Journal of Sports Sciences, March 2012; 30(6): 563–569

Effects of habitual physical activity on response to endurance training

ARTO HAUTALA1, KAISU MARTINMAKI2, ANTTI KIVINIEMI1, HANNU KINNUNEN2,

PAULA VIRTANEN2, JUKKA JAATINEN2 & MIKKO TULPPO1
1
Verve Research, Oulu, Finland and 2Polar Electro, Kempele, Finland

(Accepted 12 January 2012)

Abstract
We hypothesised that habitual physical activity (PA) together with progressive endurance training contributes to the
differences in training response (DV_ O2max) in healthy and physically active male participants. Twenty volunteers (age 30+3
years and V_ O2max 54+7 ml  kg71  min71) participated in an eight-week training program which included four to six heart
rate-guided exercise sessions weekly. PA data over the whole period were collected by an accelerometer-equipped
wristwatch. Individual relative intensities of endurance training and PA were separately determined by adjusting to V_ O2max
reserve and calculated as mean daily duration (min) of training and PA at light, moderate, high and very high intensity levels.
V_ O2max increased 6.4+4.1% (p 5 0.0001) during the training period. DV_ O2max correlated with the amount of habitual PA
that was mainly of light intensity (r ¼ 0.53, p ¼ 0.016), but not with the duration of moderate, high or very high intensity PA
(p ¼ ns for all). Age, body mass index, and daily amount of training at any intensity level of exercise were not related to
DV_ O2max (p ¼ ns for all). In conclusion, a high amount of habitual PA together with prescribed endurance training was
associated with good training response in physically active males.

Keywords: physical activity, endurance training, individual training response, maximal oxygen consumption

varied from even negative change to a doubling of

Introduction
Strong evidence supports an inverse association
between habitual physical activity (PA) or physical
fitness and all-cause and cardiovascular mortality
(Blair et al., 1989; Kokkinos and Myers, 2010;
Paffenbarger et al., 1993). The contribution of PA or
fitness to several health outcomes is independent,
even when traditional cardiovascular risk markers
and genetic factors are considered (Kokkinos et al.,
2008; Kujala, Kaprio, Sarna, and Koskenvuo, 1998;
Myers et al., 2004; Myers et al., 2002). However,
increased PA caused by exercise training results in
different responses in health outcomes between
individuals.
Marked individual differences in adaptation to
endurance training in cardiorespiratory fitness, ex-
pressed as maximal oxygen consumption (V_ O2max),
has been shown in several previous studies
(Bouchard and Rankinen, 2001; Hautala et al.,
2006; Hautala et al., 2003; Karavirta et al., 2011;
Scharhag-Rosenberger, Walitzek, Kindermann, and
Meyer, 2010). The changes in V_ O2max response have
aerobic capacity. Genetic factors partly explain the
interindividual variation in training response
(Bouchard et al., 1999; Bouchard et al., 2011;
Hagberg et al., 2011; Hautala et al., 2007; Timmons
et al., 2010), whereas the contribution of age,
gender, realised training, and baseline fitness have
only a moderate role as determinants of training
response (Bouchard and Rankinen, 2001).
When the duration of a daily exercise training
session is deducted from total waking time, more
than ten hours remain for habitual PA and other
tasks during the day. It can be suggested that not
only exercise training, but also the frequency and
intensity of other daily habitual PA may have an
important effect on training adaptations. However,
according to our knowledge, there are no studies
available in which habitual PA is considered when
assessing individual exercise training responses.
Therefore, we hypothesised that habitual PA to-
gether with progressive endurance training contri-
butes to the differences in training response
(DV_ O2max) in healthy male participants.

