CalculusSuccessin20MinutesaDay2ndEdition PDF

CALCULUS
SUCCESS
in 20 Minutes a Day
CALCULUS
SUCCESS
in 20 Minutes
a Day
Second Edition
Mark A. McKibben
Christopher Thomas
®
NE W YORK
Copyright © 2012 LearningExpress, LLC.
All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions.

Published in the United States by LearningExpress, LLC, New York.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

McKibben, Mark A.
Calculus success in 20 minutes a day / Mark A. McKibben.—2nd ed.
p. cm.
Previous ed.: Calculus success in 20 minutes a day / Thomas, Christopher. © 2006.
ISBN 978-1-57685-889-9
1. Calculus—Problems, exercises, etc. I. Thomas, Christopher, 1973– Calculus success
in 20 minutes a day. II. Title. III. Title: Calculus success in twenty minutes a day.
QA303.2.T47 2012
515—dc23
2011030506
Printed in the United States of America
987654321
ISBN 978-1-57685-889-9
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Mark A. McKibben is a professor of mathematics and computer science at Goucher College in Baltimore,
Maryland. During his 12 years at this institution, he has taught more than 30 different courses spanning the
mathematics curriculum, and has published two graduate-level books with CRC Press, more than two dozen
journal articles on differential equations, and more than 20 supplements for undergraduate texts on algebra,
trigonometry, statistics, and calculus.
Christopher Thomas is a professor of mathematics at the Massachusetts College of Liberal Arts. He has
taught at Tufts University as a graduate student, Texas A&M University as a postdoctorate professor, and the
Senior Secondary School of Mozano, Ghana, as a Peace Corps volunteer. His classroom assistant is a small
teddy bear named ex.
v
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ix
PRETEST 1
LESSON 1 Functions 15
LESSON 2 Graphs 23
LESSON 3 Exponents and Logarithms 31

LESSON 4 Trigonometry 37
LESSON 5 Limits and Continuity 47
LESSON 6 Derivatives 55
LESSON 7 Basic Rules of Differentiation 61
LESSON 8 Rates of Change 67

LESSON 9 The Product and Quotient Rules 75
LESSON 10 Chain Rule 81
LESSON 11 Implicit Differentiation 85

LESSON 12 Related Rates 91
LESSON 13 Limits at Infinity 97
LESSON 14 Using Calculus to Graph 107

LESSON 15 Optimization 115
vii
– CONTENTS –
LESSON 16 The Integral and Areas under Curves 121
LESSON 17 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 127

LESSON 18 Antidifferentiation 133
LESSON 19 Integration by Substitution 139
LESSON 20 Integration by Parts 145
POSTTEST 151
SOLUTION KEY 165
GLOSSARY 193
viii
INTRODUCTION
I f you have never taken a calculus course, and now find that you need to know calculus—this is the book
for you. If you have already taken a calculus course, but felt like you never understood what the teacher
was trying to tell you—this book can teach you what you need to know. If it has been a while since you
have taken a calculus course, and you need to refresh your skills—this book will review the basics and reteach
you the skills you may have forgotten. Whatever your reason for needing to know calculus, Calculus Success
in 20 Minutes a Day will teach you what you need to know.
Overcoming Math Anxiety
Do you like math or do you find math an unpleasant experience? It is human nature for people to like what
they are good at. Generally, people who dislike math have not had much success with math.
If you have struggles with math, ask yourself why. Was it because the class went too fast? Did you have
a chance to fully understand a concept before you went on to a new one? One of the comments students fre-
quently make is, “I was just starting to understand, and then the teacher went on to something new.” That is
why Calculus Success is self-paced. You work at your own pace. You go on to a new concept only when you
are ready.
When you study the lessons in this book, the only person you have to answer to is you. You don’t have
to pretend you know something when you don’t truly understand. You get to take the time you need to under-
stand everything before you go on to the next lesson. You have truly learned something only when you
thoroughly understand it. Take as much time as you need to understand examples. Check your work with the
answers and if you don’t feel confident that you fully understand the lesson, do it again. You might think you
don’t want to take the time to go back over something again; however, making sure you understand a lesson
ix
– INTRODUCTION –
completely may save you time in the future lessons. you learn a concept. Each new concept is followed by
Rework problems you missed to make sure you don’t a practice set of problems. The answers to the prac-
make the same mistakes again. tice problems are in an answer key located at the end
of the book.
When you have completed all 20 lessons, take
How to Use This Book the posttest. The posttest has the same format as the
pretest, but the questions are different. Compare the
Calculus Success teaches basic calculus concepts in 20 results of the posttest with the results of the pretest
self-paced lessons. The book includes a pretest, a you took before you began Lesson 1. What are your
posttest, 20 lessons, each covering a new topic, and a strengths? Do you still have weak areas? Do you need
glossary. Before you begin Lesson 1, take the pretest. to spend more time on some concepts, or are you
The pretest will assess your current calculus abilities. ready to go to the next level?
You’ll find the answer key at the end of the pretest.
Each answer includes the lesson number that the
problem is testing. This will be helpful in determin- Make a Commitment
ing your strengths and weaknesses. After taking the
pretest, move on to Lesson 1, Functions. Success does not come without effort. If you truly
Each lesson offers detailed explanations of a want to be successful, make a commitment to spend
new concept. There are numerous examples with the time you need to improve your calculus skills.
step-by-step solutions. As you proceed through a les- So sharpen your pencil and get ready to begin
son, you will find tips and shortcuts that will help the pretest!
x
PRETEST
B
efore you begin Lesson 1, you may want to get an idea of what you know and what you need to learn.
The pretest will answer some of these questions for you. The pretest consists of 50 multiple-choice
questions covering the topics in this book. While 50 questions can’t cover every concept or skill taught
in this book, your performance on the pretest will give you a good indication of your strengths and
weaknesses.
If you score high on the pretest, you have a good foundation and should be able to work through the
book quickly. If you score low on the pretest, don’t despair. This book will explain the key calculus concepts,
step by step. If you get a low score, you may need to take more than 20 minutes a day to work through a les-
son. However, this is a self-paced program, so you can spend as much time on a lesson as you need. You decide
when you fully comprehend the lesson and are ready to go on to the next one.
Take as much time as you need to complete the pretest. When you are finished, check your answers with
the answer key at the end of the pretest. Along with each answer is a number that tells you which lesson of
this book teaches you about the calculus skills needed to answer that question. You will find the level of dif-
ficulty increases as you work your way through the pretest.
1
– LEARNINGEXPRESS ANSWER SHEET –
1. a b c d 18. a b c d 35. a b c d
2. a b c d 19. a b c d 36. a b c d
3. a b c d 20. a b c d 37. a b c d
4. a b c d 21. a b c d 38. a b c d
5. a b c d 22. a b c d 39. a b c d
6. a b c d 23. a b c d 40. a b c d
7. a b c d 24. a b c d 41. a b c d
8. a b c d 25. a b c d 42. a b c d
9. a b c d 26. a b c d 43. a b c d
10. a b c d 27. a b c d 44. a b c d
11. a b c d 28. a b c d 45. a b c d
12. a b c d 29. a b c d 46. a b c d
13. a b c d 30. a b c d 47. a b c d
14. a b c d 31. a b c d 48. a b c d
15. a b c d 32. a b c d 49. a b c d
16. a b c d 33. a b c d 50. a b c d
17. a b c d 34. a b c d
3
– PRETEST –
Use the following figure for questions 5 and 6.

1. What is the value of f(4) when f(x) = 3x2 – x?
a. 22
b. 46 y
c. 140 6
d. 142
5
y = f(x)
4
2. Simplify g(x + 3) when g(x) = x2 – 2x + 1.
3
a. x2 + 2x + 4
b. x2 – 2x + 4 2
c. x2 + 4x + 16 1
d. x2 + 4x + 13
x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 –1
3. What is (f ° g)(x) when f(x) = x – and g(x) =
x
x + 3?
2
a. x ! # 3
x 5. On what interval(s) is f(x) increasing?
2 a. (!∞,1) and (5,∞)
b. 2x ! # 3
x b. (1,5)
6 c. (1,6)
c. x2 ! 2 # 3x !
x d. (5,∞)
2
d. x # 3 !
x#3
6. Which of the following is a point of inflection
x for f(x)?
4. What is the domain of h1x2 " ?
x2 ! 1 a. (0,5.5)
a. all real numbers except x = 1 b. (1,6)
b. all real numbers except x = 0 c. (3,3)
c. all real numbers except x = –1 and x = 1 d. (5,1)
d. all real numbers except x = –1, x = 0, and
x=1 7. What is the equation of the straight line pass-
ing through (2,5) and (!1,!1)?
a. y " 2x # 5
b. y " 2x # 1
c. y " !2x # 9
d. y " !2x ! 3
5
– PRETEST –
1 ⎛ 3π ⎞
8. Simplify 642 . 12. Evaluate tan⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ 4⎠
a. 4
b. 8 a. !1
c. 32 b. 1
d. 4,096 2
c.
2
d. 2
9. Simplify 2!3.
1
a.
8 x2 ! 1
b. 8 13. Evaluate lim .
xS4 x2 # 1
c. !8
a. !1
d. !6
3
b.
5
10. Solve for x when 3x = 15. 15
c.
17
a. 5
7
b. ln152 d.
9
ln1152
c.
ln132
x!1
d. ln1122 14. Evaluate lim .
xS1 x2 !1
a. 0
b. 1
⎛ π⎞ 1
11. Evaluate sin ⎜ ⎟ . c.
⎝ 3⎠ 2
1 d. undefined
a. !
2
1
b.
2 x#3
15. Evaluate lim! .
2 xS2 x!2
c. a. ∞
2
3 b. !∞
d. 1
2 c. !
4
−3
d.
2
6
– PRETEST –
16. What is the slope of f 1x2 " 3x # 2 at x " 5? 20. What is the derivative of y " x2 ! 3cos1x2 ?
a. 2 dy
b. 17 a. " 2x # 3sin1x2
dx
c. 3x dy
d. 3 b. " 2x ! 3sin1x2
dx
dy
17. What is the slope of g1x2 " x2 # 2x ! 1 at c. " 2x ! 3cos112
dx
x " 3?
dy
a. 2 d. " 2x ! 3tan1x2
dx
b. 8
c. 14
d. 2x # 2 21. Differentiate f 1x2 " ln1x2 ! ex # 2 .
a. f ¿1x2 " ln1x2 # ex
18. Differentiate h1x2 " 4x3 ! 5x # 1. b. f ¿1x2 " ln1x2 ! ex
a. h ′(x) = 12x2 1
c. f ¿1x2 " # ex
x
b. h ′(x) = 12x2 ! 5 1
d. f ¿1x2 " ! ex
c. h ′(x) = 12x2 ! 5x x
1
d. h ′(x) = 12x2 ! 5x # 22. Differentiate g1x2 " x2sin1x2.
x
a. g ′(x) = 2xcos1x2
40
19. The height of a certain plant is H(t) = 41 ! b. g ′(x) = 2x # cos1x2
t
inches after t $ 1 week. How fast is c. g ′(x) = 2xsin1x2 # x2cos1x2
it growing after two weeks? d. g ′(x) = 2xsin1x2cos1x2
a. 5 inches per week
b. 10 inches per week
c. 21 inches per week
d. 31 inches per week
7
– PRETEST –
ln1x2
23. Differentiate j(x) = . 26. Differentiate m(x) = 1x2 ! 12 5.
x
a. j ′(x) = 0 a. m ′(x) = 10x
1 b. m ′(x) = 12x2 5
b. j ′(x) = c. m ′(x) = 51x2 ! 12 4
x
1 ! ln1x2 d. m ′(x) = 10x1x2 ! 12 4
c. j ′(x) =
x2
ln1x2 ! 1 dy
d. j ′(x) = 27. Compute if y2 # xy " x3 # 5 .
x2 dx
dy
a. " x2
24. Differentiate y " tan1x2 . dx
dy dy 3x2 ! y
a. = sec2 1x2 b.
dx
"
2y # x
dx
dy dy 3x2
b. = –cot(x) c. "
dx dx 1 # 2y
2 2
dy cos 1x2 ! sin 1x2 dy 3x 2 − x
c. = d. =
dx cos2 1x2 dx 2y
dy
d. = sin1x2cos1x2
dx dy
28. Compute if sin1y2 " 4x2.
dx
25. Differentiate f 1x2 " e4x #7.
2
dy
a. " 8x ! cos1y2
a. f ′(x) = e8x dx
dy
b. f ′(x) = e4x #7
2
b. " 8xcos1y2
dx
c. f ′(x) = 8xe 4x2 #7
dy
d. f ′(x) = 14x2 # 72e4x !8
2
c. " cos1y2 ! 8x
dx
dy
d. " 8xsec1y2
dx
8
– PRETEST –
⎛ 1 3⎞ 4x 2 − 5x + 2
32. Evaluate lim .
29. What is the slope of x # y " 1 at ⎜ ,
2 2
⎟? x →∞ 1 − x2
⎝2 2 ⎠
a. 4
a. !1
b. !4
b. 1
c. 2
3 d. undefined
c. –
3
3 4x 5 + 6x + 4
d. 33. Evaluate lim .
3 x →−∞ x 3 + 10 x − 1
a. !∞
30. If the radius of a circle is increasing at 4 feet b. ∞
per second, how fast is the area increasing c. !4
when the radius is 10 feet? d. 4
a. 20p square feet per second
b. 80p square feet per second ln(x)
34. Evaluate lim .
c. 100p square feet per second x →−∞ 3x + 2
1
d. 400p square feet per second a.
3
b. 2
31. The height of a triangle increases by 3 inches c. 3
every minute while its base decreases by 1 inch d. 0
every minute. How fast is the area changing
when the triangle has a height of 10 inches and
a base of 100 inches?
a. It is increasing at 145 square inches
per minute.
b. It is increasing at 500 square inches
per minute.
c. It is decreasing at 1,500 square inches
per minute.
d. It is decreasing at 3,000 square inches
per minute.
9
– PRETEST –
35. Which of the following is the graph of c.

1
y" ?
x!2 y
a. 3
y 2
3 1
x
2 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1
1 –2
–3
x
–2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1
–2
d.
–3
y
3
b.
1
y
3 x
–2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1
2
–2
1
–3
x
–2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1
–2
–3
10
– PRETEST –
36. On what interval is g1x2 " x4 ! 6x2 # 5 con-

! f 1x2 dx ?
4
40. What is
cave down? 0
a. (1,12)
b. (!6,5) y
y = f(x)
c. (− 3 , 3) 4
d. (!1,1) (4,3)
3
37. The surface area of a cube is increasing at a rate
of 3 square inches per minute. How fast is an 2
edge increasing at the instant when each side is
20 inches? 1
1
a. inch per minute
80
x
3 –1 1 2 3 4 5
b. inch per minute
20
c. 80 inches per minute
d. 24,000 inches per minute a. 2
b. 3
38. A box with a square bottom and no top must c. 10
contain 108 cubic inches. What dimensions d. 12
will minimize the surface area of the box?
a. 2 in. × 2 in. × 27 in. 41. If g1x2 is the area under the curve
b. 8 in. × 8 in. × 3 in. y " t3 # 4t between t " 0 and t " x, what is
c. 6 in. × 6 in. × 3 in. g¿1x2 ?
d. 4 in. × 4 in. × 6.75 in.
a. x3 # 4x
b. 3x2 # 4
!
8
! g1x2 dx " !4 , then

5
39. If g1x2 dx " 5 and 1
c. x4 # 2x
3 3 4
d. 0
! g1x2 dx ?
8
what is
5
a.
b.
!20
1
42. Evaluate ! 13x 2
# 8x # 52 dx .
c. 3 a. 6x # 8
d. 9 b. 6x # 8 # c
c. x3 # 4x2 # 5x
d. x3 # 4x2 # 5x # c
11
– PRETEST –
! 2x dx . !e
9
43. Evaluate 46. Evaluate 5x
dx .
˛
a. 3 1 5x
a. e #c
b. 9 5
c. 18 b. e5x # c
d. 81 c. e5 # c
2 1
d. e5 # c
5
44. Evaluate ! sin1x2 dx .
a. cos1x2 # c 47. Evaluate ! 4x cos1x 2 dx .
2 3
b. !cos1x2 # c a. 4sin1x3 2 # c
c. sin1x2 # c 4
b. sin1x3 2 # c
d. !sin1x2 # c 3
4
c. x3sin1x3 2 # c
3
45. Evaluate !x 2
x
!1
dx .
˛
4
d. x2sin1x3 2 # c
3
1 2
2x
a. 1 3
3x ! x
#c
!
48. Evaluate x(x 2 + 2) 5 dx .
1 2
b. ln x − 1 + c a. (x + 2)6 + c
6
1 b. 5(x 2 + 2) 4 + c
c. ln(x 2 − 1) + c
2 6
x2 ⎛ 1 3 ⎞
1
ln x 2 − 1 + c c. 2 ⎜⎝ 3 x + 2 x ⎟⎠ + c
d.
2
1 2
d. 12 (x + 5) + c
6
12
– PRETEST –
49. Evaluate ! xln1x2 dx . 50. Evaluate ! xsin1x2 dx.

