) for a given damped sinusoidal input v,(t). The phasor
cuit is shown in Fig. 14.4(b), from which we have the nodal equations,
Q i i,)v,-|v,-v,-i,v.-o
+ +
V, = 0
We note that V - V„/2 since the op amp and its two connected resistors constitul
2 (b)
a VCVS with a gain of 2. Therefore, eliminating V, and V , we have 2 F I G U R E 14.4 (a) Time- domain circuit; (b) its phasor circuit
16
V.W = jV (*) Let us find the forced response i in Fig. 14.5 if
s* + 2s + 8
f
(14.1S1
v i = &e~' cos l V
g
If we have
and
v,(t) = e~* cos 4/ V
1,2 = 2e ' A
5
then s = -2 + j4 and \,(s) = 1/0°.. Thus from (14.15) we have

Since the complex frequencies of u,i and i , are different, we must use superposi-
2
\(s) = V2/135° V tion. That is,

and therefore i = I'I + k
where i, is due to v , acting alone and l'j is due to i,2 acting alone.
C ( r ) = V2 e-- cos (4i + 135°) V
g
21
449
448 Chapter 14 Complex Frequency and Network Functions
Section 14.3 Impedance and Admittance
[XEROSES
14 1.1 Find the forced response 1 if v, - 4*"' cos » V.
Answer 2V2 e-' cos (t - 45°) A
F I G U R E 14.5 Circuit with two sources
The phasor circuits for i„ = 0 and u„ = 0 are shown in Fig. 14.6(a) and (
respectively. The phasor currents are I , and I , as shown. In Fig. 14.6(a), using c
2
rent division, we have
8/0° EXERCISE 14.3.1

I, = 4/s
1 + {[(2* + 4)(4/*)]/(2J + 4 + 4/s)} 2s + 4 + 4/s 14.3.2 Find the forced response t; if o „ = 4e- " cos (t - 45°) V and 1,2 = 2e~' A .
which, since s = - 1 + jl for this case, becomes Answer 2\Pi e ' cos (t + 90°) + 4e'' V
1
I, = 2 V 2 / - 4 5 A 0
Therefore, the forced component due to v tl alone is
I'I = 2V2V' cos (t - 45°) A

In Fig. 14.6(b), again by current division, we obtain
\{[1(4A)]/(1
1 1 / ( 1 + 4 A ) k m EXERCISE 14.3.2
+ 4/*)} + 2s + 4 / ( 2 Z 2 -'
which, since * = - 5 , is 14.3.3 For the circuit of Exercise 14.3.2, take 1,2 = e~* cos (1 + 45°) A , leaving o as it
fl
is, and find c by (a) using superposition, (b) writing a single node equation, and (c)
I2 = 0.8/0° A using source transformations.
Therefore, the forced component due to i, alone is 2 Answer 4e " cos (t + 135°) V
14.3.4 In the phasor circuit for Exercise 14.3.2 with 1,2 = 0 and v„ as it is, replace every-
k = 0.8*-" A thing except the capacitor by its Thevenin equivalent and use the result to find \(s),
The complete forced response of Fig. 14.5 is therefore the phasor of v. Note that the result leads to the first component of v given in Exer-
cise 14.3.2.
i = 2V2 cos (t - 45°) + O.&e* A
Answer
2) s +2
F I G U R E 14.6 Phasor circuits associated with Fig 14 5 :V,(j), Z*(j) = n, \(s) v,(*)
+ 4 + 4 + 3s + 4
4 -k
^ vVv
14.4
8/0°
NETWORK FUNCTIONS
A generalization of impedance and admittance is the so-called network function,
which, in the case of a single excitation and response, is defined as the ratio of the
(a) response phasor to the excitation phasor. For example, if \(s) and l(s) are the
(b)
450 Chapter 14 Complex Frequency and Network Functions Section 14.4 Network Functions 451
voltage and current phasors associated with a two-lerminal network, the from which „.
impedance V.W = W»)V W ( ( 1 4 1 8 )
In general, stnee , - complex, H « is complex. Therefore, we may write, in
is the network function if Us) is the excitation and V(.v) is the response. On the P ° l a r f 0 r m ' HWHBWIZ!
hand, if \(s) is the input and l(s) is the output, the input admittance
where | H(s) | is the amplitude a « l . the phase of Therefore, if
I W
VW y.(s) = v4± ( 1 4 ' 2 0 )
is the network function.

The foregoing examples are special cases in that both the input and output
measured at the same pair of terminals. In general, for a given input current v.(5) = v J H « | Z £ + J ( 1 4 2 1 )
voltage at a specified pair of terminals, the output may be a current or voltage al

place in the circuit. Thus the network function, which we designate in general)
1 ouJuTis that of the input plus that of the network function.
H(s), may be a ratio of a voltage to a current (in which case its units are ohimi,
current to a voltage (with units of Siemens), a voltage to a voltage, or a current Id]
current. In the last two cases, H(s) is a dimensionless quantity. If the input and c 114.8 !,(*) in (14.16) is given by
put are measured at different terminals, the network function is also called a tranr
Us) = H(*)V,(s)
function.
where V,(s) = 8 / 0 ° V a n d , - - 1 + ; 1 , as given in the preceding section. There-
EX A M P L E 1 4 . 6 Consider the circuit of Fig. 14.4(b), which was analyzed in the preceding section, fore, 2
\„(s) is the output phasor and V„(5) is the input phasor, then, by (14.15), the
work function is H(-l + ji) = piTTlF+'oX-i + > l )
16 , ^ / - 4 5 !
H(*) = + Zs + 8 4 '
and
EX A M P L E 14 . 7 If the source V , = 8/0° V is the input and I> is the output of Fig. 14.6(a), we m I, = ( ^ ) ( 8 ) / 0 _ J l « !
show that
Us) = 2V2 / - 4 5 ° A
H(5) (14.1
V,(*) s 2 + 6s + 10
as was obtained earlier.
In the former example H(.v) is dimensionless and in the latter case its units
Siemens.
The network function H(s) is independent of the input, being a function only
of the network elements and their interconnections. Of course, when the input It
specified this determines the value of s to be used in a given application. From 4 the network function ^
knowledge of the network function and the input function, we may then find the out- H,t» = =7-
put phasor and subsequently the time-domain output. To be specific, suppose thai
\,(s) is the input and \„(s) is the output. Then w h e r e , = - 1 + j 1 and % = 8/0! V. Then from Fig. 14.6(b) (with V „ - 0), we
have the network function
lUW = r
453
Section 14.4 Network Functions
where s = - 5 and l g2 = 2/V A . W e m t h e n find ,
I S A N D ZEROS
In general, the network function is a ratio of polynomials in s with real coefficients
EXERCISES that are independent of the excitation. To illustrate this, let us consider the example
of Fig. 14.2, described by
2 ^ + 5i = v
dt
14.4.1 Given the network function 4Q + 5)
HO)
J 2 + 4s + 5 where i is the output and v is the input. Using the same technique with complex forc-
ing functions that we used in Chapter 10, we note that if v = \e", the output must
have the same form, namely 1 = Ie", where, of course, V = \(s) and I = l(s) are
and the input V,0) = 2/0° the phasor representations of v and 1. Substituting these values into the differential
equation, we have
find ^ f o r c e d response M r ) if ( ) , = - , (b) , . a 2 - 4 + yi, a„ d ( C ) I
(2* + 5)Ie" = V<?"
A » „ (a) 2 4 e - ' ; (b) - 2 * - * i „ , (
2 S ; c ) 3V2 cos (3r - 135°)
from which the network function is
14.4.2 Find H(s) if the response is (a) 1,0), (b) ! , ( , ) , and (c) V . ( i ) . 1^
Answer (a) - .,M
S + 3 s + 1 1 1 V 2s + 5
0 + IX* + 2 ) 0 + ) • o + 3 w u o + 2 ) 0 + 3) ; ( c ) (7+1x7+" In the general case, if the input and output of the circuit are e,-(/) and v„(t), re-
spectively, the describing equation is
3D 1 H
1 Hf
EXERCISE 14.4.2 The a's and b's of course, are real constants and are independent of o . (
As before, if o, = V,e", the output must have the form v„ = \e", where
14.4.3 Find HO) if the response is v. Use the result to find the forced response if v, 1 \i(s) and V „ 0 ) are the phasor representations of t>, and v„. Substituting these values
5 cos t V.
into (14.22), we have
Anww . ~f S , 8 cos (/ - 143.1°) V (a„s n + a„-,s"~' + •••+«!* + ao)V e" 0
s + 4s + 4
EXERCISE 14.4.3 = (i.s" + b m ,s" 1 + • • • + b,s + baHVit* (14.23)
From this we obtain the network function
V„(J) _ b„s" + *»-,*""•' + • • • + b,s + b 0
= HO) = (14.24)
v,0) a.s" + a„. + • • • + a\s + ao
8fi
which is a ratio of polynomials in s.

We may also write the network function (14.24) in the factored form
"If
b (s - zi)Q - z ) . . . Q -
m 2 z)
m
HO) (14.25)
a„(s - p,)(s - p ) . . . 0 -
2 P.)

Section 14.5 Poles and Zeros 455
In this case the numbers z„z 2 „ are called zeros of the network f u m h . J
z
cause they are values of s for which the function becomes zero The number*
Pz,, . . . , p„ are values of * for which the function becomes infinite and ared
rXIK < ISES
poles of the network function. The values of the poles and zeros, along with (hit 14 V I II the / cms of H U ) are s = - 1 , - 1 ± y l , the poles are s = - 2 , - 1 ± y'2, and
ues of the factors a. and b , uniquely determine the network function
m H(0) = 4, find H ( 5 ) .
20(5 + 1 )(5 + 2s + 2)
2
Answer — , rr ~
(s + 2 ) ( 5 + Is + 5)
2
EX A M P L E 14.10 The network function

14.5.2 Draw the pole-zero plot of the network function of Exercise 14.5.1.
14.5.3 If the describing equation of a circuit is
6 ( 1 + 1)Q + 25 + 2)2 d Vo2 dv , _ dv>i
0
_ + 4 — + 13*, = 2 - + 4 c
W s(s + 2){s 2 + 45+13)
find H(.v) and the poles and zeros.

= 6 ( 5 + \)(s + 1 + j\)(s + 1 - jl)
2J + 4
s(s + 2)(5 + 2 + ; 3 ) ( 5 + 2 - y3) Answer H(s) = -z : — : poles: - 2 ± y'3; zeros: —2, infinity
5 + 4 5 + 1 3
has zeros at - 1 , - 1 + Jl, and - 1 - y l and poles at 0, - 2 , - 2 + y'3,1

—2 — y'3. As is generally the case, because the as and b's of (14.24) are rj
complex poles or zeros always occur in conjugate pairs. Since the network funcf 14.6
is a ratio of a third-degree to a fourth-degree polynomial, it approaches zero as .T T H E NATURAL RESPONSE FROM THE NETWORK
comes infinite. Thus we also have a zero at 5 = » . If the numerator were higher
degree than the denominator, s = would be a pole.
0 0
FUNCTIO N
The poles and zeros of a network function may be sketched as a pole -id As we know from our previous experience, an output of a circuit consists of the sum
plot, which is simply the s-plane, consisting of a- and y'oi-axes, with the poles | of a natural and a forced response. In the last few chapters we have been concerned
zeros located on it. Zeros are represented oy a small circle and poles by a sir entirely with finding the forced response, and we have seen that the phasor technique
cross. As an example, the pole-zero plot of (14.26) is shown in Fig. 14.7. The enables us to do this in a very easy, straightforward way in the cases of sinusoidal,
ues of a are on the horizontal (a) axis and those of to are on the vertical (so-caL damped sinusoidal, and exponential excitations. In power systems studies the forced
jto) axis. A s we shall see in Chapter I S , pole-zero plots are useful in consider) response is, of course, an ac steady-state response and is always present. Therefore,
frequency-domain properties of circuits. the forced response is usually of more interest than the natural response, which is
transient and gone after a very short time.
With damped sinusoidal excitations, on the other hand, both the forced and
natural responses are transients. (In an actual circuit the natural response must be a
F I G U R E 14.7 Pole-zero plot transient, for otherwise we would have either a sustained or a growing response
without an external excitation.) Therefore, the natural response assumes more
-2+/3X -3
importance, relative to the forced response, than it does in ac steady-state cases. In
finding natural responses in Chapters 8 and 9 we considered only first- and
•2
second-order circuits, for the simple reason that our methods were applied to the de-
o I scribing differential equations and became more difficult to use as the order of the
circuit increased. However, as we shall see in this section, the natural response may
— i a 9 n be obtained relatively easily from the phasor representation.
-2 - 1 0
The results of the preceding section illustrate that we may obtain the network
O -1 function quite readily from the describing equation. For example, if (14.22) is the
-1 - ; 1
describing equation, the network function (14.24) is
•-2
-2-/3 x |_ 3 „ / ,! _ V.(.) _ N(s)

H ( , )- W) ~ o w ( 1 4 2 7 )

Section 14.6 The Natural Response from the Network Function 457
where V„ and d> are constants, then, by (14.27),
with the numerator
v„(5) = (v„Z4>)H(5)
N(s) = b s" m + + • • • + b,s + b Q
Therefore, smce V , , ) has no

and the denominator
o l^rbetrandTe n a L , frequences are the p o * o,
D(s) = OnS" + a -is"~' m + • • • + as t + ao (l<l
Zsf, frTwhich the natural response may be constructed.
The last two expressions are merely the right member and left member, respccttof,
of (14.22) with the derivatives replaced by powers of 5.
MPI1 14.12 Let us find the complete response i of the citcuit of Fig. 14.8. Using current divi-
sion, the phasor 1(5) of t is given by
EXAMPLE 14.11 If the describing equation is
mtjt i. YM x 35
d v, 12 + {[35(25 + 6)]/(35 + 25 + 6)} 3s + 25 + 6
iv =
2
W
, + 4— + c 2 — + u,
dt 2 dt dt
_ 5
then the network function is " (5 + 1)(5 + 12)
v.(*) _ 2* + 1 since V , = 2 / 0 ° . Since the poles of I are 5 = - 1 , - 1 2 , the natural response is
H(*) = V,(5) s 2 + 45 + 3
i„(f) = A,e-' + A e- 2 ,2> A
The process is reversible if there has been no cancellation of common termt

the network function. For example, it is a simple matter to write down (14.'
given (14.31).
In general, from (14.28) and (14.29) we may reconstruct the describing
tion (14.22). In the special case of (14.29) equated to zero
D(s) = 0 (14.
replacing powers of 5 by corresponding derivatives of v„ results in the homogen
F I G U R E 14.8 Second-order circuit
equation of the system
d"Vo
+ a. + fl| — + OoVo = 0 For $ • - 2 + j 1, the phasor representation is
" dt" dt" dt
I = 0.16/12.7"
as discussed in Chapter 9. Therefore, (14.32) is the characteristic equation, and i'
roots are the natural frequencies of the circuit. Since these roots, by (14.29), f , so that the forced response is
also the poles of the network function, we see that the natural response of the circ' i,(t) = 0. l k r 2 1 cos (r + 12.7°) A
is
The complete response is therefore
o. = A,e'i' + Aie^' + + A„e"-' (14.33
i(t) = Aie~' + Aie"' 21 + 0.16f- ' cos (t + 12.7°) A
2
where the natural frequencies pi, pi, . . . . p„ are the poles of the network functi
and A,, Ai, . . . , A. are arbitrary constants. Modifications, of course, must The arbitrary constants may be evaluated, as in Chapter 9, if we know the initial en-
made, as described in Chapter 9, if the natural frequencies are not distinct. ergy conditions.
We now have a very simple method, based on phasors, for finding the com"
plete response of a circuit. A l l we need to find is the network function from which
by (14.27) we may obtain the output phasor. The forced response is found from the
phasor response in the usual way, and the natural response is given by (14.33),
EXERCISES ( h a t t h e r e , sn o c a n c e l l a t i o n
where the natural frequencies are the poles of the network function. 14.6.1 Find the natural response in Exercise 1 4 . * . ,
If the input phasor is of the form in the network function.
Answer e'Â, cos f + A sin f) 2
V,(5) = V l± m
459
Section 14.6 The Natural Response from the Network Function
lulu the circuit is sometimes called the pliers entry since we cut a wire and insert a
14.6.2 Find the complete response in Exercise 14.4 1(c) if the natural response is as g i voltage source I he second entry is a soldering entry since we solder the source
in Exercise 14.6.1 and across two nodes Any other method of entry would be improper because killing the
uiseiicd sources would result in a different dead circuit.
at In the pliers entry, if V,(s) is the voltage source inserted and \,(s), the current
inlo the circuit at the source, is the response, then the network function is
Answer e~ '[3 cos t - 9 sin t + 3 V 2 cos (3f -
2 135°)]
14.6.3 Find the complete response i if i, = 10 cos 2f A , j(0) = 0, and di(0*)/dU ' } \,(s)
8 A/s.
Answer 2e~' - le'V + sin 2f A Thus the natural frequencies are the poles of Y,(s) or the zeros of its reciprocal,
Z.(.v), the input impedance at x-x'. In this case we have
m (\ . - . 12(3*)
Z.(s) = Is + 6 + — £
= 2(s + l)(s + 12)

s + 4
Therefore, the natural frequencies are - 1 , —12, as before.
EXERCISE 14.6.3 In the case of Fig. 14.9(b), if a current source l (s) is placed across y-y' and
y
the voltage \,(s) across the source is the output, then the network function is
14.7
l,(s)
N A TUR A L F RE Q U E N C I ES Therefore, the natural frequencies are the poles of Z,(s) or the zeros of its recipro-
As we have seen, the natural frequencies are the poles of the network function cal, YAs), given by
there is no cancellation of a common pole and zero. Also, as discussed in Chapter
the natural frequencies are the same for any response in a given circuit unless 12 35 25 + 6
portion of the circuit is physically separated from the rest. Thus if we are looki
= (5 + l)(s + 12)
only for the natural frequencies, we may consider any response, and it is obvi
better to choose one that is easier to find. 125(5 + 3)
Again, the natural frequencies are —1, - 1 2 .

E X A M P L E 14.13 Let us consider the circuit of Fig. 14.8 with the source killed (since the natural rti
sponse corresponds to a zero source). The natural frequencies are the poles of an
network function. Therefore, we may excite the circuit in some proper manner and EXERCISES
for some chosen output, determine the network function. Figure 14.9 illustrates I In
14.7.1 Find the natural frequencies of the circuit of Fig. 14.5 by killing the sources and us-
two proper means of applying an excitation to the dead circuit. We may insert I
voltage spurce in series with an element as in x-x' of Fig. 14.9(a), or we may place ing (a) a pliers entry in series with the capacitor and (b) a soldering entry across the
a current source across an element, as across y-y' of Fig. 14.9(b). The first entry capacitor.
Answer — 3 ± jl
F I G U R E 14.9 Circuit with two possible entries
14.7.2 Find the natural frequencies of the circuit of Exercise 14.4.2 by killing the source
and using (a) a pliers entry in series with the capacitor and (b) a soldering entry
across the capacitor. (Note: Do not cancel the common pole and zero, 5 = - 3 . )
Answer — 1, —2, —3
14.7.3 Find the network function Z(s) with a soldering entry across the 6-ft resistor of Fig.
14.9, and use the result to find the natural frequencies.
6 5 ( 5 + 10) .
Answer -77 — — 1, —\Z
(5 + l)(s +12)
(a) (b> 461
Section 14.7 Natural Frequencies
14.8
TW O-PORT NETW ORKS
One of the most important applications of the network function concept is to M

works for which the input and output signals are measured at different parrs of lertfl
nals. The simplest and most-often-encountered circuit for which this is possibH
F I G U R E 14.12 General two-port network
the two-port network, a port being defined as a pair of terminals at which a sigi
may enter or leave. A general two-port network is symbolized by Fig 14.10(b)
contrasted with the one-port network of F i g . 14.10(a). and I ) . For example, if port 2 is open-circuited ( I = 0), then from (14.34) we have
2 2
V,
III = T
II
(14.35)
v 2
(a) (b) 1*21 — «

If l -0
F I G U R E 14.10 (a) One- port and (b) two-port networks 2
In general, as seen in Fig. 14.10(b), a two-port network has four terminals. It Similarly, if port 1 is open-circuited (I, = 0), we have
is possible, of course, for two of the terminals to be the same, in which case we havd
a three-terminal, or grounded, network. A general example of this case is shown in
Fig. 14.11.
o 1 o
F I G U R E 14.11 Three-terminal two-port network Accordingly the z's are called open-circuit impedances, or open-circuit parameters,
or simply z-parameters. In any case, they are examples of network functions.
By (14 35) and (14.36), we see that z „ is the impedance seen looking in the
We may associate two pairs of currents and voltages with a general two poii
primary port (port 1) when the secondary port (port 2) is open, and z is that seen at 2 2
network, as shown in the frequency-domain case of Fig. 14.12, with variables \,{s),
the secondary when the primary is open. The parameters z and z , are transfer 12 2
I i M , V (s), and l (s) as indicated. In case the network is linear, these variables may
2 2
impedances, which are ratios of a voltage at one port to a current at another.
be related in a number of ways. For example, if I, and I are inputs and Vi and Vi2
are outputs, by superposition V, and V each have components proportional to I and

2
I . That is,
2
Let us consider the three-terminal network of Fig. 14.13Jfecause of its shape, it a

V, = z , , I . + z , I
2 2
sometimes called a T network. Evidently, it is simply a Y network, as discussed in
(14.34) Chapter 13. To find • „ and we open port 2 and excite port 1 with a current
V = z ,I, + z I
source I , . Since I = 0, we have
2 2 2 2 2
2
where the z's are proportionality factors, which in general are functions of s. (Z, + Z ) I , 3
Since the z's multiply currents to yield voltages, they must be measured in and
ohms. Therefore, they are impedance functions. We may find the z's from the net-
work by open-circuiting either port 1 (with variables V, and I , ) or port 2 (with V,
V 2 = Zjl,

463
Section 14.8 Two-Port Networks
V, = ( 4 ^ ) l , + (2 + f)l 2
•f v 2 = ^ i , + ( 6 ^ ) i 2
Comparing these results with the definition (14.34), the z-parameters, the coeffi-
cients of the currents in the last two equations, are given by
F I G U R E 14.1 J T nelwork
' 6
Zn = 4 + -
s
Therefore,
1,2 = 2 + -
*n - "J Z i + Z3 s
ll
2
z i - . - £ . Ifi
2 1
li
The other two parameters are found in a similar manner with the primary opt Z22 = 6 + -
s
(Ii = 0) and the secondary excited with a source I . The result is 2
We may find another set of parameters considering Vi and V as inputs and I , 2

Zn = Zi + Z3
and I as outputs in Fig. 14.12. In this case we have, by superposition,
2
t\i — Z21 = Z3 I 14 l / |
Z22 — Z + 2 Z3 I, = y , V , + y , V 2 2 (.4.38)
I2 = y 2 , V , + y V 2 2 2
EXAMPLE 14.15 Let us find the z-parameters for the phasor circuit of Fig. 14.14. We will illust
the procedure in this case by simply writing the two loop equations,
where, evidently, the proportionality factors are admittances given by
V, = 2 I + 2 (4 + + 2 (I, + i )
2
I.
v -o2
V = ^6
2 + 2 ) l 2 + * d i + It)
h
V12 = 77
V 2
v '-° (14.39)
F I G U R E 14.14 Two-port network I2
v -o2
4/s 2/i h
-K- H f —Wr v,-o
Accordingly, the y's are short-circuit admittances (V, = 0 or V = 0), or short- 2
circuit parameters, or simply y-parameters.
Section 14.8 Two-Port Networks 465

