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Cross-cultural dimensions of applied,

critical, and transformational
leadership: women principals
advancing social justice and
educational equity
a b
Lorri J. Santamaría & Gaëtane Jean-Marie
a
Faculty of Education, University of Auckland, Auckland, New
Zealand
b
College of Education and Human Development, University of
Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
Published online: 03 Jul 2014.
To cite this article: Lorri J. Santamaría & Gaëtane Jean-Marie (2014) Cross-cultural dimensions
of applied, critical, and transformational leadership: women principals advancing social
justice and educational equity, Cambridge Journal of Education, 44:3, 333-360, DOI:
10.1080/0305764X.2014.904276
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0305764X.2014.904276
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Cambridge Journal of Education, 2014
Vol. 44, No. 3, 333–360, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0305764X.2014.904276
Cross-cultural dimensions of applied, critical, and

transformational leadership: women principals advancing social
justice and educational equity
Lorri J. Santamaríaa* and Gaëtane Jean-Marieb
a
Faculty of Education, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; bCollege of
Education and Human Development, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
(Received 6 July 2013; accepted 10 March 2014)
This study, based on the qualitatively rendered experiences and perceptions of

educational leaders from historically underserved backgrounds in the US, argues
that identity impacts leadership practice. To make this point, researchers build
upon an emergent theoretical framework for applied critical leadership from the
theories and traditions of transformational leadership, personal leadership, critical
pedagogy, and critical race theory. With regard to methodology, a two-subject
case study was validated by adding three additional participants for points of
verification to the findings and discussion. Interview, field notes, and relevant
documents were analyzed using phenomenology and constant comparative
methods. Major findings indicate participants’ practice reveal characteristics of
cross-cultural applied, critical, and transformational leadership. These scholarly
findings are significant because they can inform mainstream leadership practices
contributing to educational equity, authentic multiculturalism, improved intercul-
tural relations, innovation, increased academic achievement, and sustainable
educational change.
Keywords: cross-cultural leadership; educational leadership; applied critical
leadership
1. Introduction
Rapidly changing demographics in the US population have resulted in an increasingly
culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) pre-K–12 student body necessitating a par-
adigm shift to the way in which educational leadership is practiced nationwide
(Brooks & Miles, 2008; Normore, 2008; Shapiro, 2008). Some scholars have sug-
gested transformative leadership for social justice as an approach to this fluid and
uncertain educational landscape (Quantz, Rogers, & Dantley, 1991; Shields, 2010).
These and others argue that if we add multiple perspectives and equity-based leader-
ship approaches to status quo leadership practices, educational leaders may be able to
transform leadership practices and improve educational outcomes for larger numbers
of CLD as well as mainstream learners at every level (Astin & Leland, 1991;
Jean-Marie, Normore, & Brooks, 2009; McKenzie et al., 2008; Normore, 2008; Skrla
& Scheurich, 2003; Tillman & Scheurich, 2013; Tooms & Boske, 2010). This study
adds to the growing number of voices in educational leadership, cross-cultural
*Corresponding author. Email: l.santamaria@auckland.ac.nz
© 2014 University of Cambridge, Faculty of Education

334 L.J. Santamaría and G. Jean-Marie
leadership perspectives, and multicultural education suggesting an alternative to

mainstream leadership practices in the US and abroad (Dickson, Den Hartog, &
Mitchelson, 2003; Gooden, 2010; Khalifa, 2012).
As others have documented, there is added value in the stories and narrative
accounts educational leaders of color, women in particular, share about the ways
in which they lead which are qualitatively different from historically mainstream
leadership practices (Ah Nee-Benham & Cooper, 1998; Dantley & Tillman,
2006; Jean-Marie, 2010; Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012; Santamaría, 2013).
The mainstream dominant cultural paradigm that wonders whether the race,
ethnicity, culture, or language of educational leaders has any impact on leader-
ship practice and whether scholars need consider the identities of educational
leaders at all, contests the assumption that identity impacts leadership practice.
This position embraces the notion that educational leadership is most successful
when it is focused on teaching and learning, and that status quo leadership is
necessary but not entirely sufficient for school improvement. The authors of this
contribution understand that leadership can take different forms in different con-
texts. This idea provides the premise for this research. Educational leaders who
are women and also members of historically underserved groups in the US
(e.g., American Indian or Alaskan Native, Asian or Pacific Islander, Hispanic,
Black or African American) tend to manifest cross-cultural leadership practices
through different filters of experience than their mainstream and dominant-culture
peers. One explanation for this is their ability to take positive attributes of their
cross-cultural differences and combine them with empirically effective leadership
practices (e.g., transformational leadership), which for them has resulted in dif-
ferent and often positive outcomes.
To this end, this contribution expands that possibility by (1) providing a more
diverse and profound understanding of educational leadership theory and practice
expressed through rarefied multicultural filters of five women principals of color in
primary school educational settings (Biesta & Mirón, 2002, p. 101); (2) adding to
emergent empirical evidence for applied critical leadership (ACL); (3) providing
characteristics of and (4) evidence for cross-cultural transformative leadership con-
ceptualized as ACL gleaned from case-studies of five cross-cultural women educa-
tional leaders who race themselves outside of Whiteness (Haney Lopez, 1998); and
(5) implications for the use of ACL as the result of empirical research to improve
educational practices and outcomes to better inform education for the public good
(Santamaría, 2013; Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012).
In this inquiry, the authors revisit principles of critical race theory (CRT) as a
lens or epistemology for the study of transformational leadership (Kouzes & Posner,
1987) including personal leadership (Scaetti, Ramsey, & Watanabe, 2008) as theoret-
ical frameworks. The review will be further supported by related studies on ACL
and the characteristics of cross-cultural leaders. Study methods, findings, and a dis-
cussion follow, concluding with limitations and caveats including implications for
policy, practice, and future research. Three central questions regarding cross-cultural
educational leadership frame this work:
Cambridge Journal of Education 335
(1) In what ways do the cross-cultural identities (e.g., subjectivity, biases,

assumptions, race, class, gender, and traditions) of women principals of
cross-cultural primary schools affect their leadership position attainment,
goals, decisions, and practice?
(2) What kinds of effective leadership strategies do cross-cultural leaders use in
their daily practice promoting social justice and educational equity?
(3) In what ways do these strategies differ from effective strategies identified in
mainstream dominant-culture educational leadership literature?
2. Conceptual framework and literature review

CRT provides the epistemological foundation for the study. Transformational and
personal leadership complete the theoretical frame needed in order to answer the
research questions. Finally, literature and research on ACL and characteristics of
cross-cultural leaders will be reviewed to inform the remainder of the study.
Figure 1 provides a representation of the ways in which these concepts build and
support the underlying premise of this study. The idea is that CRT is the most global
construct featured; as well it is the way in which the researchers view and situate the
work and ways in which they read the greater world wherein the research sits. Nested
within this frame are transformational and personal theories of educational leadership.
Neither of the two has been explicitly associated with CRT in existing literature.
Therefore, making note of this in the framework in this study of women leaders from
diverse and underrepresented groups in the US is key. Within this theoretical consid-
eration, research on ACL is presented as an example of theory to practice inquiry that
has emerged from CRT with transformative leadership featuring prominently in find-
ings as well as aspects of personal leadership theory in which the identities of leaders
contribute to their practice (Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012; Santamaría, 2013).
Finally, embedded in ACL is research and literature on cross-cultural leadership
Figure 1. Underlying conceptual framework.

practices. This aspect was added to the underlying conceptual framework for this
study, as most of the participants in ACL research were leaders from historically
underserved backgrounds in the US, as are the participants in the current study.
This framing from epistemology to methodology to participants gradually
expands from global to local to individual, and thus is represented by nesting con-
centric circles.
2.1. Theoretical framework