˛
1 2 a. !xcos1x2 # sin1x2 # c
a. x ln1x2 # c
2
1 2
b. xln1x2 ! ln1x2 # c b. x cos1x2 # c
2
1 1
c. x2ln1x2 # x2 # c c. ! x2cos1x2 # c
4 2
1 1 d. xcos(x) – cos(x) + c
d. x2ln1x2 ! x2 # c
2 4
13
– PRETEST –
Answers 26. d. Lesson 10

27. b. Lesson 11
1. b. Lesson 1 28. d. Lessons 4, 11
2. a. Lesson 1 29. c. Lesson 11
3. d. Lesson 1 30. b. Lesson 12
4. c. Lesson 1 31. a. Lesson 12
5. a. Lesson 2 32. b. Lesson 13
6. c. Lesson 2 33. b. Lesson 13
7. b. Lesson 2 34. d. Lesson 13
8. b. Lesson 3 35. a. Lesson 14
9. a. Lesson 3 36. d. Lesson 14
11. d. Lesson 4 38. c. Lesson 16
13. c. Lesson 5 40. c. Lesson 16
16. d. Lessons 6, 7 43. c. Lesson 18
17. b. Lessons 6, 7 44. b. Lesson 18
21. d. Lesson 8 48. d. Lesson 19
22. c. Lesson 9 49. d. Lesson 20
23. c. Lessons 8, 9 50. a. Lesson 20
24. a. Lesson 9
25. c. Lesson 10
14
1
L E S S O N
FUNCTIONS
C
alculus is the study of change. It is often important to know when a quantity is increasing, when it
is decreasing, and when it hits a high or low point. Much of the business of finance depends on pre-
dicting the high and low points for prices. In science and engineering, it is often essential to know pre-
cisely how fast quantities such as temperature, size, and speed are changing. Calculus is the primary tool for
calculating such changes.
Numbers, which are the focus of arithmetic, do not change. The number 5 will always be 5. It never goes
up or down. Thus, we need to introduce a new sort of mathematical object, something that can change. These
objects, the centerpiece of calculus, are functions.
Functions
A function is a way of matching up one set of numbers with another. The first set of numbers is called the
domain. For each of the numbers in the domain, the function assigns exactly one number from the other set,
the range.
15
PARENTHESES HINT
It is true that in algebra, everyone is taught “parentheses mean multiplication.” This means that 5(2 + 7) =
5(9) = 45. If x is a variable, then x(2 + 7) = x(9) = 9x. However, if f is the name of a function, then f (2 + 7) =
f (9) = the number to which f takes 9. The expression f (x) is pronounced “f of x” and not “f times x.” This can
certainly be confusing. But, as you gain experience, it will become second nature. Mathematicians use paren-
theses to mean several different things and expect everyone to know the difference. Sorry!
For example, the domain of the function could f 112 ! 1

be the set of numbers {1, 4, 9, 25, 100}, and the range f 142 ! 2
could be {1, 2, 3, 5, 10}. Suppose the function takes 1 f 192 ! 3
to 1, 4 to 2, 9 to 3, 25 to 5, and 100 to 10. This could be f 1252 ! 5
illustrated by the following: f 11002 ! 10
1S 1 However, if the domain were large, this would get

4S 2 very tedious. It is much easier to find a pattern and use
9S 3 that pattern to describe the function. Our function f
25 S 5 just happens to take each number of its domain to the
100 S 10 square root of that number. Therefore, we can describe
Because we sometimes use several functions in f by saying:
the same discussion, it makes sense to give them f(a number) = the square root of that number
names. Let us call the function we just mentioned by
Of course, anyone with experience in algebra
the name Eugene. Thus, we can ask, “Hey, what does
knows that writing “a number” over and over is a waste
Eugene do with the number 4?” The answer is “Eugene
of time. Why not just pick a variable to represent the
takes 4 to the number 2.”
number? Just as f is a typical name for a function, lit-
Mathematicians like to write as little as possible.
tle x is often used for a variable name. Using both, here
Thus, instead of writing “Eugene takes 4 to the num-
is a nice way to represent our function f:
ber 2,” we often write “Eugene(4) ! 2” to mean the
same thing. Similarly, we like to use names that are as f(x) = x
short as possible, such as f (for function), g (for func-
tion when f is already being used), h, and so on. The This tells us that putting a number into the func-
trigonometric functions in Lesson 4 all have three- tion f is the same as putting it into . Thus,
letter names like sin and cos, but even these are abbre- f(25) = 25 = 5 and f(f) = 4 = 2.
viations. So let us save space and use f instead of
Eugene. Example
Because the domain is small, it is easy to write Find the value of g(3) if g1x2 ! x2 " 2 .
out everything:
16
– FUNCTIONS –
Solution 7. Suppose that after t seconds, a rock thrown off

Replace each occurrence of x with 3. a bridge has height s1t2 ! #16t2 " 20t " 100
g(3) ! 32 " 2 feet off the ground. What is the height above
the ground after 3 seconds?
Simplify.
g(3) ! 9 " 2 ! 11 8. Suppose that the profit on making and selling x
x x2
cookies is P (x) = − − 10 dollars .
Example 2 10, 000
Find the value of h(#4) if h(t) = t3 # 2t2 + 5. How much profit is made on selling 100 cookies?
Solution
Replace each occurrence of t with –4. Plugging Variables
into Functions
h(–4) = (–4)3 – 2(–4)2 + 5
Simplify. Variables can be plugged into functions just as easily as

numbers can. Often, though, the result can’t be sim-
h(–4) = –64 – 2(16) + 5 = –64 – 32 + 5 = –91 plified as much.
Example
When multiplying, an even number of negatives Simplify f(w) if f(x) = x + 2x 2 + 2.
results in a positive number, whereas an odd num-
ber of negatives results in a negative number. Solution
Replace each occurrence of x with w.
f(w) = w + 2w 2 + 2
Practice That is all we can say without knowing more about w.
1. Find the value of f 152 when f 1x2 ! 2x # 1. Example

Simplify g1a " 52 if g1t2 ! t2 # 3t " 1 .
2. Find the value of g1#32 when
g1x2 ! x3 " x2 " x " 1. Solution
Replace each occurrence of t with (a " 5).
1 3 g1a " 52 ! 1a " 52 2 # 31a " 52 " 1
3. Find the value of h a b when h1t2 ! t2 " .
2 4
Multiply out 1a " 52 2 and #31a " 52 .
4. Find the value of f 172 when f 1x2 ! 2 .
g1a " 52 ! a2 " 10a " 25 # 3a # 15 " 1
⎛ 1⎞
5. Find the value of m ⎜ − ⎟ when m(t) = –5t 3.
⎝ 5⎠
6. Find the value of h1642 when (a + b)2 ≠ a2 + b2. Remember to FOIL (first, out-
3 side, inside, last) to get (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2.
h1x2 ! 2x # 2 x.
Simplify.
g1a " 52 ! a2 " 7a " 11
17
– FUNCTIONS –
Example 8
f 1x " a2 # f 1x2 13. g (2 x) − g (x) when g (t ) = − 6t
Simplify if f 1x2 ! x2 . t
a
f ( x + a) − f ( x )
14. when f (x) = −x 2 + 5
a
Solution
h1x " a2 # h1x2
Start with what needs to be simplified. 15. when h(x) = –2x + 1
a
f 1x " a2 # f 1x2
a g (x + 2) − g (x)
16. when g (x) = x 3
2
Use f 1x2 ! x2 to evaluate f 1x " a2 and f 1x2 .
1x " a2 2 # x2
a
Composition of Functions
Multiply out 1x " a2 2 . Now that we can plug anything into functions, we can
plug one function in as the input of another function.
x2 " 2xa " a2 # x2
This is called composition. The composition of func-
a
tion f with function g is written f ! g . This means to
Cancel the x2 and the #x2 . plug g into f like this:
2xa " a2 ( f o g )(x ) = f (g (x ))
a It may seem that f comes first in ( f o g )(x ) , read-
Factor out an a. ing from left to right, but actually, the g is closer to the
x. This means that the function g acts on the x first.
12x " a2a
a
Example
Cancel an a from the top and bottom. If f(x) = x + 2x and g1x2 ! 4x " 7, then what is the
2x " a composition ( f o g )(x ) ?
Solution
Practice Start with the definition of composition.
(f ° g)(x) = f(g(x))
Simplify the following.
Use g1x2 ! 4x " 7 .
9. f 1y2 when f 1x2 ! x2 " 3x # 1
( f o g )(x ) = f (4 x + 7)
10. f 1x " a2 when f 1x2 ! x " 3x # 1
2
Replace each occurrence of x in f with 4x " 7 .
11. f (x + h) − f (x) when f (x) = 1 ( f o g )(x ) = 4 x + 7 + 2(4 x + 7)

h 2x
Simplify.
8
12. g(x 2 + x ) when g1t2 ! # 6t ( f o g )(x ) = 4 x + 7 + 8 x + 14
t
18
– FUNCTIONS –
Conversely, to evaluate (g ° f )(x), we compute: Practice

(g o f )(x) = g ( f (x))
1
Using f 1x2 ! , g1x2 ! x3 # 2x2 " 1 , and h(x) = x
Use f(x) = x + 2x. x
– x , simplify the following compositions.
(g o f )(x) = g ( x + 2 x)
17. (f ° g)(x)
Replace each occurrence of x in g with x + 2x.
(g o f )(x) = 4( x + 2 x) + 7 18. (g ° f )(x)
Simplify. 19. (f ° h)(t)

(g o f )(x) = 4 x + 8 x + 7
20. (f ° f )(z)
21. (h ° h)(w)
This shows that the order in which you com-
22. (g ° h)(16)
pute a composition matters! In general, ( f ° g)(x)
≠ (g ° f )(x). 23. (h ° f ° g)(x)
We can form the composition of more than two func- 24. (f ° h ° f )(2x)
tions. Just apply the functions, one at a time, working
your way from the one closest to x outward.
Domains
Example
If f (x) = x + 1 , g(x) = 2 – x, and h(x) = 4x, then When an expression is used to describe a function f (x),
2x − 3 it is convenient to think of the domain as the set of all
what is (f ° g ° h)(x)?
numbers that can be substituted into the expression
and get a meaningful output. This set is called the
Solution
domain. The range of the function is the set of all pos-
Start with the definition of composition.
sible numbers produced by evaluating f at the numbers
(f ° g ° h)(x) = f (g(h(x))) in its domain.
Use h(x) = 4x. In the beginning of the lesson, we considered the
(f ° g ° h)(x) = f (g(4x)) function:
Compute g(4x) by replacing each occurrence of x in g f(x) = x
with 4x.
However, we left out a crucial piece of information: the
g(4x) = 2 – 4x
domain. The domain of this function consisted of only
Next, substitute this into the composition. the numbers 1, 4, 9, 25, and 100. Thus, we should have
(f ° g ° h)(x) = f (g(4x)) = f (2 – 4x). written
Replace every occurrence of x in f with 2 – 4x. f(x) = x if x ! 1, 4, 9, 25, or 100
(f ° g ° h)(x) = f (2 – 4x) = (2 − 4 x) + 1 Usually, the domain of a function is not given
2(2 − 4 x) − 3
Simplify. explicitly like this. In such situations, it is assumed that
3 − 4x the domain is as large as it possibly can be, meaning that
(f ° g ° h)(x) =
1 − 8x
19
– FUNCTIONS –
it contains all real numbers that, when plugged into the Solution
function, produce another real number. Specifically, To avoid dividing by zero, we need x2 " 5x " 6 $ 0,
including a number in the domain cannot violate one so 1x " 321x " 22 $ 0, thus x $ #3 and x $ #2 .
of the following two fundamental prohibitions: To avoid an even root of a negative number,
■ Never divide by zero. 4 # x & 0, so x % 4 . Thus, the domain of k is
■ Never take an even root of a negative number. x % 4 , x $ #3 , x $ #2 .
A nice way of representing certain collections of
Example real numbers is interval notation, as follows:
3
What is the domain of f 1x2 ! ?
x#2 COLLECTION OF INTERVAL
REAL NUMBERS NOTATION
Solution a<x<b (a,b)
We must never let the denominator x # 2 be zero, so
a≤x<b [a,b)
x cannot be 2. Therefore, the domain of this function
consists of all real numbers except 2. a<x≤b (a,b]
The prohibition against even roots (like square a≤x≤b [a,b]
roots) of negative numbers is less severe. An even root
of a negative number is an imaginary number. Useful x>a (a,∞)
mathematics can be done with imaginary numbers. x≥a [a,∞)

However, for the sake of simplicity, we will avoid them
x<b (–∞,b)
in this book.
x≤b (–∞,b]
Example All real numbers (–∞,∞)
What is the domain of g(x) = 3x + 2 ?
Note: A parenthesis is used when we intend to NOT
Solution include a point, whereas a square bracket is used when
The numbers in the square root must not be negative, we intend TO include a point.
2 The domain of the previous example would be
so 3x " 2 & 0 , thus x & # . The domain consists
3
2 written as follows:
of all numbers greater than or equal to # . (–∞,–3), (–3,–2), and (–2,4]
3
Do note that it is perfectly okay to take the square
root of zero, since 0 = 0. It is only when numbers are
less than zero that even roots become imaginary. Practice
Example Find the domain of each of the following functions.

4 − x Express your answers using interval notation.
Find the domain of k(x) = .
x + 5x + 6
2
−1
25. f (x) =
(x + 3)(x − 5)2
26. h(x) = x + 1
20
– FUNCTIONS –
1 4
2 2#x
27. k1t2 ! 31. k1x2 !
2t " 5 x"8
28. g1x2 ! x2 " 5x # 6 8u
32. g (u) =
(u + 3) 4 + 3u
(z − 1)(z + 2)
29. j(z ) =
z2 +1
3
30. h1x2 ! 2 x
21
2
L E S S O N
GRAPHS
A
function can be fully described by showing explicitly what happens at each number in its domain
(for example, 4 S 2) or by giving its formula (for example, f(x) = x ). However, neither of these
provides a clear visual picture of the function.
Fortunately, René Descartes came up with the idea of a graph, a visual picture of a function. Rather than
say 4 S 2 or f(4) = 2, we plot the point (4,2) on the Cartesian plane, as in Figure 2.1.
(4,2)
2
2 up
1
x
1 2 3 4 5
4 over
Figure 2.1
23
NOTE ON FINDING COORDINATES
We put the y into the formula y = f(x) = x to imply that the y-coordinates of our points are the numbers we
get by plugging the x-coordinates into the function f.
Practice y
Plot the following points on a Cartesian plane. (4,2)

2 y = f (x) = x
1. (3,5)
(1,1)
2. (!3,4) 1
x
1 ,—
— 1
3. (2,!6) (0,0) 4 2
x
1 2 3 4
4. (!1,!5)
Figure 2.2
5. (0,3)
6. (!5,0)
7. (0,0) Figure 2.3

⎛ 9 1⎞
8. ⎜ , ⎟
⎝ 2 4⎠
For the function f 1x2 " x2 ! 2x # 5 , plot the point

(x,f (x)) for the following values of x.
Figure 2.4
9. x " 3
We can see that the function f(x) = x is
10. x " 1 increasing (the graph is going up from left to right)
and not decreasing (the graph is going down from left
11. x " 0 to right).
The function f(x) = x is concave down
12. x " !2 because it bows downward (see Figure 2.3) like a frown
and not concave up like a smile (see Figure 2.4). We
If we plotted the points (x,f (x)) for all x in the report the input intervals in each case. So, we say that
domain of f(x) = x (not just the whole numbers, but f is increasing on (0,∞) and concave down on (0,∞).
all the fractions and decimals, too), then the points
would be so close together that they would form a con- Example
tinuous curve as in Figure 2.2. Assume the domain of the function graphed in Figure
The graph shows us several interesting charac- 2.5 is all real numbers. Determine where the function
teristics of the function f(x) = x . is increasing and decreasing, and where the function is
concave up and concave down.
24
MATHEMATICAL NOTATION NOTE
Out of context, an expression like (2,8) is ambiguous. Is this a single point with coordinates x " 2 and y " 8?
Is this an interval consisting of all the real numbers between 2 and 8? Only the context can make clear which
is meant. If we read “at (2,8),” then this is a single point. If we read “on (2,8),” then it refers to an interval.
y There is no way to tell the difference without an actual

8 formula for f (x).
7 The point at (2,6) where g stops increasing and
y = g (x)
6 begins to decrease is the highest point in its immedi-
5 ate vicinity and is called a local maximum. The point at
4 (8,3) is similarly a local minimum, the lowest point in
3 its neighborhood. These points tend to be of particu-
2
lar interest, especially in applications.
1
Example
x Use the graph of the function h(x) in Figure 2.6 to
–2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
–1 identify the domain, where it is increasing and decreas-
ing, where it has local maxima and minima, where it is
Figure 2.5
concave up and down, and where it has points of
inflection.
Solution
The function g is increasing up to the point at x " 2, y
where it then decreases down to x " 8, and then 6
y = h(x) 5
increases thereafter. Using interval notation, we say
that g increases on (!∞,2) and on (8,∞), and that g 4
decreases on (2,8). 3
The concavity of g is trickier to estimate. Clearly 2
g is concave down in the vicinity of x " 2 and concave 1
up starting around x " 7. The exact point where the x
concavity changes is called a point of inflection. On this –4 –3 –2 –1–1 1 2 3 4 5 6
graph, it seems to be at the point (5,4), though some –2
people might imagine it to actually be a bit on either –3
side. Thus, we say that g is concave down on (!∞,5) –4
and concave up on (5,∞). –5
Honestly, any information obtained by simply –6
eyeballing a graph is going to be a rough estimate. Is
the local maximum at (2,6), or is it at (2.0003,5.9998)?
Figure 2.6
25
– GRAPHS –
Solution Similarly, a point of inflection can be seen at x "

The first thing to notice is that h has three breaks, or 2 but not at x " !2 because there can’t be a point of
discontinuities. If we wanted to trace the graph of h inflection where there is no point!
with a continuous motion of a pencil, then we would The line x = –2 is called a vertical asymptote
have to lift up the pencil at x " !2, x " 2, and at because the graph of f (x) begins to look more like this
x " 5. The little unshaded circle at (5,3) indicates a hole line the closer the inputs get to –2. Because the graph
in the graph where a single point has been taken out. appears to flatten out like the straight horizontal line
This means that x " 5 is not in the domain, just as x " y " 0 (the x-axis) as the graph goes off to the left, we
!2 has no point above or below it. The situation at x say that the graph of y " h1x2 appears to have a hor-
" 2 is more interesting because x " 2 is in the domain, izontal asymptote at y " 0. We will examine this more
with the point (the shaded-in circle) at (2,!2) repre- closely in Lesson 13.
senting h(2) " !2. All of the points immediately
before x " 2 have y-values close to y " 3, but then
there is an abrupt jump down to x " 2. Such jumps Practice
occur often when describing real-life situations using
functions like the way the cost of postage leaps up as Use the graph of each function to determine the dis-
soon as a letter weighs more than one ounce. continuities, where the function is increasing and
Because of the discontinuities, we must name decreasing, the local maximum and minimum points,
each interval separately, as in: h increases on (!∞,!2), where the function is concave up and down, the points
(!2,2), (2,5), and on (5,∞). As well, h is concave up on of inflection, and the asymptotes.
(!∞,!2), (2,5), and on (5,∞), and concave down on
(!2,2).
There is a local minimum at (2,!2), because this
point there is the lowest in its immediate vicinity, say
for all 1 $ x $ 3. There is no local maximum in that
range because the y-values get really close to y " 3;
there is no highest point in the range because of the
unshaded circle.
26
– GRAPHS –
13. 15.
y y
6 4
5
4 3
3 y = f (x)
2 2
y = h(x)
1
x 1
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2 x
–3 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–4 –1
–5
–6 –2
16.
14.
y
y
4 6
5
3 4
y = g(x) 3
2
2
y = k(x)
1
1
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
x –1
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 –2
–1
–3
–4
–5
–6
27
– GRAPHS –
17. 19.
y (2,3) y
3
6
(2,5)
y = f(x) 5
2
4 y = j (x )
1 3
2
x 1
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1 –1 x
1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2 –2
–3
–3
–4
18.
20.
y
y
7
2 6 y = h(x)
5
y = g(x) 4
1
3
2
x 1
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x
–1 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
–1
–2
Note
We can obtain all sorts of useful information from a

graph, such as its maximal points, where it is increas-
ing and decreasing, and so on. Calculus will enable us
to get this information directly from the function. We
will then be able to draw graphs intelligently, without
having to calculate and plot thousands of points (the
method graphing calculators use).
28
– GRAPHS –
Straight Lines Example

What is the slope of the line passing through points
The most familiar and arguably most widely used of all (2,7) and (!1,5)?
graphs are straight lines. Human beings tend to build Solution
and move linearly. Given any two points, we can
5!7 !2 2
immediately get a feel for the steepness of a line, as slope " " "
!1 ! 2 !3 3
seen in Figure 2.7.
y
Practice
Find the slope between the following points.