The parameters y,i and ya are admittances seen looking in one port will
Vi - h n l (14.41)
other port short circuited, and yn and y i are transfer admittances, or m
2
1 h N
current at one port to the voltage at another, under the appropriate short-cm ml I , - k u l i + iiuVj
ditions.
and
E X A M P L E 1 4 . 1 6 Let us find the y-parameters of the three-terminal circuit of Fig. 1 4 . 1 5 . Becagfl
its shape, it is sometimes called a n network. Evidently, it is simply a A m I, = gi.V, + %uh (14.42)
considered in Chapter 1 3 . If the secondary is short circuited ( V = 0 ) , Y , is \ 2
out, so that Y „ and Y * are in parallel. Therefore, V = gjlV, +

2 g22l2
y„ = Y„ + Y»
Thev are called hybrid parameters because they relate a mixture of a current
Also in this case, - I 2 flows to the right through Y B so that and voltage, rather than two currents to two voltages,
I 2 = Y»V, or vice versa. From (14.41) and (14.42), we see that
or
h . v
h
yî = y = - Y » nn — , / -o
2
The other two y's may be found in a similar way with the primary short circui v i
,-0
h , 2 =
(14.43)
hi = . 2
2-0
D 2 2 = \ 1,-0
and
F I G U R E 14.15 TT network
I,
The result is
B n = % |j-0
yu = Y« + Y„
I,
yn = y2i = - Y » (14. V,-0 (14.44)
yn = Y» + Y C
R» - y;
I =0
2
If Z12 = z i (or, equivalently, y i = y i ) , the network is a reciprocal netw

2 2 2 v 2
This is always the case when the elements inside the network box of Fig. 1 4 . 1 2 g 2 2 = I
v,-o
resistors, inductors, and capacitors. Examples, as we note from ( 1 4 . 3 7 ) and ( 1 4 .
are the circuits of Figs. 1 4 . 1 3 and 1 4 . 1 5 . The circuit of Fig. 1 4 . 1 4 contains a _
pendent source, and is nonreciprocal, since I12 # Z21.
The z- and y-parameters are but two sets of parameters associated with a two
port network. Two other sets are the hybrid parameters, h n , h u , h i , ha and g 2 ll(
g i 2 , gzi, g22, which are also very important, especially in electronic circuits,
are defined, respectively, by analyze the g's in the same manner, of course.
467
466 Chapter 14 Complex Frequency and Network Functions Section 14.8 Two-Port Networks
Therefore, A is a voltage ratio and C is a transfer admittance, with the secondary
open, and B is a transfer impedance and D is a current ratio, with the secondary
E X A M P L E 14.17 Let us find the /(-parameters for the circuit of Fig 14.13, if Z , = 6 ft, Zj •
•hort circuited. A second set of transmission parameters may be defined giving V 2
and Z = 10 ft. From the I ' S found in (14.37). we know that
3
and I in terms of V, and

2 - I , . They are illustrated in Exercise 14.8.5.
V , = 161, + 10I 2 The derivation of the A-parameters of (14.46) suggests a general method of ob-
V 2 = 101, + I8I2 taining one set of parameters from another. For example, if we solve (14.38) for the
If we substitute the value of I from the second of these into the first, we hav
2
V ' s , we have
fV 2 - 101," (14.49)
161, + 10
18
which simplifies to
V, = ? I , + | V 2
If we solve the second of (14.45) for I , we have 2 where A r is the determinant,

Ay = JTiiJta - Jrt* ' ° ( 1 4 5 )
l 2 = - H i + rsV 2
have the z-parameters in terms of the

Comparing these last two results with the definition (14.41) of the h's, we have Comparing this result with (14.34), we
h„
h, = I 2 y22 -y 2 2
(14 4h | "" Ar
h 2 l = - § , H " Ar 1 , 2
(14.51)
yn
"22 = A ~ z
* '
2 - ~ A 7 1 2 2
Still another set of two-port parameters is the transmission parameters, A. II.

C , and D, defined for the general two-port network by
parameters to the other sets ror me 10 r parameters in terms

V, = A V - B I 2 2
(14.47)
I, = C V - D I 2 :
Two-Port Parameter Conversion Formulas

These are important to transmission engineers because they express the primary TABLE 14.1
' AM a,* |
(sending end) variables V, and I , in terms of the secondary (receiving end) variables ho ho
V and - I . (The negative of I is used because that is the current entering the re
2 2 2 -fcii _L
ceiving end load.) Evidently, from (14.47), we may write ho ha.
1 -h, ' 2
En k.,
h ,
2 A„
h„ h" .
-A» -h„
h , 2 h
-1
h , 2 h„
ft"
h , 2 bo J
469
468 Chapter 14 Complex Frequency and Network Functions Section 14.8 Two-Port Networks
first row. Comparing corresponding enteries in the first matrix with the sec
trix of that row yields (14.51). The determinants A , Ac, A«, and A r are z
A I T l ICAHO NS OF TWO-PORT PARAMETERS
the t, y, h, and transmission matrices, respectively.
I he two-port parameters of the preceding section are useful in many ways, as we
will see in thisêction. Our first use of them will be to obtatn various network tunc-
tions.
EXERCISES
14.8.1 Find the z-parameters and the ABCD parameters of the circuit shown. I l f l I 14.18 If port 2 is open ( I = 0), then from (14.34) we may find the voltage ratio function
2
Answer Z n = 6, Zn — Z21 • 4, Z22 = 10 ft; A B 11 ft, C = J S , D

(14.52)
V, Zn
6S2 Also, for a short-circuited secondary (V = 0), we may write, using (14.38),
2
h = ?il (14.53)
I ....
4 n .
I. yn
MIM
M P I II 14.19
14 19 Let
Let us find the
us^nnd t ^ current
^ . ^ ratio^ function for ^
y
the ^two-port loaded with ^1ft,^ as shown _m
= e q u a
EXERCISE 14.8.1
tion of (14.34) yields, after some rearrangement,
-—— 1
14.8.2 Show that the y-parameters may be obtained from the z-parameters by -Z21 (14.54)
Z22 Z12
I, 1 + Zl2
yn
Az' y i 2 = -AT i_ —
5l Zn If we make the same substitution ( - I 2 for V ) in (14.38), we have the voltage ratio
2
y = y 2
. ' 1
2 ]
A ' Az
2
(14.55)
where A z = Z i i Z - Z12Z21. (This is given in the first entry of the second row d
2 2 v, 1 + y 2 2
Table 14.1.) Use this result to find the y-parameters of the circuit of Exercise 14.8.1,
Answer y „ = ^ , y , = y i = - A, y * = 22 S
2 2 2
14.8.3 Find the /i-parameters and the ^-parameters of the network of Exercise 14.8.1.
Answer h's: .* i
g s: 6.6.
14.8.4 Using Table 14.1, find the conditions on (a) the A-parameters and (b) the transmit'
sion parameters that a circuit be reciprocal (z, = z i ) . 2 2
Answer (a) b.12 = — h i , (b) Ar = 1

2
14.8.5 A second set of transmission parameters may be defined, expressing the output vari-
ables in terms of the input variables, by F I G U R E 14.16 Two-port loaded with a 1-11 resistor
V = aV,
2 bl,
r X A M P L E 14 20 Let us find the transfer function fe/I, for the circuit of Fig. 14.14 if the secondary is
I = cV,
2 dl,
terminated in a 1 -ft resistor. We have previously found
Find the parameters a, b, c, and d in terms of the other transmission parameters A, .2
B, C , and D. Z 2 , - 7
D . B C A 4
Answer a = — , D = - r - , C = — , d = — z M = 6 + -
Ar Ar Ar Ar
Section 14.9 Applications of Two-Port Parameters

471
so that by (14.54) the transfer function is which substituted into (14.34) yields
h _ -2/s -2
Z|2 ,
Ii 1 + [6 + (4/5) | 75 + 4 V, - Z . I , = z „ I ,
(14.56)
E X A M P L E 14.21 For the TT network of Fig. 14.17 we may write down by
inspection the parameter v V 2 = Z |Ii - — V
2 2
Z.1
25 If we solve each of these for I , . we have
yv = 5 + - , j = V, + ( z , / Z ) V
2 t 2 = V + (z /ZJV
2 2 2 2
25
Zn + Z G Z i 2
so that by (14.55) the voltage ratio is
V 2 _ 1/25 From the last two members, we may solve for the voltage ratio function.
V, 1 + 5 + (1/25)] 25 + 25 + 1
2
Z21Z/.
(14.57)
V, (z,, + Z , ) ( z 22 + Zi.) - Z, Z , 2 2
•—nsTSTy\
If we divide both sides of (14.57) by — Z i , we have the transfer admittance
v, MI - i
•
i .a
7' M function.
h
. 1 m
(14.58)
V, (Zn+ ZJ(z 2 2 + ZL) - Z12Z21
F I C U R E 14.17 LC two-port terminated in 1 J l
Others that may be readily derived in terms of the z-parameters are the current ratio
Next we will consider a doubly terminated two-port network as shown in Fig
function,
14.18. The load impedance at the output port is Z , and Z , at the input port is the
L
internal impedance of the source V , . If Z = 0 and Z = 1, we have the case of

8 L
Fig. 14.16. -Z21

(14.59)
Z22 + Z L
the transfer impedance function,
ZL V, Vj._ Z21Z1.
(14.60)
Ii Z22 + ZL
F I C U R E 14.18 Doubly terminated two-port network and the input impedance,
From the circuit we may write _ V s / / 1

Z„ = - = z„ + Z G - ^ T Y L (14.61)
-V2
ZL
and These same functions, along with a number of others, may also be derived in
terms of the other two-port parameters. We consider some of these in the exercises
Vi - V , - Z I , 8
and problems.
Section 14.9 Applications of Two-Port Parameters 473
currents are the same, then the port voltages are the same, and vice versa, for both
E X A M P L E 14.22 To illustrate the use of (14.57), let us find the voltage ratio function for the circuil t
networks
Fig. 14.19. By inspection we have
If the circuit of Fig. 14.12 is a reciprocal network (Z12 = Z21), a simpler, pas-
2 sive equivalent circuit can be found by solving (14.37) for Z i , Z j , Z j . The result,
Zn = s + —
is
Zj = Z12
_ 2
Zl2 — Z21 — — Zi = Zn - Z = Zn —
3 *12
is
Zl = Z22 — Z3 = Z22 — I|2
Z22 = 2s + substituted into Fig. 14.13 yields the equivalent passive circuit shown in Fig. 14.21.
3s It is an equivalent circuit for a general reciprocal three-terminal network.
Z, = 1
ZL = 2 c
D
which substituted into (14.57) gives
\ = 2/3
V, s 3 + 2s 2 + 2s + 1
F I G U R E 14.21 Equivalent circuit of a general reciprocal three-terminal network
Many other circuits equivalent to the general two-port network may be ob-
tained from the defining equations of the two-port parameters. For example, the cir-
cuit of Fig. 14.22 is another such equivalent circuit using the fc-pararneters, as the
reader is asked to verify in Exercise 14.9.4. This is a popular equivalent circuit, of-
ten used to represent a transistor.
Another use for the two-port parameters is in the construction of equivalent

circuits. For example, in the first equation of (14.34), Vi is a sum of two terms, z I i M
and Z 1 2 I 2 . The first may be obtained by an impedance Z u carrying a current I , , and

the second may be obtained by a dependent voltage source controlled by I . In 1 2
similar way we may interpret the second equation of (14.34) and draw the circuit
representing these equations. The result, as may be verified by inspection, is shown
in Fig. 14.20. We say that this circuit is equivalent (i.e., at the terminals) to that of
Fig. 14.12, because they both have the same two-port parameters. Thus if the port F I G U R E 14.22 Equivalent circuit of the general three-terminal two-port, using h-parameters
F I C U R E 14.20 Equivalent circuit for Fig. 14.22
EXERCISES
14.9.1 Find the voltage ratio transfer function for the two-port terminated in 1 ft, shown i
Fig. 14.16, with z-parameters z,, = 8 ft, l i j = Z21 = 6 ft, and Z22 - 14 ft.
Answer 74
14.9.2 Show that the given circuit is equivalent to the general reciprocal three-terminal nei
work by showing that (14.38) holds.
14.9.3 Show that the given circuit is equivalent to the general two-port network.
474 Chapter 14 Complex Frequency and Network Functions 47

Section 14.9 Applications of Two-Port Parameters ~ ": <
-
l2«
-—-
a
•
lit
- —- J
+
EXERCISE 14.9.2 b
— ll I2 t J 3 z 1 2
I K . I IRE 14.23 Parallel connection of (a) two general two-ports and (b) two grounded two-ports
- o
z Z
M 21Z -^12)
and
In. = yn*Vift + y m V ^
fe* = y2i*Vi» + y22»V2i,

EXERCISE 14.9.3
where
V, = V,„ = Vu,
14.9.4 Verify that the circuit of Fig. 14.22 is equivalent to the general three-terminal new
work by showing that (14.41) holds. V 2 = V*. = Va,
I | = Ilo + Il k
I2 1.2a + I2*
14.10
=
Combining these results, we have

I N T E R C O N N E C T I O N S O F T W O - P O R T N ET W O RKS
11 = ( y n . + y t u O V i + ( y i i . + yi2»)V 2
The two-port networks of the previous sections may be used as building blocks In
design more complicated circuits. That is, subsections may be designed as two-potl 12 = (y2i« + y i » ) V , + (y22« + y i , ) V 2
2 2 2
networks and then interconnected to form the overall circuit. In this section we will Therefore, we see that the y-parameters of the interconnection are the sums of the
consider some of these interconnections and see how the overall circuit may be ana- y-parameters of each subnetwork. That is,
lyzed by analyzing its component two-port parts.
yn = yn. + y n * , yu = y i ^ + yn*
The first interconnection we consider is that of Fig. 14.23(a), which is called n (14.62)
parallel connection for reasons that will be clear later. The parallel connection of 7n = yu + y»».
2 V22 = y22«. + Jin
two grounded two-port networks is shown in Fig. 14.23(b). In the work to follow,
we want each subnetwork to retain its integrity as a two-port network, which will be The fact that the admittances add, as they do for parallel circuit elements, is
true in Fig. 14.23(a) if the currents into the top leads of each network come out the
motivation for the name parallel connection.
bottom leads. To ensure this in some cases, it may be necessary to place an ideal
transformer (discussed in Chapter 16) at one of the four ports. In any case, the in-
tegrity of the two-port networks in the grounded case of Fig. 14.23(b) is always I X A M P L E 14.23 Let us find the transfer function V / V , in the circuit of Fig. 14.24, which is a paral-
2
maintained, because the lower (or grounded) terminals are common to the subnet- lel connection of two two-ports terminated in a 1-ft resistor. By inspection we have
works and the overall network.
By Fig. 14.23(a), we may write y .
2 y2ia + y2i* = - -
Ii„ = y u V o l 0 + yi^Va,
y 2 2 = y 2 2 o + y22» = s + - + 1 + * = 2 J + 1 + 7
S •
I i , = y 2 1 „ V l „ + y ;u.V2<,
2
Section 14.10 Interconnections of Two-Port Networks 477

II I HI 14.25 Series connection of (a) two general two-ports and (b) two grounded two-ports
The last interconnection we will consider is the cascade connection of Fig.

V 8 1 + [2s + 1 + (l/s)] 2s 2 + 2s + 1 14.26, in which the output port of network a is the input port of network b. From
the figure and the definition of the transmission parameters, we see that
The connection of Fig. 14.25(a) is a series connection of the two networks a V, = V,. = A.V2. - Bali,
and b, so called because, as we will see, the z-parameters add, as the y-parameter»
do in the parallel connection. For the two networks a and b we have = AaVli, + Balu,
Via — Ziialia + 2\2 \

a
= A.(A»Va, - B»I») + B . ( C » V a - D»Iza)
= (A«Aft + B . C » ) V a - (A„B t + B D*)I»

0
\la = l2\a\\a + TlZtXla
and
V, = (A.A f c + B.C*)V 2 - (A„B fc + B„D»)I 2
In a similar manner, using the transmission parameter equation for I , , we may ob-
- Z2l(,Ilfc + lllhllb
tain
Also, from the figure we see that
I , = ( C A * + D „ C » ) V 2 - (C„B* + D „ D ) I t 2
1 = I , , = Ii»
Comparing these last two equations with (14.47) for the overall network, we have
I: — 12j, for the cascade connection.
and —• 1 - " T " ~
A = A o A j , + B,/Cft
V , = V , „ + V i » = ( z „ + z » ) I , + (zii, + z,2*)I
n M 2
B = A„B,, + B„D»
V 2 = \la + \ = ( Z j l a + *21»)Il + (122. + *22l,)h (14.64)
C = C . A * + D„C»
Therefore, the z-parameters of the overall network are given by
D = C B a 6 + D Db
a
Zll — Zlla + Z\\b, Zl2 — Z,2o + Z,2»

(14.63) A reader familiar with matrix multiplication will recognize this result to be a state-
Z21 — Z l 2 a + Z lft,
2 Z22 — Z22« + Z22/,
ment that the transmission matrix of the overall network is the product of the trans-
mission matrices of networks a and b. That is,
Again, we are assuming that the two-ports of Fig. 14.25(a) maintain their in-
B
tegrity as two-port networks. This is always the case in Fig. 14.25(b), where the
f
(14.65)
subnetworks are grounded two-ports. a
478 Chapter 14 Complex Frequency and Network Functions Section 14.10 Interconnections of Two-Port Networks 479
F I C U R E 14.26 Casca d e connection of two two-port networks
F I C U R E 14.28 Two-port network with a 1-fl termination
E X A M P L E 14.24 We may show that the transmission parameters of the simple two-ports of F l l
14.27(a) and (b) are, respectively, so that
A„ = B„ = Z„ V2 1
(14.661 V, 2 s + Is + 1
2
C = 0 D„ =
and There are two other interconnections of two-port networks that we will men-
tion but will not consider further. The first is the series-parallel connection in which
A* = 1 B„ = 0 the primary is connected like the primary of the series connection of Fig. 14.25 and
(14.671
C = Y„ D„ = 1 the secondary is connected like the secondary of the parallel connection of Fig.
14.23. The second is the parallel-series connection, in which the primary is parallel
and therefore those of their cascade connection (c) are, by (14.64), connected and the secondary is series connected. If the integrity of each two-port
A = 1 + Z Y», 0 B = Z„ network is maintained with the interconnections, the /i-parameters add to give the
(14.68) overall /i-parameters in the series-parallel connection, and the g-parameters add to
C = Y„, D = 1 give the overall g-parameters in the parallel-series connection.
EXERCISES
14.10.1 Find V / V , for the circuit shown.
2
4s + 6s
2
Answer 2s + I5s + 35s + 2$s + 3

t } 2
(a) (b) (c)

2s
F I C U R E 14.27 T w o simple two - port networks, and their cascade connection
E X A M P L E 14.25 We may use the result in (14.68) to find the voltage ratio transfer function V 2 / V 1 for
the circuit of Fig. 14.28. As the reader is asked to show in Prob. 14.33 for the gen-
eral two-port network terminated in 1 CI, the voltage transfer function is
V2 ^ 1
(14.69)
V, A + B
The two port in this case is like that of Fig. 14.27(c) with Z„ = Is and Y = s. b
Therefore, we have
A = 1 + 2s 2
B = Is EXERCISE 14.10.1

Section 14.10 Interconnections of Two-Port Networks 481
14.9 Use the principle of proportionality to lind the
14.10.2 Use the ABCD parameters to find V / V , for the two-port network terminal
2
network function V / V i , and use the rcsull to
2
l - f l resistor if the two-port is the T network of Fig. 14.13 with Z i = Z • 2

find the forced response c (/) when Ui(f)
2
Z = l/s. (Suggestion: Note that the two port is that of Fig. 14.28 with
3 4 cos t V.
impedance added at the output.)
1 2H
Answer . .• —r—;—;—:——- 1 VVV 1
i—nrvT>—!
4 i + 2s + 4s + 1
3 2
r -
f
PR O BLEM 14.4
ÎF ins
ul ihr forced component o f v in Prob. 14.4
14.11 J" I c V " cos 2t V.

itw that
PR O BLEM 14.9
SU M M A RY
1
In this chapter we have considered the damped sinusoid and its generalized phatm Y = Yi + ; 14.10 If the voltage source in Prob. 9.23 is
which is a function of a complex frequency s. This leads to a generalization Z +
2 v,(t) = 6 e c o s 2/ V, find the network func-
impedance, admittance, and phasor circuits based on s. A further generalization Y, + tion l(s)/\,(s) and the forced response i in
impedance results in the network function or transfer function, defined as the ratio each case.
the generalized phasor output to the input. Poles and zeros of the transfer fundi 14.11 Find H(s) = \(s)/\,(s) and use the result to
are the values of s for which the function is infinite and zero, respectively. T find the forced response c if c, = e' ' 2
\SkKKestion: Note that Y = Y , + Y„ =
knowledge of the poles and zeros allows us to construct the transfer function ,i cos 2t V.
Vt + 1 / Z . = Y , + l / I Z , + ! > ) « • • • . ]
predict the behavior of the circuit. In particular, the natural frequencies of the m liar Ihe method of Prob. 14.6 to find the
14.12 Find the forced response «J using the transfer
cuit are the poles of the transfer function. function if v, = 5e cos 20r V.
Impedance seen by the source, and use the re-
Two-port networks were defined and a number of two-port parameters wo Mill to find the forced response v. 14.13 Find the network function \{s)/V,(s) and use
used to describe the networks. These included the open-circuit impedances I In Prob. 14.7 find the network function the result to find the forced response v if
short-circuit admittances, the hybrid parameters, and the transmission paramcui \ M(.t) = I0) / I „ (s ) by using the proportionality o, = 6e-" cos 8r V .
These parameters are also useful in obtaining general transfer functions of arbitral y principle. Use the result to find the forced re- 14.14 Find the network function and the forced re-
circuits, and in obtaining general equivalent circuits. Finally, interconnections 01 sponse i sponse v(t) if Vg(t) = 6e V. 21
two-port networks enables us to combine the two-port parameters of simple circuits

to obtain those of more complicated circuits. Some typical interconnections are the
series, parallel, and cascade connections, which are very important in analysis a*
well as design of two-port networks.
PROBLE M S
14.1 Find the phasor representation \(s) and the fre-
quency J of (a) v(t) = 5e' ' cos (lOr — 30°),
2
PR O BLE M 14.6
(b) v(t) = e" sin (5/ + 45°), (c) v(t) =
2e"(3 cos 3» + 4 sin 3r), and (d) v(t) = 4ft
5*~". PR O BLE M 14.7
14.2 Find v(t) if (a) V(J) = 6/10° with s =
-2 + >8, (b) $s) = 5/0° with s = - 1 0 , (c)
PR O BLE M 14.3
V(j) = 4 + j3 with s = -1 + j2, and (d)
V 0 ) = -j6 with s = j4. 14.4 Find the impedance Z(s) seen by the sourc - 5e -Jr cos r A
14.3 Find the admittance Y(s) seen by the source and locate its poles and zeros. If the source i
and locate its poles and zeros. If the source is v = lOe' cos 4( V, find the forced compo
g 21
v = 4e~' cos ( V, find the forced response jf.

g nent of current it delivers.