Correspondence: Arto Hautala, Verve Research, Department of Exercise and Medical Physiology, Kasarmintie 13, P.O. Box 404, Oulu, 90101 Finland.
E-mail: arto.hautala@verve.fi
ISSN 0264-0414 print/ISSN 1466-447X online Ó 2012 Taylor & Francis
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2012.658080
564 A. Hautala et al.
Methods
Participants and study protocol
The participants were healthy male volunteers
[n ¼ 20, age 30 + 3 years, body mass index (BMI)
25 + 3 kg/m2, V_ O2max 54 + 7 ml/kg/min, mean +
SD]. All the participants were interviewed with a
standardised scheme to ascertain their medical
history and exercise training status. All smokers,
participants with a BMI 32 kg  m72, those who
had carried out regular physical exercise training less
than three times a week during the past months, and
those with diabetes mellitus, asthma, or cardiovas-
cular disorders were excluded. Group size was
determined on the basis of a priori statistical power
calculations to give at least 80% power to differences
in the expected DV_ O2max. According to previous
studies, approximately 10% improvement in V_ O2max
can be expected after endurance training, giving an
estimated need of least 15 participants for the
training group. The study was performed according
to the Declaration of Helsinki, the local ethical
committee of the Hospital District approved the
protocol, and all the participants gave their written
informed consent.
The participants were not allowed to eat or drink
coffee for 3 h before the tests in the laboratory.
Physical exercise and use of alcohol were prohibited
during the test day and on the preceding day. Before
each maximal exercise test, a resting electrocardio-
gram (standard 12-lead ECG) was recorded to
confirm the participant’s cardiac health status. The
tests were performed before and after the training
period at the same time of day for each participant.
The participants performed a graded maximal
exercise test on a treadmill (Telineyhtymä, Kotka,
Finland), starting at 8.0 km/h followed by a work rate
increase at a rate of 1.0 km/h every minute until
voluntary exhaustion was reached (treadmill angle 1
degree). Ventilation (VE) and gas exchange (M909
ergospirometer, Medikro, Kuopio, Finland) were
measured and reported as the mean value per
minute. The highest 1-min mean value of oxygen
consumption was expressed as V_ O2max, since a
plateau of V_ O2 was not observed during the test in
all cases, although other criteria for maximal V_ O2
given in the literature [i.e. respiratory exchange ratio
41.1 and peak heart rate (HR) within 10 beats of the
age-appropriate reference value] were fulfilled (How-
ley, Bassett, and Welch, 1995).
Physical activity
PA data were collected over the whole eight-week
training period with a prototype of Polar ActiveTM
(Polar Electro Oy, Kempele, Finland). The wrist-
watch utilises a 1-D accelerometer and a pulse
filtering procedure presented in European Patent
#1532924. Polar ActiveTM distinguishes between
low and high intensity hand movements based on
acceleration thresholds, classifies the activity patterns
into several classes and finally estimates the intensity
of PA as metabolic equivalent values (METs). In this
study, minute-by-minute accelerometer data was
downloaded to a PC and METs values were
calculated with customised Matlab scripts. Polar
Activity measurement technology has been validated
by measuring energy expenditure using indirect
calorimetry (Brugniaux et al., 2010; Kinnunen,
Niva, Nauha, and Miettinen, 2009), and has been
recently used by subjects involved in military basic
training (Tanskanen et al., 2011).
The participants were instructed to wear the PA
monitor 24 hours a day. Bouts of PA were identified
from minute-by-minute data and calculated as mean
daily duration (min) at four different intensity levels
of PA. Since individuals differing in fitness respond
in markedly different ways to habitual PA at a fixed
absolute intensity, we calculated the individual
relative intensities of PA as MET values by adjusting
to V_ O2R according to Howley (2001). Finally, the
individual PA values at different intensities were
determined at light (15–35% of V_ O2R), moderate
(435–55% of V_ O2R), high (455–75% of V_ O2R)
and very high (475% of V_ O2R) intensity habitual
PA. If the participants’ habitual PA contained
cycling, they were instructed to wear the HR monitor
and record the exact time. We estimated the average
MET value based on the heart rate (HR) value
(Howley, 2001) and added it to the final calculation
of PA. Days when daily wearing time was 5660 min
were excluded. The mean percentage of excluded
days for 20 participants was 59%.
Endurance training
The controlled progressive eight-week training per-
iod consisted of four to six HR-guided exercise
sessions weekly (three to eight hours weekly) at a
high or very high intensity level [80–90% or 4 90%
of HR at the ventilatory threshold (VT)]. In order
to determine the HR levels for endurance training,
the VTs were defined on the basis of respiratory
parameters, as described in detail previously
(Wasserman, Whipp, Koyl, and Beaver, 1973). The
training program is shown in detail in Figure 1.
The training mode was mainly jogging and
running. The participants filled out a questionnaire
in which each training session, duration, and mode
were marked. The participants were instructed in the
use of a HR monitor during the training (Polar
RS800, Polar Electro Oy, Kempele, Finland). The
training data were stored in the HR monitor and
extracted at the laboratory for further analysis. Daily