(x 2 , y2 )
21. (1,5) and (2,8)
(x 1 , y1 ) y 2 – y1
x 2 – x1 “rise”
22. (7,3) and (!2,3)
“run”
x
23. (!2,!4) and (!6,5)
Figure 2.7
24. (2,7) and (5,w)
“How much a line is increasing or decreasing” is

called the slope and is calculated by: Equation of a Line
rise No matter what two points you choose on a line, the
slope "
run
slope will always be the same. Thus, if a straight line
y-change has slope m and goes through the point 1x1,y1 2 , then
" using any other point (x,y) on the line, we get the same
x-change
slope, namely:
y2 ! y1 y ! y1
" "m
x2 ! x1 x ! x1
By cross-multiplying, we get the point-slope formula
for the equation of a straight line:
y ! y1 " m1x ! x1 2
Make sure to subtract the y’s in the top and the x’s
or equivalently
in the bottom IN THE SAME ORDER. For instance,
y " m1x ! x1 2 # y1
don’t use y2 – y1 for the rise and x1 – x2 for the run.
Going one step further, we get
y = mx + (1 −mx1 + y 1)
4243
Call this b
This is called the slope-intercept formula for the line

because the point (0,b) is the y-intercept of the line
(that is, where it crosses the y-axis).
29
– GRAPHS –
Example Example
Find the equation of the line with slope !2 through Find the equation of the straight line through (2,6)
point (!1,8). Graph the line. and (5,7). Graph the line.
Solution Solution
7!6 1
The slope is " , so the equation is
y " !21x ! 1!12 2 # 8 5!2 3
1 1 16
y " 1x ! 22 # 6 " x # (see Figure 2.9).
y " !2x # 6 (see Figure 2.8) 3 3 3
y
(2,6) (5,7)
6
1x+—
y=— 16
(–1,8) 3 3 5 16
0, —
3
y 4
(0,6) 3
6
2
5 1
4 x
y = –2x + 6 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 –1
2 Figure 2.9
1
x 1
–1 1 2 3 4 The slope of means the y-value goes up 1 for
–1 3
every increase of 3 units in the x-value.
Figure 2.8
Practice
!2
The slope of !2 " means the y-value goes
1 Find the equation of the straight line with the given
down 2 with every decrease of 1 unit in the x-value. information and then graph the line.
25. slope 2 through point (1,!2)
2
26. slope ! through point (6,1)
3
27. through points (5,3) and (!1,!3)
28. through points (2,5) and (6,5)
30
3
L E S S O N
EXPONENTS AND
LOGARITHMS
Exponents
Exponents frequently arise in calculations throughout calculus. If a is a positive real number and n is a pos-
itive integer (that is, n = 1, 2, 3, …), then an means “multiply the base a by itself n times.” Symbolically,
an ! a # a # a p a
!
n times
Do not multiply the base a times the exponent n.

Symbolically, an ≠ a ⋅ n.
Examples
Review the following examples.
34 ! 3 # 3 # 3 # 3 ! 81
25 ! 2 # 2 # 2 # 2 # 2 ! 32
31
– EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS –
51 ! 5 Examples
Work through the following simplifications.
106 = 1,000,000
3#3#3#3#3 3#3#3#3#3
! 3 # 3 # 3 ! 33
35
2 ! 3#3 3#3
3 !
⎛ 1⎞ 1 1 1 1 3
⎜ ⎟ + ⋅ ⋅ =
⎝ 2⎠ 2 2 2 8 1115
6
= 1115−6 = 119
11
When two numbers with the same base are multiplied,
their exponents are added. The rule about subtracting exponents has two inter-
54
an # am ! 1a # a # a p a2 # 1a # a # a p a2 ! an#m
esting consequences. First, 4 ! 1 because any
5
!
!
n times m times nonzero number divided by itself is one. Also,
54
! 54"4 ! 50 . Thus, 50 ! 1. In general:
Examples 54
Review the following examples. a0 ! 1
410 # 47 ! 417
2 2
⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 2⎞ 2 2 2 2 16 Again, don’t multiply a times the exponent 0 to
⎜ ⎟ ⋅⎜ ⎟ = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ =
⎝ 3⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ 3 3 3 3 81 conclude that a0 = 0.
53 # 5 ! 53 # 51 ! 54
72 # 74 # 73 ! 79
30 ! 1
The rule about adding exponents has an inter- 2000 ! 1
esting consequence. We know that 5 ⋅ 5 = 5
The second consequence follows from:
because this is what “square root” means. Alternately,
52 # 52 ! 52 # 2 ! 51 ! 5 . Because 5 and 52 act
1 1 1 1 1
23 2#2#2 1 1
exactly the same, they are equal: 5 ! 52 . This works
1
2 7 ! # # # # #
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 # ! # # # ! 4 while
2 2 2 2 2
3
2 1
for square roots, cube roots, and so on: also 7 ! 23"7 ! 2 "4 . Thus, 2 "4 ! 4 . In general:
1 1 1
2 2
a2 = a,a =
3 3
a, a
4
= 4
a, K 1
a "n ! n
a
Examples Examples
Review the following examples. Review the following examples.
1
9 =2
9 = 3 1 1
3 "2 ! !
1 32 9
64 = 3 64 = 4
3
1 1
4 "1 ! !
When two numbers with the same base are divided, 41 4
their exponents are subtracted. −1 1 1
5 2
= 1 =
n 5
a 5
2
! an"m
am an
When is itself raised to a power m, the exponents
are multiplied.
32
m times
Exponential Functions
( )
67
4 48
m
n +K+n
a n
= a14
⋅4
n
a2⋅K
44⋅3
a =an n
= a n⋅m
m times
We can form an exponential function by leaving the
base fixed and varying the exponent.
Examples
Review the following examples. Example
The function f 1x2 ! 2x has the graph shown in Fig-
(5 ) = 5 ⋅5 = 5
2
2 +2
2 2 2
= 54 ure 3.1. Note that 2x is quite different from x2 . For
example, when x ! 10 , the value of 2x is
(4 ) = 4 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 4 1
210 ! 2 # 2 # 2 # 2 # 2 # 2 # 2 # 2 # 2 # 2 ! 1,024 , while the
3
−2 −2 −2 −2
= 4(−2 )+(−2 )+(−2 ) = 4 −6 =
46
value of x2 is 102 ! 10 # 10 ! 100 .
Practice

(3,8)
1. 2 # 2
3 2
y
2. 4 # 42 6 x
y = f(x) = 2
107 5
3.
103
4 (2,4)
63
4. 5
6 3
5. 60 2 (1,2)
1
6. 3 8 # 3 # 3 "5 1
1 –2, —
–1, —
2 1 (0,1)
–3, — 4
8
7. 91 x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1
8. 5–1 ⋅ 5
Figure 3.1
9. 2 "3
2
10. 27 3 Example
( ) The function g1x2 ! 3x has the graph shown in Fig-
3
11. 5 −2
ure 3.2. Note that g (x) grows faster than f (x) = 2x as x
(8 )
1
−4 2 gets larger. For reasons that will become clear later, a
12. very nice base to use is the number e ! 2.71828 . . . ,
82 which, just like p ! 3.14159 . . . , can never be written
−2
13. 4 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 4
0 5
out completely.
−1
4
−2
⎛ 9 12 ⎞
14.
⎝ ⎠
81−2
33
EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS
The exponential function f(x) = ex and the natural logarithm g(x) = ln(x) “undo” each other when composed.
That is,
f(g(x)) = eln(x) = x and g(f(x)) = ln(ex) = x
We say that f and g are inverses.
y y
9 (2,3) 9 x
y =ex
y=3
8 8 y=2
x
(1, e 2 )
7 7
6 y = g(x) = 3
x 6
5 5
4 4
(1, e)
3 (1,3) 3
2 2
1 1
1 –1, —
1 –1, —
–2, — 3 1 (0,1) –2, —
e2 e 1 (0,1)
9
x x
–2 –1 1 2 3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1 –1
Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3
Because 2 $ e $ 3, the graph of y ! ex fits The graph of y ! ln(x) comes from flipping the
between y ! 2x and y ! 3x (see Figure 3.3). graph of y ! ex across the line y ! x, as depicted in
Another useful function is the inverse of ex, Figure 3.4. In particular, since e 0 = 1, it follows that
known as the natural logarithm ln(x). Just as subtract- ln(1) = 0.
ing undoes adding, dividing undoes multiplying, and
taking a square root undoes squaring, the natural log-
arithm undoes ex .
ln(0) ≠ 1! In fact, ln is not even defined at x = 0.
If y ! ex, then ln1y2 ! ln1ex 2 = x.
34
Example
y y =ex Solve for x when 10x ! 7 .
3
(1,e)
y =x Solution
2
y = ln(x) Take the natural logarithm of both sides.
(0,1) (e,1)
1 1 ln110x 2 ! ln172
1 1 –1, —
–2, —
e
–3, — e2
Use ln1an 2 ! n # ln1a2 .
e3 (1,0)
x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1 1
e , –1
— x # ln1102 ! ln172
Divide both sides by ln(10).
–2 1 , –2
—
e2 ln172
x!
1 , –3 ln1102
–3 —
e3
A calculator can be used to find a decimal approxima-
Figure 3.4 ln172
tion: " 0.84509, if desired.
ln1102
The laws of natural logarithms might appear unusual,
but they are natural consequences of the exponent rules. Example
Simplify ln(25) # ln(4) " ln(2).
ln1a2 # ln1b2 ! ln1a # b2
Solution
a
ln1a2 " ln1b2 ! ln a b Use ln1a2 # ln1b2 ! ln1a # b2 .
ln125 # 42 " ln(2)
b
ln1an 2 ! n # ln1a2 a
Use ln1a2 " ln1b2 ! ln a b .
b
25 # 4
ln a b ! ln(50)
These are the only three properties. Take particu- 2
lar note of the following, which are often mistak-
enly used in their place. Practice
ln(a + b) ≠ ln(a) + ln(b)
ln(a – b) ≠ ln(a) – ln(b) Simplify the following.
(ln(a))b ≠ b ln(a)
15. e3 # e8
The last of the three preceding laws is useful for e12
16.
turning an exponent into a matter of multiplication. e5
17. e0
18. ln1e2 2
19. eln152
35
( )
x
20. ln 25
0 24. Solve for x when 2 = 10.
21. ln(7) 1 ln(2) 25. Solve for x when 3x # 35 = 100.
22. ln(24) 2 ln(6) 26. If loga x = 2 and loga y = –3, then what is
⎛ x ⎞?
⎛ 2⎞ log a ⎜ 3 ⎟
23. ln(5) − ln(2) + ln⎜ ⎟ ⎝y ⎠
⎝ 5⎠
36
4
L E S S O N
TRIGONOMETRY
S
ome very interesting and important functions are formed by dividing the length of one side of a right
triangle by the length of another side. These functions are called trigonometric because they come from
the geometry of a right triangle. Let H represent the length of the hypotenuse, A represent the length
of the side adjacent to the angle x, and O represent the length of the side opposite (away) from the angle x.
Such a triangle is depicted in Figure 4.1.
H
O
A
Figure 4.1
37
MNEMONIC HINT
Some people remember the first three trigonometric functions by SOA CAH TOA to remember
O A O
sin(x) " , cos(x) " , and tan(x) " .
A H A
The six trigonometric functions, sine (abbrevi- H 1 1

csc1x2 " " O "
ated sin), cosine (cos), tangent (tan), secant (sec), cose- O H
sin1x2
cant (csc), and cotangent (cot), are defined at an angle
A
x by dividing the following sides: A H cos1x2
cot1x2 " " O "
O H
sin1x2
O
sin1x2 "
H Thus, all of the trigonometric functions can be evalu-
ated for an angle x if the sin(x) and cos(x) are known.
A The next thing to notice is that the Pythagorean
cos1x2 "
H
theorem, which, stated in terms of the sides O, A, and
O H, is O2 ! A2 " H2. And, if we divide through by H2,
tan1x2 " we get the following:
A
O2 A2 H2
H 2 ! 2 "
sec1x2 " H H H2
A
O 2 A 2
H a b ! a b "1
csc1x2 " H H
O
A Thus, 1sin1x2 2 2 ! 1cos1x2 2 2 " 1 . To save on paren-

cot1x2 " theses, we often write this as sin2 1x2 ! cos2 1x2 " 1 .
O
Because no particular value of x was used in the cal-
The first thing to notice is that all of the func- culations, this is true for every value of x.
tions can be obtained from just sin(x) and cos(x) using Drawing triangles and measuring their sides is an
the following trigonometric identities. impractical and inaccurate method to calculate the
O
sin1x2 values of trigonometric functions. It is better to use a
O H
tan1x2 " " A " calculator. However, when using a calculator, it is very
A H
cos1x2
important to make sure that it is set to the same format
H 1 1 for measuring angles that you are already using: that is,
sec1x2 " " A "
A H
cos1x2 degrees or radians.
There are 360 degrees in a circle, possibly because
ancient peoples thought that there were 360 days in a
38
CONVERSION HINT
2π π
To convert from degrees to radians, multiply by = .
360° 180°
To convert from radians to degrees, multiply by 360° = 180° .

2π π
year. As the earth went around the sun, the position of Practice
the sun against the background stars moved one degree
every day. The 2π radians in a circle correspond to the Convert the following to radians.
distance around a circle of radius 1.
1. 30°
■ To convert from degrees to radians, multiply by
2π π 2. 180°
= .
360° 180°
■ To convert from radians to degrees, multiply by 3. 270°
360° 180°
= .
2π π 4. 300°
Example
Convert 45° to radians. 5. 135°
Solution Convert the following to degrees.

π π
45° = 45° ⋅ radians " radians π
180° 4 6.
3
Example π
2π 7.
Convert radians to degrees. 2
3
8. 2p
Solution
2π 2π 180° π
radians " ⋅ = 120° 9.
3 3 π 10
11π
10.
6
39
– TRIGONOMETRY –
Trigonometric Values of π
Another nice angle is x = 60° = , because it is
Nice Angles 3
found in equilateral triangles such as the one seen in
Figure 4.3. This triangle can be cut in half by inserting
There are a few nice angles for which the trigonomet-
π a segment from the top vertex down to the base, result-
ric functions can be easily calculated. If x = = 45°,
4 ing in the triangle shown in Figure 4.4.
then the two legs of the triangle are equal. If the
hypotenuse is H " 1, then we have the triangle in Fig-
ure 4.2.
1 1
H=1
O=A π
–
3
1
π Figure 4.3
4–
A
Figure 4.2
By the Pythagorean theorem, A2 ! A2 " 1 , so π

–
1 6
2A2 " 1 and A2 " . This means that O " A "
2
1 1
= . If we rationalize the denominator, we H= 1
2 2
O
1 1 2 2
get = ⋅ = . Thus:
2 2 2 2
2 π
⎛ π⎞ O 2 2 –
sin⎜ ⎟ = = = 3
⎝ 4⎠ H 1 2
2 A = 1–
⎛ π⎞ A 2 2 2
cos⎜ ⎟ = = =
⎝ 4⎠ H 1 2 Figure 4.4
40
π
Use x = .
4
H=1 ⎛ π⎞ 1
sec ⎜ ⎟ =
1
O = –2 ⎝ 4⎠ cos( π4 )
π ⎛ π⎞ 2
–
6 Use cos⎜ ⎟ = .
⎝ 4⎠ 2
⎛ π⎞ 1
A=
3 sec ⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ 4⎠ 2
2
2
Figure 4.5
Simplify.
1 2 ⎛ π⎞ 2 2 2 2 2
By the Pythagorean theorem, a b ! O2 " 12, sec ⎜ ⎟ = = ⋅ = = 2
2 ⎝ 4⎠ 2 2 2 2
1 3 3 3
so O2 " 1 # " . Thus, O = = . This
4 4 4 2
means that: Practice
3
⎛ π⎞ O 2 3 Use the trigonometric identities to evaluate the
sin⎜ ⎟ = = =
⎝ 3⎠ H 1 2 following.
1
⎛ π⎞ A 2 1 ⎛ π⎞
cos⎜ ⎟ = = = 11. tan ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3⎠ H 1 2 ⎝ 4⎠
We can flip that last triangle around to calculate ⎛ π⎞

12. tan ⎜ ⎟
the trigonometric functions for the other angle x = 30° ⎝ 3⎠
π
= (see Figure 4.5). ⎛ π⎞
6 13. csc ⎜ ⎟
⎛ π⎞ O
1
1 ⎝ 6⎠
2
sin⎜ ⎟ = = =
⎝ 6⎠ H 1 2 ⎛ π⎞
14. sec ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 3⎠
3
⎛ π⎞ A 2 3 ⎛ π⎞
cos⎜ ⎟ = = = 15. cot ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 6⎠ H 1 2 ⎝ 3⎠
⎛ π⎞
Example 16. cot ⎜ ⎟
⎛ π⎞ ⎝ 6⎠
Compute sec ⎜ ⎟ .
⎝ 4⎠ ⎛ π⎞
17. sec ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 6⎠
Solution
Use the trigonometric identity for sec. ⎛ π⎞
18. csc ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4⎠
1
sec1x2 "
cos1x2
41
Trigonometric Values for This can be used to find the trigonometric values
π π
Angles Greater Than 90° = of nice angles greater than 90° = . The trick is to
2
2 π π π
use either a 30°, 60°, 90° triangle (a 6 , 3 , 2 trian-
Example π π π
π gle) or else a 45°, 45°, 90° triangle (a , ,
For example, for = 30° , we have the picture shown 4 4 2
6 triangle) to find the y-value(sine) and x-value (cosine)
in Figure 4.6.
of the appropriate point on the unit circle. As before,
⎛ π⎞ 1 calculating the trigonometric values for non-nice
sin⎜ ⎟ =
⎝ 6⎠ 2 angles is best done with a calculator.
⎛ π⎞ 3
cos⎜ ⎟ = Example
⎝ 6⎠ 2 2π
Find the sine and cosine of 120° = .
The circle of radius 1 around the origin is called 3
the unit circle. As such, the hypotenuse has length 1,
and the sine is the y-value of the point where a ray of π
90° = –2
the given angle intersects with the circle of radius 1. π
120° = 2π
3 60° = –3
Similarly, the cosine is the x-value. Note in Figure 4.7 135° = 3π π
4 45° = –4
that the angle of measure 0 runs straight to the right
5π
along the positive x-axis, and every other positive angle 150° = 6
π
30° = –6
is measured counterclockwise from there.
0° = 360° = 0
180° = π
y
1
π 7π
30 = –
6 210° = 6 330° = 11π
6
225° = 5π 315° = 7π
4 4
–3 , 1– 240° = 4π 300° = 5π
2 2 3 3
1 270° = 3π
1– 2
π 2
– Figure 4.7
6
–1 1 x
–3
2
Solution
π π π
For this angle, we use a 6 , 3 , 2 triangle, as
shown in Figure 4.8 to find the x- and y-values. The
2π
y-value of the point where the ray of angle hits
–1 3
Figure 4.6
42
⎛ 2π ⎞ 3 Example
the unit circle is y "
3
. Thus, sin⎜ ⎟ = . π
2 ⎝ 3⎠ 2 Find all of the trigonometric values for 90° = .
2
1 ⎛ 2π ⎞ 1
The x-value is negative, x " # , so cos⎜ ⎟ = − .
2 ⎝ 3⎠ 2 Solution
Even though there isn’t a triangle here, there is still a
2π
120 = –
3 point on the unit circle. See Figure 4.10. We conclude
⎛ π⎞ ⎛ π⎞
that cos ⎜ ⎟ = 0 and sin ⎜ ⎟ = 1 from the x- and
(– 1– , 3 )
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
2 2 y-values of the point. Using the trigonometric identi-
1 ⎛ π⎞ 1
3 ties, we can calculate that csc⎜ ⎟ = π ) = 1 and
2π
– 2 ⎝ 2⎠ sin( 2
3 –π
3 π
⎛ π⎞ cos( 2 ) 0
– 1– cot ⎜ ⎟ = π = = 1. The tangent and secant
2 ⎝ 2⎠ sin( 2 ) 1
90° = –π
Figure 4.8 2
Example (0,1)
5π
Find the sine and cosine of = 225°.
4
Solution
Because 225 ! is a multiple of 45 ! , we use a
45 ! , 45 ! , 90 ! triangle to find the x- and y-values. As
seen in Figure 4.9, both coordinates are negative, so
⎛ 5π ⎞ 2 ⎛ 5π ⎞ 2
sin⎜ ⎟ = − and cos⎜ ⎟ = − .
⎝ 4⎠ 2 ⎝ 4⎠ 2
Figure 4.10
5π
– 2_
4 2
–π
2
_ 4
2 1
(– _
2 , – 2_)
2 2
225° = 5π
–
4
Figure 4.9
43
functions, however, involve division by 0 and thus are Using the table along with the fact that every-
π
undefined. The angle x = is not in the domain of thing repeats, we can sketch the graphs of sin1x2 and
2
tan and sec. cos1x2 . See Figures 4.11 and 4.12.
Notice that all of the trigonometric functions are The functions sine and cosine are classic exam-
the same at 0° = 0 and 360° = 2π. This is because turn- ples of periodic, or oscillating, functions.
ing 360° leaves you facing in your original direction.
Thus, everything repeats at this point.
y = sin(x)
1 3
2 2
2 –1
2
–π – –π ––π – π π π π π 2π 3π 5π π 7π 5π 4π 3π 5π 7π 11π 2π 13π 9π 7π 5π