)M network function V ( i ) / V , ( j ) and the 14. For the corresponding phasoi m u m irpliuc
rMponM v if v, = 2e " " cos 5t V. everything to the left of terminals a h by its
Thevenin equivalent and use the irsull In hnil
he network funiHion V ( J ) / V , ( J ) and the
20 8ft the forced response i.
rttponse v if (a) «, = 6e 41 cos 2l V
",o W v AAV Gi ve n the network function
) v, - 6 cos 2t V 14.
V network function \(s)/\,(s) and the VjU) = 4s(s + 2)
4fi icsptinse « if v, = 6e 61 cos 3t V. H U ' V,U) (s + $(s + 3)
r in the corresponding phasor circuit ev-
I I I except the inductor by its Thevenin If no cancellation has occurred, find the com -
plete response f ( ( ) , for ( > 0, if «<(') = 6e~'
lent circuit and use the result to find the
0
cos 2t V and v„(Q*) = <Ji>„(0 )/dr = 0.

+
response i if c , = 4 e " cos 3» V.
PR O BLE M 14.11
4(1
—WV-
4J2
o WV-
8n
-AAV-
PR O BLE M 14.12
1 H
PR O BLE M 14.16
ii F
PR O BLE M 14.17
40
I WV-
PR O BLE M 14.13 P R O BLE M 14.14
P R O BLE M 14.15
1 r
2 n 6fi
-wv-
484 Chapter 14 Complex Frequency and Network Functions Chapter 14 Problems 485
'p 8 e ' cos It A ^~
PROBLEM 14.32
• M that tor Fig 14.16, in terms of the 14.37 Show that the given circuit is equivalent to the
14.21 Repeat Prob. 14.20 if v,{t) = 6e ' V. (Sugges- 14.27 Show that the hybrid parameters
I mission parameters we have general two-port network. Note how it differs
»'on: Observe the describing differential equa- in (14.42) may be obtained from
from the equivalent circuit of Exercise 14.9.3.
tion.) z-parameters by
Yi = ' 14.38 Show that the given circuits are equivalent to
14.22 Find the complete response v for t > 0 using V, A + B
1 Zll the general two-port network. Note how the
the network function, if u ( 0 ) and + dv(Q*)/dt gn gl2
Zi i Check the result, using this formula, for the two circuits differ.
are both zero. •
i , rIIiui.iied network of Prob. 14 32. 14.39 The circuit shown is a lattice with series arms
Z | A,
2
In hi, = 1 M l , h = 10 \ > = 100, and both equal to Z and cross arms both equal to
g2. = — ,
1 2 2 a
III Zl t [III - 10 * S in Fig. 14.22 and find the net- Z * . It is called a symmetrical lattice because
w.,ik Iunction V / V , if port 2 is open cir-
2 the series arms are equal and the cross arms
where A = Z n Z
2 2 2 - z, z i.
2 2
, iniiil are equal. Show that the z- and y-parameters

14.28 Find the h- and ^-parameters of the Iwo pu are given by
1 5 c - ' cos 1 0 / A
5 Show for the doubly terminated network of
network of Prob 14.25.
Hlg. 14.18 that the voltage ratio transfer func-
14.29 Show that the transmission parameters, A . I tion is given by the three equations Zu = z 2 2 = ^(Z + Z J
t
C , and D , defined for the two-port network i

PROBLEM 14.22 Fig. 14.12 by y iZ2 t
V, y, y iZ Z,.
2 2 f (1 + y „ Z , ) ( l + y Z . ) 2 2 ;
Zi 2 — z i 2 — — (Zfr Z„)
14.23 Find the complete response v if v(0) = 0. Use V, = A V 2 BI 2
network functions and superposition. V _ ~h iZi

2
and
2
1, = cv 2 DI 2
VJ " (hi, + Z , ) ( l + h z j Z J - h, h2,Z

2 t
1 *Vv\ are given by y,, = y 2 2 = - ( Y » + Y„)

und 2
A,
r "- 5
^ i - in (A + C Z ) Z + B + DZ* y, Y.)
tti
g t
2
) — E ^~v (
4e 21 cos 4 / V I
Wm Use the second of the formulas of Prob. 14.35
n c = - L , I) where Y„ = 1 / Z . and Y» = 1 / Z .
to tind the voltage ratio transfer function for a
fc
*2I Z I
2
14.40 The symmetrical lattice of Prob. 14.39 is ter-
doubly terminated network with h, = 1 kfl,
PROBLEM 14.23 h, = 1 0 ' , h , = 100, h22 = 10 S, Z , = minated in 1 il and Z„ and Z b are as shown.
(This is the first entry in the third row of Tahlo 2 4
360 11, and Z = 1 kfl. Find the voltage ratio transfer function.
14.1.) L
14.24 Find the natural frequencies in v in Prob.

14.22 by killing the source and using (a) the 14.30 Find the transmission parameters of the two-
PROBLEM 14.37
pliers entry with a voltage source inserted be- port network of Prob. 14.25.
tween the capacitor and the resistor and (b) the 14.31 Derive the Y - A transformation of Chapter 11
soldering entry with a current source across *ll ~ * J I 22 *2,
by making Figs. 14.13 and 14.15 equivalent at
z
the resistor. the terminals (that is, equal two-port parame

14.25 Considering the figure for Prob. 14.22 as a ters).
two-port network with terminals as shown, 14.32 Find the y-parameters of the network shown
find the z- and y-parameters as functions of s. Terminate the output port with a 1-11 resistor,
14.26 Find the y-parameters in Prob. 14.16. and find the resulting network function V / V , . 2
4 8 6 Chapter 14 Complex Frequency and Network Functions 4 8 7

Chapter 14 Problems
'2
15
Frequency Response
Alexander Graham Bell
Ubtodly, the most c o m m o n a n d Mr. Watson, come here. I ing the University of E dinburgh and
widely used electrical instru- want you. the University of London, also be-
PROBLEM 14.39 PROBLEM 14.40 Ihe telephone, inv ented by Alexander Graham Bell c a m e a sp e ech teacher. In 1866 Bell
tish-American scientist Alex- b e c a m e interested in trying to trans-
G r a h a m Bell. T h e d ate w a s mit sp e ech electrically after reading a
I 8, 1875, wh e n Bell a n d his as- book d escribing how vowel sounds
ni i h o m a s W a ts o n transmitted a musical note. could b e m a d e with tuning forks. Shortly afterward,
Hrtl intelligible telephon e sentences, "Mr. W a t- Bell's two broth ers died of tuberculosis a n d Melville
COme here. I want y o u , " we r e spoken inadver- Bell m o v e d his family to C a n a d a for health reasons. In
hy Bell himself o n M a rch 10, 1876, wh e n he 1873 yo u n g G r a h a m b e c a m e a professor at Boston
W a tso n to co m e to a n adjoining room to help University and b e g a n his electrical exp eriments in his
ne spilled acid. sp are time. It w a s there that h e f o rm e d his partnership
Bell w a s born in E dinburgh, S cotland. His fa- with W a tso n a n d went o n to his great invention. Bell's
Alex ander Melville Bell, w a s a well-known tel ephon e patent w a s t h e most valuable o n e ever is-
teacher a n d his grandfather, Alex and er Bell, su e d , a n d the t e l e p h o n e op en ed a n e w a g e in the d e-
i a sp e e ch teacher. Y o u n g Bell, after attend- v e lopm e nt of civiliz ation. •

489
and
Im H Q )
d> (cu) = tan (15.4)
Re H ( »
The amplitude and phase responses are, o f course, special cases of frequency re
sponses.
Wit 15.1 Suppose that the network function of the RLC parallel circuit o f Fig. 15.1 is the in-
put impedance
A requency-domain functions are very useful, as we have seen, for finding con
sponding time-domain functions. The frequency response of a circuit, however, HI \ _ -ii \ }
(15.5)
extremely useful in its own right, as we shall see in this chapter. For example, if m ' S h(s) C K S } (\/R) + sC + (i/sL)
are interested in which frequencies are dominant in an output signal, say V(
then we need only consider the amplitude | \(jat) |. The dominant frequencies ct
spond to relatively large amplitudes, and frequencies that are virtually suppre (UC)s
B(s) (15.6)
correspond to relatively small amplitudes. s + {l/RC)s
2 + (\/LC)
There are many applications in which frequency responses are important. (
very common application is in the design of electric filters, which are networks ill For s = jtov/e have, from (15.5),
pass signals of certain frequencies and block signals of other frequencies. That is.
the output signal of the filter has amplitude \ then oi, passes i f | V O i ) | I 1
HO) = (15.7)
relatively large and is blocked i f | V(j'a>i) | is relatively small. There are many exalt (\/R) + j[a>C-(\/(oL)]
pies of electric filters in our modern society, some of the more common being thai
so that the amplitude and phase responses are
in our television sets, which allow us to tune in a certain channel by passing ii
of frequencies while filtering out those of the other channels.
1
In this chapter we consider frequency responses, both amplitude and phase. \Ml IHO) I = (15.8)
also define resonance and quality factor and show how they are related to the f M V ( l / / ? ) + [o>C -
2 (\/<oL)] 2
quency responses. Finally, we consider methods of scaling networks to yield a given and
frequency response with practical circuit element values.
15.1 <p(a>) = - t a n " (15.9)
AMPLITUDE A N D PHASE RESPONSES Since R, L , and C are constants, the maximum amplitude occurs at the fre-
A network function H(jco), as well as any phasor quantity, is in general a ci quency u> = o) for which the denominator in (15.8) is a minimum. Evidently, this
0
function, having a real and an imaginary part. That is, occurs when
H O ) = Re H O ) + j I m H O ) (15.1) wC - \ 0
As we know, we may also write the network function in the polar form
FIGURE 15.1 RLC parallel c i r c u i t
H O ) = |HO)k*<"' (15.2)
where | H(yo>) | is the amplitude, or magnitude, response and <b(a>) is the phase r*
sponse, given, respectively, by
| H O ) | = VRe H ( » + Im H O )
2 2 (15,1
490 C h a p t e r 15 Frequency Response

S e c t i o n 15.1 A m p l i t u d e a n d Phase R e s p o n s e s 491
EXERCISES
15.1.1 Let 7? * 4 A , L = H , and C = ^ F i n Fig. 15.1, and find the maximum umpli
tude and the point where it occurs. A l s o , sketch the amplitude and phase rtH\x
Thus Answer |H|mu 4, too = 20
=
15.1.2 For the RLC series circuit with a voltage source v , let the network function be
t
| H(»U = | H(/wo)| =R H = I / V , , where I is the phasor current. Show that the amplitude and phase re-
Also, it is clear that | H(jto) | - » 0 as to - » 0 and to - » =°. Therefore, the amplnuut sponses are similar to those of Fig. 15.2 with | H | „ « = \/R and o>o = 1/VEc.
response has the form shown in Fig. 15.2(a). In a like manner we may sketch ilw 15.1.3 Let the network function o f Fig. 15.1 be H = I t / I , , where L is the inductor phasor
phase response, shown in Fig. 15.2(b), since tb(a>a) = 0, tf>(<o) —» i r / 2 as ui - • m current directed downward. Show that
and <p(o>) —* -ir/2 as to - » <*>. I f the input of Fig. 15.1 is the time-domain functlofl
i'i(f) = /m cos tot v ' * + (\/RC)s

2 + (1/LC)
the input phasor is I , = /™/0j\d the output phasor is V = I Z = I H. Thuii tht 2 m m

and that | H | „ = 1, occurring at too = 0, provided that
m
amplitude of the output is simply that of the network function multiplied by a OB 2RC
2 £ L
stant. Therefore, we may obtain as much information from the network function t».
sponse as from the output response. For this reason and the reason that the netwoHl
function depends only on the network, not on how it is excited, we shall usually 15.2
consider the frequency response of the network function.
FILTERS
FIGURE 15.2 (a) A m p l i t u d e a n d (b) p h a s e r e s p o n s e of (15.7) W i t h reference to Fig. 15.2(a) we see that frequencies clustered around to = 0
lH(/w)l
1/VZc rad/s, o r / = l / ( 2 7 r V Z c ) Hz, correspond to relatively large amplitudes,
0
while those near zero and larger than too correspond to relatively small amplitudes.
Thus Fig. 15.1 is an example of a bandpass filter, which passes the band of frequen-
cies centered around to . In the general amplitude case, shown in Fig. 15.3, we say
0
that to , the frequency at which the maximum amplitude occurs, is the center fre-
0
quency. The band of frequencies that passes, or the passband, is defined to be

to C[ s a> s to C2
(b)

S e c t i o n 15.2 Filters 493
where to and to are called the cutoff points and are denned as the frequem i<-
C[ n
which the amplitude is 1 / V 2 = 0.707 times the maximum amplitude. The width
the passband, given by
B = o» , - o»c,
c
(IVI
is called the bandwidth.

As we shall see in Sec. 15.4, the bandwidth in the case of Fig. 15.1 it i (a) (b)
FIGURE 15.5 Low-pass frequency responses
l/RC.
There is only one cutoff point, as indicated in the figure. This follows from the
E X A M P L E 15.2 Let us consider the circuit of Fig. 15.4. Analyzing the circuit, we may readily O ^ H definition
the voltage-ratio function,
|H(M)I = ^ | H ( » U
HM = M ) = _ 1 _ m i l
M W V,(s) s 2 + 2s + 2 1
(1)
Letting s = jto and calculating the amplitude response, we have V2
|H(>w)| = 2
V(2 - m ) 2 2 + 4a. 2
V l + (mil A)
or, after simplification, whose only real positive answer is to — V 2 . Thus the band of frequencies which
c
passes is the low-frequency band

| H ( » | =
Vl + (a. /4) 4
0 < to < V 2
The phase response for Fig. 15.4 may be easily shown from H(jto) to be
. i . _, 2to
tb(to) = - t a n _ ^ 2
which is sketched in Fig. 15.5(b).
A n example of a passive, low-pass filter is that o f Fig. 15.1, where the network
function is as defined in Exercise 15.1.3. In fact, i f R = 1 Cl, L — 1 H , and C =
j F, the network function is the same as that of Fig. 15.4.
There are many types of filters other than low-pass and bandpass. Two of the
more common are high-pass filters, which pass high frequencies and reject low fre-
quencies, and band-reject filters, which pass all frequencies except a single band.
Typical amplitude responses are shown in Fig. 15.6, and examples are considered in
Exercises 15.2.2 and 15.2.3. In Fig. 15.6(a), w is the cutoff point, and the pass-
FIGURE 15.4
c
L o w - p a s s filter
band is to > to . I n Fig. 15.6(b), to is the center frequency o f the rejected band of
c 0
bandwidth B = to — to • C2 cl
The amplitude function continuously decreases as to increases, because n

In general, the order of a filter is the degree of the denominator polynomial of
merator is constant and its denominator continuously increases with freqo
its network function. Thus the filters of Figs. 15.1 and 15.4 are second-order filters,
Therefore, the amplitude response attains its maximum of | H |„«x = 1 at m - ' as seen from (15.6) and (15.12). Higher-order filters are more expensive to con-
thus has the shape of Fig. 15.5(a). From this we see that the circuit of Fig I ! struct but they have better frequency responses than lower-order filters. This w i l l be
low-pass filter. That is, it passes low frequencies (relatively large amplitude, seen for a special type o f filter in Prob. 15.18.
rejects high frequencies (relatively small amplitudes).
S e c t i o n 15.2 Filters 495

|H(/u)l
IHI „
m
K I M »NAN< I
A physical system that has a sinusoidal type of natural response reacts vigorously,
and sometimes violently, when it is excited at. or near, one of its natural frequen-
This effect may have been noticed by the reader in Sec. 9.6, particularly in the
case of Exercise 9.6.3. The system in this respect is somewhat like all of us. When
(a) urged to do what it naturally wants to do, it responds with enthusiasm.
FIGURE 15.6 (a) H i g h - p a s s a n d (b) b a n d - r e j e c t a m p l i t u d e r e s p o n s e
This phenomenon is known as resonance, and its side effects may be good or
they may be bad. As an example, a singer may break a crystal goblet with his voice
alone by properly producing a note at precisely the right frequency. Also, a bridge
EXERCISES may be destroyed i f it is subjected to a periodic force with the same frequency as
one of its natural frequencies. This is why no thoughtful troop commander w i l l
15.2.1 Show that 2s march his men in step across a bridge. On the other hand, without resonance there
s 2 + OAs + 4 could be no electric filters.
is the network function of a bandpass filter and find to , o i , to , and B. 0 q C2
We define a sinusoidally excited network to be in resonance when the ampli-
tude of the network function attains a pronounced maximum or minimum value. The
Answer 2; + 0 . 2 + V4M = 1.81, 2.21; 0.4
frequency at which this occurs is called the resonant frequency. As an example, the
15.2.2 Show that 2s 2
RLC parallel circuit of Fig. 15.1 is in resonance when the frequency of the driving
W • ^T17T8 function is too = 1/VZc. This was shown in Sec. 15.1 where it was demonstrated
is the network function of a high-pass filter, and find | H ( » |„»» and to . c
that the maximum network function amplitude occurred at to . The amplitude re-
a
sponse of Fig. 15.2(a) is typical, with its relatively high peak at the resonant fre-
Answer |H|m« = 2, to = 2 V 2 c
quency. The parallel RLC circuit is so important that the term parallel resonance is
15.2.3 Show that 3(iS 2 + 2 5 ) reserved for its resonant condition.
H ( , ) = + , + 25 The reader may recall encountering the term resonant frequency earlier in Sec.
is the network function of a band-reject filter, and find | H(ja>) I ™ , m and 9.8 in connection w i t h the underdamped case of the parallel RLC circuit. The two
frequencies, there and here, are exactly the same.
IOc
Answer | H | = 3. « o = 5, to „
M = ( + 1 + VToT)/2 = 4.525, 5.525
c C2
The natural frequencies of the parallel RLC circuit are the poles of the network
A n all-pass filter is one whose amplitude response is constant. (Thus, it passes all function, given from (15.6) by
15.2.4
frequencies equally well.) I t can be cascaded with another filter to keep a desired S\,2 = -a ± jtoj (15.13)
amplitude response but shift the phase. Show by finding the network function
V / V i , the amplitude response, and the phase response that the given circuit is a
2
where
first-order all-pass filter.
a = iic (15.14)
Answer ^ •4.+ 4 ' 1. 180° - 2 arctan to/4

and
: L
EXERCISE 15.2.4
to = Vtol - a
d 2 (15.15)
From the pole-zero plot shown in Fig. 15.7 we see that the resonant frequency too,
or s = jtoo, is very near the natural frequency s = —a + jto , since, by (15.15),
d
too is the radius of the dashed semicircle. I f R is made larger, then a is made smaller
and the resonant frequency is even closer to the natural frequency. I n this case, as is
clear in Fig. 15.2(a), the peak is more pronounced. O f course, i f R were infinite
(open-circuited), then the resonant frequency would coincide with the natural fre-
quency and the amplitude would be infinite.
Before leaving the parallel RLC circuit, let us note that the network function is
actually the input impedance, as stated in (15.5). The resonant frequency
S e c t i o n 15.3 Resonance 497

f<4
,3 In I xcrcise 15.3.2(a), find the amplitude of the voltage across the combination il ihr
current source is i , = cos tot mA and to is (a) 10", (b) 5 x 10 , and (c) 25 • 4
I 0 rad/s.
4
Answer (a) 0.0417; (b) 2; (c) 0.0417 V

/ |\
| M
BANDPASS FUNCTIONS A N D QUALITY FACTOR
1 N The network function (15.6) is a special case of the general second-order bandpass
1 -« 1' 0
function
\ Ks
s + as + b
(15.16)
\ 2
\ where K, a > 0, and b > 0 are real constants. To see that the function is o f the
bandpass type, let us consider its amplitude
— I HOW) | =
V(b - to ) + a to 2 2 2 2
1*1
FIGURE 15.7 P o l e - z e r o plot o f t h e p a r a l l e l RLC circuit
Va 2 + [(b - to )/to] 2 2
o> = 1/VZc is the frequency for which the input impedance is purely real, as seM
0
Evidently, the maximum value is
in (15.7). Indeed, many authors define the resonant frequency precisely this way !
| H ( » U = L!M
the case of a two-terminal network. In the general case, maximum amplitude iliwi
a
not always occur exactly at the frequency of real impedance, but usually there is vera
little difference. occurring at the center, or resonant, frequency m, satisfying
In the case of the RLC series circuit excited by a voltage source \ , il tb»
b = too (15.17)
phasor current I is the output, then
At a cutoff frequency to , we must have c
»<» = fgj - Y W = « + * * - ( l / . C ) ] |H(M)I = ^ | H ( » U

where Y is the input admittance seen at the source terminals. Evidently, series reio
nance occurs at to = 1/VZc, yielding a maximum amplitude of l/R. As in I N
0
parallel resonance case, the resonant frequency is also the frequency of real input
impedance or admittance. A t resonance the effect of the storage elements exactly Va 2 + [(b - toD/tOc?) Via
cancels, and the source sees only the resistance. which evidently holds i f
b - to 2
EXERCISES
Thus we have
15.3.1 Show that the resonant frequency in the case of the function of Exercise 15.2.1 co«
to ± aw, — b = 0
2 (15.18)
incides with the frequency for which the function is real.
15.3.2 Find the resonant frequency for the parallel RLC circuit described by (a) R = 2 k l l which, because of the double-sign possibility, has four solutions. Using the positive
L = 4 m H , and C = 0.1 / i F ; (b) to* = 5 rad/s and a = 12 Np/s; and (c) a sign, we have, by the quadratic formula,
1 Np/s, R = 4 H, and L = 2 H . -a + Va 2 + 4b
Answer (a) 50,000; (b) 13; (c) 2 rad/s *c, * ~ (15.19)

S e c t i o n 15.4 B a n d p a s s F u n c t i o n s a n d Q u a l i t y Factor 499
We have discarded the negative sign on the radical because this gives a ncgalW
off frequency. Using the negative sign in (15.18) and again suppressing the n t The filler described in Exercise 15.2.1 is a bandpass filter with o> - 1 rad/s, 0
root, we have the other cutoff frequency, B = 0.2 rad/s, and Q - 5. Another example is the parallel KLCcircuit with the net-
work function given in (15 6) In that case, o» = 1 / V l C , B = \/RC, and 0
a + Va 2 + 4b Q = wo/B, which has the equivalent values

I 11
Q = mRC
Evidently, from (15.19) and (15.20) we have the bandwidth,
B = a> - <u = a
r2 f| (13 i | |
•4l (15.26)
R
Thus in view o f (15.17) and (15.21) we may write the network function as (00 L
Ki We should mention that the quantity we have called Q is defined as selectivity