Figure 1. Endurance exercise training program for eight weeks. Week High ¼ high training load week, Week Mod ¼ moderate training load
week, High ¼ endurance training 80–90% of HR at the ventilatory threshold, Very High ¼ endurance training 4 90% HR at the ventilatory
threshold.
exercise training session minutes were analysed from
the HR data and extracted from the PA analysis.
Both daily mean values of exercise training and PA
were reported separately. Individual relative inten-
sities of training were determined similarly as PA by
adjusting to V_ O2max reserve (V_ O2R) (Howley, 2001)
and calculated as mean daily duration (min) of
training at light, moderate, high and very high
intensity levels of exercise (15–35%, 435–55%,
455–75% and 475% of V_ O2R, respectively).
Statistical analysis
The Gaussian distribution of the data was assessed
with the Shapiro-Wilk goodness-of-fit test. The
effects of training were analysed by paired t-test
between pre- and post-training values. In order to
evaluate practical meaningfulness for the effects of
training, standardised mean effect sizes (Cohen’s d)
were calculated (Cohen, 1988). The following scale
(negative or positive) was used for interpretation of
effect sizes: large 40.8, moderate 40.5 and small
40.2. Pearson’s bivariate correlation analysis was
performed between the baseline status of age, body
mass index (BMI), V_ O2max, DV_ O2max, realised
training and habitual PA at light, moderate, high
and very high intensities. Effect sizes of correlations
(negative or positive) were interpreted as follows:
large 40.5, medium 40.3 and small 40.1 (Cohen,
1988). Stepwise linear regression analysis was used
to study the predictive value of PA after adjustment
of baseline V_ O2max against DV_ O2max. The data were
analyzed using SPSS software (SPSS 14.0, SPSS
inc., Chicago, USA). A P-value 50.05 was con-
sidered statistically significant.
Results
The mean + SD training adherence was 87 + 13%
in the training sessions and 97 + 20% in the total
training amount. The individual training responses
are shown in Figure 2.
The average increase in V_ O2max was 6.4 + 4.1%,
ranging from 71.1% to 15.1% (Table 1). Similarly,
average oxygen consumption at the VT increased
Physical activity and exercise training response 565
Figure 2. Heterogeneity of V_ O2max training responses after eight
weeks of controlled endurance training in healthy previously
physically active males.
7.9 + 10.6% (range 77.1% to 33.8%). The mean
daily active durations (min) at light (15–35% of
V_ O2R), moderate (435–55% of V_ O2R), high
(455–75% of V_ O2R) and very high (475% of
V_ O2R) intensity levels of PA and realised endurance
training are presented in Table 1.
The individual limits of mean daily cumulative
active duration were 3.5 + 0.3 to 6.9 + 0.8 METs at
light, 7.0 + 0.8 to 10.2 + 1.2 METs at moderate,
10.3 + 0.8 to 13.5 + 1.7 METs at high and
413.5 + 1.7 METs at very high intensity levels of
endurance training and PA. DV_ O2max correlated
with the duration at all daily habitual PA that exceeds
3.5 + 0.3 METs (r ¼ 0.53, p ¼ 0.017, Figure 3).
When analysing different PA intensity levels sepa-
rately, DV_ O2max associated with the duration at light
intensity (r ¼ 0.53, p ¼ 0.016), but not with the
duration at moderate (r ¼ 0.09, p ¼ ns), high
(r ¼70.34, p ¼ ns) or very high (r ¼70.03, p ¼ ns)
intensity of PA.
Baseline V_ O2max correlated to DV_ O2max
(r ¼7.48, p ¼ 0.033) and to light intensity PA
(r ¼70.84, p50.0001) as well. After adjustment of
baseline V_ O2max, the duration of light-intensity PA
accounted for 28% as an independent predictor of
DV_ O2max. Age, BMI, and the daily training volume
566 A. Hautala et al.