– – – – – –
6 4 3 2 3 4 6 6 4 3 2
2 3 4 6 – –12 6 4 3 2 3 4 6
– 2
2 – 3
–1 2
Figure 4.11
y = cos(x)
1 3
2 2
2 –1
2
– –π – –π ––π – π– π
– π
– π
– π
– 2π 3π 5π π 7π 5π 4 π 3π 5π 7π 11π 2π 13π 9π 7π 5π
2 3 4 6 1
– –2 6 4 3 2 3 4 6 6 4 3 2 3 4 6 6 4 3 2
– 2
2 – 3
–1 2
Figure 4.12
44
Practice
Use the unit circle and the trigonometric identities to complete the following table. Find the answers to questions
19 through 38.
sin1x2 cos1x2 tan1x2 sec1x2 csc1x2 cot1x2
0° = 0 0 1 0 1 undef. undef.
π 1 3 2 3
30° = *19* 2 3
6 2 2 3
π
45° = 2 2 1 2 2 1
4
2 2
π 1 2 3 3
60° = 3 3 2
3 2 3 3
2
π
90° = 1 0 undef. undef. 1 0
2
1
120° = 2 π 3 3
# − 3 #2 *20* #
3 2 2 3
135° = π
3 *21* *22* *23* *24* *25* *26*
4
150° = 5 π 1 3 3 2 3
# # # 2 − 3
6 2 2 3 3
180° = π *27* #1 0 #1 *28* undef.
1
210° = 7 π
3 3 2 3
# # # #2 *29*
6 2 2 3 3
225° = 5 π # 2 # 2 1 − 2 − 2 1
4 2 2
4π
240° = *30* *31* *32* *33* *34* *35*
3
3π
270° = #1 0 undef. undef. #1 0
2
300° = 5 π
3 1 2 3 3
# − 3 2 # #
3 2 2 3 3
315° = 7 π
2 2
# #1 *36* − 2 #1
4 2 2
11π
330o = *37* *38* −
3 2 3 #2 − 3
6 3 3
360° = 2π 0 1 0 1 undef. undef.
Note: The numbers appearing in bold with asterisks are questions 19 through 38.
45
19. Find the value that goes in the position in the 36. Find the value that goes in the position in the
table where you see *19*. table where you see *36*.
22. Find the value that goes in the position in the
table where you see *22*.
23. Find the value that goes in the position in the Solving Simply
table where you see *23*. Trigonometric Equations
table where you see *24*. The chart can be used to solve some simple equations.
table where you see *25*. Example
26. Find the value that goes in the position in the Find all values of x between 0 and 2π such that
table where you see *26*. 2.
cos(x) = −
27. Find the value that goes in the position in the 2
table where you see *27*. Solution π 2
28. Find the value that goes in the position in the Note that multiples of 4 have cosines equal to
2
2
29. Find the value that goes in the position in the or − . Of these, the values that solve the equation
2
table where you see *29*. 3π
30. Find the value that goes in the position in the are x = and x = 5 π .
4 4
table where you see *31*. Practice
table where you see *32*. For questions 39 and 40, find the value(s) of x between
33. Find the value that goes in the position in the 0 and 2π that satisfy the given equation.
table where you see *33*. 3
39. sin(x) = − .
34. Find the value that goes in the position in the 2
table where you see *34*. 40. cos(x) = –1.
46
5
L E S S O N
LIMITS AND
CONTINUITY
T
he notion of a limit is the single most important underlying concept upon which calculus is built. We
can use the notion of a limit to describe the behavior of a function near a particular input, even when
the function is not defined there.
Limits can be illustrated using graphs and tables of values. For example, consider the function whose
graph is shown in Figure 5.1. We can’t talk about f(x) at x = 2 because of the unshaded circle on its graph.
But, we can talk about what happens close to 2. The values of the function at x-values close to 2 are listed in
the table.
y x f(x)
9 1.9 5.39
1.99 5.0399
? 1.999 5.003999
1.9999
↑ 5.000399999
↑
x
2 ???
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 ↑ ↑
2.0001 4.99959999
2.001 4.995999
2.01 4.9599
2.1 4.59
Figure 5.1
47
– LIMITS AND CONTINUITY –
The domain of f is x " 2 . We can’t plug x ! 2 From the right, the height of the graph slides down to
into f. However, the hole appears to be at (2,5). How do y ! 2 as x approaches 1.
we know the hole has a y-value of 5? Well, the points In this example, lim g1x2 does not exist because
xS1
on the curve with x-values near x ! 2 have there is no single y-value to which all of the points
y-values close to y ! 5. The closer we get to x ! 2, the near x ! 1 get close. Some are close to 4, and others
closer the y-values of the points come to y ! 5. are close to 2. Because there is no agreement, there is
The mathematical shorthand for this is lim f (x) no limit.
x →2
= 5, which is read as “the limit as x approaches 2 of As another example, consider the graph of
y ! h1x2 in Figure 5.3. Here, lim! h1x2 ! 2 because
f 1x2 is 5.” xS3
The utility of limits lies in the fact that f need not sliding up to x ! 3 from the left has us pass through
be defined at the value a in order to have a limit as x points with y-values near 2. Similarly, lim h(x) = 2 .
x →3 +
approaches a. Because there is agreement from the left and right, we
We can also approach points from either the left have the general limit, lim h1x2 ! 2 . Notice that what
xS3
or from the right. For example, consider the graph of happens exactly at x ! 3 is irrelevant. Here h132 ! 5 ,
y ! g1x2 in Figure 5.2. but the resulting point at (3,5) has no bearing on the
Here, lim g1x2 ! 4 and lim g1x2 ! 2 . limit as x approaches 3.
xS1 ! xS1 "
The little minus in lim means that we approach Vertical asymptotes correspond with infinite
x →1 −
limits. For example, consider the graph of y ! k1x2 in
x ! 1 using numbers less than (to the left) of x ! 1. As
Figure 5.4.
we approach x ! 1 from the left-hand side, we slide up
the graph through y-values that approach 4. Similarly,
the plus in lim" means “approach from the right.”
xS1
y
6
y
4 5
4
3
3
y = h(x)
2 2
y = g(x)
1 (4,1)
1
x
x –1 1 2 3 4 5
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 –1
–1
Figure 5.3
Figure 5.2
48
y The difference from the limits discussed previ-

4 ously is that now, in each case, the function is contin-
uous at the point where we are computing the limit,
3 meaning that there are no holes, jumps, or asymptotes
there. Symbolically, we say f is continuous at x = a if
2 lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f (a) .
− +
x →a x →a
y = k(x) 1
Practice
x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 Use the graphs in Figure 5.5 to evaluate the following.
–1
1. lim f 1x2
xS #1 !
Figure 5.4 2. lim f 1x2

xS #1 "
3. lim f 1x2
Here, we write lim k (x) = ∞ and lim k(x) = xS #1
− +
x →2 x →2
−∞ . These statements simply suggest what the graph
4. f 1#12
is doing on either side of 2. The limits technically do
not exist since they are infinite.
5. Is f continuous at x ! #1?
Look back at the graphs in this lesson. Would you
agree with the following?
6. lim! f 1x2
xS3
lim f (x) = 9, lim g (x ) = 0, lim h(x ) = 1
x →0 x → −3 x→4
y
6
y 5
y = g(x)
4 4
3 3
y = f (x) 2 2
1 1
x x
–2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1 –1
–2
Figure 5.5
49
7. lim" f 1x2 Example

xS3 x%5
Evaluate lim and lim (3x 2 + x − 7) .
xS4 x2 % 10x x →−2
8. lim f 1x2
xS3
Solution
9. f 132 x%5
Because 4 can be plugged into without
x2 % 10x
x%5
10. Is f continuous at x ! 1? there being a division by zero, the limit lim 2
xS4 x % 10x
4%5 9
! . Similarly, lim (3x + x − 7) !
2
!
11. lim g1x2 16 % 40 56 x →−2
xS1
31#22 2 % 1#22 # 7 ! 3 .
12. g112
13. lim! g1x2 Practice

xS3
14. lim g1x2 Evaluate the following limits.

xS3
15. lim! g1x2 17. lim(10 x + 4 x − 5 x + 7)

3 2
xS5
x →1
16. lim" g1x2 x#3

xS5 18. lim
xS3 x2 % x
⎛ x3 − 4 ⎞
lim⎜ + x2 ⎟
Evaluating 19. x →2 ⎝ 10 x + 3 ⎠
Limits Algebraically
sin1x2
20. limp
xS 6 x
It is not necessary to have the graph of a function to
evaluate its limits. For instance, if f is continuous at a, 21. lim(2 x + a + 1)
a→0
then its limit as x approaches a is simply f (a).
2
−3 x
Technically, this works only with functions that 22. lim e
x → −2
are polynomials like 4x5 # 10x3 # 7 , roots like x ,
rational functions (formed by dividing two poly- Dividing by a tiny number is equivalent to mul-
3x # 5 tiplying by an enormous number. For example:
nomials) like 3 , trigonometric functions,
2x % x2 % 1
! 5#
and transcendental functions like ln1x2 , and ex . 1 10,000
5$ ! 50,000
Because this works for any combination of these func- 10,000 1
It is for this reason that if the denominator of a frac-
tions added, subtracted, multiplied, divided, or com-
tion approaches zero while the numerator goes to a
posed, it works also for every function considered in
nonzero number, the result is an infinite limit.
this book. 1
A classic example is f 1x2 ! (graphed in Fig-
x
ure 5.6).
50
y Solution
6 The numerator approaches 5 while the denominator
5 approaches 0 as x approaches 2 from the right. There-
4 fore, this limit from the right is either ∞ or #∞. What
3 we need to determine is whether the function is posi-
1
y = __
2 x tive or negative at x-values just slightly larger than 2.
1 We do this by looking at each factor individually.
x As x → 2 + , the values we are plugging into each
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1 factor are slightly larger than 2. So, (x + 3) and (x – 2)
–2 are both positive, while (x – 4) is negative. Because the
–3 x +3
function is made of two positive parts
–4 (x − 2)(x − 4)
and one negative part, the entire fraction will be neg-
–5
ative. Thus, lim x +3 = – ∞.
–6 x →2 + ( x − 2)(x − 4)
Because this is negative, the limit is #∞. Another
method will be covered in Lesson 13.
Figure 5.6
Example
1x % 12 12 # x2
Because the denominator goes to zero while the Evaluate lim ! .
xS #3 1x % 321x % 52
numerator stays one in all of these cases, there is a ver-
tical asymptote at x ! 0. The function therefore
Solution
approaches either positive or negative infinity from
Here, the numerator approaches #10, which isn’t zero,
either side. When x is less than zero, as it always is when
1 while the denominator approaches zero, so the limit is
x S 0 # , the function is also negative. Thus,
x either q or #q. As x → −3 − , the values we are plug-
1 1 ging into each factor are slightly smaller than –3. So,
lim− = − ∞ . Similarly, as x S 0 %, is always
x →0 x x
(x + 1) and (x + 3) are both negative, while (2 – x) and
1
positive, so lim+ = ∞ . Finally, because the limit (x + 5) are both positive.
x →0 x
from the two sides are different, the undirected limit The combination of two negative factors and two
1 positive factors is positive, thus:
lim does not exist.
xS0 x
(x + 1)(2 − x)
lim = ∞
x →−3 − (x + 3)(x + 5)
Example
Evaluate lim x +3 .
x →2 + (x − 2)(x − 4)
51
Practice
Evaluate the following limits. When computing a limit as x goes to a, if plug-

ging in a results in 00, do NOT automatically con-
1 clude the limit is 1. This means you must simplify
23. lim−
x →1 x − 1 the expression somehow before plugging in a.
x%5
24. lim"
xS4 x#4 1x # 421x % 22
x2 # 2x # 8
lim 2 ! lim
xS4 x % x # 20 xS4 1x # 421x % 52
25. lim−
x→3
x#4
Because x " 4 as x S 4 , we can cancel ! 1.
1x % 221x # 52 x#4
26. lim" x2 # 2x # 8
xS3 1x % 62 1x # 32 lim !
xS4 x2 % x # 20
1x % 52 1x # 52 1x # 42 1x % 22 1x % 22
27. lim lim ! lim
xS2 1x # 321x % 42 xS4 1x # 42 1x % 52 xS4 1x % 52
x#2
28. lim Now we can plug in without dividing by zero.
xS #5 1x % 52 2
x2 # 2x # 8 1x % 22 6 2
lim 2 ! lim ! !
When both the numerator and the denominator xS4 x % x # 20 xS4 1x % 52 9 3
go to zero, there are some common tricks for simpli- The following example utilizes the trick of
fying the limit. The first is to factor and cancel. The rationalizing.
second is to rationalize. These are illustrated next.
Example
Example x − 3
Evaluate lim .
x2 # 2x # 8 x →9 x − 9
Evaluate lim 2 .
xS4 x % x # 20
Solution
Solution Because both numerator and denominator go to zero,
Here, both the numerator and denominator go to zero, a trick is necessary. First, multiply the top and bottom
so we aren’t guaranteed an infinite limit. First, factor by the part with the square root, but with the opposite
the numerator and denominator. sign between them.
x − 3 ⎛ x − 3⎞ ⎛ x + 3⎞
lim = lim ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ ⎜ ⎟
x →9 x − 9 x →9
⎝ x −9 ⎠ ⎝ x + 3⎠
Simplify.
x − 3 x + 3 x − 3 x − 9
lim = lim
x →9 x − 9 x →9 (x − 9)( x + 3)
x −9
= lim
x →9
(
(x − 9) x +3 )
52
Eliminate
x#9
! 1. Practice
x#9
Evaluate the following limits.
x − 3 (x − 9)
lim = lim
x →9 x − 9 x →9 ( x − 9)( x + 3) 1x # 621x % 22
29. lim
xS #2 " 1x % 221x % 12
Plug in.
x#2
x − 3 1 1 30. lim
lim = lim =
xS2 x2 # 4
x →9 x − 9 x →9 ( x + 3) 6
x2 # 9
31. lim
xS4 x%3
Factoring tricks can even be useful when dealing with
transcendental functions. x2 # 4x % 3
32. lim
xS3 x2 % 2x # 15
Example
x%5
Evaluate lim+ 1 − e2 x
x
33. lim!
x →0 1 − e xS3 x#3
Solution x − 5
34. lim
( )
2
To compute this limit, use the fact that e 2x
= e x
and x →25 ( x − 25)(x + 1)
factor the denominator as a difference of squares. 1x % a2 2 # x2
Then, cancel factors that are common to both the 35. lim
aS0 a
numerator and denominator, and substitute x = 0 into
the simplified expression, as follows: a
36. lim
a →0 x +a − x
1−e x
lim 1 − e2 x = lim+ 1 − e
x x
= lim+
1−e
x →0 + x →0
1− e x ( )
2
x →0
( )(
1−e x 1+e x ) 37. lim
x →π
cos(x) + 1
cos(x) − 1
1 1 1 1 2( x + h ) − 2 x 3
3
lim+ = = =
x →0 1 + e x 1 + e0 1 + 1 2 38. lim
h→0 h
39. lim x + 22x − 15 x

3 2
x →3 x −9
(e ) − 6(e ) + 8
2
z z
40. lim
z → ln(2 ) 2 −e z
53
6
L E S S O N
DERIVATIVES
S
traight lines are convenient to deal with, but most functions have curved graphs. This does not stop
us from projecting straight lines on them! For example, at the point marked x on the graph in Figure
6.1, the function is clearly increasing. However, exactly how fast is the function increasing at that point?
Since “how fast” refers to a slope, we draw in the tangent line, the line straight through the point that heads
in the same direction as the curve (see Figure 6.2). The slope of the tangent line tells us how fast the func-
tion is increasing at the given point.
y = f(x)
Figure 6.1
55
– DERIVATIVES –
not quite the

tangent line
(x + a, f(x + a))
tangent
y = f(x) line tangent
y = f(x) line
(x, f(x))
x
x x+a
Figure 6.2
Figure 6.3
We can figure out the y-value of this point by

closer to the
plugging x into f and getting 1x,f 1x2 2 . However, we
˛ ˛
tangent line
can’t get the slope of the tangent line when we have just
one point. To get a second point, we go ahead a little
further along the graph (see Figure 6.3). If we go ahead tangent
y = f(x) (x + a, f(x + a)) line
by distance a, the second point will have an x-value of (x, f(x))
x " a and a y-value of f 1x " a2 .
Because this second point is on the curve and not
on the tangent line, we get a line that is not quite the
tangent line. Still, its slope will be close to the one we x
want, so we calculate as follows: x+a
f 1x " a2 # f 1x2 f 1x " a2 # f 1x2
slope ! ! Figure 6.4
1x " a2 # x a
To make things more accurate, we pick a second
point that is closer to the original point (x,f (x)) by Example
using a smaller a. This is depicted in Figure 6.4. What is the derivative of f 1x2 ! x2 ?
In fact, if we take the limit as a goes to zero from
the right, we will get the slope of the tangent line Solution
exactly. The situation is completely similar if we take a Start with the definition of the derivative.
< 0 so that x + a is to the left of x. This process gives us f 1x " a2 # f 1x2
the derivative of f 1x2 and is written f ¿1x2 . f ¿1x2 ! lim
aS0 a
f 1x " a2 # f 1x2
f ¿1x2 ! lim
a
˛˛
aS0
Remember, f(x + a) ≠ f(x) + f(a).
! slope of the tangent line at point 1x,f 1x2 2 ˛
Use f 1x2 ! x2 .
1x " a2 2 # x2
f ¿1x2 ! lim
aS0 a
56
– DERIVATIVES –
Multiply out and simplify.

Use g(x) = x.
x2 " 2ax " a2 # x2
f ¿1x2 ! lim x + a − x
aS0 a g ′(x) = lim
a→0 a
Factor and simplify.
Rationalize the numerator.
12x " a2a
f ¿1x2 ! lim g′(x) =
aS0 a
⎛ x + a − x ⎞⎛ x + a + x⎞
lim⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
Evaluate the limit. a→0
⎝ a ⎠⎝ x + a + x⎠
f ¿1x2 ! lim 2x " a ! 2x
aS0
The derivative is f ¿1x2 ! 2x . This means that Multiply and simplify.

the slope at any point on the curve y ! x2 is exactly g′(x) =
twice the x-coordinate. The situation at x ! #2, x +a + x ⋅ x +a − x ⋅ x + a −x
x ! 0, and x ! 1 is shown in Figure 6.5. lim
a→0 a( x + a + x )
Simplify.
y a/
slope = –4 4 g ′(x) = lim
at (–2,4) a→0 a/ ( x + a + x)
3
2
y=x Plug in to evaluate the limit.
2
1
g¿1x2 ! lim
slope = 2
aS0
x + a + x
1
at (1,1) 1
=
x + 0 + x
x 1
–3 –2 –1 1
slope = 0
2 3 =
2 x
–1 at (0,0)
The derivative of g(x) = x is thus
Figure 6.5 1
g′(x) = . This means that at x ! 9, the slope of
2 x
1 1
Example the tangent line is g′(9) = = . This is illus-
2 9 6
What is the slope of the line tangent to g(x) = x
trated in Figure 6.6.
at x ! 9?
Example
Solution Find the equation of the tangent line to
Start with the definition of the derivative.
h1x2 ! 2x2 # 5x " 1 at x ! 3.
g1x " a2 # g1x2
g¿1x2 ! lim
aS0 a
57
– DERIVATIVES –
y 1
slope = -
6
at (9,3)
3
1 y = g(x) = x
x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 6.6
Solution 2
Thus, the derivative of h1x2 ! 2x # 5x " 1 is
To find the equation of the tangent line, we need a h¿1x2 ! 4x # 5 . The slope at x ! 3 is
point and a slope. The y-value at x ! 3 is h¿132 ! 4132 # 5 ! 7 . The equation of the tangent
h132 ! 2132 2 # 5132 " 1 ! 4 , so the point is (3,4). line is therefore y ! 71x # 32 " 4 ! 7x # 17 . This
And to get the slope, we need the derivative. Start with is shown in Figure 6.7.
the definition of the derivative.
h1x " a2 # h1x2
h¿1x2 ! lim
aS0 a
Use h1x2 ! 2x2 # 5x " 1 .