(15 22) by some authors, who reserve for Q the definition
s2 + Bs + wh
_ total energy stored at resonance ^ 27)
which is the general network function of a second-order bandpass filter having c ^ _ n energy dissipated per cycle at resonance
frequency m and bandwidth B. The amplitude response is shown, o f course, ii In the examples we have considered, the two definitions are the same, as the reader
15.3. is asked to show in Exercises 15.4.1 and 15.4.2. However, in general, there is a
Another result worth noting from (15.17), (15.19), and (15.20) is slight difference.
Finally, let us consider the effect of Q on resonance. Incorporating (15.19) and
(15.23) (15.20) into one equation and replacing a and b by their values, we have
O>o = 0),,(O.
W ^ 2 = + 2 Q +
which demonstrates that the center frequency o> is the geometric mean V w ,
0 I
the cutoff points.
A good measure of selectivity or sharpness of peak in a resonant circuit is ihc
so-called quality factor Q, which is defined as the ratio of the resonant frequency to
the bandwidth. That is,
Evidently, i f Q is high, we may neglect (\/2Q) 2 in comparison with 1, and write
_ too ,
(15.24)
v B
or, approximately,
(The letter Q is also our symbol for reactive power, as the reader w i l l recall. How
ever, the two quantities will never be used in the same context, so there should lx- 0*0 - T
(15.29)
no confusion.) Evidently, since B = m/Q, a low Q corresponds to a relatively large
B
bandwidth, and a high Q (sometimes arbitrarily taken as 5 or more) indicates a small
bandwidth, or a more selective circuit.
W i t h this definition of Q we may write (15.22) in the form Thus as Q increases, the amplitude response approaches arithmetic symmetry. That
is, the cutoff points are half the bandwidth above and below the center frequency.
Ks
In the example of Exercise 15.2.1, we have o> = 1 and Q = 5, which we con- 0
H to = i • / , . n • 2 (15.25) sider as high. Thus by (15.29), the approximate cutoff frequencies are a> , = 0.9 c
and a>„ = 1.1 rad/s. The exact values are

so that we see at a glance the center frequency, the quality factor, and the band-
width. a)<-|.c = 0.905, 1.105
2
500 C h a p t e r 15 Frequency Response S e c t i o n 15.4 B a n d p a s s F u n c t i o n s a n d Q u a l i t y Factor 501

EXERCISES
15.4.1 For the RLC parallel circuit in resonance, show that the total energy stored >»
w(t) = \r CH 2 cos 2 o> t +

a sin 2 mt
2 2a>oL
= \r>c,i
where the excitation is i = I cos u> t.m 0
15.4.2 Show that for the circuit of Exercise 15.4.1 the energy dissipated per cycle is
[ Rli cos cool dt =

2 l r R I m
FIGURE 15.8 V e c t o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of s - s.
and thus by definition (15.27) and the result of Exercise 15.4.1 that
The typical vector s - s,, drawn from s to s, may be written in polar form t
Q = a> RC 0 where its magnitude is its length and its phase is the angle it makes with the positive
real axis. I f s = j<o, the point s in Fig. 15.8 is on the yw-axis, and the factors of
15.4.3 For the RLC series circuit with excitation v = V cos <ot V , show that «•„s m
(15.30) may be written

1/VZc and Q = a>oL/R. The response is the loop current.
15.4.4 Show that the circuit is a bandpass filter, and find a> and Q (H = V2/V1). 0 joj - z , = N,e"', i =1,2,.
Answer 8 rad/s, 0.4
jw - p k = M,e "*,
J * = 1, 2, .
Therefore, the network function is
-Wv- IK>) = IHO^K*"

2n
2 il where, for AT > 0, the amplitude is
KN,N 2
(15.31)
IHO) | =
M,M 2
EXERCISE 15.4.4 and the phase is
<p(a>) = (a, + a 2 + • • • + « „ ) - (/3, + B + • • • + B„) 2 (15.32)

15.5
both of which may be measured directly from the pole-zero plot. I f K < 0, then
USE O F P O L E - Z E R O PLOTS K = | K | / 1 8 0 ° , which must be accounted for in the amplitude and phase.
The pole-zero plot of a network function may often be used to readily sketch the Thus for any point ja) we simply draw vectors from all the poles and zeros to
frequency responses. To see how this may be done, let us write the network function j<o, measure their lengths and angles, and calculate the amplitude and phase from
in the form (15.31) and (15.32). Quite often we need only a few points to sketch the responses,
as we shall see.
K(s - Z , ) ( J - zi) • • • ( ? - z ) m
(15.30)
(S - p,){s T pi) •:••... ( j - p„)
where, as before, the z's and p's are the zeros and poles. Each of the factors is I PLE 15.4 Suppose that we have
complex number of the form s - s, and may be represented in the s-plane by a vec-
tor, drawn from si to s, as shown in Fig. 15.8. This is true since by vector addition 4s
H(*) =
the vector s is clearly the sum of the vectors s and s — s . t t
s* +• 2s + 401
502 C h a p t e r 15 Frequency Response S e c t i o n 15.5 U s e of P o l e - Z e r o Plots 503

- ] +/20 ;20
X—, —
For to = 20 [Fig. 15.9(c)] we have
4(20) _
«\ |H|-
:
(l)Vl60T
\ 90° - (0 + tan" 40) « 0
This point is in the region where the amplitude changes the fastest, since M, = 1 is a
1
minimum and is changing percentage-wise much faster than N or M . The amplitude 2
7 therefore will reach its peak near this point. Actually, we know from our previous
work that o> = V 4 0 1 yields the peak amplitude of 2.
k
0
If co = o>», a very high value, say, such as 10 , then all three vectors w i l l be 6
essentially vertical, so that

.-/20
N * M, «• M - to 2 h
a " fit" fi, * W

Therefore, we have | H | = 4 / w » , a very small value, and tb " - 9 0 ° . Sketching the
functions, we have the forms of Fig. 15.2, as expected, with to — 20 and 0
| H |m„ ~ 2.
We may get a rough idea of the cutoff points from Fig. 15.9(d). In this figure
A/i = V 2 , which is V 2 times its value at the approximate peak, represented by
Fig. 15.9(c). Since M and N have changed by much smaller percentages, the ampli-
2
tude is then approximately 1 / V 2 times its peak, so that to — 19. By a similar ar- C)
gument at to = 2 1 , we have to •» 2 1 . The exact values, by (15.19) and (15.20),

C2
are to , = 19.05, 21.05. In this example, by comparing the network function w i t h

cl C7
(15.25), we see that Q = 10.01. Thus we have a high Q so that the poles are very
near the jto-axis. Thus to is very near m, and the approximations we have made are
d
very near the exact values.
EXERCISES
(c) (d)
FIGURE 15.9 S t e p s in t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the f r e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e s 15.5.1 Use the method of this section to sketch the amplitude and phase responses for
(figures not d r a w n to s c a l e )
16s
H(*) =
s 2 + 4s + 2504
which has a zero at 0 and poles at - 1 ± y'20. These are shown on the pole-zen
plots of Fig. 15.9. By (15.31) and (15.32) we have Answer to = 50, Q = 12.5, B = 4, to .
0 - 48, 52 cl C2
15.5.2 Find the exact values for the answers given in Exercise 15.5.1.
AN
|H ( » | = Answer 50.04, 12.51, 4, 48.08, 52.08
MM X 2
tb(a>) = a - Q3, + Q ) 2
15.6
whose components are identified in Fig. 15.9(a). First we note that i f to varies from
0 to + ° ° , then a = 90°. For to = 0 we have, from Fig. 15.9(b),
+ SCALING THE NETWORK FUNCTION
4(0) The reader may have noticed that in many of our examples we have used network el-
HI 0
/401V 401 ements such as 1 ft, 1 F, and 2 H , which are extremely nice numbers to have when
we are analyzing a network. For example, in F i g . 15.4 we had elements of 2 ft, j F,
<p = 90° - ( - t a n 1 20 + t a n 1 20) = 90°
and j F, and the network was a low-pass filter with a cutoff frequency of V 2 rad/s,
S e c t i o n 15.6 Scaling the Network Function 505
or 0.23 Hz. However, such element values as these are not very practical, to say the
mams an infinite gain device, and thus is unchanged. The network lun, n
least, and there is very little demand for filters that pats frequencies between 0 and
V (v)/Vi(s). being dimensionless, is also unchanged
0.23 Hz. (As an illustration, a l - F capacitor, constructed of two parallel plates 1 CM
apart with air as the dielectric, would require a face area of 1.13 X 10' m . i
To frequency-scale a network function by a frequency scale factor k , we sun
:
f
It would be an ideal situation i f the circuits we analyze or design contain sun

ply replace s by s/kf. That is, i f the unsealed network has the network function
pie element values such as 1 F, while the circuits we build have practical element
H'(S), then the scaled network function H(i) is obtained by letting S = s/kf, result-
values such as 0.047 /*F, and useful characteristics such as cutoff points of 100 Hz,
ing in
As we shall see in this section, network scaling allows us to have it both ways.
We shall consider two types of network scaling, impedance scaling and fre- Ms) = H ' (j - ) (15.35)
quency scaling. To illustrate the former, let us suppose that the network function i l
an impedance given by
Thus i f the unsealed network had a property, such as center frequency, when
S = j \ then the scaled network has this property at s = jk . This is clear from
f
Z'(s) = sL' + R + — (15.35), which gives

sC
The network has been impedance-scaled by an impedance scale factor fc, i f the Hfjfc) = H ' O D
impedance Z(s) of the scaled network is Z(s) = kZ'is). In other words, we must Another way to consider frequency scaling is to note that s = k S, so that i f
f
have i = ja> corresponds to S = jil, then to = fc/ft. Thus the values on the frequency
axis have been multiplied by the scale factor k , without affecting values on the verti-
f
Z(s) = k^sL' + R' +

cal axis of a frequency response.
(15.33) The scaling of the network to effect the transformation of (15.35) is quite sim-
= s(k,L )
l + + ' ple I f Z ' ( 5 ) , given by
s(C /k.)
If the impedance of the scaled network is Z'(5) = SL' + R' + ^ 7
is any impedance in the unsealed network, then the corresponding impedance in the
Z(s) = sL + R + ^-
scaled network is
then we see by comparison with (15.33) that
Z(s) = sL + R +
SL
L = k,L'
R = k,R' (15.34) - *(|)

_ c '
C k,
Comparing these results, we have

In summary, to impedance-scale a network by the factor k,, we multiply the
L's and R's byfc,and divide the C's by fc,. We have illustrated this for a special case, V
but it may be shown to hold in general. Also, i f there are dependent sources, the L =
k,
scaling is accomplished by multiplying gain constants having units of ohms by it, di-
viding those with units of Siemens by k,, ar.d leaving unchanged those that are di R = R' (15.36)
mensionless. The scaling multiplies by fc,, divides by fc,, or leaves unchanged net- C
work functions that have units of ohms or Siemens or are dimensionless. C =
kt
EXAMPLE 15.5 To illustrate, let us impedance-scale the network of Fig. 15.4 by fc, • 5. The 2-H
Therefore, to frequency-scale a network by a factor fc/, we divide the L's and C's by
resistors become 2 x 5 = 10 ft, the j - F capacitor becomes | + 5 « 0.1 F , and the
k and leave the R's unchanged. I f there are dependent sources w i t h constant gains,
f
J-F capacitor becomes a + 5 = 0.05 F. The op amp, an infinite gain device, re

these also are left unchanged.
507
S e c t i o n 15.6 Scaling the Network Function
ill I I t . Suppose that we amplitude- and frequency-scale the network to obtain a res-
EXAMPLE 15.6 The circuit of Fig. 15.4 is a low-pass filter with a cutoff frequency of at r
mi.mi frequency of 10* rad/s using a capacitor of 1 nF. Then we have k » 10*. and t
V 2 rad/s, as we have seen previously. Suppose that we want to frequency-scale t the new capacitance is
network so that the cutoff frequency is 2 rad/s. Then the scale factor k is given by f
c=.o->- 1 / 2 - 1
V 2 kf= 2 kik f Ikt x 10"
or */ = V 2 . Dividing the C's in Fig. 15.4 by k we have, in the scaled network,

f Therefore, k, = 500, and the new inductance and resistance are
pacitances of 1 / 2 V 2 F and 1/4 V 2 F. The rest o f the circuit remains unchanged 2k
there being no inductors to scale. L = — = 10 H = 1 mH
1 3
kf
O f course, we may perform both impedance and frequency scaling on a net R = Ik, = 500 ft
work. To obtain a network with a practical property such as center or cutoff fro*
quency, we may first apply frequency scaling with the proper factor kf. Then tn The scaled network is shown in Fig. 15.10(a), and its amplitude response, a scaled
version of Fig. 15.2(a), is shown in Fig. 15.10(b).
make the resulting element values more practical we may impedance-scale by
factor k<.
EXERCISE
EXAMPLE 15.7 I f the parallel RLC network of Fig. 15.1 contains a 1 - f t resistor, a 2-H inductor, and
a j - F capacitor, then for the network function of (15.5) we have an amplitude ra« 15.6.1 Frequency- and impedance-scale the circuit of Fig. 15.4 to obtain tu = 200O7T rad/s
c
sponse as in Fig. 15.2(a), with a resonant frequency of 1 rad/s and a peak amplitude (f = 1000 Hz), using capacitors of 0.01 and 0.005 pF.
c
Answer k = (1000V2)tt, *, = 1 0 / 2 V 2 i r , R's = 22.5 k f t each

f 5
15.6.2 Show that the circuit is a bandpass filter with tu = 1 rad/s, and frequency- and
FIGURE 15.10
0
(a) N e t w o r k ; (b) its a m p l i t u d e r e s p o n s e
impedance-scale it to obtain a center frequency of 1000 rad/s using capacitors o f 0.1
I
and 0.4 îF.
Answer Both R's = 5 k f t
jl mH :t nF
-o>
15.7
THE DECIBEL
I f the output of a network is used to provide some quantity that is to be sensed by a

human being, the function is sensed in a noncontinuous manner. For example, i f the
network provides sound, as in the case o f the telephone, the listener cannot detect
continuous changes in intensity. Moreover, i f the sound intensity is 1 (on some arbi-
trary scale) and it must be increased to 1.1 before the listener detects any change,
S e c t i o n 15.7 T h e Decibel 509

I wen more often in practice i t is of interest to consider the attenuation or loss.
then the same listener can detect no change, i f the original level is 2, until II in in
creased to 2.2. In other words, the ear i:. not a linear device but more like I logfl< defined by
rithmic device, since the differences. a (to) = - 2 0 1 o g , | H p ) |
0
log 1.1 - log 1 = log 1.1 = - 2 0 log, V2P) lis W

Vi(jw)
and
v , p )
= 20 logi, dB
log 2.2 - log 2 = log
(¥) In this case, a frequency w, passes if aM
V p) 2
is relatively small and is attenuated i f

in the two cases are the same. a (to,) is relatively large. The decibel units enable us to tell with some standard pre-
For this reason, among others, the amplitude response, cision the degree to which the frequency is attenuated.
V»P)
|Hp)| =
Vi(» Suppose that
is more commonly expressed in decibels, abbreviated dB and defined by

s + Vis +
2 i
As the reader may verify, the amplitude response is

number of dB = 20 l o g , | H p ) |
0 (15.37)
IH P ) | = J- ;
Historically, the logarithmic unit, now known as the bel, was defined originally by ' ' Vl + to*
Alexander Graham Bell (1847-1922), who, of course, invented the telephone, ai which is that of a low-pass filter with m, = 1 rad/s. The linear sketch looks some-
the power unit, what like that of Fig. 15.5(a). The attenuation is given in decibels by
p
a (to) = 20 log.o V l + to'
number of bels = logio — (15.39)
Pi
= 10 log,o (1 + <•>')
However, this proved to be a large unit, so that the unit decibel (is be') became com
and is shown in Fig. 15.11 for 0 £ to £ 5 .
mon. That is,
p FIGURE 15.11 A t t e n u a t i o n o f a l o w - p a s s filter
number of dB = 10 logm —
P\ dB
If the two average powers P, and P are referred to equal impedances, the last
2
30 -
expression may be given in terms of the corresponding voltages by
Vi(»
number of dB = 10 logio
V,(jw)
which, of course, is equivalent to (15.37). In any case, (15.37) is taken as the stan-
dard definition.
In practice, frequencies are not ideally blocked or attenuated in the filtering
process, as may be seen in the low-pass response of Fig. 15.5(a). A zero amplitude 10
would correspond to absolute, or infinite, attenuation, and any approach to such an
ideal situation would be difficult to appreciate on a linear sketch. For example, if
| H p ) | = 0.001 in Fig. 15.5(a) ( ^ of 1% of its peak value of 1), this would corre-
spond to —60 dB (or 60 dB below its peak value of 0 dB). The latter figure means
S u
much more to a telephone engineer than the linear figure.
511
S e c t i o n 15.7 The Decibel
EXERCISES
4i A
15.7.1 Let the amplitude response |H(ja>)| be such that iHO'tuJlmax = | H ( y O ) | A,
that at cutoff | H ( y o ) ) | = K/Vl.
c Find the loss, given by (15.38), at to = 0 and
to = to . Note that to corresponds to the "3-dB point," meaning that at to «•
c c
loss is approximately 3 dB more than at the point of minimum loss, to = 0 in (I) Ikft ©
case.
w
Answer a(0) = - 2 0 log K, a(to ) c = - 2 0 log K + 3

15.7.2 Given the bandpass filter function
„, . 0-25
s + 0.2s + 1
find the loss in decibels at to = 0.0001, 0.5, 0.905, 1.0, 1.105, 10, and 100 rail/
Answer 94, 18, 3, 0, 3, 34, 54
15.8 FIGURE 15.12 RLC circuit with CCCS
F R E Q U E N C Y RESPONSE W I T H SPICE
The frequency response of a network is easily obtained using SPICE by sim| FIGURE 15.13 F r e q u e n c y r e s p o n s e for F i g . 1 5 . 1 2
specifying a frequency range and the number of points desired within the range
the .AC solution control statement. The generation of a circuit file for a given i
•! 1M(R2)
quency response is almost identical to procedures described in previous chapters I +i IP(R2)
ac analysis. The .PRINT or .PLOT output control statements can be used for out FREQ IM(R2)
to the console or the printer.
1.0000E-05 1.0000E-03
1.0000E-09 1.0000E-07
(•)- 1.0000E-11 1.0000E+02 2.0000E+02
-1.0000E+02 O.OOOOE+00
( + )- -2.0000E+02
EXAMPLE 15.9 Let us plot the frequency response for a linear frequency sweep in the network • *
1. 00OE+04 2.452E-11 .
Fig. 15.12 from 10 to 500 kHz with v having an amplitude of 1 V. The
g
3 . 042E+04 7.022E-10 . *
Vd = 0 (shown dashed) connected from node 5 to the reference node has been added 5. 083E+04 3.324E-09 .
7. 1 2 5 E + 0 4 9.344E-09 .
for specifying the current i of the CCCS. A circuit file is 9. 1 6 7 E + 0 4 2.046E-08 .
1. 1 2 1 E + 0 5 3.877E-08 .
FREQUENCY RESPONSE FOR FIGURE 15.12 1. 3 2 5 E * 0 5 6.698E-08 .
1. 529E- 05 1.088E-07 .
•DATA STATEMENTS 1.693E-07 .
1. 7 3 3 E + 0 5
VG 0 1 AC 1 0 1..938E+05 2.584E-07 .
Rl 1 2 IK 2..142E+05 3.820E-07 .
2.,346^+05 5.662E-07 .
L I 2 0 1UH 2..550E+05 8.452E-07 . * +
C I 2 3 0. 1UF 2 .754E+05 1.292E-06 . * +
F 2 3 VD 4 2 .958E+05 2.078E-06 .
3 .163E+05 3.728E-06 .
L2 3 0 1UH 3 .367E+05 8.989E-06 .
C2 3 4 0.1UF 3 .571E+05 1.188E-04 . +
R2 4 5 I K 3 .775E+05 1.065E-05 .+
3 .979E+05 6.245E-06
VD 5 0 AC 0 0 4 .183E+05 4.756E-06 .+
4 .388E+05 4.029E-06 .+
•SOLUTION CONTROL STATEMENT 4 .592E+05 3.613E-06 .+
AC L I N 25 10K 500K 4 .796E+05 3.353E-06
5 .00OE+05 3.184E-06
•OUTPUT CONTROL STATEMENT
PLOT AC IM(R2) I P ( R 2 )
.END
The resulting plot for this example is shown in Fig. 15.13.
513
S e c t i o n 15.8 Frequency Response with SPICE
EXAMPLE 1 5 . 1 0 Consider the network o f Fig. 15.4 having node assignments o f 1 at v,. 2 i t the c
mon node o f the 2 - 0 resistors, 3 at the op amp noninverting input, and 4 at IM
put. Let us determine the frequency response for a linear sweep from OtMit i<> I
In this chapter we have considered amplitude and phase responses of circuits. These
for v having a 1-V amplitude. A circuit file using the subcircuit file OPAMP CK
Chapter 4 is arc special cases of frequency responses and enable us to consider which frequencies
in a signal are dominant (correspond to large amplitudes) and which are suppressed
FREQUENCY RESPONSE FOR LOW-PASS F I L T E R OF F I G . 1 5 . 4 (correspond to small amplitudes). This allows us to consider electric filters, which
•DATA STATEMENTS arc circuits that pass certain bands of frequencies and suppress or filter out others.
VI 1 0 AC 1 0 The band of frequencies that pass has a bandwidth centered about a center fre-
HI 1 2 2 quency. Popular filter types are bandpass (those that pass a band between two posi-
R2 2 3 2
tive frequencies called cutoff points), low-pass (those passing low frequencies),
C I 2 4 0.5
high-pass (those passing high frequencies), and band-reject filters (those passing all
C2 3 0 0.25
but a finite band, which is rejected).
XOPAMP 4 3 4 OPAMP
•DEFINE SUBCIRCUIT F I L E
Other terms of interest are resonance (the phenomenon associated with vigor-
ous behavior such as pronounced peaks or dips in amplitude of the output signal),
.LIB OPAMP.CKT
resonant frequency, and quality factor. Scaling the network moves the resonant fre-
•SOLUTION CONTROL STATEMENT
quency to a desired value and usually results in more practical circuit elements. The
.AC L I N 25 0.001 1
decibel is a convenient unit for measuring the amplitude of a transfer function, and
•OUTPUT CONTROL STATEMENT
is used extensively in filter theory. Finally, SPICE is extremely useful in plotting fre-
PLOT AC VM(4) V P ( 4 ) quency responses, particularly in practical circuits where the numbers involved are
. END necessarily complicated.
The plot for this response is similar to that o f Fig. 15.5.
PROBLEMS
EXERCISES
For the circuit shown, R = 4 CI, L = 0.4 H, 15.3 Find H(s) = Vi(s)/\,(s) and sketch the am-
15.8.1 Using SPICE, find the frequency response from 10 Hz to 400 k H z for V in Fig and C = 1 mF. If the input and output are V, plitude and phase responses. Shnw that the
15.10(a) i f the capacitor and inductor values are 10 p,¥ and 0.1 p.H, respectively,] and V , respectively, find the network func-
2 peak amplitude and zero phase cccur at OJ =
Use a source current o f 1 m A . tion and sketch the amplitude and phase re- 4 rad/s.
sponses. Show that the peak amplitude and
15.8.2 Using SPICE, find the frequency response in the interval from 0.001 to 1 Hz. U t t zero phase occur at o> — 50 rad/s.
u, = 1 V.
EXERCISE 15.8.2
v 3
| 1
-Tnnr>-
L
-If-
•0 PROBLEM 15.3
15.4 Show that the transfer function V2/V1 is given

by
PROBLEM 15.1
V»d)
HW =
V,(i)' 1 1
If H{s) = V / V , in the circuit of Prob. 15.1, H s + —
2
R-, R3
and L = 1 H, find R and C so that the peak
amplitude occurs at u> = 10 rad/s and Find Ri, Ri, and R, so that the transfer func-
| H ( y 6 ) | = 0.707. tion is identical to that of Prob. 15.1.
514 C h a p t e r 15 Frequency Response C h a p t e r 15 Problems 515

PROBLEM 15.12
Show that the network function Vi/V, in the 15.16 Show that the circuit is a low-pass filter
•o v. by finding the transfer function H(s) =
ifure for Prob. 15.1 is given by
V (J)/V,(S), the amplitude and phase re-
2
VJ _ 1/LC sponses, and to,. (Note that this circuit and

V, s + (R/L)s + (1/LC ) that of Prob. 15.14 yield the same amplitude
PROBLEM 15.4
2
response except for a constant multiplier.)