Table 1. The realisation of training (TR) and habitual physical activity (PA).

Pre Post P-value Effect Size

Age (y) 30+3 (25–34)

Height (m) 1.80+0.06 (1.70–1.92)
Weight (kg) 81+11 (66–108) 80+10 (67–105) 0.025 0.10
BMI (kg  m2) 25.1+2.1 (20.8–31.6) 24.8+2.5 (21.2–30.7) 0.012 0.13
V_ O2max (ml  kg71  min71) 53.7+7.3 (36.6–67.3) 56.9+6.6 (40.9–68.8) 50.0001 70.48
VT (ml  kg71  min71) 40.9+6.8 (28.3–57.9) 44.4+7.1 (30.7–55.9) 0.005 70.55
HRmax (bpm) 193+7 (178–204) 187+8 (168–198) 50.0001 0.80
RERmax 1.14+0.06 (1.08–1.29) 1.13+0.04 (1.04–1.22) 0.152 0.20
Training (min/day)
Light TR 2.3+2.1 (0.1–6.7)
Moderate TR 7.6+5.6 (1.0–21.5)
High TR 20.9+6.1 (10.2–31.0)
Very High TR 6.0+3.0 (2.2–15.2)
Habitual PA (min/day)
Light PA 64.6+32.9 (18.7–22.2)
Moderate PA 2.0+1.9 (0.2–8.7)
High PA 2.1+1.4 (0.0–4.9)
Very High PA 0.7+0.5 (0.0–2.2)

Values are mean+SD (range). BMI ¼ body mass index, V_ O2max ¼ maximal oxygen consumption, VT ¼ ventilatory threshold,
HRmax ¼ maximal heart rate, RERmax ¼ maximal respiratory exchange ratio, Light ¼ 15–35% of V_ O2max reserve [V_ O2R] (3.5+0.3–
6.9+0.8 METs), Moderate 435–55% of V_ O2R (7.0+0.8 – 10.2+1.3 METs), High 455–75% of V_ O2R (10.3+0.8–13.5+1.7 METs),
Very High 475% of V_ O2R (13.6+1.7 METs).

Figure 3. Association between mean daily habitual PA
(43.5 + 0.3 METs, min), and changes in V_ O2max. Individual
amount of daily PA are expressed as metabolic equivalent (MET)
values.
at a light, moderate, high, or very high intensity level
of exercise did not correlate with DV_ O2max, e.g. the
correlations were r ¼70.20, r ¼70.23, and
r ¼70.18 for age, high and very high training
volume, respectively (p ¼ ns for all). There were no
significant correlations between the training re-
sponses in oxygen consumption at the VT and
baseline characteristics (r ¼70.2170.09, p ¼ ns for
all), realised training (r ¼70.4070.39, p ¼ ns
for all), or habitual PA (r ¼70.1570.11, p ¼ ns for
all).
Discussion
The present study showed that daily habitual PA
together with progressive endurance training con-
tributes to V_ O2max response in previously active
male participants. A high amount of daily light-
intensity PA together with prescribed endurance
training was associated with good training response,
whereas realised endurance training was not related
to training response. Baseline fitness associated
negatively to light-intensity PA, which may empha-
sise the role of high amount of daily habitual light
intensity PA among those subjects whose fitness level
is low at beginning of training intervention when
targeting improved V_ O2max. Taken together, these
findings suggest that lifestyle habits in terms of a
physically active daytime at a light intensity level may
enhance the effects of prescribed endurance training
on aerobic fitness.
The fact that some individuals do not improve
V_ O2max in response to a standardised endurance
training program has been known over two decades
(Bouchard, Boulay, Simoneau, Lortie, and Perusse,
1988; Lortie et al., 1984) and has been convincingly
demonstrated by several other previous studies
(Bouchard and Rankinen, 2001; Hautala et al.,
2006; Hautala et al., 2003; Karavirta et al., 2011;
Scharhag-Rosenberger et al., 2010). However, it is
important to remember that low responders in terms
of V_ O2max are not necessarily low responders in
terms of some other physiological and metabolic
adaptations associated with metabolic control or