21x " a2 2 # 51x " a2 " 1 # 12x2 # 5x " 12
h¿1x2 ! lim
aS0 a
Multiply out and simplify.

2x2 " 4ax " 2a2 # 5x # 5a " 1 # 2x2 " 5x # 1
h¿1x2 ! lim
aS0 a
Factor out and simplify.

14x " 2a # 52a
h¿1x2 ! lim
aS0 a
Evaluate the limit.

h ′(x) = lim(4 x + 2a − 5) = 4 x − 5
a→0
58
ABSOLUTE VALUE
The absolute value of x, denoted ⎜x ⎜, tells you how far x is from zero. For instance, ⎜5 ⎜ = 5 (since 5 is five units
from 0 on the right-hand side) and |–4| = 4 (since –4 is four units from 0, just on the left-hand side). Symboli-
cally,
⎧ x, whenever x ≥ 0
⎜x ⎜ = ⎨
⎩ –x, whenever x < 0
y
4. Find the derivative of f(x) = 3 x .
10
9 5. If k1x2 ! x3 , then what is k¿1x2?

8
6. Find the slope of f 1x2 ! 3x2 " x at x ! 2.
7
2
h(x) = 2x – 5x + 1
6 7. Find the slope of g(x) = 3 x at x ! 16.
5
8. Where does the graph of g1x2 ! x2 # 4x " 1
4 (3,4) have a slope of 0?
3
9. Find the equation of the tangent line to
2
h1x2 ! 1 # x2 at (2,#3).
1
x k1x2 ! 5x2 " 2x when x ! 1.
–2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1
–2
y = 7x – 17
Derivatives Don’t
Figure 6.7
Always Exist!
Because the definition of f ′(x) involves a full-blown

Practice limit in order for it to exist, the following left- and
right-hand limits must be equal:
f ( x + a) − f ( x ) f ( x + a) − f ( x )
lim = lim
1. Find the derivative of f 1x2 ! 8x " 2 . a→0 − a a→0 + a
This is not always the case, though.
2. If h1x2 ! x " 5 , then what is h¿1x2 ?
2
Example
3. Find the derivative of g1x2 ! 10 . Let us try to compute the derivative of A(x) = |x| at
x = 0 (shown in Figure 6.8).
59
– DERIVATIVES –
y Now, let us take a < 0. Doing so, we get:

m(x) = x
m(0 + a) − m(0) a − 0 −a
= = = −1
a a a
m(0 + a) − m(0)
So, lim− = lim (−1) = −1 .
slope slope a→0 a a→0 −
–1 1
But, the left- and right-hand limits aren’t equal. So,
–a c a x m(0 + a) − m(0)
the full-blown limit lim does not
a→0 a
exist. Thus, m′(0) doesn’t exist. Geometrically, the
sharp corner in the graph of y = m(x) at x = 0 is the rea-
son the derivative doesn’t exist there.
For a > 0, we have
m(0 + a) − m(0) a − 0 a
= = =1
a a a
m(0 + a) − m(0)
So, lim = lim 1 = 1 .
a→0 + a a→0 +
60
7
L E S S O N
BASIC RULES OF
DIFFERENTIATION
U
sing the limit definition to find derivatives can be very tedious. Luckily, there are many shortcuts
available. For example, if function f is a constant, like f 1x2 ! 5 or f 1x2 ! 18 , then f ¿1x2 ! 0 . This
can be proven for all constants c at the same time in the following manner.
If:
f 1x2 ! c
then:
f 1x " a2 # f 1x2 c#c 0
f ¿1x2 ! lim ! lim ! lim ! 0
aS0 a aS0 a aS0 a
All of the general rules in this chapter can be proven in such a manner, using the limit definition of the deriv-
ative, though we shall not actually do so. The first rule is the Constant Rule, which says that if f 1x2 ! c where
c is a constant, then f ¿1x2 ! 0 .
Before we go any further, a word needs to be said about notation. The concept of the derivative was dis-
covered by both Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz. Newton would put a dot over a quantity to represent
its derivative, much like we have used the prime notation f ¿1x2 to represent the derivative of f 1x2 . Leibniz
dy
would write the derivative of y (where x is the variable) as . Newton’s notation is certainly more
dx
61
CONSTANT RULE
If f (x) = c where c is a constant, then f ′(x) = 0.
d
And, using Leibniz’s notation, if c is a constant, then (c ) = 0 .
dx
POWER RULE
d n
( x ) = n ⋅ x n −1
dx
convenient, but Leibniz’s enables us to represent Example

d
“take the derivative of something” as
dx
(something). Differentiate y ! x8.
dy d
Thus, if y ! f 1x2 , then ! 1f 1x2 2 ! f ¿1x2 .
dx dx Solution
Using Leibniz’s notation, the Constant Rule where c is
d dy
a constant is expressed as
dx
1c2 ! 0 . = 8 x 8−1 = 8 x 7
dx
The next rule is the Power Rule, which is stated:
1x 2 ! n # xn#1 . This rule says “multiply the expo-
d n
dx Example
nent in front and then subtract one from it.” Differentiate g (x) = x .
Example Solution
Differentiate f 1x2 ! x2 . To use the Power Rule, we need g1x2 expressed as x
raised to a power, or:
Solution g1x2 ! x2
1
f ¿1x2 ! 2x2#1 ! 2x1 ! 2x

1 12 −1 1 −1 1 1 1
g ′(x) = x = x 2 = ⋅ =
2 2 2 x 2 x
Notice how much easier it is to use the Power

Rule to compute the derivative than it was using the
limit definition of the derivative in Lesson 6.
62
THE CONSTANT COEFFICIENT RULE
If a function has a constant multiplied in front, leave it while you take the derivative of the rest.
Using Leibniz’s notation, d (cf ( x )) = c d (f ( x )) , where c is a constant.
dx dx
Example 1
t t2 1 −5
1
Differentiate y ! 2 . y= = 3 = t 2 ⋅ t −3 = t 2
x t3 t
Now, use the Power Rule to differentiate.
Solution dy −7
First, rewrite y as x #2 so that it becomes x raised to a = − 25 t 2
dt
power. Then,
Practice
dy d 1
! a b
dx dx x2
Differentiate each of the following.
d #2
! 1x #2 2 ! #2x #2#1 ! #2x #3 ! 3
dx x 1. f 1x2 ! x5
d
Notice that means “take the derivative with
dt 2. y = x 21
respect to variable t.” While x is often used as the vari-
dy 3. g1u2 ! u #5
able, so the derivative of y ! f 1x2 is ! f ¿1x2 ,
dx
sometimes it is convenient to use other variables. If 4. h1x2 ! 8
dy
y ! f 1u2 , then ! f ¿1u2 is the derivative of f with 5. y = t12
du
respect to u, for example. 7
6. y ! x 5
Example
7. f 1x2 ! x100
Differentiate y = 3 t .
8. f 1t2 ! #11
Solution
d 3 d 1 1 1 1 2 1 9. g1x2 ! x # 5
4
1 2t2 ! 1t 3 2 ! t 3 #1 ! t # 3 ! 2
dt dt 3 3 3t 3
4
10. k1x2 ! 2x
Example 11. y = u
Differentiate y = t .
t3 1
12. y !
x
Solution
1
Rewrite using the exponent rules. 13. f (x) =
x
63
– BASIC RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION –
1 ⎛ 1 − 1 ⎞ 3 −1 3
14. g (x) = g ′(x) = 3 ⋅ ⎜ x 2 ⎟ = x 2 =
x x ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 2 x
5
15. h(t ) = t
3
t −2
( )
h ′(t ) = 4 ⋅ −6 t −7 = −24t −7 = −
24
t7
16. t
y= 4
t dy
! 12 (1) = 12
dx
The Constant Coefficient Rule
15 ⎛ 1 − 23 ⎞ 5 − 23 5
k ′(u) = ⋅ u ⎟= u = 2
The Constant Coefficient Rule is stated as follows: If a 4 ⎜⎝ 3 ⎠ 4 4u 3
function has a constant multiplied in front, leave it
while you take the derivative of the rest. This means A ′(r ) = π ⋅ (2r ) = 2 πr
d 8
that because 1x 2 ! 8x7 , the derivative of 5x8
dx
would be 5 • (8x7) = 40x7. Just imagine that the constant In that last example problem, don’t forget that p
steps aside and waits while you differentiate the rest. is a constant, and thus 2p r should be treated just as
you would 20r or 712r .
Examples
Differentiate the following.
f (x) = 11x 4 Don’t make the mistake that

d d d
(c ⋅ f ( x )) = (c ) ⋅ (f ( x )) = 0 .
y = 10 x 2 dx dx
123 dx
= 0
g ( x ) = 3 x = 3x 2
The Additive Rule
4
h(t ) = 6 = 4t −6
t Next, we will examine the Additive Rule, which says
that if parts of a function are added together, dif-
y ! 12x
ferentiate the parts separately and add the results. We
3 d d
15 2 u 15 1 know that 110x2 2 ! 20x and 112x2 ! 12 . The
k1u2 ! ! u3 dx dx
4 4
Additive Rule then says that if y ! 10x2 " 12x , then
A1r2 ! p r2 dy d d d
! 110x2 " 12x2 ! 110x2 2 " 112x2 !
dx dx dx dx
20x " 12 .
Solutions
f ′(x) = 11 ⋅ (4x3) = 44x3 Example
dy Differentiate f 1x2 ! 4x5 " 30x2.
= 10 ⋅ (2 x) = 20 x
dx
Solution
d d
f ′(x) = (4 x 5) + (30 x 2 ) = 20 x 4 + 60 x
dx dx
64
THE ADDITIVE RULE
If parts of a function are added together, differentiate the parts separately. Then, add the results.
Using Leibniz’s notation, d (f ( x ) + g( x )) = d (f ( x )) + d (g( x )) .
dx dx dx
Example 12 − 5
1
12 2
Differentiate g1x2 ! x # 4x .3 2 k ′(t ) = t − 2t −2 + 0 = 5 − 2
5 5 t t
Solution
Practice
This can be rewritten as a sum:
g(x) = x3 + (–4)x 2 Differentiate the following.
thus:
g ′(x) =
d 3
dx
( )
x +
d
dx
( )
−4 x 2 = 3x 2 + (−4) ⋅ 2 x
17. y = 6 x 7
#3
= 3x 2 − 8 x . 18. f 1x2 !
x10
The previous example shows that the Additive
19. V1r2 ! 43p r3
Rule applies to cases of subtraction as well.
12t4
20. g1t2 !
Examples 5
21. k1x2 ! 1 # x2
1
y = x + 4 = x
2
+ 4
22. 4t 3 − 3t 2 + 70
h1x2 ! 8x5 " 10x4 # 3x3 " 7x2 # 5x " 4
23. f 1x2 ! 8x3 " 3x2
4 4
2
k (t ) = 3t + + e = 3t + 2t −1 + e
5 5
t 24. y = x −4 − 2 x −3 − x
25. s (t ) = πt + et + 3 t + ln(3)
3 2
Remember, e is a number (approximately equal to 26. F1x2 ! 6x100 " 10x50 # 4x25 " 2x10 # 9
2.71828…).
1
27. g1x2 ! 3x5 " 5x3
Solutions
28. h1u2 ! u5 " 4u4 # 7u3 # 2u2 " 8u # 2
dy 1 1
= + 0 = 2 1
dx 2 x 2 x 29. y ! 3 " " 2
x x
h¿1x2 ! 40x4 " 40x3 # 9x2 " 14x # 5
65
– BASIC RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION –
30. y ! u2 # u #2 Example
Find all the derivatives of f 1x2 ! x3 # 4x2 " 5x # 7 .
31. y = 4 x + 9 = 9 3 x
Solution
3 5
32. f (x) = − 4 −
2x x x f 1x2 ! x3 # 4x2 " 5x # 7
The derivative of the derivative is called the sec-
ond derivative. The derivative of that is the third deriv- f ¿1x2 ! 3x2 # 8x " 5
ative, and so on. Using notation, if y = f(x), then the
dy f –1x2 ! 6x # 8
derivative is ! f ¿1x2 , the second derivative
dx
d2y d3y f ‡ 1x2 ! 6
is ! f –1x2, the third derivative is ! f ‡1x2 ,
dx2 dx3
˛
d10y f 1x2 ! 0
and the tenth derivative, for example, is 10 ! f 1102 1x2.
dx All of the subsequent derivatives will also be zero, so
We put the 10 in parentheses because counting the ten we can write
primes in f –1x2 is ridiculous.
f 1n2 1x2 ! 0 for n $ 4 .
˛
Example
Find the first three derivatives of y = x.
Practice
Solution
1
33. Find the first four derivatives of f 1x2 ! .
y!x
1
2 x
34. Find the second derivative of s(t) = – 16t 2 +

dy 1 1
! x#2 at + b, where a and b are constants.
dx 2
d 2y 35. Find the third derivative of

1 # 32
dx 2 ! #4x y = 3x −3 − 2 x −2 + x −1.
3
d 3y 3 # 52 36. Find the first three derivatives of y ! 6 2 t.
3 ! 8x
dx
When working on multiple derivatives like this,
it makes sense to leave the exponents negative and
fractional until all derivatives have been computed.
66
8
L E S S O N
RATES OF CHANGE
I
t is useful to contemplate slopes in practical situations. For example, suppose the following graph in Fig-
ure 8.1 is for y ! f 1x2 , a function that gives the price y for various amounts x of cheese. Because the
$4 − $2 $2
straight line goes through the points (1 lb.,$2) and (2 lbs.,$4), the slope ! = = $2 per
2 lbs. − 1 lb. 1 lb.
pound.
Costs of Cheese
y
5
y = f(x)
4
Price
(in dollars) 3
x
1 2 3
Amount (in pounds)
Figure 8.1
67
– RATES OF CHANGE –
The slope is therefore the rate at which the 1.

price of cheese changes per pound. Because slope !
y-change y Money Earned
, a slope will always be a rate measured in
x-change
60
y-units per x-unit.
For example, suppose a passenger on a bus writes 50
down the exact time she passes each highway mile
Pay (in dollars)

marker. She then sketches the graph shown in Figure 40
8.2 of the bus’s position on the highway over time. The 30
slope at any point on this graph will be measured in y-
units per t-unit, or miles per hour. The steepness of the 20
slope represents the speed of the bus.
10
t
y
Mile Markers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time Worked (in hours)
300
Position Given by Marker (in miles)
250
2.
200
y Gasoline Use
150
60
y = s(t)
Distance Driven (in miles)
100 50
50 40
t 30
1 2 3 20
Time on Bus (in hours)
10
Figure 8.2
x
1 2 3 4 5
Practice Gasoline Used (in gallons)
For each of the following four graphs, describe the rate

that a slope of the curve represents.
68
3. Because the derivative of a function gives the

slope of its tangent lines and the tangent line indicates
Growth of a Baby how fast the function is increasing or decreasing, these
y practice problems show that the derivative of a func-
tion gives its rate of change.
40
An excellent example comes from position func-
Weight (in pounds)
tions. A position function s1t2 states the position of an

30 object along a straight line at any given time. The
derivative s¿1t2 states the rate at which that object’s
20 position is changing—that is, the velocity of the func-
tion. Thus, s ′(t) = v(t). The second derivative
s–1t2 ! v¿1t2 tells how fast the velocity is changing, or
10
the acceleration. Thus, s′′(t) = v′(t) = a(t) where s(t) is
the position function, v(t) is the velocity function, and
x
a(t) is the acceleration function.
6 12 18 24 30 36
Age (in months)
Example
Suppose an object rolls along beside a tape measure so
that after t seconds, it is next to the inch marked
4.
s1t2 ! 4t2 " 8t " 5 . Where is the object after 1 sec-
ond? After 3 seconds? What is the velocity function?
y
Size of Snowball How fast is the object moving after 2 seconds? What is
(on a 40°F day) the acceleration function?
5
Solution
(in inches)
Diameter
The position function s1t2 ! 4t2 " 8t " 5 tells us

where the object is. After 1 second, the object is next to
the s(1) = 17-inch mark on the tape measure. After 3
seconds, the object is at the s132 ! 65 -inch mark.
t The velocity function is v1t2 ! s¿1t2 ! 8t " 8 .
Time (in hours) Thus, after 2 seconds, the object is moving at the rate
of v122 ! 24 inches per second. Realize that this
velocity of 24 inches per second is an instantaneous
velocity, the speed just at a single moment. If a car’s
speedometer reads 60 miles per hour, this does not
mean that it will drive for 60 miles or even for a full
hour. The car might speed up, slow down, or stop.
However, at that instant, the car is traveling at a rate
that, if unchanged, will take it 60 miles in one hour. A
derivative is always an instantaneous rate, telling you
69
the slope at a particular point, but not making any stant 32 feet per second downward each second. The
promises about what will happen next. negative sign indicates that gravity is acting to decrease
The acceleration function is a1t2 ! v¿1t2 ! the height of the brick, pulling it downward.
s–1t2 ! 8 . Because this is a constant, it tells us that
the object increases in speed by 8 inches per second
Example
every second.
Suppose a rock is dropped from a 144-foot tall bridge.
The most popular example of constant accelera-
When will the rock hit the water? How fast will it be
tion is gravity, which accelerates objects downward
going then?
by 32 ft every second. Because of this, an object
sec
dropped with an initial velocity of b feet per second Solution
from a height of h feet above the ground will have (after Because the rock is dropped, the initial velocity is
t seconds) a height of s1t2 ! #16t2 " bt " h feet. b ! 0. The initial height is h ! 144. Thus,
The starting time is t ! 0 , at which point the s1t2 ! #16t2 " 144 gives the height function. The
object is s102 ! h feet off the ground, the correct rock will hit the water (have a height of zero) when:
initial height. The velocity function is v1t2 ! s¿1t2
! #32t " b . At the starting time t ! 0, the velocity is #16t2 " 144 ! 0
v102 ! b , the desired initial velocity. The function
v1t2 ! #32t " b means that 32 feet per second are 144 ! 16t2
subtracted from the initial velocity b every second. The
t ! ;3
acceleration function is a1t2 ! v ¿1t2 ! s–1t2 ! #32 .
This is the desired constant acceleration.
And because #3 seconds doesn’t make any sense, the
rock will hit the water after 3 seconds.
Note: A negative velocity means the object is moving
The velocity function is v1t2 ! s¿1t2 ! #32t ;
backward (or in the direction of decreasing y-value).
therefore, the rock will have a velocity of v132 ! #96
The speed is the absolute value of the velocity. after 3 seconds. This means that it will be traveling at
a rate of 96 feet per second downward when it hits
Example the water.
Suppose a brick is thrown straight upward with an ini-
ft
tial speed of 10 from a 150-foot rooftop. What are Example
sec
its position, velocity, and acceleration functions? t2
If p1t2 ! # 80t " 50,000 gives the value, in
10
thousands of dollars, of a start-up company after t
Solution
ft days, then how fast is its value changing after 30 days?
Because the initial velocity is b ! 10 and the ini-
sec After 500 days?
tial height is h ! 150 feet, the position function is s(t)
= –16t 2 + 10t + 150. The velocity function is b(t) =
s′(t) = –32t + 10. The acceleration is a(t) = –32, a con-
70
Solution 11. A bullet is fired directly upward at 800 feet per