Let R = I n, L = 1/V2 H, and C = V 2 F,
15.5 If R = R = 0.5 11 and R, = 0.01 n in and show that the result is a low-pass filter and
t 2
15.8 Select C = 0.1 F and find R and /
M
211 1 H
Prob. 15.4, find His), the frequency aio at " 1 rad/s by finding the amplitude re- 1 v w <Tnnr—
Prob. 15.6 so that o) = 10 rad/s and f 0 4
which the peak amplitude and zero phase oc- 10 rad/s. npon.se.
4 +
cur, and the magnitude of H at io«. Show that the circuit is a low-pass filter by find-
15.9 Show that in Prob. 15.6 if L = Q, C 1/
15.6 ing the transfer function H(s) = V (J)/VI(J),
Show that in the general case the network
2
and R = 1, then
function in the figure for Prob. 15.1 is given the amplitude and phase responses, and to,.
by
VfW ; (R/L)s
H<5)
s
(1/0)*
+ (\/Q)s + 1
1
m A w 2
PROBLEM 15.16
W \,(s) s + (R/L)s +
2 (i/LC)
which is a bandpass network function wll
Thus by comparison with (15.22) and (15.25), 15.17 Show that the given circuit is a low-pass filter
quality factor Q, center frequency with to, = 1 rad/s by finding H(s) = V ( J ) / 2
show that the circuit is a bandpass filter with 1 rad/s, bandwidth B = l/Q rad/s, and y» Vi(s) and the amplitude response.
resonant, or center, frequency too = 1/VLC, G = 1.
bandwidth B = R/L, and quality factor
15.10 Show that in the general case the circuit
Q = a>o/B = (l/R)VL/C. Show also that the
Prob. 15.4 is a bandpass filter with center Itf PROBLEM 15.14
gain G of the filter, defined as its peak ampli-
quency 1/Vfl^ rad/s, bandwidth i/R nA% 2
tude value, is given in this case by G = I .

gain R /R\,
2 and quality factor R /VRi. I 2
For the circuit shown, find the network func-
15.7 Show by finding the network function
Ri = Q/G, R = Q, and R, = 1 to obtain I
2
tion, H(J) = V (s)/V,U), and sketch the am-
H(s) = V ( i ) / V , ( j ) that the circuit is a band-
2
2
network function plitude and phase responses. Show that the

pass filter with tol = \/(LC), B = 1/C, and
gain = 1. Select L and C so that B = 0.5 and peak amplitude and zero phase occur at
(G/Q)s PROBLEM 15.17
tuo = 1 rad/s. H(5) = to = 0.
\,(s) ' s + (l/Q)s
2 +1
PROBLEM 15.7 15.18 One type of low-pass filter is the nth-order
15.11 Using the results of Prob. 15.10, obtain i PROBLEM 15.15
Butter worth filter, whose amplitude response
1 il bandpass filter having the form of the iinur I n y/2_H
is
for Prob. 15.4 with <o„ = 1 rad/s, () in 1 nsw^-
and G = 4. Find the approximate cutoljj
points and the bandwidth.
IH(» I = = , n = 1, 2, 3,
15.12 Show by finding V / V , that the circuit is a

2
where i t is a constant. Ideally, a filter would
bandpass filter, and find the gain, the hanil pass all frequencies in its passband equally
width, and the center frequency.
516 C h a p t e r 15 Problems
517
C h a p t e r 15 Frequency Response
IH(/u)l 15.25 Use the results of Prob. 15.24 to dcMgn •
. by hndinK the transfer function
band-reject filter with ui = I rad/s, Q - 2,
0
/ V , ( s ) . the amplitude response, the gain,

and a gain of ; .
„ that thr CUM* >« • third-order high-
15.26 Apply impedance and frequency scaling to lh*
circuit of Prob. 15.1 with R = 1 CI, L -
0.5 H. and C 0.02 F to obtain a bandpass
filter with a center frequency f = 10* 11/,
0
with a quality factor (2 = 5, and using a ca-

pacitor of 10 pF. (Suggestion: See Prob 15.9.)
15.27 Obtain an active bandpass filter using the con-
figuration of Prob. 15.4 with / = 2000 Hz,
0
Q - 10, and G = 2, using capacitors of 5 nF.

(Suggestion: See Prob. 15.10.)
PROBLEM 15.23
15.28 Show by finding H = V / V , that the given
2
Show thai the network function of the given circuit is a bandpass filter, and find the center
frequency and the bandwidth. Scale the circuit
circuit is
so that the center frequerfcy^js 20,000 rad/s
V 2 _ + » using 0.01 nF capacitors.
H(J)
W, " s + (1/0* 2 + 1 15.29 Determine R, and R so that ihe circuit is a
2
Thus the circuit is a band-reject filter with first-order low-pass filter ( H = V / V i ) with
2
PROBLEM 15.18 center frequency (rejected) o>„ = 1 rad/s. to, = I rad/s and a gain of 4. Scale the result
Also, as in the bandpass case, Q is the quality to obtain to, = 10* rad/s using a It)- n l capaci-
factor, and B = too/Q = \/Q is the band- tor.
well (| H | > 0 would be constant) and per- ductors, which are undesirable at lower in-
width. Note that the gain is H(0) = K. where
fectly block all other frequencies (| H | would quencies, are advantages of active filters ovtf
• < K < I.
be zero). As the accompanying figure shows, passive filters.
for n - 2, 3, and 8, the Butterworth filter im- i -it
15.21 Show that in the figure for Prob. 15.1
proves (approaches ideal) as the order n in- K
creases. Show that to, = 1 rad/s for any n and Vi _ s 2
**** f |
that the filters of Probs. 15.13 and 15.17 are V, s + (R/L)s + (1/LC)
2
0 ( 1 - AT) I
Butterworth filters of second and third orders,
|_ i n>v
respectively. Finally, sketch a fourth-order
Butterworth response and compare it with the
Let R = 1 ft, L = 1/V2 H, and C = V2 »J
and show that the result is a high-pass tilin •6 0(1-
2
with cutoff to, = 1 rad/s. The gain of a high'

second, third, and eighth orders.
pass filter is defined as the limit of its transfer PROBLEM 15.29
15.19 Show that for the figure for Prob. 15.4 function as s —» » . Note that in this case tht PROBLEM 15.24
l/R, gain is 1.
Vitf
s2 + (\/R )s + ( l / « )
2 3 15.22 Show by finding the transfer function
V u ) / V i ( j ) , the amplitude response, the gain
;
Choose values of the resistances so that the (see Prob. 15.21), and the cutoff point to, thai
circuit is a low-pass Butterworth filter with the circuit is a second-order high-pass filter PROBLEM 15.28
to, - 1 rad/s and H(0) = - 2 . [Suggestion 0.05 F
By Prob. 15.13, the denominator of H(.v) is
required to be s + Vis + 1.]
2
PROBLEM 15.22
15.20 If the gain of a low-pass filter with the
network function H(s) is defined to be
K = | H(0) |, compare the gains in the general
cases of Probs. 15.13 and 15.19, which are,
respectively, passive and active circuits that
perform low-pass filtering. Note that gains
higher than 1 are possible with active elements
present. This feature and the absence of in-
519
C h a p t e r 15 Problems
l F
15.30 Show that the given circuit is a third-order transfer function is
low-pass Butterworth filter witH to, = 1 rad/s t n
and a gain of I . Scale the circuit so that the y (s)
2 _ -3J 2 -JyVv-
capacitances are 0.01 jxF each and f, = s + 2s + 2
2
1 0 0 0 Hz.
15.31 Scale the circuit of Prob. 15.23 to obtain a 15.35 Scale the network in the figure for Prob 1 F
high-pass filter with to, = 10 rad/s using 4
so that too = 10° rad/s, Q = 5, If - 0.
20-nF capacitors. (Hint: to, = 1 rad/s in Prob. the capacitance is 50 pF.
15.23.) 15.36 Show that the given circuit is a band in
15.32 Show that the circuit, with H(s) = filter with a gain of 1, Q — 1, and a -AAA/—
V2(s)/V,(j), is a second-order high-pass filter frequency to = 1 rad/s. Scale the net»

0
«1
with the same transfer function, except for the obtain a center frequency / = 60 Hz,
i rt
0
gain, as that of Prob. 15.22. capacitances of 1 and 2 nF.

-WV-
-ov,
15.33 Scale the circuit of Prob. 15.32 to obtain a 15.37 Show that the transfer function is
high-pass filter with to, = 10,000 rad/s using
V (J) s - Is + 2
2
0.02-îF capacitors. 2
V,(s) s + 2s + 2
2
15.34 Show that if R, = R R*, 2 the transfer function

PROBLEM 15.34
and find the amplitude and phase responi
~(VR<)s 2
Note from Exercise 15.2.4 that the circuit
an all-pass filter. Note also that the phaw
s + (\/R )s + ( l / t f j ) - W r
±180° when to = to = V5 rad/s. By scalu
2 2
I rs
0
and thus the circuit is a second-order high-pass move this point to to = 20,000 rad/s 0
1 F
filter. Find R , R , / f , and R, so that the
t 2 3 0.01- and 0.005-/U.F capacitors.
1 F
-A/$/—
v, T "
o! VW- in
-vw- 2Si
PROBLEM 15.36
PROBLEM 15.37
PROBLEM 15.30 1 H
PROBLEM 15.32
in
vw—
1 F 1 F
IB <V,
C h a p t e r 15 Problems
521
15.44 Ploi the frequency response of the network shown and determine the tiller iy|>r ( I a . band
15.38 Show by finding H = V / V , and the ampli-
2 satisfy the appropriate L-qu.iiiiui puss etc.) and the characteristics (passband, cutoff frequency, etc.) using SPICE.
tude and phase responses that the circuit is a H : 0. its maximum occurs when 11.
second-order all-pass filter. (Suggestion: See mum of | H | occurs Also | H mil It
2
Exercise 15.2.4.) functions of «i ; thus the maximum m l

J
15.39 The given circuit is a fourth order bandpass ;

when
filter (the denominator of the network function
is fourth degree), with o> = V2 rad/s and a |H(»| 2 = 0
dto
(2 = 5. Verify this by finding
Since (d/dw)\H\ = (d/cuo )\H\U 2
H ( . ^Vi i£ 2wid ,/o) HH,' = 0, we must check <u I

:
W V, P + is> + %s + is + 4 2
separately]
and so forth. [Suggestion: Find the amplitude 15.40 Scale the circuit of Prob. 15.39 so I
response and verify that o> = V2 yields the 0 wo = V2 x 10* rad/s using capacilorn
peak point and that to,,, o> = o> + (a)o/10) C2 0 0.01 and 0.25 fif.
PROBLEM 15.38
PROBLEM 15.39
COMPUTER APPLICATION PROBLEMS

15.41 Using SPICE, plot the frequency response of V in Prob. 15.16 for 0.001 < / < 2 Hz.
2
15.42 Using SPICE, plot the frequency response of the network of Prob. 15.23
0.001 < / < 0.5 Hz.
15.43 Using SPICE, plot the frequency response of the network of Prob. 15.32 for resistor ami
pacitor values being replaced by k f l and fiF values, respectively, in the interVQ
1 < / < 1200 Hz.
C h a p t e r 15 C o m p u t e r Application Problems
523
16
Transformers
I n our study of inductance in Chapter 7, we found that a changing current produces

a changing magnetic flux which induces a voltage in a coil. In this chapter we con-
sider the effect of a changing magnetic flux that is common to two or more distinct
coils. Neighboring coils which share a common magnetic flux are said to be mutu-
ally coupled. In mutually coupled circuits, a changing current in one coil winding
produces an induced voltage in the remaining mutually coupled windings. The i n -
duced voltage is characterized by a mutual inductance which exists between the
neighboring coils.
A system of mutually coupled coils which are wound on a composite form, or
core, is commonly called a transformer. Transformers are available in a wide variety
of sizes and shapes that are designed for numerous applications. Devices as small as
an aspirin tablet, for instance, are common in radios, television sets, and stereos for
connecting various amplifier stages of the system. On the other hand, transformers
are designed for 60-Hz power applications which range in size from that of a ping-
George Westinghouse pong ball to those which are larger than an automobile.
We shall restrict ourselves to linear transformers (those whose constituent coils
are linear) and begin by considering the properties of self- and mutual inductances.
Energy-storage and impedance properties are then analyzed, and an important spe-
In trie battle of the currents of the cial case of the linear transformer, the ideal transformer, is introduced. We conclude
1880s, ac won over dc because of the chapter with a discussion of equivalent circuits that are useful for representing
the fabulous inventions of Nikola
linear transformers.
Tesla, the availability of transformers
The circuit analyses presented in the chapter include both time-domain and
to step up and step down the ac
frequency-domain cases. Particular emphasis is given to the frequency-domain case
voltages, and the genius of George
because the most important transformer applications occur in the ac steady state.
Westinghouse. Westinghouse had al-
ready made his fortune in 1869 with
the invention of the air brake for rail- 16.1
road trains. He was shrewd enough to use his wealth nized the Westinghouse Electric Company in 1888,
to hire Tesla and to buy the patent from Lucien which he used as a base to advocate successfully tht MUTUAL INDUCTANCE
Gaulard and John D. Gibbs for their newly developed ac system. Westinghouse was one of America'!
practical transformer. greatest inventors and one of the true giants of US, In Sec. 7.4 we found that the inductance L o f a linear inductor, as shown in Fig.
Westinghouse was born in Central Bridge, New industry. • 16.1, is related to the flux linkage A by the expression
York, the son of a prosperous machine factory owner.
A = N<p = Li
From Faraday's law, the terminal voltage is given by
d\ di
v = — = L —
524 dt dt
Section 16.1 Mutual Inductance 525

F I G U R E 16.1 Simple inductor
It is evident from Faraday's law that a voltage is induced in a coil wh

tains a time-varying magnetic flux, regardless of the source o f the flux. Let u i
fore consider a second coil, having N turns, positioned in the neighborhood
2
first coil, having N = N turns, as shown in Fig. 16.2(a). I n this case,

t
formed a simple transformer having two pairs of terminals in which coil 1 is

to as the primary winding and coil 2 as the secondary winding.
To introduce several important inductive quantities, let us begin by c x a f l ^ H
the open-circuited secondary case of Fig. 16.2(a). The current i'i produce
netic flux <t>n given by
<f>u = <t>u + <t>2l
where <j> \s the flux of U that links coil 1 and not coil 2, called the leakage Jin * nml
L
<t>2i is the flux o f i, that links coil 2 and coil 1, called the mutual flux.
We shall assume, as in the case o f the linear inductor, that the flux in each tffl
links all turns o f the coil. Since the secondary is an open circuit, no curent Howl [
coil 2, and the flux linkage of this coil is
Therefore, the voltage v is given by

2
d\ d(j> 2
v = — = Nr .
2
dt dt
(We shall justify later that the polarity is as shown.)

In a linear transformer, the flux <t> ,s proportional to i\. Thus we may wnir
2
N <j>2
2 M 2] i, (Id I
where M \s a mutual inductance in henrys (H). In terms o f this mutual inductunvti

2
the open-circuit secondary voltage becomes
dU
V2
'~dt
526 Chapter 16 Transformers

Let us now find the primary voltage v i. We know that Where the flux linkage is
dX, A 2 = A/2022
~r V i = Si
dt We now define the relation
where A i , the flux linkage o f coil 1, is given by
Z.2I2 • A/2022 (16.5)
A, = A/,0„
where L is the self-inductance o f coil 2 in henrys (H). Therefore,
2
As in the case o f a single linear inductor, the inductance L , of the pri

, di 2
winding, sometimes called the self-inductance of the primary to distinguish it

v = 2 L - 2
the mutual inductance, is defined by

in the open-circuit primary case.
Lti, = N,<f> u
Let us now consider the general case o f Fig. 16.2(c) in which both i, and i are 2
Hence we see that nonzero. The fluxes in coil 1 and coil 2, as shown in the figure, are
di, 01 = 011 + 021 + 012 = 0.. + 012
D| = Li
dt
02 — <t>L2 + 012 + 021 = 021 + 022
in the case under consideration.
Next let us consider Fig. 16.2(b) in which the primary is an open circuit and respectively. Therefore, the flux linkages o f the primary and secondary coils are
current i flows in the secondary. Proceeding as before, we have
2
Ai = A/,0,1 + A/,012
0 2 = 4>L2 + <t>l2
2
A 2 = A/ 0 2 2 1 + A' 022 2
where 0 is the leakage flux of i that links coil 2 but not coil 1, and 0 i is the m
t 2 2 2
Substituting from (16.1)—(16.5), we find upon differentiation that the primary and
tual flux o f i j that links coil 1 and coil 2. The flux linkage of coil 1 is
secondary voltages are
Ai = A/1012
Therefore, the primary voltage is given by
dX, d<t>, 2 (16.6)

t>, = — = N,——
dt dt - M I D ' 2
v = M— + L —
2 2
If we define dt dt
AA0, 2 = Afl l 2 2 l i t . II It is clear that the voltages consist o f self-induced voltages due to the inductances L ,
where M i2 is a mutual inductance, the open-circuit primary voltage is and L and mutual voltages due to the mutual inductance M.
2
In the preceding discussion, the coil windings in Fig. 16.2 are such that the al-
di gebraic sign o f the mutual voltage terms M dUjdt and M di /dt are positive for the
= Mr.
2
2
Vi
dt terminal voltage and current assignments as shown. In practice, it is, of course, un-
desirable to show a detailed sketch o f the windings. This is avoided by the use o f a
In the next section we show that the mutual inductances A / and Af . are equal) l2 2
dot convention which designates the polarity of the mutual voltage. Equivalent cir-
therefore, we shall write
cuit symbols for the transformer o f Fig. 16.2 are shown i n Fig. 16.3. The polarity
markings are assigned so that a positively increasing current flowing into a dotted
(16.4) (undotted) terminal in one winding induces a positive voltage at the dotted (undot-
ted) terminal o f the other winding.
and refer to M as the mutual inductance. For the purpose of writing the describing equations, we may state the follow-
The secondary voltage is given by ing rule:
«2
A current i entering a dotted (undotted) terminal in one winding induces a voltage
dt M di/dt with positive polarity at the dotted (undotted) terminal of the other winding.
528 Chapter 16 Transformers Section 16.1 Mutual Inductance 529

note that a current flowing into b in Fig. 16.4(a) produces a flux in the same direc-
tion at 0. Thus terminal b receives the polarity dot. The circuit symbol l.n IIH>.
transformer is shown in Fig 16.4(b).
Evidently, the polarity markings on a transformer are independent of the ter-
minal voltage and current assignments. Consider, for instance, the assignment of
Fig. 16.5(a). Applying K V L around the primary and secondary loops, we find
9
_ , dii di 2
(a) 0>)
dt dt
F I C U R E 16.3 Circuit symbols for the transformer of Fig. 16.2: (a) dots on upper tcrmW
(b) dots on lower terminals ,,d'< , , di 2
dt dt
We note that with this rule it is unimportant whether the current i is incrcasIMB
not, since the sign of the induced voltage is accounted for by di/dt. That is, t f l
increasing, the induced voltage M di/dt is positive, and i f i is decreasing, (lie
duced voltage is negative. I f i is a dc current, then, of course, the induce.!
zero.
EXAMPLE 16.1 Let us write the loop equations for Fig. 16.3(a). We see that i enters a dotted tarf
2
nal. Thus the mutual voltage M dh/dt has positive polarity at the dotted terniinat
the primary. Similarly, since t'i enters a dotted terminal, the mutual voltage M di,
has positive polarity at the dotted terminal of the secondary. Application ol K
around the primary and secondary circuits gives (16.6).
In a like manner, identical statements apply to the undotted terminals of
16.3(b), and K V L once again yields (16.6). In Fig. 16.5(b), the voltage and current assignments have been changed. Application
of K V L for these assignments yields
Let us now establish a method for placing polarity markings on a transfer
We begin by arbitrarily assigning a dot to a terminal, such as terminal a of
' dt " dt
16.4(a). A current into this terminal produces a flux <j> as shown. (The direction
<f> is determined by the right-hand rule, which states that i f the fingers of the ri ,.di, , , di 2
hand encircle a coil in the direction of the current, the thumb indicates the direct dt dt
of the flux.) The dotted terminal in the remaining coil is the one that a current
ters to produce a flux in the same direction as (b. (This statement, which may The results above can also be obtained by an alternative method for selecting
the sign of the mutual voltages, as follows:
used to obtain the polarity of the induced voltage, is a consequence of a rule kn-
as Lenz's law. The reader may study this law, formulated in 1834 by the Ger
scientist Heinrich F. E. Lenz, in a later course in electromagnetic field theory.) If both currents enter (or leave) the dotted terminals of the coils, the mutual and
self-inductance terms for each terminal pair have the same sign; otherwise, they have
opposite signs.
F I G U R E 16.4 (a) Model of a transformer to determine polarity markings; (b) circuit sym
The student can easily verify the use of this method for the cases of Figs. 16.3 and
•
5 \ Let us find the open-circuit voltage v in the circuit of Fig. 16.6, given that
2
( «'i(0 ) = 0. For t > 0, since no current flows in the secondary, applying K V L

3 1< around the primary yields
• di\
— + 107, = 20
(a) at
530 Chapter 16 Transformers Section 16.1 Mutual Inductance

531
H-l <<•••' I-el us find the phasor voltage V..(.sl in th* MtWOfti ..I I \y l ( . | dm |o the complex
forcing function V,(s). The loop equations in ilu |IMIIIUIV mid secondary arc
V, = (« + 2)1, + ft]
0 = sh + (2s + 3>I a
Therefore,
FIGURE 16.6 Circuit with an open-circuit secondary s + 2 V,
* 0
This is a first-order differential equation with a general solution of s + 2 5
i 2s + 3
i, = 2 + Ae' a
-a-V,
Since t'(0 ) = i ( 0 " ) = 0, A = - 2 and
+ j 2 + Is + 6
i , = 2(1 - e- '*) A
1
Therefore, in the secondary,
v, = -0.25^
at
= -5e- V,a
Let us now consider the transformer of Fig. 16.3(a) in the case of an excitation F I G U R E 16.8 Circuit with a complex excitation
having a complex frequency s. In this case, since differentiation in the time d o m i H
is equivalent to multiplication by s in the frequency domain, the phasor equation!
and i f H{s) is the voltage ratio function, then
corresponding to (16.6) are
H ( ) S = ^ = 2k = ~ 3 '
M W V, V, s 2 + 7i + 6
V , ( i ) = sL,l,(s) + sMli(s)
-3s
Y (s)
2 = sMh(s) + sL h(s)
2
(s + DCs + 6)
A pole-zero plot and a sketch of | H ( » | are shown in Fig. 16.9. We may show that
The phasor circuit for this network is shown in Fig. 16.7. In the case of a purely the maximum ac steady-state response occurs for co = Vf5 rad/s. Suppose, as an ex-
sinusoidal excitation, we simply replace s by jio. ample, that v\ 100 cos lOr V. Then
V, = 100 V , i = 710 rad/s
F I G U R E 16.7 Phasor circuit for a transformer
and
(-J30)(100)
V 2 = HV,
-100 + ; 7 0 . + 6
which simplifies to
V = 2 5 . 6 / 1 2 6 . 7° V
2
Thus the ac steady-state response is

u (r) = 25.6 cos (10/ + 126.7°) V
2
532 Chapter 16 Transformers Section 16.1 Mutual Inductance 533

those of Figs. 16.2-16.4. In so doing, we shall show that M„ - M„ » M
and establish limits for the magnitude of M.
m Fig. 16.3, the stored energy is the sum of the energies supplied 10 the pri-
mary and secondary terminals. The instantaneous powers delivered to these tcrmi
nals, from (16.6), are
0 2 4 6 8 u p , = ck, = ^ + * » f
(•) (b) (16.7)
FIGURE 16.9 (a) Pole-zero and (b) |H(;u)| plot for the network of Fig. 16.8
Pi = V I 2 2 = + 2 ^,/' 2
where M has been replaced by Ma and M , in the appropriate terms.