performance (Scharhag-Rosenberger et al., 2010;
Vollaard et al., 2009). In the HERITAGE family
study, the contributions of age, gender, race, and
baseline fitness level to endurance-training-induced
changes in V_ O2max accounted for only 11% of the
variance in the response to 20 weeks of standardised
training. Furthermore, autonomic nervous system
activity has been shown to be related to training
response (Hautala, Kiviniemi, and Tulppo, 2009;
Kiviniemi et al., 2010; Kiviniemi, Hautala, Kinnu-
nen, and Tulppo, 2007). It is also well documented
that genetic background causes considerable varia-
tion in both baseline V_ O2max and DV_ O2max after
training interventions (Bouchard et al., 1999; Hag-
berg et al., 2011; Timmons et al., 2010). In a
previous study by Bouchard et al. (2011), a
combination of 21 single nucleotide polymorphisms
accounted for 49% of the variance in V_ O2max
trainability. In the present study we found that a
high amount of daily light-intensity PA, additional to
prescribed endurance training, results in good
V_ O2max response, accounting for 28% of the
variance. Since the correlation between light-inten-
sity PA and V_ O2max response was 40.5, it highlights
a practical meaningfulness of habitual PA outside the
prescribed training sessions in inducing training
adaptations.
In the present study, the objective PA data were
obtained with an accelerometer over the whole
training period. Since self-report questionnaires on
PA tend to overestimate PA levels (Boon, Hamlin,
Steel, and Ross, 2010; Troiano et al., 2008),
accelerometers offer a reliable solution to problems
with self-reported data (Troiano, 2005). In the
present study, we used a questionnaire to detect
specific intense activities not including hand move-
ments, such as cycling, and calculated mean METs
based on HR data and added this to the final PA
analysis. Subsequently, we were able to quantify also
those activities that are otherwise difficult to detect
with a wrist accelerometer. We calculated the relative
intensity of PA expressed as a percentage of V_ O2R
(Howley, 2001). This is highly important, since
participants differing in fitness respond in markedly
different ways to PA or exercise training at a fixed
absolute intensity. A PA intensity of 10 METs might
be a warm-up for one participant but require
maximal effort by another. Taken together, we feel
our approach represents a methodological frame-
work for understanding the possible contribution of
PA in modifying individual exercise training
response.
Cardiorespiratory fitness is often described as a
surrogate measure of total PA. Exercise training
studies have definitely shown that increasing the
amount of weekly exercise improves fitness at the
group level. However, individual change in fitness
Physical activity and exercise training response 567
level is highly heterogeneous, as shown also in the
present study. An important point to consider when
the contribution of light habitual PA to individual
training response is discussed is that participants
with good V_ O2max response may have healthier
lifestyles, including lower stress levels and better
diets. Even with adequate data available, it is difficult
to differentiate how different lifestyle habits con-
tribute to the observed individual changes in
V_ O2max.
Type 1 (slow twitch) muscle fibres have a high
capacity for oxidative metabolism, whereas type 2
(fast twitch) fibres have a high capacity for glycolytic
energy production. The percentage of both fibre
types varies widely among participants (13–95%)
(Church, 2009). Participants with a greater percen-
tage of type 1 fibres are better suited for endurance
training (Ama et al., 1986). Interestingly, low
prevalence of type 1 fibres is associated with several
health outcomes, such as weight gain, lower fatty
acid oxidation capacity, and increased blood pres-
sure (Hernelahti, Tikkanen, Karjalainen, and Kujala,
2005; Karjalainen, Tikkanen, Hernelahti, and Kuja-
la, 2006; Tikkanen, Hamalainen, Sarna, Adlercreutz,
and Harkonen, 1998). In the present study, it could
be hypothesised that participants with low endurance
training response have a lower distribution of type 1
fibres. Therefore, a low responder may be metabo-
lically disadvantaged with inborn impaired skeletal
muscle oxidative capacity, which affects both beha-