t second from the ground. How high is it when it
The derivative p¿1t2 ! # 80 gives the rate of
5 stops rising and starts to fall?
change in value, measured in thousands of dollars per
12. A rock is thrown 10 feet per second down a
day. After 30 days, p¿1302 ! #74 , so the company
1,000-foot cliff. How far has it gone down in the
will be losing value at a rate of $74,000 per day. After
first 4 seconds? How fast is it traveling then?
500 days, p¿15002 ! 20 , so the company will be gain-
ing value at the instantaneous rate of $20,000 a day.
Derivatives of Sine and Cosine
Practice Examining rates and slopes at various points can help

us determine the derivative of sin1x2 . Look at the
5. The height of a tree after t years is h(t) = 30 – slopes at various points on its graph in Figure 8.2. It
25 appears that the derivative function of sin1x2 must
feet when t $ 1 . How fast is the tree growing
t
after 5 years? oscillate between #1 and 1, and must go through the
following points (see Figure 8.3). The function cos1x2
6. The level of a river t days after a heavy is exactly such an oscillating function (see Figure 8.4).
d
rainstorm is L1t2 ! #t2 " 8t " 26 feet. How This suggests that 1sin1x2 2 ! cos1x2 .
dx
fast is the river’s level changing after 7 days? A similar study of the slopes of cos1x2 would
d
7. When a company makes and sells x cars, its show that 1cos1x2 2 ! #sin1x2 . The slopes of the
dx
x3 cosine function are not the values of the sine function,
profit is P (x) = − 60 x 2 + 9, 000 x dollars.
10 but rather their exact negatives. These two results
How fast is its profit changing when the com- could be obtained using the limit definition of the
pany makes 50 cars? derivative, but involve the use of trigonometric
identities and certain limit formulas not covered in
8. When a container is made x inches wide, it costs
24 this book.
C1x2 ! 0.8x2 " dollars to make. How is the
x
cost changing when x ! 3 inches? Examples
Differentiate the following
9. An electron in a particle accelerator is
s1t2 ! t3 " 2t2 " 10t meters from the start f 1x2 ! 5sin1x2 " 4x2
after t seconds. Where is it after 3 seconds? How
fast is it moving then? How fast is it accelerating y ! 2 " cos1t2
then?
10. A brick is dropped from 64 feet above the
ground. What is its position function? What is its
d
velocity function? What is its acceleration? When sin(c ) = 0 , not cos(c), when c is a
dx
will it hit the ground? How fast will it be travel-
d
ing then? constant. Similarly, cos(c ) = 0 .
dx
71
π 5π
y = sin(x) slope = 0at x = – slope = 0 at x = –
1 2 2
slope = 1
at x = 2π
– –π slope = 1 π
– π 3π
– 2π 5π
–
2 at x = 0 2 slope = –1 2 2
at x = π
–1 3π
slope = 0 slope = 0 at x = –
at x = – π
– 2
2
Figure 8.2
d
(0,1) y= (sin(x)) = slopes of sin(x) (2π,1)
1 dx
π
(– –2,0) ( 2π
– ,0) 3π
(– ,0) ( 5π
– ,0)
2 2
–π
–2 π
–2 π 3π 2π 5π
–
–
2 2
( π ,#1)
#1
Figure 8.3
1 y = cos(x)
π– π π 3π
– 2π 5π
– –
2 2 2 2
#1
Figure 8.4
72
⎛ π⎞
g (x) = sin(x) − cos(x) + sin⎜ ⎟ y
⎝ 6⎠ 9
Solutions 8
at (2,e2)
f ¿1x2 ! 5cos1x2 " 8x slope = e2
7
dy
! #sin1t2 y = ex
dt 6
g¿1x2 ! cos1x2 " sin1x2

5
Practice 4
at (1,e)
slope = e
For questions 13 through 17, compute the derivative. 3
13. y ! 4x5 " 10cos1x2 " 3 2

1
at –1, —
2 e at (0,1)
14. f 1t2 ! 3sin1t2 " 1
t slope = —1 slope = 1
e
15. g(x) = 3x −2 + 5 − π cos(x)
3
x x
1 1 –2 –1 1 2 3
16. r(θ) = sin(θ) + cos(θ)
2 2 –1
17. h1x2 ! cos1x2 " cos152

Figure 8.5
π
f 1x2 ! sin1x2 " cos1x2 at x = .
2 The derivative of its inverse function ln1x2 is as
follows:
Derivatives of the d 1
1ln1x2 2 !
Exponential and Natural dx x
Logarithm Functions
A proof of this formula is given in Lesson 11.
The reason why the nicest exponential function is ex
where e ! 2.71828 . . . is because this makes for the
following very nice derivative:
d x
1e 2 ! ex
dx
It is only with this exact base that the derivative of the

exponential function is itself (see Figure 8.5).
73
Examples Practice
f 1x2 ! 4ex For questions 19 through 23, compute the derivative.
y ! 10ex " 10 19. f 1x2 ! 1 " x " x2 " x3 " ex

g1t2 ! 3et " 2ln1t2
20. g1t2 ! 12ln1t2 " t2 " 4
y = 8 ln(u) − e + eu
u
y = e 3 + ln(5) 21. y ! cos1x2 # 10ex " 8x

Solutions
22. h(x) = x − 8 ln(x ) + e −3
f ¿1x2 ! 4e x
5
23. k (x) = 3x 2 + 5e + ln(π)
x
dy
! 10ex
dx
24. Find the second derivative of
2
g ¿1t2 ! 3e "
t
f 1x2 ! ex " ln1x2 .
t
dy 8 u 25. Find the 100th derivative of g1x2 ! 3ex .
= −e +e
du u
dy 26. What is the slope of the tangent line to
=0
dx f 1x2 ! ln1x2 at x ! 10?
ex (e raised to the power x) and ex (the number

e times x) are very different functions. Note that
d x d
(e ) = e x , whereas (ex ) = e .
dx dx
d c d
(e ) = 0 and (ln(c )) = 0 whenever c is
dx dx
a positive constant.
74
9
L E S S O N
THE PRODUCT AND

QUOTIENT RULES
The Product Rule
When a function consists of parts that are added together, it is easy to take its derivative: Simply take the deriv-
ative of each part and add them together. We are inclined to try the same trick when the parts are multiplied
together, but it does not work.
d 2 d 3
For example, we know that 1x 2 ! 2x and 1x 2 ! 3x2 . The derivative of their product is
dx dx
d 2# 3 d
1x x 2 ! 1x5 2 ! 5x4 . This shows that the derivative of a product is not the product of the derivatives:
dx dx
d 2# 3
1x x 2 # 1x2 2 # 1x3 2 ! 12x2 # 13x2 2 ! 6x3
d d
5x4 !
dx dx dx
Instead, we take the derivative of each part, multiply by the other part left alone, and add these results together:
d 2# 3
1x x 2 ! 1x2 2 # x3 " 1x3 2 # x2 ! 12x2 # x3 " 13x2 2 # x2 ! 5x4
d d
dx dx dx
This time, we did get the correct answer.
75
THE PRODUCT RULE
The Product Rule can be stated “the derivative of the first times the second, plus the derivative of the second
times the first.” It can be proven directly from the limit definition of the derivative, but only with a few tricks and
a lot of algebra. Using Leibniz’s notation, the Product Rule is stated as follows:
d
(f ( x ) ⋅ g( x )) = f ′( x ) ⋅ g( x ) + g ′( x ) ⋅ f ( x )
dx
Example Solution
3
Differentiate y ! x sin1x2 .
15x7 2 # ex " 1ex 2 # 5x7
d d
g¿1x2 !
dx dx
Solution ! 35x6 # ex " ex # 5x7 ! 5x6ex 17 " x2
Here, the “first part” is x3 and the “second part” is
Using the product rule with ex can be a little bit
sin1x2 . Thus, by using the Product Rule,
confusing because there is no difference between the
1x sin1x2 2 ! 1x3 2 # sin1x2 " 1sin1x2 2 # x3 !
d 3 d d
derivative of ex and ex “left alone.” Still, if you write
dx dx dx
3x2sin1x2 " cos1x2 # x3 . This could be simplified as everything out, the correct answer should fall into
dy place, even if it looks weird.
! x2 13sin1x2 " xcos1x2 2 .
dx
Example
Example Differentiate y = 3
t ⋅ ln(t ) .
Differentiate f 1x2 ! ln1x2 # cos1x2 .
Solution
Solution dy d ⎛ 13 ⎞
t ⋅ ln(t ) + (ln(t )) ⋅ t 3
d 1
=
dt dt ⎝ ⎠ dt
1ln1x2 2 # cos1x2 " 1cos1x2 2 # ln1x2
d d
f ¿1x2 !
dx dx − 23 ⎛1 ⎞ 1
= 13 t ⋅ ln(t ) + ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ t 3
! # cos1x2 $ sin1x2 # ln1x2 ⎝t ⎠
1
x
1 1
= 2 ⋅ ln(t ) + 2
Thus, the derivative is: 3t 3
t3
1 ⎡ ln(t ) ⎤
cos(x) = 2⎢ + 1⎥
f ′(x) = − sin(x)ln(x) 3 ⎣ 3 ⎦
x t
Example Example
Differentiate y ! x5sin1x2cos1x2 .
Differentiate g1x2 ! 5x 7 # ex .
Solution
We’ll use the Product Rule with x5 as the first part and
sin1x2cos1x2 as the second part. However, in taking
76
THE QUOTIENT RULE
d ⎛ f (x ) ⎞ f ′( x )g( x ) − g ′( x )f ( x )
⎜ ⎟ =
dx ⎝ g( x ) ⎠ (g(x))2
the derivative of sin1x2cos1x2 , we’ll have to use the 7. y ! 8ln1x2sin1x2 " cos1x2
Product Rule a second time. This can get messy, but it
will be fine if everything is written down carefully. ( )
8. h(t) = t + 4 (sin(t ) − cos(t ))
3
! 1x5 2 # sin1x2cos1x2 " 1sin1x2cos1x2 2 # x5

dy d d
dx dx dx 9. y ! 5x3 $ xln1x2
10. f 1x2 ! sin2 1x2 ! sin1x2 # sin1x2

= 4 x sin(x)cos(x) B 1sin1x2 2 # cos1x2 "
5 d
dx
( )
11. y ! xexsin1x2 . (Hint: y = x ⋅ e x sin(x) .)
1cos1x2 2 # sin1x2 R # x5
d
dx
12. g1x2 ! 3x4ln1x2cos1x2
= 4 x 5sin(x)cos(x)
13. What is the slope of the tangent line to
Bcos1x2 # cos1x2 $ sin1x2 # sin1x2 R # x 5 f 1x2 ! x2ex " x " 2 at (0,2)?

= 4 x 5sin(x)cos(x) + (cos2 (x) − sin2 (x)) ⋅ x 5
y ! xsin1x2 at x = π.
Practice The Quotient Rule
For questions 1 through 12, compute the derivative. The Quotient Rule for functions where the parts are
divided is slightly more complicated than the Product
1. f 1x2 ! x2cos1x2 Rule. The Quotient Rule can be stated:
d f 1x2 f ¿1x2g1x2 $ g¿1x2f 1x2
˛
a b!
2. y ! 8t e 3 t
dx g1x2 1g1x2 2 2
3. y = π sin(x)cos(x) Just as with the Product Rule, each part is differ-

entiated and multiplied by the other part. Here, how-
4. g1x2 ! 3x2ln1x2 $ 5x4 " 10 ever, they are subtracted, so it matters which one is
differentiated first. It is important to start with the
2
(
5. h(u) = u + 3u e
u
) derivative of the top.
6. k (x) = x cos(x) − sin(x)

4
x
77
– THE PRODUCT AND QUOTIENT RULES –
Example
x2sin1x2
Differentiate y ! .
Just as with the Product Rule, ln1x2
d
d ⎛ f (x ) ⎞ dx
(f ( x ))
⎜ ⎟ ≠ .
dx ⎝ g( x ) ⎠ d
(g( x ))
Solution
dx
Here, the Product Rule is necessary to differentiate
the top.
Example dy d 2
dx 1x sin1x2 2
# ln1x2 $ dxd 1ln1x2 2 # x2sin1x2
x5 $ 3x2 " 1 !
Differentiate y ! . dx 1ln1x2 2 2
cos1x2
⎡d 2 ⎤
⎢ dx (x ) ⋅ sin(x) + (sin(x )) ⋅ x 2 ⎥ ⋅ ln(x) − 1x ⋅ x 2 sin(x)
d
Solution dx
=⎣ ⎦
Here, the top part is x5 $ 3x2 " 1 and the bottom (ln(x)) 2
part is cos1x2 . Therefore, by the Quotient Rule:

dy
dx
=
=
[2x ⋅ sin(x) + cos(x) ⋅ x ] ⋅ ln(x) − x sin(x)
2
(ln(x))2
d
dx
(x 5 − 3x 2 + 1) ⋅ cos(x ) − d
dx
(cos(x )) ⋅ (x 5 − 3x 2 + 1)
(cos(x))2 Example
ln1t2
15x4 $ 6x2 # cos1x2 $ 1$sin1x2 2 # 1x5 $ 3x2 " 12 Differentiate y !
t
.
=
cos2 1x2
Solution
15x4 $ 6x2 # cos1x2 " sin1x2 # 1x5 $ 3x2 " 12
=
cos2 1x2 dy d # d #
dt 1ln1t2 2 t $ dt 1t2 ln1t2
!
dt t2
Example 1
⋅ t − 1 ⋅ ln(t )
x 3
= t
Differentiate f 1x2 ! . t2
10x2 $ 1
1 − ln(t )
Solution =
t2
d 3
dx 1x 2
# 110x2 $ 12 $ dxd 110x2 $ 12 # x3
f ¿1x2 !
110x2 $ 12 2
(3x 2 ) ⋅ (10 x 2 − 1)(20 x ) ⋅ x 3

=
(10 x 2 − 1)
30 x 4 − 3x 2 − 20 x 4 10 x 4 − 3x 2
= =
(10 x 2 − 1)2 (10 x 2 − 1)2
78
Practice Derivatives of
Trigonometric Functions
For questions 15 through 26, compute the derivative.
We can find the derivatives of the rest of the trigono-
x3 " 10x $ 7
15. h1x2 ! 2 metric functions using the Quotient Rule.
3x " 5x " 2
x2 $ 1
16. f 1x2 ! 2 Example
x "1
Differentiate y ! tan1x2 .
x " ln1x2
17. f 1x2 ! x
e $1
x5 Solution
18. y !
ln1x2 sin1x2
Use tan1x2 ! .
t
4e " t cos1x2
19. y !
t3 " 2t " 1 dy d d sin1x2
3 ! 1tan1x2 2 ! a b
20. g (t ) = t dx dx dx cos1x2
π sin(t )
21. y = 1 − x x Differentiate using the Quotient Rule.

1+ x x dy cos1x2 # cos1x2 $ 1$sin1x2 2 # sin1x2
!
22. g (u) = sin(u) dx cos2 1x2
u − 3u
3
1 Simplify.
23. y =
(sin(x) + π)(cos(x) − π) dy cos2 1x2 " sin2 1x2
!
ln(t ) + t dx cos2 1x2
24. h(t ) =
sin2 (t )
xln1x2 Use sin2 1x2 " cos2 1x2 ! 1 .
25. y !
ex dy 1
xe 2 x !
26. f 1x2 ! dx cos2 1x2
cos1x2
1
27. Find the second derivative of y = xex + ex. Use sec1x2 ! .
cos1x2
dy
28. What is the slope of the tangent line to ! sec2 1x2
dx
f(x) = x2 ln(x) at x = e?
Thus:
d
1tan1x2 2 ! sec2 1x2
dx
79
Example Practice
Differentiate y ! sec1x2 .
Solution
1 29. y ! csc1x2
Use sec1x2 ! .
cos1x2
30. y ! cot1x2
dy d d 1
! 1sec1x2 2 ! a b
dx dx dx cos1x2
31. f 1x2 ! xtan1x2
Differentiate using the Quotient Rule. 32. g(x) = ex sec(x)

dy 0 # cos1x2 $ 1$sin1x2 2 # 1
!
dx cos2 1x2 33. h(t) = et ln(t)tan(t)
Simplify. 34. j(x) =

3
x +4x
sec(x)
dy sin1x2 1 # sin1x2
! 2 !
dx cos 1x2 cos1x2 cos1x2
1 sin1x2 et ⋅ ln(t) and eln(t) are NOT the same function. The
Use sec1x2 ! and tan1x2 ! .
cos1x2 cos1x2 first one is a product, whereas the second is a
dy composition.
! sec1x2tan1x2
dx
Thus:
d
1sec1x2 2 ! sec1x2tan1x2
dx
80
10
L E S S O N
CHAIN RULE
W
e have learned how to compute derivatives of functions that are added, subtracted, multiplied,
and divided. Next, we will learn how to compute the derivative of a composition of functions
For example, it would be difficult to multiply out f 1x2 ! 1x3 " 10x " 42 5 just to take the
derivative. Instead, notice that f 1x2 looks like g1x2 ! x3 " 10x " 4 put inside h1x2 ! x5. Therefore, in
terms of composition, f(x) = (h ° g)(x) = h(g(x)).
The trick to differentiating composed functions is to take the derivative of the outermost layer first, while
leaving the inner part alone, and then multiplying that by the derivative of the inside.
Using Leibniz’s notation, the Chain Rule can be stated as follows:

1h1g1x2 2 2 ! h¿1g1x2 2 # g¿1x2
d
dx
If this is confusing, think of the Chain Rule in the following way:
h1something2 ! h¿1something2 # 1something2

d d
dx dx
81
THE CHAIN RULE
d
(h(g( x ))) = h′(g( x )) ⋅ g ′( x ) or d (h(something)) = h′(something) ⋅ d (something)
dx dx dx
The usual key to figuring out what is inside and g¿1x2 ! cos18x4 " 3x2 # 2x " 12 #
what is outside is to watch the parentheses. Imagine
d
that the parentheses form the layers of an onion, and 18x4 " 3x2 # 2x " 12
dx
that you must peel (differentiate) the outermost layers
one at a time before reaching the inside. g¿1x2 ! cos18x4 " 3x2 # 2x " 12 #
132x3 " 6x # 22
Example
Differentiate f 1x2 ! 1x3 " 10x " 42 5 .
Example
Solution Differentiate y ! cos3 1x2 .
Here, f 1x2 ! 1something2 5 where the something !