EXERCISES
2
Let us now perform a simple experiment. Suppose that we start at time to with
16.1.1 In the circuit of Fig. 16.3(a), L , = 4 H , L = 6 H and M = 3 H . Find t), and i ,
2 t'i(»o) = i (fo) = 0. Since the magnetic flux is zero, no energy is stored in the mag-
2
the time when the rates of change of the currents are netic field; that is, w(h) = 0. Next, assume, beginning at time to, that we maintain
i = 0 and increase i i until, at time r,, i , ( t , ) = h and i ( r , ) = 0. During this inter-
2 2
di, di*
= -2 A/s 2 K/s val, h = 0 and di /dt = 0. Thus the energy accumulated during this time is
2
dt dt
f' 1 (' 1 di
Answer —2, 6 V = (p, + Pi) dt = W\-rd%
16.1.2 In the circuit of Fig. 16.3(a), L , = L = 0.1 H and M = 10 m H . Find c, and |
2
(a) i i = 0.4 sin / A and i .= 0.2 cos t A and (b) i'i = 0, h = 10 cos lOOt m A .
2
Answer (a) 40 cos t - 2 sin t, 4 cos t — 20 sin t mV; Lii, di, = \L,I]
- f
(b) - 1 0 sin 100/, - 1 0 0 sin lOOf mV
•'n i , = I, and increase i until, at time t , i' (» ) = / .
As a final step, let us maintain 2 2 2 2 2
16.1.3 Verify that the coil windings of F i g . 16.2 are consistent with the polarity mark in
During this time interval, di,/dt = 0, and the energy accumulated, using (16.7), is
of Fig. 16.3.
16.1.4 Find the phasor currents I , and I . 2
Answer 2 — j2, j2 A iv 2
f'2
(M, I, 2 + L ii) 2 di 2
- f
= M I,l i2 2 + \L l\
2
6/0° V
Thus the energy stored in the transformer at time r is 2
-19 CI
w(r ) 2 = IV (to) + w, + w 2
EXERCISE 16.1.4 = \Lil\ M, I,I 2 2 + \L ll

2
Let us now repeat our experiment but reverse the order in which we increase i,
16.2 and i . That is, in the interval from to to h, we increase i so that i' (fi) = I while
2 2 2 2
holding I'I = 0. Finally, we maintain i = I while increasing t'i so that i i ( / ) = l .

2 2 2 t
ENERGY STORAGE Using the same steps as before, we find in this case that
We have shown previously that the energy stored in an inductor at time t is w(t ) 2 = \L,l\ M ,I,I 2 2 + \Uli
w(t) = \Li\t) Since i i ( / j ) = I, and i ( r ) • h in both experiments, then w(t ) should be the same
2 2 2
Evidently, for a given inductance L , the energy is completely specified in terms of in both cases. Comparing our results, we see that this requires
i(t). Let us now determine the energy stored in a pair o f mutually coupled inductors, M, 2 = M, = M 2

Section 16.2 Energy Storage 535
I f we repeat our experiment with the polarity markings of Fig. 16.4 il« he sign of the mutual term is negative i f both currents enter dotted (oi Ulldol
of the mutual voltage is negative, which causes the mutual term in the energy led) terminals; otherwise, it is positive. The second equation of (16.10) shows ili.u
to be negative. Thus a general expression for the energy at any time t is given
«•(/)'can be zero in a unity-coupled (A = 1) transformer even though i, and r H I
nonzero.
w(t) = {L,ii ± Mi i { 2 + fail
where the sign in the mutual term is positive if both currents enter dotted (or U ^ H EXERCISES
ted) terminals; otherwise, it is negative. 16.2.1 Find the coefficient of coupling i f L , = 4 m H , L = 16 m H , and M = 2 m H .
2
The coefficient of coupling between the inductors indicates the amount of o f l

Answer 0.25
pling and is defined by
16.2.2 Find M i f L , = 0.2 H , L = 0.8 H , and (a) k = 1, (b) k = 0.5, and (c) k = 0.02.
2
Answer (a) 0.4 H ; (b) 0.2 H ; (c) 8 m H

M
16.2.3 Determine the energy stored at t = 0 in each case of Exercise 16.1.2.
Answer (a) 2 m j ; (b) 5 u.J
Clearly, k = 0 i f no coupling exists between the coils, since M = 0. We can cstu

16.3
lish the upper limit of k by substituting from (16.1)—(16.5), which yields
M \/M, M l
2 2 _ <b,2 l<bi\. j
CIRCUITS WITH LINEAR TRANSFORMERS
k =
VL,L 2 VLlL 2 ' 011 ' 022 A two-winding transformer is in general a four-terminal device in which the refer-
ence potential in the primary can be different from that of the secondary without al-
since 0 i / 0 u
2 1 and 0 i / 0
2 2 2 £ 1. Thus we must have tering the values of v , v , i,, or it.
t 2
0 < t < l
or, equivalently, I» AMPLE 16.4 Consider the circuit of Fig. 16.10. K V L around the primary and secondary circuits
gives
0 £ M
If k = 1, all of the flux links all of the turns of both windings, which is a unity* 0 = -M^ + Ri 2 2 + L&
coupled transformer. dt dt
The value of k (and hence M) depends on the physical dimensions and numhci Evidently, the voltages and currents are not affected by V . For this reason, the
0
of turns of each coil, their relative positions to one another, and the magnetic prop- secondary of the transformer is said to have dc isolation from the primary. Point a,
erties of the core on which they are wound. Coils are said to be loosely coupled lf| of course, is at an absolute potential of V + i R volts with respect to the ground
0 2 2
k < 0.5, whereas those for which it > 0.5 are tightly coupled. Most air-core tram- reference. I f we now let V = 0, it is seen that the bottom terminals of the trans-
0
formers are loosely coupled, in contrast to iron-core devices for which k can ap-
proach 1. F I C U R E 16.10 Circuit showing different reference potentials in primary and secondary
Let us now examine the values of i, and i in (16.8) for which w(t) is zero.2
From the quadratic formula, we may write M
Mi2
Li LI
For real values of i, and i , we see that for w(t) = 0 we must have
2
ii = i = 02 M < VL,L 2
(16.10)
M.
i, = ± —1 , 2
Li
536 Chapter 16 Transformers Section 16.3 Circuits with Linear Transformers 537
former are connected and that the primary and secondary circuits have a uimihH
reference point. The transformer, in this case, is a three-terminal device. Suppose that we now repeat Example 16.5 for M = VL,L 2 - V I / 2 In iln» 0 * M
the network function for / > 0 is
EXAMPLE 1 b . 5 Let us find the complete response i lor i - 0 in Fig. 16.11, given Af = l / \ r ^ M
2
and i,(0 ) = / ; ( ( ) ) = 0. Since the forced response for i , is a dc current (by i n i M H W 5, + 4

tion), no steady-state voltage is produced in the secondary; thus iy = 0. To find M
natural response, let us first obtain the network function for t > 0. A p p l i c a ^ ^ H and the complete response is
K V L for a complex excitation V\(s) yields k = Ae-°-"
We know that t , ( 0 ) = i ( 0 ) = 0; however, i f we take » (0*) = i ( 0 " ) as before,

_ 2 2 2
V , « = (l, + 2 ) l ,- ± s k
then the unreasonable solution i = 0 results. Also, applying K V L gives
2
0 = + (s + 2 ) I 2
V2
from which we find
Multiplying the latter equation by V372 and adding it to the former, we have
12 = 2r, + V 6 i 2 (16.11)
This result contradicts i , ( 0 ) = i ( 0 ) = 0.

+ 2 +
Recalling (16.10), we see that the energy is zero in the unity-coupled case
when
i,(0 ) = ^ < ( 0 ) =
+ 2 + ^( (0 ) 2 +
Combining the last result and (16.11) gives i' (0 ) « 2.94 A , and therefore 2 +
F I G U R E 16.11 Switching circuit containing a transformer i 2 = 2.94c- ' A 08
Thus the current in a unity-coupled transformer can change instantaneously as a re-

The poles of H(s) are the natural frequencies, - 1 , - 4 , o f the natural response
sult of the application of a finite forcing function.
Thus, for / > 0,
(2 = 12/ + 12. = 0 + A , c " ' + A e"2
From (16.8), w ( 0 " ) = 0; therefore, since the energy cannot change instantaneously Let us find the steady-state response v in Fig. 16.12. Applying K V L for a complex
2
in the absence of infinite forcing functions, t v ( 0 ) = 0. From (16.10), noting thai

+
frequency s, we have
M < VL,L , we see that t'i(0 ) = i (0*) = 0. To obtain a second initial condition
, (, + l)l , -(i+i)l
2 + 2
v = 3+
for finding A, and A , we apply K V L around the primary and secondary at t = 0*1
2
which yields
3<fi,(0+) 1 <ft (0+)
2
+ - III + I 2* + 1 + - II
2 dt V2 dt
for which
Q = 1 dh(0 ) + t 41,(0+)
V2 * dt V 2 I 2 s '+ 1
2
V, V, s
i + Is 2 + 4s + 4
Solving, we find di (0*)/dt 2= 6V2 A/s. Evaluating A i and A 2 using J ( 0 ) and
2 +
di (Q )/dt,
2 + the solution becomes Substituting s = j2 rad/s and V , = 16 V , we find V = 2[QT V. Thus 2
i = 2V2(e-
2 - e") A 02 = 2 cos 2t V
538 Chapter 16 Transformers Section 16.3 Circuits with Linear Transformers 539
3a T I H 2H
-nnns^-
. EXERCISES
-wv» ' t n t s-
16.3.1 Determine i , for t > 0 in the network of Fig. 16.11, given M = 1 / V 2 H Assume
3
that the circuit is in steady state at / = 0 " .
v, = 16 cos Answer 6 - 4e'' - 2e'" A
16.3.2 Find the forced response t> i f v,
2 ie-
21 cos t V.
Answer Vie- '
2 cos (t + 45°) V
F I G U R E 16.12 Circuit containing a linear transformer
EXAMPLE 16.8 Let us find the network function V / V , for the phasor circuit of F i g . 16.13. Let
2
first examine the voltage V , that appears across winding A in loop 1. We see that
voltage due to I , is the self-inductance term (2JI,) and the mutual term of wind
C(2sl,). The voltage due to I arises from the mutual terms of winding
2 B(-sh)
winding C ( - 2 J T ) . Thus
2
EXERCISE 16.3.2
\ = ( 2 s + 2 s ) h - ( s + 2 s ) h
16.3.3 Determine the network function V / V , for Fig. 16.13 i f the polarity dot of coil B is
2
Similarly, we find
placed on the other terminal.
V 8 = -(s + 3s)l, + (3s + 3s)l 2 Answer 6(s + i)/(6s + 45s + 11)
2
V c = (4s + 2s)h - (4s + 3s)h
Applying K V L in loops 1 and 2 gives

16.4
V, = 31, + V , + V c - 2I 2
REFLECTED IMPEDANCE
In this section we develop several important impedance relationships for the ac
0 = -21, - V c + \ + 5I 2
steady-state case. Let us begin by considering the phasor circuit of Fig. 16.14 having
or a practical source V , with an impedance Z connected in the secondary.
2
Applying K V L at the primary terminals of the transformer we find

V, = (10s + 3)1, - (10s + 2 ) I 2
V, ™ KiiLJi - jatMh
0 - - ( 1 0 s + 2)1, + (13* + 5 ) I 2
(16.12)
Solving these equations for the ratio I / V , , we find the network function to be
2
0 = -jotMl, + (Z +2 ja>L )h2
V 2 3I _ 2 3(10i + 2)
H(J) - Eliminating I from these equations we have
2
30s 2 + 49s + 11 [ jtoM (ja>M)]
F I G U R E 16.13 Circuit containing a three-winding transformer

F I G U R E 16.14 Circuit for deriving impedance relationships
540 Chapter 16 Transformers Section 16.4 Reflected Impedance 541

so that the input impedance seen at the primary terminals of the transformc tor to m (Do,
_ _ 01IM
V,
2
wM 2 2
Z, j<oL, ^ - ^ R T
Ii Z 2 + JIDLI
and the reflected impedance is purely real.
The first part, ju>L,, depends entirely on the reactance of the primary. The tm I Inspecting (16.13) and (16.14), we see that i f the polarity dot on either wind-
part is due to the mutual coupling, and it is called the reflected impedance, given hj ing of Fig. 16.14 occurs on the opposite terminal, the current and voltage ratios re-
quire a sign change, whereas the impedance relations are unaffected.
co M 2 2
Z + j<oL
2 2
EXERCISES
It may be thought of as the impedance inserted into, or reflected into, the prime, 16.4.1 Given: In Fig. 16.14, V , = 100/fT V , Z , = 40 ft, L , = 0.6 H , U = 0.1 H , M =
by the secondary.
0.2 H , and o> = 100 rad/s. I f Z = 10 - ( j 1000/w) il, find (a) Z,„, (b) I , , (c) I ,
2 2
The input impedance as seen by the source V , is evidently

(d) V , , a n d ( e ) V . 2
Zj n = Zg + Z | Answer (a) 80 + JG0 ft; (b) 0.8 - J0.6 A ; (c) 1.2 + j 1.6 A ; (d) 68 + j24 V;
(e) 28 + ; 4 V
Also the secondary-to-primary current ratio I2/I1 may be found from the secc 16.4.2 Repeat Exercise 16.4.1 i f the polarity dot is on the lower terminal of the secondary.
equation of (16.12), and the voltage ratio V2/V1 may be found from Answer (a) 80 + jGO ft; (b) 0.8 - ; 0 . 6 A ; (c) - 1 . 2 - j 1.6 A ; (d) 68 + j24 V;
MiiHv.)
(e) - 2 8 - j4 V
Yi = z. 16.4.3 Find the frequency for which the reflected impedance in Fig. 16.14 is real if L = 2
v, v 2 H and Z is a 6-ft resistor in series with a ^ - F capacitor.

2
using (16.13). The results are Answer 4 rad/s
I 2 jtoM
I, Z 2 + ja)L 2
16.5
v 2 J10MZ2
(16.14) THE IDEAL TRANSFORMER
V, jcoL,(Z 2 + JC0L2) + o) M
2 2 A n ideal transformer is a lossless unity-coupled transformer in which the self-
inductances of the primary and secondary are infinite but their ratio is finite. Physi-
cal transformers which approximate this ideal case are the previously mentioned
It is interesting to note that Z is independent of the dot locations on the trans
R
iron-core transformers. The primary and secondary coils are wound on a laminated
former. I f either dot in Fig. 16.14 is placed on the opposite terminal, the sign of the
iron-core structure such that nearly all of the flux links all of the turns of both coils.
mutual term in each equation of (16.14) changes, which is equivalent to replacing M
The reactances of the primary and secondary self-inductances are very large com-
by -M. Since Z varies as M , its sign is unchanged. A second important property
R 2
pared to moderate load impedances, and the coupling coefficient is nearly unity over
is illustrated by rationalizing Z , which gives
R
the frequency range for which the device is designed. The ideal transformer is thus
o) M
2 2
an approximate model for well-constructed iron-core transformers.
Z, = 2 [R
2 " j(X 2 + WL2)} A n important parameter that is necessary in describing the characteristics of an
R\ (X2 + (0L2)
ideal transformer is the turns ratio n, defined by
where we have used the relation Z = R + jX for the load impedance. I t is seen
2 2 2
that the sign of the imaginary part of Z» is minus. Therefore the reflected reactance
(16.15)
is opposite that of the net reactance X + oaL of the secondary. In particular, i f Xi
2 2
is a capacitive reactance whose magnitude is less than o>L or i f it is an inductive re- 2
actance, then the reflected reactance is capacitive. Otherwise, the reflected reac-
tance is either inductive or it is zero. In the latter case, X must be a capacitive reac- 2
where N, and N are the number of turns on the primary and secondary, respec-
2
tance -\/wC with a resonant frequency f = OI /2TT = 1/2TTVL C. In this case,

a 0 2 tively.
542 Chapter 16 Transformers Section 16.5 The Ideal Transformer 543

The flux produced in a winding o f a transformer due to a current in th# i
Hi I 'i u ing n by N /N,, we have
ing is proportional to the product of the current and the number of lui
2
winding. Thus, in the primary and secondary windings,

V2 N2
(A,, = aJVii,
V, N,
022 = aN ii 2
N,l, = Nl
2 2
where a is a constant of proportionality which depends on the physical proix-i n

the transformer. (The constant a is the same in each case because we are anMI
Therefore, the voltages are in the same ratio as the turns, and the ampere turns (Nl)
that there is no leakage flux and thus both flux paths are identical.) Suhflll
are the same for both primary and secondary.
these relations into (16.2) and (16.5), we see that
The symbol for an ideal transformer is shown in Fig. 16.15(a) with polarities
such that (16.17) holds. The vertical lines are used to symbolize the iron core, and
Therefore, 1 : n denotes the turns ratio. I f one or the other, but not both, of the polarity dots is
placed on the opposite terminal, then n is replaced by -n in (16.17).
k , ( 'Y N _ 2
Figure 16.15(b) shows an ideal transformer connected to a secondary load Z 2
and a source V , with internal impedance Z „ . The primary impedance Z, of (16.13),

In the case of unity coupling, M = VLTL , 2 t h e second of (16.14) becon in the case of the ideal transformer, is given by
Yi JIQZ VL\L
= 2 2
* - Yi - Yiln - W 2
' JtoL,(Z + ja>L ) + w L,L
l, ~ nl ~ n
V 2 2 2 2
2 2
4,
_ _ Z 2 Z,
(16.18)
Z ' ~ n 2 ' Z,
tend to nfin r r ' t**" P 8' inductances L , and .
, 0 C O U l i n t h e
tend to infinity in such a way that the ratio of (16.16) is the constant n From ,1 2
first equation of (16.14) we see that in this case we have ' 1
km l i m
Ii Zi + j(oL 2
JO) VLJL2
= lim
LuL^.jw + (Z /L )
2 2
lim
FIGURE 16.15 (a) Ideal transformer symbol; (b) circuit containing an ideal transformer
1
Thus the input impedance viewed from the terminals of the voltage source is
, rJ » H , ^ " * « y g « and currents of an ideal transforn
are related simply to the turns ratio by irannorn
a r U P r i m a r a d e c o , a r v o l t a
v 2
Zin — Zp "I" Z ] — Z G j (16.19)
(16 17) The lossless property of an ideal transformer is easily demonstrated using
12 1
(16.17). Taking the complex conjugate of the cutrent ratio, we have, since n is real.
I, n

Section 16.5 The Ideal Transformer 545
from which - B Z, J
V . I f _ V2I?
2 2 F I G U R E 16.17 Thevenin equivalent circuit of Fig. 16.15(b)
Thus the complex power applied to the primary is delivered to the load
hence the transformer absorbs zero power.
transformer. It may be shown that this statement holds in general whether the result
In analyzing networks containing ideal transformers, it is often conveniaB
is the Thevenin circuit or not. On the other hand, i f we replace the secondary circuit
replace the transformer by an equivalent circuit before performing the analysis
and transformer by an equivalent circuit, as in Fig. 16.16, we simply multiply each
us consider, for example, replacing the transformer and load impedance /. ol
secondary voltage, current, and impedance by n, and 1/n , respectively. I f2
16.15(b). Clearly, the input impedance seen by the generator V , is Z,„ giv
either dot on the transformer is reversed, we simply replace n by - « .
(16.19), so that an equivalent circuit insofar as V , is concerned is shown in
In applying the above-described procedure, the student is cautioned that the
16.16. The voltages and currents can now be easily determined from the single
technique is valid i f the transformer divides the circuit into two parts. When external
circuit.
connections exist between the windings, the method in general cannot be used. The
equivalent circuits to be discussed in the next section are often useful for networks of
this type.
Let us find V in the circuit o f Fig. 16.18(a), which contains an ideal transformer
2
-.0 and a voltage-controlled current source. In Fig. 16.18(b) an equivalent circuit for
the primary circuit and the transformer is shown. I t should be noted that a minus
sign has been used on primary voltages and currents to account for the polarity dots
F I G U R E 16.16 Equivalent circuit for Fig. 16.15(b) obtained by replacing the seconda
F I G U R E 16.18 (a) Example circuit; (b) equivalent circuit
Let us next replace the primary circuit and the transformer of Fig. 16.15(b) 1,
its Thevenin equivalent. By (16.17) we have ion — M O
—VVA •» 1 4
I i = nh, V = nV,
2
so that for V « , I = 0 and thus I , = 0. Therefore V,

2
8/2° v Q ~ ) 0.01 v , <(T> a 1 1 E
V„c = V = nV, = n V ,
2
For Isc, we have V = 0 and thus V, = 0. Therefore,

2
I,c = I = - 2 =
and I kS2
-VW
V«
Zth = — = nZ
2 g
I* 60 + ;80 S2
T ) - v < ?
I
] 2
The resulting equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 16.17.