viour and metabolism (Church, 2009). The impaired
oxidative capacity may create lower functional work
capacity and minimise improvements in V_ O2max in
response to endurance training, despite a well-
realised exercise training intervention.
Our results may be also related to differences in
individual recovery, i.e. a high amount of light
habitual PA might help in recovering better from a
single exercise session. In the present study, it may
be possible that the recovery from a single exercise
session was adequate especially among those subjects
whose fitness level was lower at the baseline. There-
fore, daily light PA may be important part of overall
physical loading in aiming to good training response
when baseline fitness level is low. It could be also
hypothesised that daily habitual PA might serve as
stimulus for increase in V_ O2max. Habitual PA that
exceeds the resting metabolic rate several times may
start recovery effectively by stimulating metabolism.
Consequently, this kind of PA could optimally
balance training stress and subsequent recovery.
The present results support the existence of large
individual differences in responses to endurance
training. The new approach was to evaluate whether
variation in training response was associated with the
amount of daily habitual PA during the eight-week
progressive endurance training program. We found
568 A. Hautala et al.
that a high amount of habitual daily light-intensity
PA together with prescribed endurance training was
associated with good training response in physically
active males. These results suggest that daily habitual
PA, additional to prescribed endurance training, is
practically meaningful determinant of training
response.
References
Ama, P.F., Simoneau, J.A., Boulay, M.R., Serresse, O., Theriault,
G., and Bouchard, C. (1986). Skeletal muscle characteristics in
sedentary black and Caucasian males. Journal of Applied
Physiology, 61(5), 1758–1761.
Blair, S.N., Kohl, H.W., 3rd, Paffenbarger, R.S., Jr., Clark, D.G.,
Cooper, K.H., and Gibbons, L.W. (1989). Physical fitness and
all-cause mortality: A prospective study of healthy men and
women. Jama, 262(17), 2395–2401.
Boon, R.M., Hamlin, M.J., Steel, G.D., and Ross, J.J. (2010).
Validation of the New Zealand Physical Activity Questionnaire
(NZPAQ-LF) and the International Physical Activity Ques-
tionnaire (IPAQ-LF) with Accelerometry. British Journal of
Sports Medicine, 44(10), 741–746.
Bouchard, C., An, P., Rice, T., Skinner, J.S., Wilmore, J.H., and
Gagnon, J. (1999). Familial aggregation of V_ O(2max) response
to exercise training: Results from the HERITAGE Family
Study. Journal of Applied Physiology, 87(3), 1003–1008.
Bouchard, C., Boulay, M.R., Simoneau, J.A., Lortie, G., and
Perusse, L. (1988). Heredity and trainability of aerobic and
anaerobic performances: An update. Sports Medicine, 5(2), 69–
73.
Bouchard, C., and Rankinen, T. (2001). Individual differences in
response to regular physical activity. Medicine and Science in
Sports and Exercise, 33(Suppl. 6), S446–451; discussion S452–
453.
Bouchard, C., Sarzynski, M.A., Rice, T.K., Kraus, W.E., Church,
T.S., and Sung, Y.J., et al. (2011). Genomic predictors of the
maximal O uptake response to standardized exercise training
programs. Journal of Applied Physiology, 110(5), 1160–1170.
Brugniaux, J.V., Niva, A., Pulkkinen, I., Laukkanen, R.M.,
Richalet, J.P., and Pichon, A.P. (2010). Polar Activity Watch
200: a new device to accurately assess energy expenditure.
British Journal of Sports Medicine, 44(4), 245–249.
Church, T. (2009). The low-fitness phenotype as a risk factor:
more than just being sedentary? Obesity (Silver Spring), 17 Suppl
3, S39–42.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences.
Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Hagberg, J.M., Rankinen, T., Loos, R.J., Perusse, L., Roth, S.M.,
and Wolfarth, B., et al. (2011). Advances in exercise, fitness,
and performance genomics in 2010. Medicine and Science in
Sports and Exercise, 43(5), 743–752.
Hautala, A.J., Kiviniemi, A.M., Mäkikallio, T.H., Kinnunen, H.,
Nissilä, S., and Huikuri, H.V., et al. (2006). Individual
differences in the responses to endurance and resistance
training. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 96(5), 535–542.