2.1.1. Critical race theory epistemology
As women researchers, scholars, and educational leaders of color, the authors of this
study have chosen to assume a CRT lens. This is done for several reasons. First,
there is scant evidence of CRT being considered in the study of educational leader-
ship when it pertains to the cross-cultural life experiences and perspectives of educa-
tional leaders linking their own culturally and often linguistically diverse stories to
broader systemic issues found in comprehensive educational contexts (Alemán,
2009; Harris, 1992; Lopez, 2003). Secondly, CRT adds to cross-cultural research
considerations as it considers race first wherein ‘racism is normal and not aberrant
in US society, storytelling is important with regard to exploring race and racism in
our society, liberalism should be critiqued, and there is an emphasis on realism with
regard to racism’ (Ladson-Billings, 2009, p. 88). Third, the theory ‘calls for the
legitimization of narratives of discrimination … and importance of these counter
narratives on implications for educational leadership and policy’ (Parker &
Villalpando, 2007, p. 520); this toward what some might consider interest conver-
gence addressing concerns of underserved populations as well as members of the
dominant society (Bell, 1980, 1992; Ladson-Billings, 1999). Consequently, the
collective CRT effort or perspective arguably promotes social justice and transforma-
tion by challenging traditional notions of ways to conduct, practice, or engage in the
educational politics associated with leadership (Alemán, 2009). In these ways, CRT
is a powerful tool that can be used to effectively challenge conventional accounts of
educational institutional and social processes that occur within various perceivably
oppressive educational contexts (Powers, 2007).
Parker and Villalpando (2007) further maintain that applications of ‘democratic
leadership for social justice through CRT and action will provide leaders with
answers to challenges’ associated with educational inequities and creating feasible
equity agendas in multiple educational settings (p. 523). Thus, transformational lead-
ership and personal leadership can be viewed through the lens of CRT, making each
one of these theoretical frames increasingly relevant to cross-cultural educational
leaders and increasingly diverse settings in the US and abroad.
2.1.2. Transformational leadership

In response to increased diversity and the need for cross-cultural considerations in
educational leadership, transformational leadership holds promise for alignment.
From his research with military leaders, Bass (1985) states that regardless of culture,
transformational leaders inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests for the
good of the group or organization. As a result, followers become motivated to expend
greater effort than they would otherwise as vested members of the community. This
seemingly universal aspect of transformational leadership has been corroborated in
Bass’ further research and by the research findings of others (Jean-Marie & Normore,
2010; Bass & Steidlmeir, 1999; Bass, Waldman, Avolio, & Bebb, 1987). Along these
lines of inquiry, Kouzes and Posner’s (1987, 1993, 2002) substantive research featur-
ing leaders of companies in the private and public sectors’ most positive leadership
experiences, found that transformational leaders challenge processes by seeking
opportunities to challenge the status quo, inspire shared vision by believing they can
make a difference and persuading others they can too, by enabling others to act in col-
laborative spirited teams, modeling the way by setting examples for others to follow,
and encouraging the hearth by keeping hope and determination alive by celebrating
the accomplishments of individuals in their organizations.
Building from Kouzes and Posner’s (1993, 2002) contributions, in their study
featuring 389 Pakistani, Kazakh, and Turkish business students being trained for
management positions in each respective country, Ergeneli, Gohar, and Temirbekova
(2007) found that two of the five transformational leadership characteristics were in
fact universal. These were challenging the process and enabling others to act. The
research findings of Ergeneli et al. indicated that leaders who inspired shared vision,
modeled the way, and encouraged the hearth embodied culturally specific transfor-
mational leadership practices. These culturally specific aspects of transformational
leadership suggest more critical notions of leadership or ACL, as is argued in this
study.
In short, existing research indicates that transformational leadership pushes edu-
cational leaders to think about leadership in new, different, and innovative ways as
impacted primarily by factors in their external environments (Hallinger, 2003). How-
ever, and embedded in this notion of external factors versus internal factors, the the-
ory is limited. A critical eye able to consider educational injustices by way of
naming, unpacking, and interrupting empirically identified and unidentified educa-
tional inequities is necessary in order for sustainable educational transformation and
change to take place (Wink, 2011). There remains an ‘X’ factor in educational lead-
ership. What about leader experience and disposition? A closer look at ways in
which the personal attributes of leaders plays out may provide further insight.
2.1.3. Personal leadership

Schaetti, Ramsey, and Watanabe (2008) developed the conceptual notion of personal
leadership in the mid-1990s, based on their work to advance intercultural education
with training for cultural teamwork at the Summer Institute for Intercultural Com-
munication in Portland, Oregon. These authors maintain that intercultural compe-
tence is comprised of culturally specific and culturally general information and skills
enabling leaders to function at higher levels of cultural competence. The goal then
would be to move away from default cultural programming to a more holistic and
culturally relevant way of leading. Personal leadership consists of six core themes:
leading from inside out, using difference as a creative resource, emphasizing self-
reflection, choosing an internal state of being, beginning with ourselves, and com-
mitting to applied competence (p. 1). Two principles guide personal leadership
mindfulness and creativity (pp. 17–18). These principles are operationalized in
leadership practices that attend to judgment, attend to the motion, rely on physical
sensation, cultivate stillness, engage ambiguity, and align with vision (p. 36). Self-
reflection, thought examination, and the notion of mindfulness, including nurturing
one’s internal state of well-being, and being present are key themes in personal
leadership that have been noted by other researchers interested in change grounded
in an internal critical dialogue (Nagata, 2004, 2009; Senge, Scharmer, Jaworski, &
Flowers, 2004). When considered through the epistemological lens of CRT, personal
leadership is very well aligned with the research findings associated with ACL. A
comparison of the two as well as additional research findings for personal character-
istics of cross-cultural leaders continues to set the stage for the current study.
2.2. Literature review

2.2.1. Applied critical leadership and the role of identity in leadership
This inquiry further builds on the work of Santamaría (2013) and Santamaría &
Santamaría (2012) which argues that when women leaders of color, otherwise mar-
ginalized individuals, or those who may choose to practice leadership through a

CRT lens make leadership decisions, they do so as informed by the positive cross-
cultural attributes of their identities. These findings are from a study of nine cultur-
ally, linguistically, and gender diverse educational leaders who exhibited a unique
set of leadership behaviors that appeared to be qualitatively different from main-
stream or dominant leadership behaviors as observed by the researchers. The partici-
pants ranged in position from a preschool director, to a school psychologist, to
middle school administrator, to an administrative leader on a university campus.
They were each interviewed and observed over the course of one calendar year. In
addition, writing samples were collected from each participant. These included doc-
toral and MA theses, curriculum materials, and published research articles. Data was
initially analyzed according to themes in literature on transformative leadership, crit-
ical multiculturalism, and CRT for evidence of a unique shared leadership style.
Core shared themes or characteristics that emerged from the inquiry included
participants’ participation in critical conversations, utilization of consensus building,
working to dispel negative stereotypes, leading to give back to marginalized com-
munities, the need to build trust with members of the mainstream, honoring all
members of the constituency, leading by example, partnership with mainstream
allies, and being called to lead. These attributes, the participants maintained, were
drawn directly from ethnic or cultural aspects of their identities. Other researchers
(e.g., Ah-Nee Benham & Cooper, 1998; Aléman, 2009; Johnson, 2006; Lomotey,
1987, 1989, 1990; Santamaría, 2013; Tillman, 2007) have similarly found that
cross-cultural educational leaders draw elements of their professional practice from
aspects of their core identities and tend to share a particular disposition for advanc-
ing educational leadership for social justice and equity.
2.2.2. Characteristics of cross-cultural leaders