d 5 Solution
x3 " 10x " 4 . Because 1x 2 ! 5x4 , the Chain This is tricky because of the lack of parentheses. It
dx
Rule gives: might look like the “outside” function is cos(some-
thing), but it is actually y ! cos3 1x2 ! 1cos1x2 2 3 .
f ¿1x2 ! 51something2 4 #
d
1something2 Thus, this function is really 1something2 3 . So, the
dx
Chain Rule gives:
d
= 5(x3 + 10x + 4)4 ⋅ (x3 + 10x + 4)
dx
! 31something2 2 # 1something2
dy d
= 5(x + 10x + 4) ⋅ (3x2 + 10)
3 4
dx dx
d
= 3(cos)(x))2 ⋅ (cos(x))
dx
Make certain to not mix the derivatives of the lay- = 3(cos)(x))2 ⋅ (–sin(x))
ers to get and mistakenly say f ′(x) = 5(3x2 + 10)4.
= –3(cos)2 ⋅ (x)sin(x)
Example
Differentiate g1x2 ! sin18x4 " 3x2 # 2x " 12 . Example
Differentiate y ! cos1x3 2 .
Solution
Here, the function is essentially sin(something) where
the “something” ! 8x4 " 3x2 # 2x " 1 . The deriva-
tive of sine is cosine, so the Chain Rule gives:
g¿1x2 ! cos1something2 # 1something2

d
dx
82
“SOMETHING” HINT
It is important that the “something” in the parentheses appear somewhere in the derivative, just as it does in
the original function. If it doesn’t appear, then a mistake has been made.
Solution Practice
In this example, our function is cos(something).
d Differentiate the following.
Because 1cos1x2 2 ! #sin1x2 , the Chain Rule gives:
dx
1. f 1x2 ! 18x3 " 72 4
! #sin1something2 # 1something2
dy d
dx dx 2. y ! 1x2 " 8x " 92 3
d 3
= –sin(x3) ⋅ (x ) 3. h1t2 ! 1t8 # 9t3 " 3t " 22 10
dx
= –sin(x3) ⋅ 3x2 4. y ! 1u5 # 3u4 " 72 2
7
Example 5. g (x) = x 2 + 9x + 1
Differentiate h1x2 ! e5x .
3 x
6. y ! 2e "1
Solution
h1x2 ! e1something2
7. f (x) = tan ( x)
8. g (x) = tan(x)
so:
9. y ! ln13t " 52
h¿1x2 ! e1something2 #
d
1something2
dx
10. h(x) = sin(πx)
d
= e5x ⋅ (5x) = e5x ⋅ 5 = 5e5x
dx 11. y ! 1ln1x2 2 5
12. f 1x2 ! ex " e2x " e3x

ex # e #x
tan(cos(x)) ≠ tan(x) ⋅ cos(x). 13. g1x2 !
2
sin12u2
14. f 1u2 !
u
15. y ! xe2x
You CANNOT cancel the θ’s to conclude that
sin(2θ)
θ = sin(2). 16. f 1x2 ! sec110x2 " ex 2
17. y = e
(x2 ) + x 2 e
18. y = ln(x sin(x))

83
– CHAIN RULE –
19. s(u) =(sin(u) + cos(u))3 Notice once again that every part except the out-
ermost layer (the natural logarithm) appears some-
20. y = tan(cos(x)) where in the derivative.
This rule is called the Chain Rule because it works in
long succession when there are many layers to the
function. It helps to write out the function using lots Practice
of parentheses, and then work patiently to take the
derivative of each outermost layer. Differentiate the following.
Example 21. f 1x2 ! cos3 18x2

Differentiate f 1x2 ! sin7 1e5x 2 .
2
22. y ! 1e9x "2x"1 2 4
Solution
With all of its parentheses, this function is 23. g1t2 ! ln1tan1et " 12 2
f 1x2 ! 1sin1e15x2 2 2 7 . The outermost layer is “some-
thing to the seventh power,” the second layer is “the 24. y ! sin1sin1sin1x2 2 2
sine of something,” the third layer is “e raised to the
something,” and the last layer is 5x. Thus: 25. k1u2 ! sec1ln18u3 2 2
f ¿1x2 ! 71sin1e15x2 2 2 6 #
d ⎛ 4 x 2 − 1⎞
dx
1sin1e15x2 2 2 26. h(x) = cos2 ⎜ e x ⎟
⎝ 1−e ⎠
= 7(sin(e (5 x )))6 ⋅ cos(e (5 x )) ⋅
d ( 5x )
(e )
dx
= 7(sin(e (5 x )))6 ⋅ cos(e (5 x )) ⋅e (5 x )) ⋅

d
(5 x )
dx
= 7(sin(e(5x)))6 ⋅ cos(e(5x)) ⋅ e(5x) ⋅ 5
= 35e(5x)sin6(e(5x))cos(e(5x))
Example
Differentiate y ! ln1x3 " tan13x2 " x2 2 .
Solution
dy 1
= 3 ⋅ d (x 3 + tan(3x 2 + x))
dx x + tan(3x + x ) dx
2
=
1
⋅ ⎛⎜ 3x 2 + sec2 (3x 2 + x) ⋅ d ⎞
(3x 2 + x)⎟
x + tan(3x + x ) ⎝
3 2
dx ⎠
=
1
⋅ 13x2 " sec2 13x2 " x2 # 16x " 12 2
x + tan(3x + x )
3 2
3x 2 + sec 2 (3x 2 + x) ⋅(6 x + 1)

=
x 3 + tan(3x 2 + x)
84
11
L E S S O N
IMPLICIT
DIFFERENTIATION
A
common complaint about the Chain Rule is “I don’t know where to stop!” For example, why do we
use the Chain Rule for f 1x2 ! sin1x3 2 to get f ¿1x2 ! cos1x3 2 # 3x2 , but not for g1x2 ! sin1x2 ,
which has g¿1x2 ! cos1x2 ? The honest answer is that we could use the Chain Rule as follows:
g¿1x2 ! cos1x2 # d
1x2 ! cos1x2 # 1 ! cos1x2
dx
# 1x 2 ! cos1x3 2 # 3x2 # 1x2 ! cos1x3 2 # 3x2 # 1 ! cos1x3 2 # 3x2

d 3 d
f ¿1x2 ! cos1x3 2
dx dx
d
When we get down to 1x2 ! 1 , we know we are done. The advantage to this way of thinking is that it
dx
dy
explains what really means. This isn’t merely a symbol that says “we took the derivative.” This is the result
dx
of differentiating both sides of an equation.
85
– IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION –
Example Solving for y is not always possible, though.

5 x In fact, it rarely is. If our equation were ln(y) + cos(y)
Differentiate y ! 4x # e .
= 3e x – x3, then we would not be able to solve for y.
Solution Fortunately, we can still find the slope of the tan-
Start with the equation. dy
gent line, , without having to solve the original
dx
y ! 4x5 # ex
equation for y. The trick is to use implicit differentia-
tion by taking the derivative of both sides and making
Differentiate both sides of the equation. d dy
sure to include 1y2 ! wherever the Chain Rule
d d dx dx
1y2 ! 14x5 # ex 2 dictates.
dx dx
d dy Example
Use 1y2 ! .
dx dx Find the slope of the tangent line to x2 # y2 ! 1 .
! 20x4 # 1x2 # ex # 1x2

dy d d
dx dx dx Solution
Start with the equation.
Simplify.
x2 # y2 ! 1
! 20x4 # 1 # ex # 1 ! 20x4 # ex
dy
dx
Differentiate both sides.
5 x
Now if y ! 4x # e , then there is a relationship d 2 d
1x # y2 2 ! 112
between y and x. This relationship is given explicitly dx dx
because we know exactly what y is in terms of x. How-
ever, if the variables x and y are all mixed up on both Use the Chain Rule everywhere.
2x # 1x2 # 2y # 1y2 ! 0
sides of the equals sign, then the relationship is said to d d
be implicit. The relationship is implied, but it is up to dx dx
us to figure out what the relationship between x and y
is explicitly. For example, the equation of the unit cir- d d dy
Use 1x2 ! 1 and 1y2 ! .
cle is: dx dx dx
2x # 1 # 2y #
x2 # y2 ! 1 dy
!0
dx
There is a relationship between the values of x
and y, because what y can be depends on the value of
x. If x ! 0, for instance, then y could be either 1 or "1. dy
Solve for .
We could take the implicit description of y in dx
x2 # y2 ! 1 and make it explicit by solving for y: dy "2x x
! ! "
dx 2y y
y2 ! 1 " x2 dy
It might make you uneasy to have given in
dx
y = ± 1 − x2 terms of both x and y, but this is necessary. If we were
86
asked, “What is the slope of the tangent line to Differentiate both sides of the equation.
1
x2 # y2 ! 1 at x ! ?” We would have to reply, d d
2 1ln1y2 # cos1y2 2 ! 13ex " x3 2
“Which one?” There are two tangent lines when dx dx
1
x ! ! See Figure 11.1. If we want the slope of Use the Chain Rule everywhere.
2
⎛1 3⎞ 1# d
1y2 " sin1y2 # 1y2 !
d
the tangent line at ⎜ 2 , −
⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ , then y dx dx
3ex # 1x2 " 3x2 # 1x2

1 d d
dy x 2 1 3
= = = = . dx dx
dx y 3 3 3
− 2
d d dy
Use 1x2 ! 1 and 1y2 ! .
y dx dx dx
1 # dy
" sin1y2 #
1 dy
2
x2 + y = 1 1
( –2 , – 2–3 ) ! 3ex " 3x2
y dx dx
dy
Factor out a .
dx
1 dy
a " sin1y2b ! 3ex " 3x2
x y dx
–1 __1 1
2
dy
Solve for .
dx
dy 3ex " 3x2
1
( –2 , – 2–3 ) !1
–1 dx y " sin1y2
To get rid of the fraction-in-a-fraction, we can

Figure 11.1
multiply the top and bottom by the denominator y
that we want to eliminate:
Example dy 3ex " 3x2
!1
dy dx y " sin1y2
Find when ln1y2 # cos1y2 ! 3ex " x3.
dx 3ex " 3x2 # y
! a1 b a b
y " sin1y2
y
Solution
3yex " 3x2y
Start with the equation. !
1 " ysin1y2
ln1y2 # cos1y2 ! 3ex " x3
Don’t forget to apply the Chain Rule when com-

d
puting dx (cos(y)) when y depends on x.
87
Example Example
2
Find the slope of the tangent line to y ln1x2 ! y # 5 dy
Find when cos(x ⋅ sin(y)).
at (1,"5). dx
Solution Solution
Start with the equation. Start with the equation.
y2ln1x2 ! y # 5 tan(y ) = cos( x ⋅ sin(y ))
Differentiate both sides of the equation. Differentiate both sides of the equation.
d 2 d
dx
1y ln1x2 2 ! 1y # 52
dx
d
dx
(
(tan(y )) = dxd cos(x ⋅ sin(y )) )
Use the product rule on y2ln1x2 .
Compute the derivatives on both sides.
2y # 1y2 # ln1x2 # # 1x2 # y2 ! 1y2 # 0
d 1 d d
d
dx x dx dx sec 2 (y ) ⋅ (y )
dx
⎛ ⎛ ⎞ ⎞
= − sin( x ⋅ sin(y )) ⋅ ⎜ sin(y ) + ⎜ cos(y ) ⋅ (y )⎟ ⋅ x ⎟
d
d d dy
Use 1x2 ! 1 and 1y2 ! . ⎝ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎠
dx dx dx
d d dy
(y ) =
2y # # ln1x2 # 1 # y2 ! dy
dy Use (x) = 1 and .
dx dx dx
dx x dx
Plug in x ! 1 and y ! "5. ⎛ ⎛ dy ⎞ ⎞

= − sin( x ⋅ sin(y )) ⋅ ⎜ sin(y ) + ⎜ cos(y ) ⋅ ⎟ ⋅ x ⎟
dy
dy 1 dy sec 2 (y ) ⋅
2(−5) ⋅ ⋅ ln( 1) + ⋅ (−5)2 = dx ⎝ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎠
dx { 1 dx
=0
Simplify the right-hand side.

Use ln112 ! 0 .
dy
dy sec 2 (y ) ⋅
25 ! dx
dx
= − sin( x ⋅ sin(y )) ⋅ sin(y ) − sin( x ⋅ sin(y )) ⋅ cos(y ) ⋅ x ⋅
dy
dx
Thus, the slope of the tangent line at (1,"5) is 25.
dy
Bring both instances of to the same side.
dx
+ sin( x ⋅ sin(y )) ⋅ cos(y ) ⋅ x ⋅

dy dy
sec 2 (y ) ⋅
dx dx
= − sin( x ⋅ sin(y )) ⋅ sin(y )
dy
Factor out a .
dx
[sec (y) + sin(x ⋅ sin(y)) ⋅ cos(y) ⋅ x ] dydx =

2
= − sin( x ⋅ sin(y )) ⋅ sin(y )
88
dy Practice
Solve for .
dx
dy
− sin( x ⋅ sin(y )) ⋅ sin(y )
For questions 1 through 14, compute .
dy dx
=
dx sec (y ) + sin( x ⋅ sin(y )) ⋅ cos(y ) ⋅ x
2
1. 1y # 12 3 ! x4 " 8x
Example 2. y3 # y ! sin1x2
Use implicit differentiation and the fact that
d x d 1 3. sin1y2 ! 4x # 7
1e 2 ! ex to prove that 1ln1x2 2 ! .
dx dx x
4. y − y = ln(x)
Solution
dy 5. y2 # x ! 3x4 # 8y
If y ! ln1x2 , then the derivative of ln(x) is .
dx
y ! ln1x2 6. e x + e 2 x = e y + e 2 y
Raise both sides as powers of e. 7. tan1y2 ! cos1x2

ey ! eln1x2 8. y = x + y
Since ln1x2 and ex are inverses, eln1x2 ! x . 9. sin(x) − sin(y ) = sin(x − y )

y
e !x
10. y − ln(x) = y 3 − y 2 − y − 1
Differentiate both sides.
11. 1y # x2 2 4 ! 10x
d y d
1e 2 ! 1x2
dx dx
12. x2y ! y4x4
Use the Chain Rule. x

13. # xy ! x # y
y
ey #
dy
!1
dx 14. sec1y2 # 9y ! x3cos1y2
dy 15. Find the tangent line slope of

Solve for .
dx y3 # x2 ! y2 " 5y # 14 at ("3,1).
dy 1
! y
dx e 16. Find the tangent line slope of
x3 # y3 ! 3y " x at (1,"2).
Use ey ! eln1x2 ! x .
dy 1
!
dx x
a+b ≠ a + b . To see this, let a = 16 and b
So, d (ln(x)) = 1 .
dx x = 9. The left-hand side is 25 = 5 , but the
right-hand side is 16 + 9 = 4 + 3 = 7.
89

⎛ 1 π⎞
sin1y2 ! x at the point ⎜ , ⎟ .
sin( A − B ) ≠ sin( A ) − sin(B ) . To see this, let A ⎝2 6⎠
⎛ π⎞ ⎛ ⎞
= π and B = ⎜ ⎟ . The left-hand side is sin ⎜ π ⎟ 20. Find the equation of the tangent line to
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
= 1, but the right-hand side is sin(π) – sin ⎛ π ⎞
⎜ ⎟
( )
ln e x + e y = ln(2) − y at (0,0).
= 0 – 1 = –1. ⎝ 2⎠
17. Find the slope of the tangent line to

ln13y " 52 # x ! y2 at (4,2).
⎛ 2 π⎞
⎜ , ⎟
18. Find the slope of the tangent line at ⎝ 2 4 ⎠
⎛ π ⎞
on the graph of cos⎜ sin(y )⎟ = x .
⎝2 2 ⎠
90
12
L E S S O N
RELATED RATES
S
ometimes, both variables x and y depend on a third variable t. An equation relating x and y is often
able to be determined geometrically. Once you have gotten the hang of implicit differentiation, it
should not be difficult to take the derivative of both sides with respect to the variable t. This enables
d dx d dy
us to see how x and y vary with respect to time t. The only difference is that 1x2 " , 1y2 " , and
dt dt dt dt
d
so on. Only 1t2 " 1 can be simplified.
dt
Example
Assume x and y depend on some variable t. Differentiate y2 ! cos1x2 " 4x2y with respect to t.
Solution
Start with the equation.
y2 ! cos1x2 " 4x2y
Us the Chain Rule to differentiate both sides with respect to t.

d 2 d
1y ! cos1x2 2 " 14x2y2
dt dt
91
– RELATED RATES –
Solution
2y # 1y2 # sin1x2 # 1x2 "
d d
dt dt
8x # 1x2 # y ! 1y2 # 4x2
d d
dt dt
d
dr
( ) d ⎛A
3 A + 4 B 2 = ⎜ + π⎟
dr ⎝ C
⎞
⎠
dy dA dC
d dx d ⋅C − ⋅A
Use 1x2 " and 1y2 " . dA dB dr dr
dt dt dt dt 3⋅ + 8B ⋅ =
dr dr C2
2y # # sin1x2 # " 8xy # # 4x2
dy dx dx dy
!
dt dt dt dt
Example d
( π ) = 0 because π is a constant.
Assume x and y depend on some variable t. Differen- dr
tiate e x + y = y 3 + x with respect to t.
Practice
Solution
Start with the equation. Assume all variables depend on t. Differentiate with
ex + y = y 3 + x respect to t.
1. y " 1x3 ! x # 12 5
Differentiate both sides with respect to t.
d x d 3 2. y4 # 3x2 " cos1y2
(e + y ) = (y + x )
dt dt
3. 2x ! 2y " 10x3 # 7x
Use the Chain Rule everywhere.
d d d 1 d
e x ⋅ ( x ) + ( y ) = 3y 2 ⋅ ( y ) + ⋅ (x) 4. ln1y2 ! ex " x2y2
dt dt dt 2 x dt
2 2 3
dy 5. z " x2 ! y2 !
d dx d 5 5 5x
Use 1x2 " and 1y2 " .
dt dt dt dt
dx dy dy 1 dx 6. A2 ! B2 " C2
e ⋅ x
+ = 3y 2 ⋅ + ⋅
dt dt dt 2 x dt 4
7. V " p r3
3
The variables need not be x and y, and the variable
upon which they depend need not be t. 8. A " 4p r2
9. C " 2p r
Example
Assume A, B, and C depend on some variable r. Dif- 1
10. A " bh
A 2
ferentiate 3A + 4B 2 = + π .
C
11. S = 6e2
12. D = x 2 + y 2
92
dy y-change dx dy Solution
Just as " is a rate, so are , ,
dx x-change dt dt We know that for circles A = πr2, so that,
" 2p r # . And we know that the radius is
dA dA dr
, and so on. Because t typically represents time, dt dt
dt
dr
dy y-change increasing at the rate of " 4 feet per second, so
" dt
dt t-change represents how fast y is changing when the radius is r " 12 feet, the area is increasing at:
over time. Thus, if A is a variable that represents an
dA
area, represents how fast that area is increasing or
" 2p 112 feet2 # 4
dt dA feet
decreasing over time. dt second
Differentiating an equation with respect to t ft2
" 96p
results in a new equation, which shows how the rates sec
of change of the variables are related. For example, the " 96p ! 301.6 square feet per second
area A and radius r of a circle are related by:
A " p r2
Example
A spherical balloon is inflated with 40 cubic inches of
Differentiating both sides with respect to t gives:
air every second. When the radius is 12 inches, how fast
" 2p r #
dA dr is the radius of the balloon increasing? (Hint: The vol-
dt dt ume of a sphere with radius r is V " 43p r3.)
If a circle is growing in size, this equation details how
dr Solution
the rate at which the radius is changing, ,
dt
dA We know that the volume of the balloon is increasing
relates to the rate at which the area is growing,
dt
. dV in3
at the rate of " 40 . We want to know the
dt sec
dr
Example value of when r " 12 inches. Differentiating
dt
A rock thrown into a pond makes a circular ripple that 4
travels at 4 feet per second. How fast is the area of the V " p r3 with respect to t gives:
3
circle increasing when the circle has a radius of 12 feet?
" 4p r2 #
dV dr
dt dt
dV in3
When we plug in " 40 and r " 12 in, we get:
dt sec
" 4p 112 in2 2 #

in3 dr
40
sec dt
dr 40 in. 5 in.
= =
dt 4 π ⋅ 144 sec 72 πsec
The radius of the balloon is increasing at the very