Inspecting the results for the Thevenin equivalent circuit, we see that each p r i
mary voltage is multiplied by n, each primary current is multiplied by 1/n, and cadi
primary impedance is multiplied by n when we replace the primary circuit and ilic
2
546 Chapter 16 Transformers Section 16.5 The Ideal Transformer 547

shown on the transformer. The nodal equation for V gives 2
4-/3(1
V, + 80/0° +
10: V 3 2 + = 0
10 3 60 + ; 8 0
from which : v 2 64+/480
32/0° V
V = 5V2/-135" V
2
•
So far we have considered only the ideal transformer in the ac stculv
case. In the general case, we see from (16.6) that EXERCISE 16.5.1
M di,\ 16.5.3 Using Norton's theorem, show that the primary circuit and transformer of Fig.
dt \Li L
2 di) 16.15(b) is equivalent to a constant current source of V , / n Z , A in parallel with an
impedance of n Z, ft. 2
( M \di,
2 , M
16.5.4 Find V in Fig. 16.18(a) by first replacing the secondary circuit and the transformer
2
by an equivalent circuit.
Thus since M 2 = L,L
2 and VL /L, = n, we have
2
16.5.5 Find H(s) = l /h • [Suggestion: Note that the circuit is 2 two-ports connected in se-
2
t>
2 ries and that the transformer provides isolation so that the z-parameters add. Thus
v, = —
n H = z . / ( l + 122), and so on.] 2
Next, let us rearrange the first equation of (16.6) in the form s + 1 2
A s + 6s + 3
n s w e r 2
^ _ dh Mdh
+
1F 11 '2 _
L, dt L , dt
di, di 2
= dl + Tt
n
Taking the limit as L , becomes infinite, we have
di 2
dt
Integrating both sides, we have
-ni 2 + C,
where C, is a constant of integration. Since dc currents produce no time-varying

magnetic flux, they do not contribute to the induced voltages or currents in the idea
transformer. Therefore, i f we neglect the constant C,, then
I'I = -ma EXERCISE 16.5.5

where the minus sign arises due to the direction assigned i ' in Fig. 16.3(a). Thus the 2
same current and voltage relationships are valid in the time domain as were found in
16.6
the frequency domain i f we neglect any dc currents.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
Equivalent circuits for linear transformers are easily developed by considering the
EXERCISES equations for primary and secondary currents and voltages. In Fig. 16.19(a) we
16.5.1 Find V , , V , I , , and I .
di, di
2 2
n a v e 2
Answer 2 0 / 3 6 . 9 ° V , 8 0 / - 1 4 3 . 1 ° V , 4 / 0 ° A , 1/180" A
16.5.2 In Fig. 16.15(b), V , = 100/0! V , Z = 20 i l , and Z = 2 k f t . Find n such that
g 2
Z i = Z , , and then find the power delivered to Z . 2
Answer 10, 125 W ^ ~ ~dt L l *
548 Chapter 16 Transformers 549

Section 16.6 Equivalent Circuits
(•) (b)
F I G U R E 16.19 (a) Linear transformer; (b) equivalent circuit
It is evident that the circuit of Fig. 16.19(b) satisfies these equations. The depended
voltage sources, however, are controlled by the time derivatives of the primary i M
secondary currents. In the frequency domain, these sources can be considered •
current-controlled voltage sources.
Let us now rearrange the equations in the form
„,, ,_ | (5 l) I
F I G U R E 16.21 (a) Ideal transformer; (b) and (c) equivalent circuits
(l w +M +
EXERCISES
16.6.1 Use the T equivalent for the linear transformer to find the steady-state value of v.
These equations are satisfied by the T network of Fig. 16.20(b). Since this circuit I (Note that an inductor with L = 0 is a short circuit.)
a three-terminal network, it is equivalent to the transformer connection of P i l l Answer 6 sin 8/ V
16.20(a). I f either polarity dot is changed to another terminal, we must replace M M
—M in the equivalent circuits.
7 sin it A
EXERCISE 16.6.1
16.6.2 Find V in Fig. 16.18(a) using the equivalent circuit i n Fig. 16.21(c).
2
Answer 5 V 2 / - 1 3 5 ° V
(•) (b)
F I G U R E 16.20 (a) Linear transformer with common terminals; (b) equivalent T network
16.7
In the case o f an ideal transformer as shown in Fig. 16.21(a), the currents and
voltages are given by SPICE ANALYSIS FOR TRANSFORMERS
SPICE can be used for analyzing circuits that contain linear transformers in the same
'2 = , Vi = nv, manner as performed in previous chapters by employing the K data statement for
n defining the transformer. A description of the K statement is given in Appendix E.
Clearly, the circuits of Figs. 16.21(b) and (c) satisfy these relations. I f either of the The K statement expresses the mutual coupling of the transformer in terms of the
dots are reversed, of course, we must replace n by ~n in the equivalent circuits. coefficient of coupling given in (16.9).
550 Chapter 16 Transformers Section 16.7 SPICE Analysis for Transformers 551
EXAMPLE 1 6 . 1 0 Consider the circuit o f Fig. 16.11, redrawn in Fig . 16.22 for applying SI'K I LL 16.11 l e t us find the solution for the network o f F i g . 16.12, which has a coupling
should be noted that the primary and secondary have been connected togctli.-i m Hicient o f 0.707. A circuit file for nodes being numbered sequentially clockwise,
reference node to avoid having the nodes of the secondary elements dangling ( with node 1 being at the top o f t>i, is
disconnected) for SPICE analysis. A circuit file for the transient response
SPICE SOLUTION F O R FIG . 16 . 12 .
0 < r < 1.5 s is
• DATA STATEMENTS
SOLUTION O F FIG . 16 . 11 USING E Q 16 . 9 F O R FINDING k VI 1 0 A C 16V
» DATA STATEMENTS Rl 1 2 3
VIN 1 0 D C 12V L l 2 3 1H
Rl 1 2 2 C 3 0 1
L l 2 0 1.5 IC=0 L2 4 3 2 H
L2 3 0 1 I C = 0 R2 4 0 1
R2 3 0 2 K L l L 2 0. 707
K L l L2 0 . 577 * SOLUTION AND OUTPUT CONTROL STATEMENTS
* SOLUTION CONTROL STATEMENT . AC L I N 1 0 . 3 1 8 3 0 . 3183
• TRAN 0 . 1 1.5 U I C . PRINT AC VM(R2) VP(R2)
* OUTPUT CONTROL STATEMENT . END
. P L O T T R A N I(R2)
which yields the solution
. END
FREQ VM(R2 | VP(R2)
A plot o f the output o f this program is shown in Fig. 16.23. 3 . 183E-01 2 . 000E-00 -3 1 3 9 E - 0 3
In the case o f an ideal transformer, solutions can be found using the equivalent
circuits o f Fig. 16.21(b) and (c) employing the procedures discussed in previous
chapters.
EXERCISE
16.7.1 Using SPICE, find V in Fig. 16.13 i f V , = 12/f£ V , / = 10 k H z , and the resistor
2
and inductor values are replaced by k f t and m H values, respectively.

® Answer 6 . 6 7 4 / 1 . 6 4 ° V
F I G U R E 16.22 Circuit of Fig. 16.11 redrawn for SPICE
F I G U R E 16.23 Response for the circuit of Fig. 16.22 16.8

TIME I(R2)
) O . OOOOE+OO 5 . 0000E-01 1 . 0000E+00 1 . 5000E+00 2 . OOOOE+0 SUMMARY
0 . 000E+00 3
1 . 000E-01 6 602E-01 . In this chapter we considered the transformer, a system o f coils with mutual flux
2 . OOOE-01 1 044E+00 . • linkage. The common case is two coils used to step up or step down the voltage on
3 . OOOE-01 1 242E+00 .
4 . OOOE-01 1 324E+00 . the primary coil to a higher or lower voltage on the secondary coil. The inductances
5 . 000E-01 1 333E+00 . of the two coils are called self-inductances to distinguish them from the mutual in-
6 . 000F-01 1 295E+00 .
7 . OOOE-01 1 232E+O0 . ductance between the coils. The polarity o f the secondary voltage for a given p r i-
8 . OOOE-01 1 155E+00 . mary voltage is determined by how the coils are wound on the common core, but a
9 . OOOE-01 1 072E+00 .
1 . 000E+00 9 885E-01 . dot convention is used on paper to avoid the need for seeing the actual windings.
1 . 100E+00 9 065E-01 . Energy is stored in the transformer in the two coils. There is also a component
1 . 200E+00 8 284E-01 .
1 . 300E+00 7 550E-01 . due to the mutual coupling o f the coils. The coefficient of coupling is a measure o f
1 . 400E+00 6
•
8S7E-01 . how tightly or how loosely coupled the coils are. Circuits with transformers are ana-
1 . 500E+00 6 238E-01 .
• lyzed as before, with the added complication of a second, mutually coupled coil. The
552 Chapter 16 Transformers Section 16.8 Summary 553

analysis may be simplified by the use of reflected impedance, which may !«• iht
of as an impedance reflected into the primary by the secondary.
A n ideal transformer is approximated by a very tightly coupled tninnfc
with extremely high self inductances. It is characterized by a turns ratio n. the
of the number of turns of the secondary coil to that of the primary coil, whi. h m
the ratio of the secondary voltage to the primary voltage. The secondary and
mary currents are in the ratio 1/n. SPICE is used for transformer circuits in
the same way as in the inductor circuits of the previous chapters.
PROBLEMS
16.1 In Fig. 16.2(a). N = 500 turns and <tm =
2 16.5 Find i, and t : in Fig. 16.5(a) and I'
200 fiV/b when i = 2 A . Determine o if ii ™
2 L, = 2 H, L = 5 H, M = 3 H. and the
2
20 sin lOr A . rents ii and i are changing at the rates 10

2
16.2 If the inductance measured between terminals and - 2 A/s, respectively.

a and d is 0 1 H when terminals b and c are 16.6 Find v for t > 0 across the open-circ
connected, and the inductance measured be- secondary if i = 8u(t) A.
g
tween terminals a and c is 0.9 H when termi- 16.7 Repeat Prob. 16.6 i f i , = feûW A . O.l H
nals b and d are connected, find the mutual in-
16.8 Find the steady-state currents ii and i .
ductance M between the two coils, and the
2
position of the dots. 16.9 Find the steady-state value of v.

16.10 Find the power dissipated in the 1-il reslr
in the primary circuit and the power
seen by the source.
16.11 Find the steady-state current i .
2
16.12 Find the steady-state currents i,(r) and i l l ) P R O B L E M 16.9

to = 2 rad/s.
0.5 H
PROBLEM 16.2
16.13 Find the energy stored in the transformer
i n
Prob. 16.12 at t = 0. (Take the transient CUL,
16.3 If U = 4 H , L2 = 3 H , M = 2 H, and the rents to be zero.)
currents i, and i are changing at the rates
2
16.14 (a) Find the energy stored in the transformt|
- 2 A/s and 10 A/s, respectively, find v and t
of Fig. 16.3(a) at a time when i, = 2 A !
02 in (a) Fig. 16.3(a) and (b) Fig. 16.3(b). i , = 4 A i f L, = J H, L2 = 2 H , and M I
16.4 (a) Find v, and «2 i f L, = 5 H , L = 3 H ,
2
J H . (b) Repeat part (a) if one of the dois ll
M = 2 H, I, = - 3 cos 4t A , and i 2 = moved to the other terminal.
P R O B L E M 16.10
5 sin 2r A . (b) Find v if the secondary is open.
2
P R O B L E M 16.11
PROBLEM 16.4
555
Chapter 16 Problems
i n
\ I H
10/0^ V
10 cos 4( V (^)
^f-- no a
3(1
PROBLEM 16.12
16.15 Repeat Prob. 16.13 if ai = 4 rad/s and 16.21 Show from (16.8) that a real transformer PROBLEM 16.26
/ = TT/8 S. (0 < M < V L , LI) satisfies the passivity urn
16.16 Find the coefficient of coupling k if L, • dition w(t) 3: 0. 31 Find i (r) for / > 0 i f / ( 0 ) = 0.
+
0.02 H , Z.2 = 0.125 H, andAf = 0.01 H. 16.22 (a) Find v for t > 0 i f v = 4u(t) V and
s
Find the network function, H(J) = V (s)/V,(s).
2 16
16.17 Find Ai i f L , = 0.4 H , L = 0.9 H , and (a) 2 (b) find the steady-state value of v if u,
k = 1, (b) * = 0.5, and (c) k = 0.01. 4 cos Hi V and the output terminals are loaded
16.18 Note that for coupled coils we may always with a resistor of 8 fl.
choose the current assignments into the dots
20 e' cos I V( _
1
and the positive voltage polarities at the dots,
as in Fig. 16.3(a). (This, of course, may re-
quire using —i instead of i , etc.) Show that if
we solve the describing equations (16.6) for PROBLEM 16.31
the current derivatives and integrate the re- P(Of«Il)
sults, we have 16.32 Find the power delivered to the

(75 + ; 1 2 5 ) - f l load using reflected imped-
" W * A ! v 1"'
"""f V2< + ,(0)
16.23
PROBLEM 16.22
Find i for t > 0 i f i(0) = 0 and v(0) = 4 V.

PROBLEM 16.29
Find the natural frequencies present in i(t).

ance.
16.33 Find the average power delivered to the 8-fl
resistor.
l « 2 = ~ "
where A is the determinant

| «, + ^ Jf V2 dt + 1 (0)
2
i n
i(0 24 0
' \AA>
^2 n
A = L,L 2 - M 2
_ 90
... 1:2 . 1
w v 1
This result enables us to solve coupled circuits
using nodal analysis.
16.19 Solve Prob. 16.6 using nodal analysis as de-
2fl
(3 H
1 p 8n i
PROBLEM 16.23
scribed in Prob. 16.18.
16.20 Find v(t) for t > 0 using (a) loop analysis and 16.24 Find the steady-state current i, in Prob. 16.8 PROBLEM 16.33
PROBLEM 16.30
(b) nodal analysis. using reflected impedance.
16.25 Find the steady-state current i in Prob. 16.8
2
by replacing everything in the corresponding

PROBLEM 16.20
phasor circuit to the left of terminals a-b by its PROBLEM 16.32
1 H
2(2 Thevenin equivalent circuit. 1:5 '
16.26 Find the steady-state current i.
i - 1 2a
16.27 Find the steady-state current i , in Prob. 16.12 •
using reflected impedance. 75 +/125 £2
10 u(r) 5oze° v ( i
16.28 Find the steady-state current i in Prob. 16.12
2
by replacing everything to the left of terminals

a-b by its Thevenin equivalent circuit.
557
556 Chapter 16 Transformers Chapter 16 Problems
16.34 Find the power delivered to the 2-fi resistor.
411
PROBLEM 16.35
PROBLEM 16.34
16.35 The stepdown autotransformer has the second 16.37 Find the z- and y-parameters of the tn
ary terminal 2 tapped to the primary winding former of Fig. 16 20(a) in terms of s.
at node 2, as shown, (a) If the secondary
16.38 Solve Prob. 16.31 using the equivalent cir
winding has N turns and the primary winding
:
of (a) Fig. 16.21(b) and (b) Fig. 16.21(c).
has A/, turns, find the voltage and current ra-
tios, (b) Find I and V if V, = 100 / 0 ° V,
2 2
16.39 Solve Prob. 16.32 using the equivalent cir
I , = 2/60" A, N, = 1000 turns, and N = 2
of(a) Fig. 16.21(b) and (b) Fig. 16.21(c).
200 turns. 16.40 Find the steady-state voltage t using the eq
16.36 Find the turns ratio n so that the maximum alent T circuit for the transformer. C O M P U T E R A P P L I C A T I O N PROBLEM S
power is delivered to the 8-kfi resistor. Find 16.41 Find H(s) = V ( s ) / V , ( j ) . (Suggestion:
2
16.42 Using SPICE, plot i for 0 < t < 5 s in the circuit of Prob. 16.23.
the power delivered by the source in this case Exercise 16.5.5)
if v, = 40 cos 377t V. 16.43 Using SPICE, find the steady-state current i in Prob. 16.26 i f / = 10 Hz.
16.44 Using the equivalent circuit of Fig. 16.21(b) with SPICE, find the voltage of the 8-fi resistor
in Prob. 16.33 i f / = 60 Hz.
16.45 In the circuit of Prob. 16.40, replace the 10-fi resistor bridging the transformer with a series
connection of a 10-fi resistor and a 1000-mF capacitor. Use SPICE to plot the frequency re-
sponse for the voltage v of the resulting circuit in the interval 1 < / < 50 Hz.
PROBLEM 16.36
PROBLEM 16.40
16 cos 1001
558 Chapter 16 Transformers Chapter 16 Computer Application Problems

559
DP14 Show thai a solution of the equations of De- (The last two equations minimize the li M,. |
sign Prob. DP13 is of the op amp.)
4 • DP15 Design a high-pass Butterworth Hit* • Appendix
* " I. + V . ' + 8MG - 1>,C * J " . V JT- rts, 7 |
„
*'
' I
~bCR 2
(10//) F .
M
Answers to Selected
< C > " I Odd-Numbered Problems
/?4 ~ G/?2
2.27 500 (1, 4 mA

HAPTER 1 2.29 1 A
2.31 2A,4()
1 Styron—20.55 mph. Griffith Joyner— 2.33 (a) 800. 780 (1; (b) 720, 702 il
20.96 mph 2.35 1.5 W
J (a) 29 C; (b) 37.5 C; (c) 1.5, 6, 5 A 2.37 2 A, 8 V
5 Prob 1.3: 9. 36. 30, 12 W; Prob. 1.4: 9, 0, 2.39 4 A, I A, 2 V
-18. 0 W 2.41 37.5/Â
(a) 15, 4, 4 W; (b) 84 mJ 2.43 4.5 k i i
7
9 25/4, 8 mW
l 1 -94.25 mJ
13 6 cos 2r A, 3 C CHAPTER 3
IS (a) 48f * W. 12(1 - i ") J; (b) -64e W,41
me 41 - l ) J ; ( c ) -24<- * W, 6(e - 1)J

41
3.1 - 3 V, 3.6 W
17 16(1 - if" ) J
4
3.3 3 A
14 (a) 34,560 J: (b) 2880 C 3.5 (a) 5 A; (b) -2.5 A
21 (a) 14,400 J; (b) 1200 C 3.7 (a) 3 A, 6 V; (b) - 1 A, - 6 V
2? H' = 6(e~* - I ) a 02
3.9 (a) 2 cos 2/ A, 6 il; (b) - 8 cos 3/ A, - 4 (1
3.11 - 1 6 V
3.13 6 V
3.15 (a) 2 0 k ( l , 20 k ( l ; (b) I k ( l
CHAPTER 2 3.19 6 s i n 3 r V
3.21 21 a
2.1 200 mA, 6 V 3.23 1.5 A
2.3 8 A, 15 n 3.25 -0.25 A
2.5 - 1 A, 4 V 3.27 sin 3000r mA
2.7 2 A, 3 A, 10 V 3.29 (b) 17 V
2.9 7 A . 6(1 3.31 (b) 0.999990<,. 0.9900990ti,, 0.5t),
2.11 300 n
2.13 400(1
2.17 2, 4, 6, 8, It), 12 V
2.19 8 V CHAPTER 4
2.21 l O k l i , 60 mA
2.23 1.5, 0.5 A 4.1 64,48 V
4.3 2, 4 A
2.25 ^ A, 3 A , 8 V
4.5 4 A
760 Appendix F Circuit Design Methodology

761
5r * A 10.5 0.5 cos (2 x 10°r - 53.1°) mA
4.7 1.5 A 6.11 (a) 3 A; (b) 1 A
20*- " V, 12 - e '• A 10.7 lOkfl, i j i F
49 4A 6.17 26 V
H 1.25(3* " + e ") A 10.9 (a) 10 cos (4/ - 28.1°) V;
4 11 20 V 6 19 8 mA
28 + 8c V (b) 5 sin (4/ - 28.1°) V
4.13 64 W 21
<><<? * + I ) V 10.11 (a) 20c' '*""' A; (b) 10 cos (2/ - 45*) A;

4.15 -2. -4 V
12
14c " - 7e ' A, 42* - 48e (c) 2 sin (2/ - 60°) A

4.17 8V 2 21
6 - 2e A 10.13 (a) 5 V 2 cos (20/ + 135°);

4.19 2 cos 3/ V CHAPTER 7
21
4 - It mA (b) 5 cos (20/ + 216.9°);

4.21 20kil
(a) (3e " + 6)u(/) V; (b) (c) 13 cos (20/ - 67.4°); (d) 10 cos 20(;
4.23 8 mA 7.1 i = 2 fiA, 0 < / < 0 5 O " + 6)«(r) - (3e "' + 6]«(/ - I) V (e) 5 sin 20/
4.25 8 W = -2 0.5 < / < 1 s
1
8.33 (14* " - \2e »)u{t) V 10.15 (a) 2 0 / - 1 7 1 . 9 ° il; (b) 1/V2/15° k i l ;
4.27 8 V i ( l + 1) = Hi) 8.35 lOe " - 8e V (c) a[a il
4.29 -4, 8 A p '= 20/ u.W. 0 < / < 0.5
21
. 8.37 8(1 - e-") V 10.17 6 i l , - 8 il, 0.06 S, 0.08 S,

4.31 75 W = -20(r - 1) /iW, 0.5 < I < 1 8.39 (a* -4(1 - e )u(l) V; 2 cos (/ + 53.1°) A
4.33 8 V = 200 - 1) MW, 1 < I < 1.5
2,
(b) - 4 ( 1 - e ')u(/) + 10.21 4/53.1° n , 2/-53.1° A .