This current inquiry supports research findings that identified cultural congruence as
indicative of effective leadership practice wherein leaders’ management style and
vision were reflected in the cultural norms and values of the group where the leader-
ship was enacted (House, Hanges, & Ruiz-Quintanilla, 1997). In other words, the
leaders’ behaviors demonstrated a clear fit within the parameters of the cultural con-
text. ACL research findings back up this claim.
Interestingly, cultural difference signified by leadership behaviors that were dif-
ferent from dominant cultural values also resulted in innovation and improvement.
When a leader of difference leads constituents of different backgrounds, leaders

offer an element of surprise that is unexpected unconventional, and nontraditional
(House et al., 1997). This research finding suggests a value-added component when
leaders are not members of dominant cultural groups, particularly when that leader’s
behavior is not so far outside the norm of the culture that it is perceived as disrup-
tive. Expanding this idea, Conger and Kanungo (1987) suggest unconventional lead-
ership behaviors constitute an important component of charismatic leadership. There
have been no explicit tests of this proposition, however, this present study may offer
some insight as to whether or not there is any validity in this idea.
Finally, Dickson et al. (2003, p. 766) and Van de Vijver and Leung (2000) sug-
gest, ‘transcultural creative leaders will be required’ in the future to navigate and
negotiate change in public and private sectors, such as schools and universities.
These will be people who can
learn to (1) transcend their childhood acculturation and respect very different cultures;
(2) build cross-cultural partnerships of mutual trust, respect, and obligation; (3) engage
in cross-cultural creative problem solving to resolve conflicts; and (4) help construct
third cultures in various operations. (Dickson et al., 2003, p. 766)
The current inquiry builds on and extends this idea from the perspective of CRT,
recognizing that race and ethnicity are major components of culture for women of
color who are principals operating in multicultural contexts advancing social justice
and educational equity.
3. Method
3.1. Design, participants, and data sources
Qualitative research was employed in this study to explore, examine, and describe a
phenomenon to gain an in-depth understanding of the experiences of five principals
in two phases and the ways in which their cross-cultural experiences impact their
leadership practice (Grbich, 2007; Miles & Huberman, 1994; Straus & Corbin,
1998). This inquiry featured five such self-identified female primary school princi-
pals (i.e., three African American, one Mexican American, one White woman) of
CLD schools in the same school district. Two African American principals are the
subjects in Phase 1, with three principal participants in Phase 2; one being African
American, one White, and one Mexican American.
Principals participated in two semi-structured interviews that were one hour in
length. Interviews took place at the principals’ schools or at the university where the
researchers were employed. In addition to the interviews, field notes were taken
recording participant observations over the course of 30 minutes to an hour for each
participant on four occasions over the course of the inquiry for the first two partici-
pants as part of Phase 1 and twice for the other three in Phase 2. School and other doc-
umentation such as writing samples, email correspondence, and district literature were
also collected for data analysis to answer the study research questions. Case studies
were drawn from the experiences of two African American principals who were able
to participate in in-depth follow-up interviews. To clarify, data from these participants
was considered to be Phase 1 of this study. Data drawn and analyzed from the other
three principals (Annie, Jeannie, and Marisol) comprised Phase 2 of the investigation
and provided further validation of the data considered from the first phase.
Phenomenology as an approach was necessary to gain the greatest understanding

of the phenomena of cross-cultural principals serving cross-cultural elementary
schools (Moustakas, 1994). Of note, each school had a population of more than
75% students of color; overwhelmingly these students were African American and
Latino of Mexican descent. Also noteworthy, most of the students at all of the
schools were recipients of free and reduced meal programs, reflecting the low socio-
economic status of their parents or families.
3.2. Setting and participants

Northgate, the school district where Tina (African American), Priscilla (African
American), Annie (African American), Jeannie (White, races self outside of White-
ness), and Marisol (Mexican American) work as elementary school principals, serves
more than 132,000 students in pre-school through grade 12. It is one of the largest
school districts in the Western coastal state. The student population is extremely
diverse, representing more than 15 ethnic groups and more than 60 languages and
dialects.
Since its founding on July 1, 1854, the district has grown from a small, rented
school building with one teacher to its current size – more than 225 educational
facilities with 15,924 full-time equivalent employees. More than 6000 teachers are
in classrooms at the district’s various educational facilities, which include 107 tradi-
tional elementary schools (five of which are led by the principals in the current
study), 11 K–8 schools, 24 traditional middle schools, 28 high schools, 45 charter
schools, and 13 atypical/alternative schools.
Northgate Unified School District is proud to call itself one of the top large
urban school districts in the US. Measures include its top scores on state and
national tests, its leadership in areas such as technology, curriculum, neighborhood
and specialty schools, career-technical education, and food services. Its graduates
include Hall of Fame sports stars, along with some of the nation’s top scientists,
writers, and leaders.
All five of the schools being led by the participants in this inquiry were in pro-
gram improvement, meaning the schools fail to meet student achievement bench-
marks as mandated by No Child Left Behind legislature. Each principal claimed to
work hard to get their teachers to improve teaching and thus standardized test
scores, although most of the students in their schools comprise the statistical bulk of
the achievement gap.
Consistent with research that focuses on CRT, participants were invited to be a
part of this study due to their professional positions and their self-identification as
women educational leaders of color (Ladson-Billings, 2009). Moreover, participants
in this convenience sample considered themselves to be historically disadvantaged
individuals serving in educational leadership roles during the time of this study.
Bragg, Kim, and Rubin (2005) defined underserved individuals as those who may
have been or may be ‘financially disadvantaged, racial/minorities, and first-generation
individuals who are not represented in colleges and universities in proportion to their
representation in the K–12 educational system or in society at large’ (p. 6). Although
one participant, Jeannie, was White, she actively made a point to race herself outside
of Whiteness in order to better serve the needs of her mostly African American and
Mexican American students and their families (Haney Lopez, 1998).
3.3. Data analysis

Using a phenomenological inquiry-based research design, several pathways were
taken to analyze the data (Moustakas, 1994). First the raw data from Phase 1 partici-
pants with the largest quantity of data (Priscilla and Tina) were explored to glean a
holistic phenomenological understanding of each participant’s way of leading. Preli-
minary findings from transcribed interviews, researcher field notes, and district docu-
ments were organized using a modified grounded process guided by indicators of
transformational leadership, personal leadership, and CRT from the theoretical litera-
ture framing the study. Matrices were developed headed by each category and data
was placed under each sub-heading as appropriate. Findings in each category were
then roughly sorted to corroborate or disavow evidence of ACL for each participant.
For the next step, the constant comparative method was employed to determine
shared ACL characteristics across participants’ practice as well as evidence that

leaders employed personal leadership that was cross-cultural in nature (Bogdan &
Biklen, 2003). This phase of data analysis relied on ‘a process that involve[d] cod-
ing and then segregating the data by codes into data clumps for further analysis and
description’ (Glesne, 2006, p. 147). At this stage, the data had been organized and
refined in three different iterations using separate matrices based on the literature
and research from the underlying conceptual framework. Following this process,
they were combined into a super-matrix where emergent themes independent of the
literature and ACL were identified. This provided a comprehensive yet multifaceted
framework with which to anchor data drawn from the other three participants who
comprised Phase 2 of the study. Some of the work from these analyses is revealed
in Tables 1 and 2.
Furthermore, phenomenological examination of participants’ voices was carried
out in order to ground participants’ personal leadership experiences, which led to
the creation of counter-stories resulting in case studies. These were in the tradition
of critical race methodology (Solórzano & Yosso, 2002). Findings are reported first
as detailed case studies for Tina and Priscilla (Phase 1). These are organized by
emergent themes as related to literature reviewed. Although Tina and Priscilla’s
counter-stories comprise the bulk of findings presented (they were the most heavily
involved in the research process), it is important to know that the same data analysis
process was undertaken for all participants (e.g., Tina, Priscilla, Annie, Jeannie, and
Marisol) as demonstrated in the discussion, by research questions for all partici-
pants.
4. Results
4.1. Tina
4.1.1 Education as expectation
Tina knew she would teach from an early age. A tall, slim, elegant woman with
honey-colored skin and chestnut brown hair, neatly tucked away from her chiseled
face, finished off in a stately jewel tone silk head band; Tina often had a deeply pen-
sive look on her face. Brow furrowed, it is obvious this woman means business.
Since she could remember, she had always wanted to be a teacher. Tina played
school in her bedroom and enjoyed the opportunities she had to go with her mother,
who was a teacher to her classroom during the summer. She especially remembered
the rare occasions she was able to accompany her mother when students were
Table 1. Participant summary and examples of critical race theory (CRT) and applied
critical leadership (ACL).
Principal,
identity and years
as principal Example of CRT Example of ACL
Tina, African Storytelling is an important form Need to build trust with
American, 3 for exploring race and racism. ‘I mainstream. ‘I reflect on
years draw professional strength from everything I do and say because I
the experiences and story that are know that it might be interpreted
my identity.’ differently depending on who
might be listening.’
Priscilla, African Emphasis on racial realism. ‘I am Engaging critical conversations. ‘I
American, 5 fully aware of the issues affecting am not afraid to have
years academic achievement for Black, conversations about race,
Native American, and Mexican language, or difference with