Hautala, A.J., Kiviniemi, A.M., and Tulppo, M.P. (2009).
Individual responses to aerobic exercise: The role of the
autonomic nervous system. Neuroscience and Biobehavioural
Reviews, 33(2), 107–115.
Hautala, A.J., Leon, A., Skinner, J.S., Rao, D.C., Bouchard, C.,
and Rankinen, T. (2007). Peroxisome proliferator-activated
receptor delta polymorphisms are associated with physical
performance and plasma lipids: The HERITAGE family study.
American Journal of Physiology: Heart and Circulatory Physiology,
292(5), 2498–2505.
Hautala, A.J., Makikallio, T.H., Kiviniemi, A., Laukkanen, R.T.,
Nissila, S., and Huikuri, H.V., et al. (2003). Cardiovascular
autonomic function correlates with the response to aerobic
training in healthy sedentary subjects. American Journal of
Physiology: Heart and Circulatory Physiology, 285(4), H1747–1752.
Hernelahti, M., Tikkanen, H.O., Karjalainen, J., and Kujala,
U.M. (2005). Muscle fiber-type distribution as a predictor of
blood pressure: A 19-year follow-up study. Hypertension, 45(5),
1019–1023.
Howley, E.T. (2001). Type of activity: Resistance, aerobic and
leisure versus occupational physical activity. Medicine and
Science in Sports and Exercise, 33(Suppl. 6), S364–369; discus-
sion S419–320.
Howley, E.T., Bassett, D.R., Jr., and Welch, H.G. (1995). Criteria
for maximal oxygen uptake: Review and commentary. Medicine
and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(9), 1292–1301.
Karavirta, L., Hakkinen, K., Kauhanen, A., Arija-Blazquez, A.,
Sillanpaa, E., and Rinkinen, N., et al. (2011). Individual
responses to combined endurance and strength training in older
adults. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 43(3), 484–490.
Karjalainen, J., Tikkanen, H., Hernelahti, M., and Kujala, U.M.
(2006). Muscle fiber-type distribution predicts weight gain and
unfavorable left ventricular geometry: A 19 year follow-up
study. BMC Cardiovascular Disorders, 6, 2. doi: 10.1186/1471-
2261-6-2.
Kinnunen, H., Niva A., Nauha L., and Miettinen J. (2009)
Estimation of energy expenditure from wrist attached accel-
erometer signal using movement counting and filtering.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 41(Suppl. 5), S172.
Kiviniemi, A.M., Hautala, A.J., Kinnunen, H., Nissilä, J.,
Virtanen, P., and Karjalainen, J. (2010). Daily exercise pres-
cription on the basis of HR variability among men and women.
Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 42(7), 1355–1363.
Kiviniemi, A.M., Hautala, A.J., Kinnunen, H., and Tulppo, M.P.
(2007). Endurance training guided individually by daily heart
rate variability measurements. European Journal of Applied
Physiology, 101(6), 743–751.
Kokkinos, P., and Myers, J. (2010). Exercise and physical activity:
clinical outcomes and applications. Circulation, 122(16), 1637–
1648.
Kokkinos, P., Myers, J., Kokkinos, J.P., Pittaras, A., Narayan, P.,
and Manolis, A., et al. (2008). Exercise capacity and mortality
in black and white men. Circulation, 117(5), 614–622.
Kujala, U.M., Kaprio, J., Sarna, S., and Koskenvuo, M. (1998).
Relationship of leisure-time physical activity and mortality: The
Finnish twin cohort. Jama, 279(6), 440–444.
Lortie, G., Simoneau, J.A., Hamel, P., Boulay, M.R., Landry, F.,
and Bouchard, C. (1984). Responses of maximal aerobic power
and capacity to aerobic training. International Journal of Sports
Medicine, 5(5), 232–236.
Myers, J., Kaykha, A., George, S., Abella, J., Zaheer, N., and Lear,
S., et al. (2004). Fitness versus physical activity patterns in
predicting mortality in men. American Journal of Medicine,
117(12), 912–918.
Myers, J., Prakash, M., Froelicher, V., Do, D., Partington, S., and
Atwood, J. E. (2002). Exercise capacity and mortality among
men referred for exercise testing. New England Journal of
Medicine, 346(11), 793–801.
Paffenbarger, R.S., Jr., Hyde, R.T., Wing, A.L., Lee, I.M., Jung,
D.L., and Kampert, J.B. (1993). The association of changes in
physical-activity level and other lifestyle characteristics with
mortality among men. New England Journal of Medicine, 328(8),
538–545.
Scharhag-Rosenberger, F., Walitzek, S., Kindermann, W., and
Meyer, T. (2010). Differences in adaptations to 1 year of
aerobic endurance training: Individual patterns of nonresponse.
Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports, 22(1),
113–118.