4.35 6 cos 1000/ mA = -20(/ - 2)M W, 1.5 < I < 2
2
4|1 - e "!«(/ - 1) V 2 cos (7/ - 53.1°) A

4.41 -0.25 V = 20(/ - 2) /xW, 2 < t < 2.5
2,1
10.23 40 sin 2500/ mA, 4 cos 2500/ V

4.43 0.4 mA = -20(/ - 3) /iW, 2.5 < / < 3 10.25 4 cos (10/ - 53.1°) A
7.3 4 ms, 4 V 10.27 V2 cos (40,000/ - 98.1°) mA
7.5 (a) 0; (b) - 2 0 t i A ; (c) 20c ' t i A ;
2 CHAPTER 9 10 29 2 cos (5/ - 53.1°) A,
(d) 3 cos 100/ mA 0.5 cos (5/ - 53.1°) A
CHAPTER 5 7.7 16c ' W 4 'II l.2e ' - 0.2<> A 10.31 10 cos 30,000/ V
9.3 < '(8 cos I - 4 sin /) V 10.33 (a) 4 cos (/ + 36.9°) A; (b) 5 cos 2/ A;
5.1 3.5 A , 35 V, 8 V 79 w^, = 50 J at l = - s; M L * = 2 J al / = 0
2 9 7 6(1 + 4l)e A 21 (c) 4 cos (4/ - 36.9°) A
5.5 -100V 7.11 e 201 A 99 54c - 9e V
21 121 10.35 0.75 cos 3/ A
5.9 3 A 7.13 1.6 J, 1.6 J, - 2 A 9.11 (4 + 10/)f " A k 10.37 V2 cos (2000/ - 135°) mA
5.11 8V 7.15 3 A, 3 A, - } A, 15 V 9 13 c "(cos 5/ + 0.2 sin 5/) A 10.39 -5c ' - e 11 + 4 V 5 cos (3/ - 26.6°) A
5.13 16 W 7.17 10/iF 9.15 (a) r '(cos / + 4 sin /) A;
5.15 3A 7.19 6, 0, - 2 V ( b i l l » 3/)« A; (c) ie ~ — 2c A 21 w 21
5.17 u * = 14 V, R = 10O; 4 W 7.21 (a) - 10 sin 10/ mV; (b) - 5 0 sin 20/ tiW; 9 17 4c ' - c- " + 1 A
CHAPTER 11
A
f l0 40
5.19 L = 1.75 A, R = 10 il; 1.25 A

a
(c) 5 cos 10/ /tiJ; (d) 50 tiW
2
9.19 3c - 9c
, , ( x a ' + 6 mA , o c 0
5.21 = 3 A , R = 8 il; 1A
th
7.23 (a) 3/ - 2/ A , (b) 2/ - 3/ + 2 A
2 2
9.21 3c + 9 V, 6 c + 6 V 111 12 cos (3/ + 233.1°) V
5.23 u„ = * f V, R* = » i l ; 8 V 7.25 15 mA, - 2 0 A/s 9.23 (a) 3(1 - c '(cos / + sin /)] A; 11.3 0.5 cos 2/ A
5.25 P i = - 7 0 V, R„, = 16 il; -3.5 A 7.27 - 2 A , 7.5 A/s (b) 1.5(1 - 2e ' + e ' ) A; 2
11.5 48 sin 8/ V
5.27 u« = \, /t, = 400 i l ; 0.5 mA
h
7.29 15 mH (c) 3(1 - (1 + 2/)c ^ A 11.9 16V2 cos (4/ — 45°) V
5.29 t)« = 14 V, /c = 10 i l ; 4 W
lh
7.31 (a) 50, 0.5 mH; (b) one answer: two in 9.25 6(1 + 5 / ) c + 4 A 11.11 V 2 c o s ( 5 / - 135°) A
5.31 - 3 mA series with four parallel sets of two each 9.27 - 2 c ' - c " + 5 cos 3/ + sin 3/ A
21
11.13 4 V 2 cos (6/ - 135°) V
5.35 0.9 mW, 400 i I 7.33 5, - 2 0 ; 25, 20 V 9.29 (2 + 17/ - 8/ )c A 2 21
11.15 6 V 2 cos (2000/ + 45°) mA
5.37 28 il, 1.75 W 7.35 - 1 6 , - 8 V/s 9.31 (a) (10 - \2t)e - 10 V; 21
11.17 2V5 cos (4/ - 10.3°) V
5.39 ^ i l , 312.5 W 7.37 1 nF, 10' i l 2
(b) (8 - 6/)c" ' - 8 cos 2/ - 5 sin 2/ V 2
11.21 - 2 sin 1000/ mA
7.39 2 or 10 V 9.33 (4 f 12/)c" ' + 2 sin 8/ V 8
11.23 8 cos / V
5.41 rw = - 6 V, R* = 4 i l ; 4 i l 9.35 8c sin 4/ V 11.25 4V2cos (5/ + 135°) V
5.43 i v = 12 V, /?„, = 56 i l ; 0.2 A 9.37 5|1 - c ^ c o s 500/ + sin 500/)] V 11.27 4 + V 2 cos (2/ - 45°) V
11.29 3 cos 2/ + 12 cos (3/ + 7.4°) V
CHAPTER 8 11.31 I« = ^ ( 7 - 7 ' 4 ) A ,
CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 10 Z ,„ = 1 8 + J a, ,, = cos 2/ A

1
8.1 10e"* V
8.3 (a) 0.4 M i l , 0.5 /i.F, 16 tiJ; (b) 36.8% 11.33 V„c = f[£ V, z * = -jiO,
6.1 IV 10.1 (a) 50 V; (b) 60°; (c) TT/3 rad; (d) 10 ms; v = 2 cos (8/ - 53.1°) V
8.5 8c " V , e " A
(e) 200ir rad/s; (f) 100 Hz; (g) 77°
6.3 2 A 8.7 -6c * A
10.3 (a) v, leads by 30°; (b) c, leads by 67.4°; 11.35 cos (1000/ - 135°) V
6.5 12 V 8.11 lOc^V
(c) v, lags by 23.1° V2
6.9 4V 8.13 16c " " A
Appendix C Answers to Selected Odd-Numbered Problems 763
762 Appendix C Answers to Selected Odd-Numbered Problems
11.37 0.5 cos (3f + 126.9°) A 16.31 V 2 V ' c o s ( r + 45°) - c ' A
13.27 L„ = 17 32. I*. = -8.66 + ,6.34
11.39 * + (v + i ) = J, 2 H, sin 2t\
2 2
I,< = —8.66 — 76.34 A rms 15.15 16.33 4W
7 + V^l+ 1
1
13.31 (a) 2 / V 3 . 4 / V 3 kW; (b) 2V 3 kW /

\ 16.35
1 6 3 5 f ,
(a) V
) 2 » ^ ; ( b. >)
| N ) > 1 | N ;
10/60° A.
15 I
13.35 3 V 3 , I . 5 V 3 , 4.5V3 kW i +
1 ~2s + 2s + 1
2 ' vTT 20/tf V
CHAPTER 12 13.37 (a) 1; (b) 0; (c) 0.5 lagging; (d) 0 5 k'admit
(e) 0.866 leading 15 19 R, = ^ n , /?2 n.R, = 1 n 16.37 I n = i-.s, I11 = l u = Ms, in =
V2 L M _ _ t ,
13.39 I 500V3, -633.7V3 W 2
12.1 500 W .y» = y» = as

15.21 |H(/w)| 1 rad/s
12.3 IRH V l + o> ' 4
where A = Li Li - M 2
CHAPTER 14 15.23 16.39 150 W

12.5 -W s' + 2s + 2s + I ' vTT
2
2
- J 2
14.1 (a) 5 / - 3 0 ° ; (b) 1/45°; (c) 1Q/-53.1 ; «), = 1 rad/s 16.41

12.7 P, = 4000 W, / W i = 400 W, 3s + 2s + 2
0
mt 2
(d) 5/0° (l/2)(s + 1) ;R • I 11, L = 1 H.
P, = -4400 W
2
(i + l ) 15.25
12.9 3.4 W
2
s + (l/2)i + 1
2
• 3 Xn —, ~2e ' sin / A

C = 1 F
4
12.11 145 W
2(s + is + 3)
15.27 R, = 79.6 k f l , R2 - 159.2 k f l ,
2
12.17 (a) 2 W; (b) ft W, | n 14.5 - 8 c * sin 2r V

12.19 (a) 13 V; (b) 9 V; (c) 7 V 14.7 16* sin f V 21
R - 15.92 k l l , other i n resistors become
3
CHAPTER 17
12.21 4Vrms 14.9 V 2 c o s (/ - 135°) V 15.92-kil resistors.
15.29 R, = 1 11, R: = 3 il, in scaled circuit 17.1 (a) oo = 3,'a„ = 0,
12.23 - A rms 14.11 4 V 2 c ' cos (2/ + 45°) V
2
4 14.13 2V5 c ' cos (8/ + 116.6°) V

4
R, = 10 k l l , R - 30 k f l , 1 il becomes 10 V.H
2
15.31 L = 0.25 H, R's = 5 k l l " mr

14.15 -5 — , -12 c s i n 5 / V
12.27 0.6 lagging, - ^ il
l0,
15.33 2(-D " - sinh 7r,
J + 15s + 75 1 n -»7.07 k n , 2 n - » i 4 . i 4 m, (b) a. = r r ( n + 1)
O
18 12 2
12.29 30 W, - 1 8 var, 30 - y 18 VA, 55 F (27T3)5'T3^' ' - ° - 11 — 3.54 k l l n = 0, 1, 2, . . . ; b„ = -2na „ ,

n = 1, 2, 3, . . . ; wo = 1;
1 4 1 7 c o s ( 3 + 6 7 4 ) v ]
12.31 5 \ / 2 / - 3 0 ° A rms 15.35

12.33 (a) 170 j i F ; (b) 7 4 / i F ,4.19 V..= ' V, .= ' " n ; 1 f l —» 8 k f l , 2.5 H —» 20 mH
+ - •e ( - 1 ) "
1 6 ( 4 + 3 ) Z 2 + 1 )
12.35 14 W, 2 var, 14 + j2 VA s s 15.37 |H| , 22w

-< (c) i + rns Z h x " c o s n
1 4
w '
3 ^P
1, 4> = -2 tan"
+
12.37 112.5W V 5 c 'cos (2» - 26.6°) A
• 0.25 H, 1 H • 0.5 H,
12.39 3V3kW 14.21 6*"' - 6 c " -1 \2te • V 17.5 For 17.2(a): a„ = 0, b = — [1 - 3 ( - l ) " ] ; n
14.23 -36c -' + 2c ' sin 4r + 36 V ;

1 11 • 7.07 k f l nir
, .„ s + 250 2
14.25 / = s. I n = z i = s, z = , 2 22
CHAPTER 13 s + 250 17.2(b):fr„= 0, oo = 1,
13.1 10V3/90° A rms

y " = ^ 5 b V " 5 ! = y 2 1 = _ y " 250 CHAPTER 16
13.3 2.31/6.9°, 2.31/-113 . 1° ,
16.1 10 cos 10» V 17.2(d): ft. = 0. oo = 1,
2.31/-233.1 A rms, 640 W
0
CHAPTER 15 (a) 12, 26 V; (b) 12, 26 V

(-1)
13.5 20V5 A rms 16.3 y i " (-1)"]
16.5 26, - 4 0 ; 14, 20 V 17.9 - + 2 sin 2( t -
13.7 5/-53.1 n 0
IT
16.7 4(e" - 2c" -) V
10s
2
13.9 -25 + y 15 A rms, 7.83 kW 8 i
13.11
13.13
2.66 - j 10.32 A rms
24 A rms
15.1
s + 10s + 2500
6s
16.9
16.11
2.5V2 cos (20r + 135°) V
2.5V2 sin (8r + 135°) A ir . - , 4n - 1
cos
2
( «'-T) 4
100 15.3 16.13 4J 1 2 A (-D " +l (2n - Dirt

13.15 s + 10s + 16
16.15 8J
2
— = A r m s , 15 kW 2 .?, ( 2 7 ^ 1 ) ° 2
2s
1 7 1 1 + C S
V3 15.5 16.17 (a) 0.6 H; (b) 0.3 H; (c) 6 mH 16ri v (4n/ - t a n ' n)]
13,17 wo = 10 rad/s, | H | = 1 c o s
100V3 V rms, 60 A rms, 10.8 kW J + 2s + 100
2
16.19 -4c ' V
13.19 17.62 / i F ( I / O * 16.23 4(e"' - c ") A 1 7 1 3 7L2 + .?,(T^v^rrJ
13.21 15.7 H, 2 F
15V2 A rms 16.25 3 sin 8r A
13.23 L, = 10 - j4, I = -2 0 , M
J + ( I / O s + l/LC
2
16.27 4 V 2 cos (2r - 45°) A
Lc = 10 + j4 A rms, P = 3.69 kW 15.11 R, = 2.5 n , R2 = 10 n , R, = 1 n , 17.15 2- S n i r V 4 + n 7r
13.25 10V5 A rms, 7.2 kW o) = 0.95 rad/s, cu , = 1 05 rad/s. 16.29 4 4
f| r
(25 + l)(s + 2)
B = 0 1 rad/s
764 Appendix C Answers to Selected Odd-Numbered Problems
765
Appendix C Answers to Selected Odd-Numbered Problems
-128 + 0.037 sin (6rrt - 95°) 19.19 (a) 12(1 - c ')u(l) V;
17.17 x + 0.021 sin (8771 - 97°) (O
7r[(r - 2) + a ]' 2 2 (b) 12[(1 - c"')«(/)
In + 0.013 sin (lOrr/ - 99*) + • • •' (1 - ")«(» - 1)| V
n cos ^ Ant + 90° - tan 17.39 / ( / ) = 6.379 + 1.986 sin (2m + 10 K ' l
25 - 4n
+ sin (47rt + 8.10°) •921 - 2 - _ L - n ( 2 „ - S i \)TT,
(4n - 1)V(100 - 16n ) + 64n '18.15 (a) - c M - r ) ; (b) - » c ' « ( - / ) IT m\ — 1
+ 0.670 sin (6m + 8.40°)
2 H
2 2 2 2
I , 4V2n \ 19.25 (a) (sinr + sin 2r)u(»);

+ 0.504 sin (%m + 9.44°) 1817 (a)r-^;
„ n cos 4n/ - tan
2 —— I (b) (c' - c ' + 2 sin r)u(r):
+ 0.404 sin (IOTTT + 10.8°) + • 2 + 70)
17.9 ^TT2 , - i - "
1 1 6 V
(O [ c - * i t - IV " *J»W;
(4„2 - l)Vl + 256n 4 (b) (c ' - e ')«(r) V 2 (d) 8(«) - (1 - cos / + sin Du(i),
1 (e) (cos I - sin 2/)u(l)
17.21 - 1 - 2 X 18.19 ( a ) (1 . „ ; ( b ) T1 -+^ —
„ +, ' ja>) <u^ ; ( c ) - 2 t a n " ' a > ;
2 2
7r|_ . - i 4n 2
19.27 (a) [c~'(l - 3/ + ^ r ) + e > ( / ) ;
CHAPTER 18 = V V 2 - 1 » 0.644 2
•)]
4n
cos
(
[4m + 2 tan
8n 2
a + jut
18.21
2H
V 4 + 5a, + a.
, 90° - tan
3w
(b)
,7.27 fT, _ £ < - ! ) • « » , 4« 18.1 (a) (b)
2 4
An jut (a + jo>y + b
18.23 l ± ^ ' = ' 1 + C
2;
2 ; v + y x + i r
1 + Jlxt 19.29 (a) ;(b):

i ( l + c-) '(1 - C-")(J 2 + j>'
(a + jo>) + 2 b' 2 18.25 J,^J
7 g , 2 ^ l V 4 (2 -l) . "" s
18.27 1
1 7 2 9 + n 2 2 S , A ;
(c) .
(2n - l)ir (d)
0 = (2n -" l1)71
) i « + tan a + jut 18.29 fj s + 1
2 + (2/t - 1) TT 18.31 (a)JJ;(b)|J 19.31 1 sin 2/ A
2 2
—2ia> 2 oi7r
, (2n - l)if 18.3 (a) a , + a>3. (*>>-;1 - 01; -2r
)
[(> 1)77/ - tan ;
2 2
c o s 19.33 (a) 2e"' - e ' ; (b) 3 cos 2r + cos t
3
a,1 + .to (a - b)ut

2 1 - at',
2
. f,2 (a - b)o> 19.35 5c~' - 2 c ' A 7
77 „ . (2n - 1)V4 + (2n - 18.5 (a) 2 -1- sin

. -(a—- b)ot , tan ' tan 19.37 -6c" A
1) TT 2
0) sin 2 L 2
left: 19.39 4c-' + ^c- ' - § c - ' , 2 6
/ + o. a CHAPTER 19 - 4 c ' + 7c" ' - c " A

128
2 2
1 + (2n - 1) TT
2 2
- 2
W
\ > + fc
b - a.
2 to )) + 4a
4 a a>
o. ' 22 22 22 22 2
7T 2 (In - 1) [42 + (2n - 1) TT ] 2 2
, ut , 2aoi
right: 1 - 2c * c- -2
tan ' tan ' 2 . 19.1 (a)-! — ;(b)-
128 y 1 a + b - at
_T2 S ^ (2n - 1) [4 + (In - l) 7r ] w
a 2 2 2
CHAPTER 20
77T
1*1 19.3 —
2 2 2 2
17.31 i 8
,7r(l - 4n )
2
2
(c) —
V (tan"'
2a OJ
a + * - a> ) +5;4fl o>
2 J 2 J 2 2 2
19.5
s + 1
2
(a) (2 - 3C")H(»);
20.1 (a) c"'(2 cos 2/ + sin 2r) A;
(b) \s t - 5 sin r +
a + b - at (b) (2 sin 2r + 2t)u(t); c"'(| cos 2t - j sin 2») A
(b) |Co| = - sinh 7r, <fa • 0;
2 2 2
17.33 (c) (3 cos 3r + 2 sin 3/)«(/);
jl + c"*° - 2c" * cos 2a» 2 20.3 2 + 10c"' - l O c " A
7T (d) (cos t - t + 2e-')«(»)
, , sinh 7r 20.5 (a) 8 - c " ( 6 sin t + 8 cos t) V,
,
sin 2o> e
_. oi 20
19.7 (a) c '(2 cos » - 6 sin r)u(/); (b) 2 f c " « ( r ) ; (b) 15c-' - e"(5 sin t + 15 cos 1) V
tan" -—5- 7, t»n ' - (c) (2 - r ) c ' « ( r ) ; 20.9 20 - c ' ( 4 cos 2r - 2 sin 2t) V
d>„ = tan n, n even 1
1
(d) c " ( 2 cos 3* + 2sin3r)u(») 20.13 (a) 2 sin 2r V; (b) 2 cos 2, V;

= 180° + t a n ' n, n odd 1 - 2 c * cos 2tt> a 2
18.7 1 1 — *-C*+2) (c) 2 cos 2» + 2 sin 2/ V

1 [ 3 + jut 1
(c) |co| = | , s*o = 0; (c„| = j j j j j , 19.9 -«-»); (b) 1 ' ; 20.17 (a) (4 - 5e"' + e~ ')u(t),
\ / 2 l 5 - oi - 2yo)J 2
5 + 2
s
(C)
d>„ = 0, n even 18.9 (a)
O + 2) + 4 ' ^ ' (1 - - » + 9
2 2 0 > . S < " ; ( d )'-s + 2 C
5(c-' - c " ) u ( / ) ;
= 180°, n odd (b) [1 - c"(cos3r + f sin 3/)|«(/).
19 11 « J % t i i (1
17.37 For/4 = 1, 8c^' cos — sin o> ^c"sin3r«(j)
j 2 j 20.19 2 + 6e" - 8c" V
(a) / ( / ) = 1.273 sin (2TH) + 0.423 sin (6rr») 19.13 (a) (; - l)«(r - ! ) - ( , - )u(t - 2);
+ 0.253 sin (lOrrr) 18.11
2
20.21 c " ( l - cos/Mr)
(b) (2 cos 2» + 3 sin 2t)u(t - 77);
+ 0.179 sin (14 irt) 20.23 . . . 2 c " sin/i<(/)
(r + a2V
77 (c) j sin 3r(u(/) - u(t - ir)\; 3) + r
+ 0.138 sin (187rt) + • • • 18.13 ( S ) 2 (J + 2
(c) / ( / ) = 0.642 + 0.418 sin (2TT/ - 92°) -2a) (d) sin 2t[e '«(/) - e ' " u ( » - n/2)] 1
20.25
( / 2 )
+ 0.084 sin (4TT( - 94°) (b),7(7^ a ) '' 19.17 (a) cos I + sin /; (b) 1 - cos t + sin t
2 2
+ Vis + 1' vT
766 Appendix G Answers to Selected Odd-Numbered Problems Appendix C Answers to Selected Odd-Numbered Problems 767

Electric Circuit Analysis Complete PDF

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Electric Circuit Analysis Complete PDF

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Repeat Prob. 8.42 for (a) v, = We"»•«(?> V and t.

Hans Christian Oersted

258 Chapter 8 Simple RC and RL Circuits 259

IK.URf ».l ( ircuit with two inductors

260 Chapter 9 Second-Order Circuits

12 = 3e-' + 4e' ' 2 + 2<T<" A (9.7) we must have

262 Section 9.2 Second-Order Equations 263

^-Ax. + Xf) + aA(x. + Xf) + «,<*• + x ) = fit) f (9 I T H E N A T U R A t RESPONSI

and x = A e" '

x = x, + x = An?" ' + A e~ '

changed from 0 to 12, then = ^ V*-l5)

T"5C*»i + *«2) + a, — (x„i + x ) + ao(x„i + *„ )

dt dt show that X\, 4 ' • '< < * , n "d x + a r e a s o l l : t ' o n s

since both x„, and x satisfy (9.12).

By (9.16) and (9.17) we have 9.3.3 Given

which is a more general solution (unless si = s ) than either equation of (9.16). In

If the natural frequencies l i i

logarithmic system was chosen in his honor.

= e"'l(A, + A ) cos fit + (jAt - jA ) sin fit]

Since Ai and A are arbitrary, let us rename the constants as

where j = V — I . (In electrical engineering we cannot use i, as the mathematicians jA, - jA = 2 B 2

Section 9.4 Types of Natural Frequencies 269

Substituting this expression into (9.30) and simplifying, we have

x„ = (A, + A t)e 2 (9.31)

EXAMPLE 9.4 In the case of (9.23) we have = - 3 , - 3 , and thus

x(t) = A,<r ' + A <r ' + 2 2 2 8

The general solution of (9.34), from (9.33) and (9.36), is given by

EXAMPLE 9 . 6 Suppose that in Fig. 9.1 we have

sin bt, cos bt A sin bt + B cos bt

Substituting these values, along with (9.43), into (9.42), we have

The general solution of (9.38), using (9.39), and (9.43), is then

f(t) = e- (9.40) Then if i = x, we have, by (9.4),

The usual procedure is to seek a forced response, f± + 1 0 * + l 6 x = He" ' + 64 2 (9.44)

274 Chapter 9 Second-Order Circuits Section 9.6 Excitation at a Natural Frequency

ii — x = x„ + x/ Answer (a) 3 r Y (b) I V ''

dx 2„ dx , ,„ and Jt(0) dx (0)/<ft = 0. [Suggestion: Try x, = t(A cos 3f + B sin 3f).]

The characteristic equation is

9.6.1 Find the forced response if Therefore, the natural response is

Section 9.7 The Complete Response

so that A = - 6 . The complete response is therefore

To determine the arbitrary constants we need two initial conditions. One,

Applying the second equation of (9.46) to (9.47), we have i x l 0 - 3 C l + i x . 0 - f = 0

at Substituting (9.51) into (9.50) and simplifying, we have

5 cos 2000r V. The nodal equation at node t>i is -4A - 2B = 0

from which A = 6. Thus the complete response is

v = e l 0 0 0 , ( - 2 cos lOOOt + 6 sin lOOOf) + 2 cos 2000f - 4 sin 2000, V (a)

9.7.2 Find i, c , rfi'/dr, and dt3/dr at f = 0 .

Answer 0, 0, 2 A/s, 40 V/s

(b) e" '(-2 cos 4r - \n 4f) + 2 A

FIGURE 9.7 Sketch of an overdamped response

EXAMPLE 9.10 Suppose that R = 1 n , L = \, C = J F, V = 2 V, and /„ = - 3 A. Then by

EXAMPLE 9.12 As an exainpl •<"•« «• " 1 , , 4 Thus the response is

v = e~'(A\s 3f + A sin 3f)2

a)j = 1000 rad/s, and (c) critically damped.

v = (A, + A t)e' (9.69)

Section 9.8 The Parallel RLC Circuit

T H E S E R I E S RLC C I R C U I T i • (A, I A,t)*'<' (9.76)

The series RLC circuit is overdamped if

(9.73) F I G U R E 9.11 Driven series RtC circuit

at' ' ' . I , ' " * * '

Si.2 = - 1 ± ;2 I hi natural l a a n t m a a Is t h a a a m r aj ,n n„ previous example To get the forced

complete response is Therefore, the general solution is

dt The complete response is therefore

T"5C»i + «2) + a, — (x„i + x ) + ao(x„i + *„ )