students. I am painfully aware and teachers, parents, or other
see injustices played out with the administrators if it is about helping
school experience of my own son.’ students in the school experience
greater levels of success.’
Annie, African Racism is normal, not aberrant in Leading by example. ‘My work is
American, 20 US society. ‘Racism is alive and about civil rights, access to
years well in our schools and district. education, and interrupting
When the achievement gap ignorance as much as it is about
disappears, we can talk about leadership.’
racism being a thing of the past.’
Jeannie, White, Critique of liberalism. ‘I guess I Honoring constituents. ‘People
10 years am what politically correct people might judge me because of the
call a “White ally.” After more population I choose to serve. I
than 20 years of working with don’t care. I know my students
“other people’s children,” I can’t and work hard against injustice to
imagine working anywhere else.’ make things better for them.’
Marisol, Mexican Emphasis on racial realism. ‘Even Bringing people to consensus.
American, 8 though my Spanish isn’t that great, ‘One of my gifts is bringing
years when Latino parents see me, it peaceful resolve to situations that
feels like they are encouraged by are moving toward a volatile state.
the prospect of being able to Getting everyone to state their
communicate with the person in opinion and work toward a
charge.’ common goal is a coping
mechanism that has worked for me
all of my life. It is something
organic that comes from me.’
actually in the classroom. Tina’s grandmother worked for the Chicago Public School
System as an Administrative Secretary, so in Tina’s words, ‘teaching was in her
blood.’ In fact, her grandmother often stressed the importance of education, making
sure Tina and her sister Kimberley did their very best in school.
Tina’s mother shared a particular story of when her grandmother was working
how she was passed over more than once for promotions because of her skin color
and at least on one occasion had to train that new hire: a White man. This shaped
her mother’s views not only of race relations in the workplace, but also how she
spoke to her daughters and two granddaughters about ‘getting a good education so
that they were equal or better than those they would compete with for jobs.’ Her
mother told Tina and her sister that they were smart and capable and to not be afraid
Table 2. Data intersection examples for transformational leadership and personal leadership.
Transformational leadership attributes
Personal leader-
ship core themes Challenge the process Inspire shared vision Model the way Enable others to act Encourage the hearth
Leading from ‘I rely on my cultural ‘I always have to make ‘It feels good to give
inside out and racial identity and sure I am giving an equal “education.” It was the
work with English- opportunity to everyone.’ key for me.’ (Tina)
language learners to (Priscilla)
connect to the families
at my school.’ (Tina)
Choosing internal ‘I lead with equity for
state of being all students. It is my
job to make the field
level. I take that very
seriously.’ (Annie)
Difference as Being a Black woman
creative gives me the privilege to
resource work with other female
leaders of color in the
district.” (Priscilla)
Beginning with ‘I have had families ‘It is up to me to make ‘I lead in the ways that
self leave because things sure we are on the cutting I know Black families
did not go their way. I edge.’ (Marisol) need. I have a Black
need to do what is family, we share
right for the largest experiences. In this
number of people.’ way I am giving back.’
(Tina) (Annie)
Committing to ‘A highlight for me every ‘No Child Left Behind ‘I need professional
applied year is to attend the was like a good idea gone development just as
competence African American bad. Now we are trying much as my teachers
Educator Conference my to make sure it doesn’t do in order to keep up
Cambridge Journal of Education
district sponsors. Here I damage our teachers and with educational

can connect to other students.’ (Jeannie) change.’ (Marisol)
(Continued)
343
Table 2. (Continued).
344
Transformational leadership attributes

Personal leader-
ship core themes Challenge the process Inspire shared vision Model the way Enable others to act Encourage the hearth
administrators who work
with the same families I
serve.’ (Jeannie)
Emphasis on self- ‘I draw professional ‘Even though my Spanish
reflection strength from the isn’t that great, when
experiences and story Latino parents see me, it
that are my identity.’ feels like they are
(Tina) encouraged by the
prospect of being able to
communicate with the
person in charge.’
(Marisol)
L.J. Santamaría and G. Jean-Marie
to show it. Their mother was encouraging, and had high expectations of Tina and
her sister. ‘This is something that was ingrained – we may not always succeed – but
we had to give it our best and try as hard as possible.’ By trade Tina’s father was a
Marine. In Tina’s words:
Though not technically an educator, he was and possibly should have been. He, too,
like my mother and maternal grandmother, had high expectations of his daughters.
Though there were many instances of my father being involved in my education, I
remember one instance very vividly. I was in an Algebra class in high school and just
could not get the homework. I just didn’t get it. My father got home from driving all
the way from Yuma, Arizona (which he did every day – he commuted so that we could
stay in one place) and helped me with my homework. He saw that I was tired after
hours of being at it and told me to go to bed. When I got up the next morning. He had
WRITTEN OUT EVERY STEP of how to do an algebraic equation in a way that I
could understand. He explained the steps to me before he left for work that day (4 am
mind you). I got it. No matter what anyone says about who signed my father’s pay-
check, my dad was and is a teacher.
Tina came from a family that knew and stressed to all of their children/grandchildren
the importance of education. She has held to this and eventually made it her own
career.
4.1.2. Pathway to administration

Tina was a teacher for 17 years before becoming an administrator. She never
expected to become an administrator. She claimed she only pursued a Master’s
degree in Administration because she wanted to clear her California credential. In
addition, she remembered having a ‘less than stellar administrator during her first
job in California.’ Tina said she took the classes to see up close and personal ‘how
it’s supposed to work at a school,’ because she knew that the way things were being
run at her school site was not the ideal. ‘I never left teaching because I didn’t like it,
but because an opportunity arose that seemed to be too good to pass up,’ Tina stated
in an interview. The Area Superintendent at the time was looking for more diversity
in the administrators in his area. He had seen Tina teach, and knew perhaps by word
of mouth from her principal that Tina had administration certification and a Master’s
degree. She had experiences that provided a strong foundation for a more global and
culturally relevant leadership perspective. At the time, Tina had been a resource tea-
cher for several years and an advocate for students learning English as a second lan-
guage. A strong candidate, Tina also served in key leadership roles inside and
outside of the classroom, including opportunities to work with both parent and tea-
cher groups in various leadership capacities (e.g., grade team leader, school site
council).
Tina’s first administrative role was in a higher-income area that had children of
color bused in. She reported
It was very difficult to navigate between my need for equity for all students and the
neighborhood residence sense of entitlement. I can remember being asked by a parent
whose White child had been in a fight with a Hispanic child why their child was being
given the same punishment as the Hispanic child. I was stunned. REALLY? I mean
she was serious. She really didn’t see why both children should be given equal punish-
ments. Parents also were surprised when they met me in person that I am African
American. One parent even went so far as to say, ‘You don’t sound Black on the
phone,’ to which I replied, ‘So what does Black exactly sound like?,’ after which the
principal stepped in to finish this conversation. Ridiculous.
Tina shared these counter-stories lightheartedly, but the discomfort was palpable.
She further shared, ‘I knew what the woman meant, but I guess all African Ameri-
can people have the same speech patterns just like all White or Hispanic people
have the same dialects?’ Eventually, Tina received ‘a true mentoring opportunity
working as an administrator under the support of an African American female prin-
cipal.’ Tina shared:
This was a blessing as her boss (ultimately, my boss, too) was also an African Ameri-
can woman. From being in this circle, I got the opportunity to become interim princi-
pal at my current site and eventually interviewed and became the permanent principal.
I had the experience, the credentials and the drive – but ‘who you know’ does make a
difference. If I had stayed as a VP [vice-principal] up at the higher-income school, I

would never had met the African American Area Superintendent who saw my work,
had the confidence to put me in a school as a principal and supported this third-year
administrator with a mentor for the entire first year of my principalship. This was
important for my success. It made things a little smoother. Although I do have friends
who are in the position, having someone to talk with at the moment I needed them
because he was on site was essential.
Tina also discussed professional networking opportunities within her sorority. She
recalled that her initial teaching position came partially as a result of a connection
that she had within her sorority. She expressed that there was something to the
notion that it is ‘not what you know but whom you know,’ especially in terms of
securing a good job in education whether or not you are a person of color.
4.1.3. Working for social justice and educational equity