Tanskanen, M.M., Uusitalo, A.L., Kinnunen, H., Hakkinen, K.,
Kyrolainen, H., and Atalay, M. (2011). Association of military
training with oxidative stress and overreaching. Medicine and
Science in Sports and Exercise, 43(8), 1552–1560.
Tikkanen, H.O., Hamalainen, E., Sarna, S., Adlercreutz, H., and
Harkonen, M. (1998). Associations between skeletal muscle
properties, physical fitness, physical activity and coronary heart
disease risk factors in men. Atherosclerosis, 137(2), 377–389.
Timmons, J.A., Knudsen, S., Rankinen, T., Koch, L.G.,
Sarzynski, M., and Jensen, T., et al. (2010). Using molecular
classification to predict gains in maximal aerobic capacity
following endurance exercise training in humans. Journal of
Applied Physiology, 108(6), 1487–1496.
Troiano, R.P. (2005). A timely meeting: Objective measurement
of physical activity. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise,
37(Suppl. 11), S487–489.
Physical activity and exercise training response 569
Troiano, R.P., Berrigan, D., Dodd, K.W., Masse, L.C., Tilert, T.,
and McDowell, M. (2008). Physical activity in the United
States measured by accelerometer. Medicine and Science in
Sports and Exercise, 40(1), 181–188.
Wasserman, K., Whipp, B.J., Koyl, S.N., and Beaver, W.L.
(1973). Anaerobic threshold and respiratory gas exchange
during exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 35(2), 236–243.
Vollaard, N.B., Constantin-Teodosiu, D., Fredriksson, K.,
Rooyackers, O., Jansson, E., and Greenhaff, P.L. (2009).
Systematic analysis of adaptations in aerobic capacity and
submaximal energy metabolism provides a unique insight into
determinants of human aerobic performance. Journal of Applied
Physiology, 106(5), 1479–1486.
Copyright of Journal of Sports Sciences is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be
copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written
permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.