As a leader, Tina says she consistently tried to make sure that the decisions she
made put kids first and was fair and or equitable. She claimed that at times what
might be fair and what might be equitable might also be very different. She may
have, for example, decided to give more resources to one grade level versus another
because one grade level needed it and others did not. This was not always popular
at Tina’s school, which served students of whom 80% were Latino of Mexican des-
cent or African American, with most receiving free or reduced meals due to low
socioeconomic status. In her mind’s eye what she did was right. Also, Tina tried to
make sure she did not ‘play favorites with families or with the more veteran teachers
at the site.’ She shared that there was a sense of entitlement with certain segments
of the school community when she arrived as principal and she had to make sure
not to play into this. This year is Tina’s fourth year at the school. At this point she
is confident she can better run the school without people thinking that she is playing
favorites. ‘I think to myself, what is the best for the student, the school climate, and
how would I want my own daughter, nieces and nephews treated in the same situa-
tion?’ She asked herself, ‘How would I want to be spoken to as a parent if I was sit-
ting on the other side of the desk?’ Thinking this way keeps her ‘pointed North and
I can sleep most nights, even though I wish that everyone could be happy – it’s not
always going to happen.’ She claimed, ‘You need to do what is best for you – but
so do I; and I have 500 kids to think about not just one or two. The decisions I
make are watched by everyone, so I have to be careful about what I say and do.’
4.1.4. Making a difference

Tina said she knows she has made a difference when parents approach her and speak
comfortably on the playground – not just the Black parents, but the Latino and
Asian Pacific Island parents, too. She knows:
Because of the hugs I get from the kids because they say that I listen. I know because
even though our test scores have dropped, the quality of teaching and the consistency
of standards-based content and strategies has improved (the scores will come – I
hope!). I know because district office personnel have told me that since my time there,
there have been less parent complaints, less disciplinary referrals and that when they
come on campus, it seems to be ‘calmer’ and organized.
Tina was glad about these good reports. There were still things that she said she is
working on because she cannot ‘tackle everything at once, but I think I have and am
making inroads. It will take time. I just hope I will get the opportunity to continue
before the rumored principal moves of this year.’
4.2. Priscilla
4.2.1. Education as expectation
Priscilla’s smile would brighten any room. She was vivacious and energetic and
brought a sense of excitement and optimism to every situation she encountered. Her
clear ebony skin was complemented with natural braids reflecting pride in her Afri-
can American identity. ‘Growing up in the South I am the first and only [in my fam-
ily] who was able to get this far. I saw the struggles,’ she shared immediately. The
most pivotal moment was when she went to her high school counselor to inquire
about college. At that point the high school counselor told her that she had not pre-
pared to go to college and that it was his recommendation that she become a secre-
tary. But being a secretary was not in her plan and so instead Priscilla joined the
military Reserves. ‘While being a Reservist I studied psychology at the community
college because I thought it would help me with my own issues. I didn’t think about
education until I moved to the West coast.’
After being a Reservist and spending a few years at a community college,
Priscilla got married and as a result moved to Southern California. It was suggested
that she serve her community by observing and working in elementary school class-
rooms as part of her psychology coursework. At that time she met Annie (featured
later in this study), who was a principal and encouraged Priscilla, along with a few
other African American teachers, to become a teacher in her own right. When it was
time for Priscilla to transfer from the community college to the university she was
unable to meet the entrance requirements for the state campus. One of the African
American connections Priscilla made while at the community college and volunteer-
ing in classrooms was also a university professor at one of the prominent private
parochial universities in the area. This woman assisted Priscilla in applying for
transfer to the private university and mentored her successful application and
entrance into the teacher credential program. She candidly shared almost under her
breath: ‘They saw something in me that I didn’t see, that I couldn’t see myself.’
4.2.2. Pathway to administration

Priscilla always wanted to work with students in high school who lived in the inner
city. Her description of her journey to educational leadership was flowered with mul-
tiple references and mentions of various ‘strong intelligent connected’ Black women
in contexts ranging from the hairdressers, to a Godmother, to avid Church attendees.
A whole cast of ladies connected in multiple ways were key players in order for
Priscilla to secure her first teaching position, for which she did not interview. With a
new teaching credential in hand, she secured teaching job number one based on a
phone call. This teaching job eventually led to her first position in educational
administration. Eventually Priscilla became a staff developer. Part of the mystery
and allure of teaching was that during the summer and in the evenings teachers were
paid for their attendance and participation in staff development courses. Priscilla,
trying to help make ends meet for her young family, frequently signed up for cut-
ting-edge professional development programs. As a result became a knowledgeable
teacher. Eventually, she became well known as an expert teacher and thus a natural
staff developer. She was a valued asset in Northgate School District.
When asked how one becomes an administrator in the district, Priscilla
explained:
You need to know someone. There is always a backhand deal going on. There is
always a friend or associate who someone knew here or there who knows about an
opening or such and such. Watching this dynamic has been hurtful when I know some-
one who has less experience has been hired instead of me. It all depends on whom you
know.
Priscilla said she knew she would eventually become a leader because she knew she
could affect larger numbers of students than 30 at a time. She knew she would get
the chance to lead a school when superiors and peers would often say, ‘You need to
be out of the classroom training other teachers and leading in the schools.’
4.2.3. Working for social justice and educational equity

Priscilla held strong views about the way in which bilingual education had been
implemented. In the schools where she had started her career, most of the students
were African American and Latino of Mexican descent. In the schools there were
bilingual programs that were de facto segregation programs where Black students
and Mexican students were taught in different classrooms. Since Priscilla was an
English speaker she was responsible for teaching the English-speaking children. All
of the English-dominant children happened to be Black students. There were not
opportunities in the school for students to work together. As a result, Spanish speak-
ers rarely became proficient in English and African American students rarely had
interactions with students other than Black students in academic settings. These were
the kinds of injustices Priscilla was eager to correct as a staff developer as well as
an eventual school site administrator. She related:
I always wonder how people can treat some children different from others. I don’t
understand how people can show compassion for some students and not others. What-
ever I can do in order to give the largest number of students the most opportunities is
what I do as a leader and what I try to teach my teachers. I model this behavior with
my teachers, parents, and families. I am not afraid to put on my own professional
development when necessary. Sometimes I think that is why I have been blessed to
work with a large special needs population. I want the underdog to be the ‘overdog’ in
the schools that I lead.
Currently, there are a lot more minority principals in the inner city. However,
Priscilla explained that it was very hard to work in the district, which was not over-
whelmingly diverse.
In my humble opinion, mainstream administrators hold Black administrators to a
higher standard. We are often accused of being incompetent because we lead in
schools where students perform at a lower academic rate. There are inequities in the
ways in which being an African American administrator plays out in our school and
district.
4.2.4 Making a difference

Fighting for her own children and their rights in school helped Priscilla to work with
the same passion for the children she served. ‘I don’t think I do anything special that
other people can’t do. I think God has chosen me to do what I do and to be who I
am. There are days when I pray on my way to work for strength and wisdom,’ she
said.
Priscilla shared a story about wearing high heels to school, which she wore every
day in order to demonstrate that she was in fact the principal; wherein the visitor to
the school approached her and asked her to direct them to the principal. ‘I am the
principal, how may I help you?,’ Priscilla asked the individual. She said it took the
person all of three full minutes to realize that she was in fact the principal. These
are the kinds of little inequities that took place every day for Priscilla for which she
claimed she did not have the energy to address. Her work toward social justice and
educational equity was about making sure her students felt safe, loved, and free to
learn so that they could have as many choices as possible when they left and went
on to middle school, high school, and college if that was what they chose.
4.3. Emergent themes

Tina, Priscilla, Annie, Jeannie, and Marisol expressed experiencing stress related to
providing effective leadership and for the students at their schools to achieve. All
five principals reveal characteristics consistent with the practice of ACL.
Table 1 summarizes participant data juxtaposed with preliminary examples from
the data that align with CRT and the attributes of ACL that were indicated in the
findings. Comprehensive results indicated each participant in the study manifested
shared aspects of ACL and leadership practice grounded in CRT.
Further, Table 2 indicates some of the ways in which sample data intersects with
regard to transformational leadership and personal leadership. The matrix organiza-
tion of the data examples demonstrates ways in which participants’ responses align
with the literature reviewed as well as ways in which transformational leadership
and personal leadership overlap conceptually. This overlap indicates a good fit, indi-
cating increased validity of the findings to answer the research questions posed and
the literature reviewed. The most appropriate best fitting examples were selected
from each participant, including principals in Phase 2 of the study, to provide a more
complete and robust portrayal of each participant as well as a better understanding

of the unique ways in which each one provided leadership in her particular context.
ACL is further evidenced in Table 2 as leadership practice grounded in positive
attributes of each leader’s identity. Additionally, Annie, Jeannie, and Marisol pro-
vided data that gave rise to the themes that emerged from Tina and Priscilla’s case
studies: education as expectation, alternative pathways to administration, a tendency
to work for social justice and educational equity, and a ‘calling’ to make a difference
by serving underserved populations. More about Annie, Jeannie, and Marisol fol-
lows from Phase 2 to further demonstrate ways in which ACL was realized in each
one of their contexts.
4.4. Annie
Like Tina and Priscilla, education for Annie was not an option. This powerful prin-
cipal came of age during the 1970s and was raised by a family who emphasized
education as ‘the great equalizer.’ Following her own educational journey, Annie
knew she had no other option than to work as a teacher and eventually administrator
in order to empower other African American and historically oppressed groups in
her region and state. Annie relied on her grassroots work within inner-city neighbor-
hoods and personal and professional connections within the African American com-
munity in order to learn about alternative pathways to administration. She secured a
position as the principal within a few years of being a teacher and has worked tire-
lessly to support and mentor other aspiring Black teachers, mostly women, ushering
them into educational administration. Both Tina and Priscilla knew Annie person-
ally. Like them, Annie had a tendency to promote social justice and educational
equity. This work materialized as her organization and promotion of community
events such as literacy fares, educational conferences, and back-to-school events.
She executed each event with absolute precision and passion. These events took
place on most weekends. Educational administration was a clear-cut ‘calling’ for
Annie. She engaged in her leadership practice with pleasure and to make a differ-
ence by serving underserved populations.
4.5. Jeannie
Hailing from a poor White family, Jeannie was a first-generation college graduate.
Education was an expectation as well as a necessity. Breaking patterns of poverty,
alcoholism, racism, and ignorance became the necessity undertaken with fervor in
order to grow and change the world. Because Jeannie aspired to work in the inner
city with underserved populations, she also searched for alternative pathways to
administration. It was unusual for a White teacher to aspire to become an adminis-
trator in the lesser-desirable neighborhoods where students had a ‘harder time learn-
ing.’ Because of a shared upbringing, Jeannie was able to relate better to the
students, teachers, and families considered to be on the ‘wrong side of the tracks.’
Similar to the other principals in the study, Jeannie emphatically raced herself out-
side of the category ‘mainstream White’ and professionally was most interested in
closing the academic achievement gap separating students of color from their White
peers. She felt that this was the work she was morally and ethically created to do
and reported great satisfaction in this chosen professional path.
4.6. Marisol
English was a second language for Marisol. In her family, as in all of the other par-
ticipants’ families, education was the expectation ‘particularly for boys and men.’
When Marisol decided to pursue her own education and work toward the education
of others, her family was slow to support her professional goals. She became friends
with Jeannie shortly after they were hired as principals in the inner city. She too
experienced an alternative pathway to administration when it was part of the district
mandate to more closely match principals to the school populations in particular
neighborhoods. Marisol had earned an educational administration credential much
like Tina had in order to clear her state credential. She was poised and ready to go
when the interviews began for new principals who were more culturally aware of
the population represented in the inner city. Like Jeannie, Marisol was focused on
closing the achievement gap and supporting her teachers and students and families
as they grappled with the heavy weight of being in program improvement. She,
‘wouldn’t dream of doing anything else for a living.’ Her work was an extension of
who she was, and improving the educational experiences and academic achievement
for students of color were her stated goals.
5. Discussion
In addition to sharing similar thematic characteristics with regard to education, lead-
ership pathways, social justice and educational equity, and leadership as a moral
‘calling,’ as indicated in the results, the research findings for the principals align
well with many aspects of the literature reviewed for this study. Findings are further
supported by common patterns and previously established themes corroborating evi-
dence for characteristics of ACL found by Santamaría & Santamaría (2012) and
Santamaría, (2013); particularly, as reflected in Table 1, the ways in which partici-
pant leadership practices manifested as extensions of themselves relative to their eth-
nicity, race, culture, language, class, gender, and overall human experience. The
principals could not tease the essence of themselves and their experiences with edu-
cation out of the ways in which they led. These characteristics will frame the discus-
sion organized by the original research questions guiding this study.
5.1. In what ways do the cross-cultural identities (e.g., subjectivity, biases,

assumptions, race, class, gender, and traditions) of women principals of cross-
cultural primary schools affect their leadership position attainment, goals,
decisions, and practice?
The principals who participated in the study surprisingly identified more with their
race and class as a means to inspire their leadership practice, than their gender iden-
tities. This makes the case for the consideration of CRT relevant as reflected in
Table 1. Tina mentioned being a woman as important as it related to her identifica-
tion with her mother and grandmother, but the way she described her relationship
with her father was that she and her sister were raised in order to do the very best
they could. There did not appear to be any limits that were based on gender in their
household. Priscilla, on the other hand, reflected on gender bias experienced as a
result of being led into secretarial work. She also discussed being mistaken for
someone other than the school principal. These were nuanced references to her
identity as a woman but most of her other identity references were to her identity as
being African American. Both Tina and Priscilla did speak very clearly to the notion
of having a strong network of African American women, however, which was key
to their professional goal attainment (Jean-Marie, 2010).
Although Annie, Jeannie, and Marisol discussed their identity and their biases in
relation to their work, Annie’s identity as a Black woman came through more
strongly than Jeannie’s as a White ally and Marisol’s as a Mexican American princi-
pal working in an inner-city school (Howard-Bostic, 2008; Schaetti et al., 2008).
CRT, however, was operationalized by each participant in that their responses
reflected the notion that racism was alive and well in the schools and a part of their
jobs was to provide the kind of leadership that would transcend or break through
inequities in order that more children could achieve at higher academic levels
(Ladson-Billings & Tate, 2009).
More specifically, and linked to ACL characteristics, each principal drew on

positive attributes of their identities while at the same time they:
worked hard to dispel negative stereotypes for groups with whom they identi-
fied (Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012; Santamaría, 2013; Steele, Spencer, &
Aronson, 2002).
The literature refers to this orientation as stereotype threat (Steele et al., 2002), a
feeling that in this case leaders of color need to work hard to counter perceived neg-
ative associations with their race, language, or culture. This notion was present in
each participant featured in this study. They mentioned the importance of working
harder than ‘others’ in order to represent themselves and their communities well. As
indicated in the research findings of Schaetti et al. (2008) on personal leadership,
the participants used difference as a creative resource. Drawing from their inner
strength, participants refused to buy into or reflect negative stereotypes associated
with being women or women of color. Rather, these women:
led to give back to the marginalized community (e.g., African American,

Latino) that supported them (May & Sleeter, 2010).
This theme was not addressed directly but nuanced in the professional practice
of Tina, Priscilla, and especially Annie, as reflected in her community service efforts
that also could be perceived as her commitment to applied competence (Schaetti
et al., 2008) and encouragement of the hearth (Kouzes & Posner, 1987). Surpris-
ingly, even though each principal was a respected leader in her own right, each still
each reported they:
felt the need to build trust when working with mainstream constituents or part-
ners (Ladson-Billings & Tate, 2009; May & Sleeter, 2010).
All participants discussed needing to ‘prove themselves qualified and worthy of

leadership positions.’ Sometimes this was related to the principals’ identity, some-
times it was related to their gender, other times there was inferiority based on level
of education, as was found in previous research by Steele et al. (2002) and Quantz
et al. (1991).
5.2. What kinds of effective leadership strategies do cross-cultural leaders use in

their daily practice promoting social justice and educational equity?
Promoting social justice and educational equity was very important for all five prin-
cipals in the study. Much of the work was centered on the academic achievement
gap separating African American, Native American, and Latino students from their
White and mainstream peers. Most of the leadership work around promoting social
justice and educational equity was anchored by urgency to close the gap (Brooks &
Miles, 2008; Normore, 2008; Shapiro, 2008). Related to this practice principals in
this study:
engaged in critical conversations with individuals and groups even when the
topic was not popular for the whole group (e.g., ageism, institutional racism,
affirmative action, LGBTQ-ism) and further initiated data-driven conversations

(Ladson-Billings & Tate, 2009).
The previous research findings of Singleton and Linton (2006) as well as

Solórzano and Yosso (2002) underscore this idea relating counter-stories to critical
conversations. Participants reported sharing their experiences and stories, as they
have in the current study, to introduce social justice and equity topics to their con-
stituents. Schaetti et al. (2008) similarly found the critical moment dialogue to be
prevalent in their research on personal leadership. This notion of dialogue with key
people about critical topics at specific times as a means to challenge particular pro-
cesses was also present in research by Kouzes and Posner (1987). Each principal
referred to the boldness necessary to ‘go there,’ even at a staff meeting or with a
parent or caregiver. Related to this idea, participants also:
used consensus-building as the preferred strategy for decision-making wherein

interest convergence is often sought (Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012; Bell,
1980).
While working toward consensus, the CRT notion of interest convergence was
sometimes the goal, wherein the solution benefits one or more oppressed groups, as
well as members of the mainstream (Bell, 1980, 1992; Ladson-Billings, 1999).
Kouzes and Posner’s (1987) notions of enabling others to act and inspiring a shared
vision are related to this characteristic. The importance of coming to agreement was
not as commonly discussed with the principals; however, Marisol saw this character-
istic as important and one of her strengths. Along these lines, participants:
honored all members of their constituencies (e.g., staff, parents, community

members), encouraging and including the voices of all educational stakehold-
ers, especially those traditionally not heard (e.g., Spanish-speaking parents of
English-language learners) (May & Sleeter, 2010).
Further, each principal spoke about the importance of being inclusive and valu-
ing others with simple acts of caring (Kouzes & Posner, 1987). Priscilla added spe-
cial education and being sensitive to prominent and hidden disabilities to the
discussion. Findings indicated that these women worked diligently at their craft.
They kept long hours and were fervent in their:
leadership by example to meet unresolved needs (May & Sleeter, 2010).
All five referred to the importance of rolling up one’s sleeves, paying dues, or
working in the trenches alongside teachers, families, students, and community mem-
bers or modeling the way (Kouzes & Posner, 1987). This is applied critical multicul-
turalism in action to benefit underserved communities. Annie was active in this kind
of leadership.
5.3. In what ways do these strategies differ from effective strategies identified in
mainstream dominant-culture educational leadership literature?
There were unique attributes found in this group of five female principals that set
them apart with regard to what may be considered core or universal leadership strat-
egies (Ergeneli et al., 2007). Tables 1 and 2 capture and reflect some of the key dif-
ferences of their unique leadership practices grounded in CRT literature, ACL
research, and intersections among the attributes of transformational leadership and
core themes of personal leadership. These are likely qualitatively different from
strategies and ways of leading practiced by other leaders who exhibit more tradi-
tional versions of educational leadership (e.g., transformational leadership, servant
leadership, transactional leadership), as indicated in similar studies (Solórzano &
Yosso, 2002; Tillman, 2007). For example, the leaders featured:
referred to White and international allies in the workplace, who sometimes

chose to assume a CRT lens in order to consider multiple perspectives of criti-
cal issues (Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012; Santamaría, 2013; Ladson-Billings
& Tate, 2009).
There is scant evidence in the literature that portrays leaders from dominant cul-
tures seeking out allies of a particular group and less evidence of these leaders assum-
ing critical lenses to impact change in their leadership practice. Participants in this
study depart from mainstream or dominant-culture leadership practices evidenced by
their attention to interest convergence (Bell, 1980). This was manifested in their seek-
ing solutions to benefit underserved as well as mainstream ideals (Bell, 1992; Ladson-
Billings, 1999). Demonstrating this characteristic, Jeannie referred to herself as a White
ally on more than one occasion. The other principals discussed the importance of hav-
ing a cross-cultural, multicultural, multilingual team to effectively lead schools with
diverse populations. Furthermore, each was critically multicultural and as a result:
felt it was their responsibility to bring critical issues (e.g., race, language, and
power) to their constituents for resolution (May & Sleeter, 2010).
Related research suggests that dominant-culture leaders in educational settings

tend to avoid such contentious topics of discussion (Shields, 2010). In the case of
each participant, staff meetings seemed to be the most common place for engage-
ment of critical conversations toward shared vision (Kouzes & Posner, 1987;
Singleton & Linton, 2006; Solórano & Yosso, 2002). These conversations reportedly
presented themselves as professional development opportunities and were often
couched in data and discussions about closing academic and other gaps.
Finally, each woman in this study:
felt ‘called’ to lead.
The notion of giving back was strong and mentioned as well as observed for
each participant. Dominant-culture leaders featured in research on educational lead-
ership seldom discuss leading to give back as much as they discuss servant leader-
ship (Sergiovanni, 2007). Rather, each participant in this story mentioned being led
by spirit to give back to the communities from which they had come. This phenome-
non reflects ways in which each principal ultimately worked to serve the children at
their schools, their communities, as well as the greater good (Santamaría &
Santamaría, 2012; Santamaría, 2013; Shields, 2010).
6. Limitations and caveats

The sample size for the study and the convenience of working with a small group of
principals from the same school district renders the study limited with regard to gen-
eralizability. Additionally, as is often the case in qualitative case study research, the
biases of the researchers may have affected the outcomes of the research, particu-
larly as the researchers themselves were Black women who served in a variety of
educational leadership roles. It is important to note here, however, that with this dis-
closure the authors maintain that White male, or any other researcher, employing
sound qualitative enquiry methods and practices would have found similar patterns
and arrived at the same conclusions and thus deduced the same implications pre-
sented here. Our intention is that full disclosure and use of reliable methodology
serves to strengthen the arguments and overall contribution. These facts should be
taken into consideration when using the study to inform educational leadership prac-
tices.
7. Importance of study
This study is important because it provides evidence indicating the ability of educa-
tional leaders from underserved backgrounds to critically tap into intersecting
aspects of their identities and experiences, using these attributes as resources that
positively impact their leadership practice in multicultural, complex, and multidi-
mensional educational contexts. Findings from this investigation challenge com-
monly held beliefs and assumptions about educational leadership in terms of who
the best educational leaders are, what it is they do, and ways in which they go about
leadership. It shifts the focus of educational leadership away from leadership that
focuses on teaching effectiveness, goal attainment, standardized assessment, stake-
holder satisfaction, and accountability, to the future of educational effectiveness, sus-
tainable development, and the facilitation of learning in diverse complex societies.
The cross-cultural leaders featured have each experienced and been successful, some
against the odds, in similar inequitable educational contexts in which they currently
lead. Findings indicate their ability to maximize local resources, community support,
cultural relevance, community partnerships, mentoring, and local networks. Drawing
from their shared belief that education changes lives and their ability to attain it,
these leaders bring the essence of their identities into their practice, changing it
profoundly, rendering their leadership increasingly contextualized, responsive,
transformational, effective, and relevant. When educational organizations are not

actively recruiting, hiring, and retaining educational leaders like Tina, Priscilla,
Annie, Jeannie, and Marisol, what is the net loss? When research is being under-
taken, policy and curriculum being penned with voices and experience like theirs
absent, whose perspectives, experiences, and worldviews are perpetuated? This con-
tribution is important because the expertise, perspectives, and voices of the principal
participants convey subaltern ways of thinking about leadership that may inform the
way leadership is practiced in the future if the US and similar countries are to keep
up with growing levels of diversity and evolution of education in the world. Leaders
like the ones featured in this study, with their cross-cultural, applied critical, and
transformational leadership practices, are a commodity in their contexts, region, and,
we argue, the world.
8. Conclusion: identity impacts leadership practice

This multicultural, multifaceted group of women – Tina, Priscilla, Annie, Jeannie,
and Marisol – have been able to render educational crises as opportunities for educa-
tional change, providing alternative perspectives to the cross-cultural landscape and
conversation informing solutions for the greater regional, state, national, and global
dialogue regarding the role of educational research. The authors believe each educa-
tional leader contributes an alternative account to ‘disrupt the dominant narrative
stories that are so deeply entrenched and accepted unquestionably by the larger soci-
ety’ (Parker & Villalpando, 2007, p. 521). Table 2 indicates evidence for ways in
which their individual and collective practice is both personal and transformational.
The intersections between the two ways of leading are important to consider in
terms of ways in which problems of educational practice may be approached at dif-
ferent educational levels.
There are three essential points of emergent knowledge for which evidence has
been provided in the article. First, and of particular importance, is women principals
from historically underserved populations in the US, tapping into particular aspects of
their identities, resulting in the practice of cross-cultural educational leadership for
social justice and educational equity (Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012; Schaetti et al.,
2008). Second, findings indicate that germane to their effectiveness as leaders is the
participants’ responsiveness or congruence to their particular cultural context (House
et al., 1997). Third, surprisingly and at the same time, are the participants’ cross-
cultural differences that may equally contribute to their ability to lead with effective-
ness. However, because the participants are bi-cultural in a sense, their differences are
not off-putting but just different enough to inspire and advance positive change at
each one of their school sites (House et al., 1997). Finally, this study provides a snap-
shot of principals who are women on the ground leading, capturing and revealing the
cross-cultural and explicit ways in which they practice personal, transformational, and
applied critical leadership. The case studies and data presented in Tables 1 and 2 pro-
vide examples and evidence of the specific ways in which these leaders are deeply
grounded in critical theoretical practices that link theory to practice and the ways in
which their own identity intersections (e.g., ethnicity, race, gender, class) inform,
enhance, and sustain their leadership for social justice and equity. The manner in
which they lead is not ‘typical’ or mainstream, as indicated. It is complex, context
specific, savvy, caring, and responsive to students, self, community members, and
environment. Their leadership praxis, as such, vacillates from individual, to local, to
regional, including global. Tina, Priscilla, Annie, Jeannie, and Marisol portray the
‘transcultural creative leadership’ characteristics described in the research findings of
Dickson et al. (2003), wherein the leaders ‘respect different cultures, build cross-
cultural partnerships, engage in cross-cultural creative problem solving, and partici-
pate in creating new cultures’ of shared understanding (p. 766). Their voices are
reflected and their strategies shared, making the implicit explicit and providing a
means for their rarefied work to be considered, valued, and applied.
Findings further indicate that participants in this study highly value education as
a societal mechanism for the betterment of self, family, and community. As a result,
the principals lead in a manner that is responsive to multicultural, multiracial, and
fluid images of success within the context of systems of domination in the school
system within which they lead (Anzaldúa, 2003; Alemán, 2009; Astin & Leland,
1991). Findings suggest they each engage an internal critical dialogue around race,
ethnicity, and equity focused on positive aspects of change (Nagata, 2004, 2009;
Senge et al., 2004). Their leadership practice, as such, is progressive and has the
individual and collective potential to addresses critical problems for the greater good
(Biesta & Mirón, 2002).
This contribution provides additional empirical evidence for personal and applied
critical leadership as alternatives to more common theories of educational leadership
practice in multicultural and multilingual contexts with leaders who race themselves
outside of the confines of Whiteness, as well as an example of cross-cultural leader-
ship called for in the literature (Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012; Santamaría, 2013;
Ergeneli et al., 2007; Haney Lopez, 1998). Findings from this work have the poten-
tial to inspire critical thinking, dialogue, and practice for educational leaders, public,
and private stakeholders addressing educational challenges associated with cross-
cultural and intercultural societies where multiculturalism is the norm. This kind of
scholarship is considerable as it is a departure from typical traditional educational
research and constitutes what we hope is evidence of a ‘new vision of what it means
to do academic work’ (Ladson-Billings & Donnor, 2005, p. 298). Findings from this
work inspire re-visioning, re-imagining, and creative ways of thinking about
approaching crises in education as opportunities. Similarly, it serves as a departure
from rhetoric toward real conversation with solutions for the public good as opposed
to greater personal gain.
Finally, with regard to policy and a nod toward the future, findings suggest the
need for active recruitment, training, and development of women of color to serve in
administrative roles in education. This study reminds stakeholders that there is an
untapped resource in educational leadership for the future. Research findings indicate
there is value in learning the different ways in which different kinds of people lead
(Ah Nee-Benham & Cooper, 1998; Dantley & Tillman, 2006; Jean-Marie, 2010;
Santamaría & Santamaría, 2012; Santamaría, 2013). There is academic and practical
space for alternative ways of thinking about and applying leadership in a variety of
settings and configurations. Findings also suggest the need for more research on lead-
ership in cross-cultural, multicultural, multilingual, and diverse educational contexts
for a nation and world that is becoming progressively more diverse.
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This article was downloaded by: [University of Auckland Library]

On: 23 July 2014, At: 19:18

Cambridge Journal of Education

Cross-cultural dimensions of applied,

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0305764X.2014.904276

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Cross-cultural dimensions of applied, critical, and

(Received 6 July 2013; accepted 10 March 2014)

This study, based on the qualitatively rendered experiences and perceptions of

*Corresponding author. Email: l.santamaria@auckland.ac.nz

© 2014 University of Cambridge, Faculty of Education

leadership perspectives, and multicultural education suggesting an alternative to

(1) In what ways do the cross-cultural identities (e.g., subjectivity, biases,

2. Conceptual framework and literature review

Figure 1. Underlying conceptual framework.

2.1. Theoretical framework

2.1.2. Transformational leadership

2.1.3. Personal leadership

2.2. Literature review

ginalized individuals, or those who may choose to practice leadership through a

2.2.2. Characteristics of cross-cultural leaders

When a leader of difference leads constituents of different backgrounds, leaders

Phenomenology as an approach was necessary to gain the greatest understanding

3.2. Setting and participants

3.3. Data analysis

shared ACL characteristics across participants’ practice as well as evidence that

Native American, and Mexican language, or difference with

district sponsors. Here I damage our teachers and with educational

Transformational leadership attributes

4.1.2. Pathway to administration

difference. If I had stayed as a VP [vice-principal] up at the higher-income school, I

4.1.3. Working for social justice and educational equity

4.1.4. Making a difference

4.2.2. Pathway to administration

4.2.3. Working for social justice and educational equity

4.2.4 Making a difference

4.3. Emergent themes

complete and robust portrayal of each participant as well as a better understanding

5.1. In what ways do the cross-cultural identities (e.g., subjectivity, biases,

More speciﬁcally, and linked to ACL characteristics, each principal drew on

 led to give back to the marginalized community (e.g., African American,

All participants discussed needing to ‘prove themselves qualiﬁed and worthy of

5.2. What kinds of effective leadership strategies do cross-cultural leaders use in

afﬁrmative action, LGBTQ-ism) and further initiated data-driven conversations

The previous research ﬁndings of Singleton and Linton (2006) as well as

 used consensus-building as the preferred strategy for decision-making wherein

 honored all members of their constituencies (e.g., staff, parents, community

 leadership by example to meet unresolved needs (May & Sleeter, 2010).

 referred to White and international allies in the workplace, who sometimes

Related research suggests that dominant-culture leaders in educational settings

Finally, each woman in this study:

 felt ‘called’ to lead.

6. Limitations and caveats

transformational, effective, and relevant. When educational organizations are not

8. Conclusion: identity impacts leadership practice

NC: Information Age.

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen

led to give back to the marginalized community (e.g., African American,

used consensus-building as the preferred strategy for decision-making wherein

honored all members of their constituencies (e.g., staff, parents, community

leadership by example to meet unresolved needs (May & Sleeter, 2010).

referred to White and international allies in the workplace, who sometimes

felt ‘called’ to lead.