5
slow rate of ! 0.022 inches per second.
72p
93
Example
Suppose the base of a triangle is increasing at a rate of wall
8 feet per minute while the height is decreasing by 1
foot every minute. How fast is the triangle’s area
ladder
changing when the height is 5 feet and the base is 20
feet? 20 feet
y
Solution
If we represent the length of the base by b, the height
of the triangle as h, and the area of the triangle as A,
1
then the formula that relates them all is A " bh . The x ground
2
db ft Figure 12.1
base is increasing at "8 and the height is
dt min
dh ft
changing at " #1 . The #1 implies that 1
dt min
foot is subtracted from the height every minute, that is, Solution
dA dy
the height is decreasing. We are trying to find , ft
dt Here, " #2 because the ladder is sliding
which is the rate of change in area. When we differen- dt min
1 down the wall at 2 feet per minute. We want to know
tiate the formula A " bh with respect to t, we get: dx
2 , the rate at which the bottom of the ladder is mov-
dt
" #
dA 1 db # dh # 1 ing away from the wall. The equation to use is the
h! b
dt 2 dt dt 2 Pythagorean theorem.
When we plug in all of our information, includ- x2 ! y2 " 202
ing the h " 5 feet and b " 20 feet, we get:
d 2 d
1x ! y2 2 " 1202 2
dA 1 ⎛ ft ⎞ ⎛ ft ⎞ 1
⎟ ⋅ (5 ft ) + ⎜ −1 ⎟ ⋅ ⋅ (20 ft )
dt dt
= ⋅⎜8
dt 2 ⎝ min ⎠ ⎝ min ⎠ 2
2x # ! 2y #
dx dy
ft 2 ft 2 ft 2 "0
= 20 − 10 = 10 dt dt
min min min
dy
Thus, at the exact instant when the height is 5 feet If we plug in y " 16 ft and " #2 ft/min, we get:
dt
and the base is 20 feet, the area of the triangle is ⎛ ft ⎞
2 x ⋅ + 2 ⋅ (16 ft ) ⋅ ⎜ −2
dx
increasing at a rate of 10 square feet every minute. ⎟ =0
dt ⎝ min ⎠
Example
We still need to know what x is at the particular instant
A 20-foot ladder slides down a wall at the rate of 2 feet
that y " 16, and for this, we go back to the
per minute (see Figure 12.1). How fast is it sliding
Pythagorean theorem.
along the ground when the ladder is 16 feet up the
wall? x2 ! 1162 2 " 1202 2
x2 " 144 , so x " ;12
94
CHANGING VALUES HINT
It is important to use variables for all of the values that are changing. Only after all derivatives have been com-
puted can they be replaced by numbers.
Using x " 12 (a negative length here makes no sense), dA

16. Suppose A3 " B2 ! 4C2 , " 8 , and
we get: dt
dC dB
" #2 . What is when A " 2, B " 2,
⎛ ft ⎞ dt dt
2 ⋅ (12 ft ) ⋅ + 2 ⋅ (16 ft ) ⋅ ⎜ −2
dx
⎟ =0 and C " 1?
dt ⎝ min ⎠
dx 8 ft 17. Suppose A " I2 ! 6R . If I increases by 4 feet
=
dt 3 min per minute and R increases by 2 square feet every
At the moment that y " 16 ft, the ladder is sliding minute, how fast is A changing when I " 20?
8
along the ground at feet per minute.
3 1
In the previous example, it was okay to say that the 18. Suppose K3 " ! 11 . Every hour, K
R2
hypotenuse was 20 because the length of the ladder decreases by 2. How fast is R changing when K
1
didn’t change. However, if we replace y with 16 in the " 3 and R " ?
4
equation before differentiating, we would have implied
that the height was fixed at 16 feet. Because the height 19. The height of a triangle decreases by 2 feet every
does change, it needs to be written as a variable, y. In minute while its base shrinks by 6 feet every
general, any quantity that varies needs to be represented minute. How fast is the area changing when the
with a variable. Only after all derivatives have been com- height is 15 feet and the base is 20 feet?
puted can the information for the given instant, like
20. The surface area of a sphere with radius r is
y " 16, be substituted.
A " 4p r2. If the radius is decreasing by
2 inches every hour, how fast is the surface area
shrinking when the radius is 20 inches?
Practice
dy 21. A circle increases in area by 20 square feet
13. Suppose y ! 3y " 6 # 4x and dt " 5 .
2 3 every hour. How fast is the radius increasing
dx when the radius is 4 feet?
What is when x " #1 and y " 2?
dt
dy 22. The volume of a cube grows by 1,200 cubic
14. Suppose xy2 " x2 ! 3 . What is when inches every minute. How fast is each side
dt
dx growing when each side is 10 inches?
" 8 , x " 3, and y " #2?
dt
dL dI 23. The surface area of a cube is decreasing at a
15. Let K ! eL " L ! I2 . If " 5 and " 4, rate of 2 square inches per second. How fast is
dt dt
ˇ
dK an edge shrinking at the instant when each side

what is when L " 0 and I " 3?
dt is 40 inches? (Hint: The surface area of a cube
with edge e is S = 6e2.)
95
24. The height of a triangle grows by 5 inches each 26. A kite is 100 feet off the ground and moving
hour. The area is increasing by 100 square horizontally at 13 feet per second (see Figure
inches each hour. How fast is the base of the 12.3). How quickly is the string being let out
triangle increasing when the height is 20 inches when the string is 260 feet long?
and the base is 12 inches?
ft
12 sec
25. One end of a 10-foot long board is lifted
straight off the ground at 1 foot per second
(see Figure 12.2). How fast will the other end string
drag along the ground after 6 seconds? 100 ft
?
ft
1__
sec
Figure 12.3
board
10 ft
?
Figure 12.2
96
13
L E S S O N
LIMITS AT INFINITY
T
his lesson will serve as a preparation for the graphing in the next lesson. Here, we will work on ways
to identify asymptotes from the formula of a rational function, a quotient of two polynomials.
We’ve encountered vertical asymptotes informally in Lesson 5. They are easy to recognize for
rational functions because they occur at precisely those x-values at which the denominator equals zero and
the numerator does NOT equal zero. If both top and bottom are zero when evaluated at an x-value, you get
13x # 221x " 12
a small unshaded circle on its graph at that point. For example, f 1x2 ! has vertical asymp-
1x # 32 1x " 42
˛
totes at x ! "3 and x ! 4.

Horizontal asymptotes take a bit more work to identify. The graph will flatten out like a horizontal line
if large values of x all have essentially the same y-value.
In the graph of y ! f 1x2 , in Figure 13.1 for example, if x is bigger than 5, then y will be very close to y
˛
! 1. Similarly, if x is a large negative number, the corresponding y-value will be close to zero. Horizontal
asymptotes are related to the limits as x gets really big. For f 1x2 given in the graph:
˛˛
lim f (x) = 1 and lim f (x) = 0

x →∞ x →−∞
In such case, we say that y = 1 and y = 0 are horizontal asymptotes of f.
97
ASYMPTOTE HINT
Notice that the graph of y = f(x) crosses both horizontal asymptotes. Vertical asymptotes cannot be crossed
because they are, by definition, not in the domain. Horizontal asymptotes can be crossed, as illustrated in this
example. Think of “asymptote” as meaning “flattens out like a straight line” and not “a line not to be crossed.”
y
3
y = f(x)
2
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
–1
–2
–3
Figure 13.1
These limits at infinity (and negative infinity) identify There are several terms being added in this function.
what the ends of the graph do. For example, if However, the most powerful part is the term 2x3 .
lim g (x) = 3, then the graph of y ! g1x2 will typi- When x gets big enough, like when x ! 1,000,000, then
x →∞
cally look something like that in Figure 13.2. If
2x3 " 100x2 " 10x " 5,000
lim h(x) = ∞, then the graph of y ! h1x2 will look
x →−∞
like that in Figure 13.3. ! 2,000,000,000,000,000,000 "
Notice that the infinite limits say only what hap- 100,000,000,000,000 " 10,000,000 " 5,000
pens way off to the left and to the right. Other calcu-
lations must be done to know what happens in the ! 1,999,899,999,989,995,000
middle of the graph.
This clearly rounds to 2,000,000,000,000,000,000,
The general trick to evaluating an infinite limit is
which is the value of 2x3 at x = 1,000,000. It is in this
to focus on the most powerful part of the function.
sense that 2x3 is called the most powerful part of the
Take lim (2 x 3 − 100 x 2 − 10 x − 5, 000) for example.
x →∞ function. As x gets big, 2x3 is the only part that counts.
98
RULES FOR INFINITE LIMITS
The rules for Infinite Limits of Rational Functions are as follows:

■ If the numerator is more powerful, the limit goes to ∞ or "∞.
■ If the denominator is more powerful, the limit goes to 0.
■ If the numerator and denominator are evenly matched, the limit is formed by the coefficients of the
most powerful parts.
y y
5 5
4 4 y = g(x)
levels out like y = 3

3 3
OR
levels out like y = 3
2 2
y = g(x)
1 1
x x
–1 toward ∞ –1 toward ∞
Figure 13.2
y lim(2 x 3 − 100 x 2 − 10 x − 5, 000) = lim 2 x 3 = ∞

x →∞ x →∞
As x gets huge, x3 is clearly even larger, and 2x3 is

twice that. Thus, as x goes to infinity, so does 2x3 . Basi-
does not cally, the higher the exponent of x, the more powerful
level out
it is. With that in mind, the rules for infinite limits of
y = h(x) rational functions are fairly simple:
■ If the numerator is more powerful, the limit goes
x to ∞ or " ∞ .
toward –∞ ■ If the denominator is more powerful, the limit
goes to 0.
■ If the numerator and denominator are evenly
Figure 13.3
matched, the limit is formed by the coefficients of
the most powerful parts.
99
GOING TO INFINITY
The whole concept of “going to infinity” might be a bit confusing. This really means “going toward infinity,”
because infinity is not reachable. Just know that “going to infinity” means that we see what happens when we
plug really large numbers into the function, and that “going to negative infinity” means that we see what hap-
pens when we plug really large negative numbers into the function.
Example
1 − x2
Evaluate lim .
x →∞ x 3 + 3x + 2 Make certain to fully expand the polynomials in
the top and bottom of a rational function before
Solution identifying the dominating terms in each.
The most powerful part of the numerator is "x2 , and
in the denominator is x3 . Thus: The limit is formed by the coefficients of the
1 − x2 −x 2 1 most powerful parts: 3 in the numerator and "4 in the
lim 3 = lim 3 = lim − = 0
x →∞ x + 3x + 2 x →∞ x x →∞ x denominator.
This limit is zero because the numerator is overpow-
1
ered by the denominator. Also, as x gets really big, Example
x 5 x 10 − 4 x 5 + 7
gets really close to zero. For example, Evaluate lim .
1 1 x →∞ 1 − x2
when x = 1,000, then = = 0.001.
x 1, 000
Solution
Example Here,
3x 2 + 2 x − 5 5 x 10 − 4 x 5 + 7 5 x 10
Evaluate lim .
x →−∞ (1 − 2 x )(1 + 2 x ) lim = lim
x →∞ 1 − x2 x →∞ − x 2
= lim − 5 x 8 = −∞
Solution x →∞
8
Here, the numerator and denominator are evenly As x goes to infinity, x also gets really large, but the
matched, with each having x2 as its highest power negative in the "5 reverses this and makes "5x8
of x. approach negative infinity.
3x 2 + 2 x − 5 3x 2 + 2 x − 5
lim = lim Practice
x → − ∞ (1 − 2 x )(1 + 2 x ) x → −∞ 1 − 4x 2
3x 2
= lim Evaluate the following infinite limits.
x → − ∞ −4 x 2
= lim
3
=−
3 5 x 3 + 10 x 2 − 2
x → − ∞ −4 4 1. lim
x →∞ 8x 4 + 1
4 x 3 + 10 x 2 + 3x
2. lim
x →−∞ 5 x 3 + 8 x − 1
100
– LIMITS AT INFINITY –
5x + 2 The infinite limits of ex and ln1x2 can be seen

3. lim
x →∞ 2 x − 1 from their graphs in Figure 13.4.
10 x 3 − 3x − 100 lim e x = ∞ lim e x = 0 lim ln(x) = ∞
4. lim x →∞ x →−∞ x →∞
x →∞ 2x + 5
t +1 In general, as x goes to infinity, ex is more pow-
5. lim
t → − ∞ t (t + 4)(t − 1)
erful than x raised to any number. The natural loga-
8t 4 − 3t 3 + 11 rithm, however, goes to infinity slower than any power
lim
6. t → ∞ (1 − 3t 2 )(1 + 3t 2 ) of x. It may look as though y ! ln1x2 is beginning to
level out toward a horizontal asymptote, but actually,
5 x 2 (x + 2)
7. lim it will eventually surpass any height as it slowly goes up
x→ ∞ 1− x2
to infinity.
x 4 + 3x 2 − 8 x + 4 In more complicated situations, we use L’Hôpi-
8. lim
x →−∞ x 2 + 2x + 1 tal’s rule. This states that if the numerator and
x2 − 1 denominator both go to infinity (positive or negative),
9. lim 2
x →−∞ x + 1 then the limit remains the same after taking the deriv-
t + 20, 000 ative of the top and the bottom.
10. lim
x →∞ t 2 − 6, 000, 000
x
y y=e 3
2 y = ln(x)
x
1 2 3
x
–3 –2 –1 1
–1
–2
–3
Figure 13.4
101
^
L’H O PITAL’S RULE
If the numerator and denominator both go to infinity (positive or negative), the limit remains the same after tak-
ing the derivative of the top and bottom. Using notation,
f (x ) f ′( x )
lim = lim if lim f ( x ) = ± ∞ and lim g( x ) = ± ∞
x → ±∞ g( x ) x → ±∞ g ′( x ) x → ±∞ x → ±∞
Example Example
ln(x) ex
Evaluate lim . Evaluate lim .
x →∞ 1 − x x →∞ x 3 + 2 x 2 + 5 x + 2
Solution Solution
Since lim ln(x) = ∞ and lim (1 − x) = −∞ , we can use Here, lim e x = ∞ and lim (x 3 + 2 x 2 + 5 x + 2) = ∞ ,
x→ ∞ x →∞
x →∞ x →∞
L’Hôpital’s Rule. so we can use L’Hôpital’s Rule.
d ex
(ln(x)) lim
ln(x) H
lim = lim dx x →∞ x 3 + 2 x 2 + 5 x + 2
x →∞ 1 − x x →∞ d
(1 − x) d (e x )
dx H dx
= lim
x →∞ d
1
x 1 dx ( x
3
+ 2 x 2 + 5 x + 2)
= lim = lim − = 0
x →∞ −1 x →∞ x ex
= lim
Note: The little H over the equals sign indicates that x →∞ 3x 2 + 4 x + 5
L’Hôpital’s Rule has been used at that point of the

Here, we need to use L’Hôpital’s Rule several more
computation. Examples like this demonstrate how
times:
ln1x2 goes to infinity even slower than x does.
ex H ex
lim 2 = lim
x →∞ 3x + 4 x + 5 x →∞ 6 x + 4
ex
When applying L’Hôpital’s Rule, we differentiate H lim =∞
= x →∞ 6
top and bottom separately and form the quotient
of them. We do NOT apply the Quotient Rule.
102
This example shows how ex is more powerful than Because −1 1

lim = 0 and lim = 0 , the
x3 . If the denominator had an x100 , we’d have to use x →∞ x2 x →∞ x2
L’Hôpital’s Rule 100 times, but in the end, ex would sin1x2
function is squeezed between them to zero as
drive everything to infinity. x2
sin(x)
well: lim = 0 . This is called the Squeeze Theo-
Example x →∞ x 2
ex rem or the Sandwich Theorem because of the way

Evaluate lim . sin1x2
x →−∞ x 5 + 7 x − 1 is squished between two curves, both going
x2
to zero.
Solution
The limit lim e x = 0 is not infinite. So we can’t use
x →−∞
L’Hôpital’s Rule. The function ex is only powerful Practice
when x goes to positive infinity. Instead, we use the old
“plug in” method. Evaluate the following limits.
ex 0 ln(x 3 )
lim = = 0 11. lim
x →−∞ x 5 + 7 x − 1 something not zero x →∞ ln( x ) + 5
x + 5
Example 12. lim
x →∞ x − 1
sin(x)
Evaluate lim . x 2 + 5 x − 10
x →∞ x 2 13. lim
x →−∞ 4x + 2
3x + 2
2
Solution 14. lim
x →∞ x − ln( x )
This has the same problem as the previous example.
No matter what x may be, sin1x2 will always be e2 x + 3
15. lim
x →∞ e 3x + 2
between "1 and 1. Thus, "1 $ sin1x2 $ 1 and so
x + ln(x)
16. lim
x →∞ e2 x
17. lim x− x
y
x →∞ e
cos(x)
18. lim
x →∞ x
4x 3 + 5x 2 + 2
19. lim
x →∞ e x − 7x 3
x 4x 3 + 5x 2 + 2
20. lim
x →−∞ e x − 7x 3
"1 sin1x2 1
2 $ $ 2
x x2 x
103
Sign Diagrams f 1x2 !

x"4
have vertical asymptotes at
1x # 22 11 " x2
˛
In order to calculate the limits at vertical asymptotes, x ! "2 and x ! 1, but the limits are:
it is necessary to know where the function is positive
and negative. The key is this: A continuous function x − 4
lim = ∞
cannot switch between positive and negative without x →−2 − (x + 2)(1 − x)
being zero or undefined. Functions are zero when the
top is zero and the bottom is NOT zero, and undefined x − 4
lim = −∞
where the denominator is zero. Mark all of these points x →−2 + (x + 2)(1 − x)
on a number line. Between these points, the function
x − 4
must be entirely positive or negative. This can be lim = −∞
x →1− (x + 2)(1 − x)
found by testing any point in each interval.
x"4
For example, consider f 1x2 ! x − 4
1x # 2211 " x2 . lim+ = ∞
˛
x →1 (x + 2)(1 − x)
This function is zero at x ! 4 and undefined at both
x ! "2 and x ! 1. We mark these on a number line
As before, we can calculate the limits at infinity:
(see Figure 13.5).
In between x ! "2 and x ! 1, the function is x − 4 x − 4
lim
x →∞ ( x
= xlim = 0
either always positive or always negative. To find out + 2)(1 − x) →∞ − x 2 − x + 2
which it is, we test a point between "2 and 1, such as

"4 x − 4
0. Because f 102 ! ! "2 is negative, the func- lim
x →−∞ ( x
= 0
˛
2112 + 2)(1 − x)
tion is always negative between "2 and 1. Similarly,
Note: We do not use a sign diagram when determining
we check a point between 1 and 4, such as
"2 1 horizontal asymptotes.
f 122 ! ! ; a point after 4, such as
41"12 2
˛
Thus, f 1x2 has a horizontal asymptote of y ! 0.

1 1
˛
f 152 ! ! " ; and a point before "2, such

71"42 28 With all of this, we begin to get a picture of
˛
"7 7 x"4
as f 1"32 ! ! . The sign diagram for this f 1x2 ! , which can be seen in
1x # 22 11 " x2
˛
"1142 4
˛
function is shown in Figure 13.6. Figure 13.7.

This makes calculating the limits at the
vertical asymptotes very easy. Not only does
–2 1 4
Figure 13.5
f(x)
+ - + -
–2 1 4
Figure 13.6
104
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
Figure 13.7
Notice that the horizontal asymptote y ! 0 is x#2

21. f 1x2 !
approached from above as x → −∞ , because f 1x2 is x"4
˛
always positive when x % "2. At the other end, the x"3

22. g1x2 !
asymptote is approached from below as x → ∞ x2 " 4
because the function is negative when x & 4. x2 " 1
23. h1x2 !
We shall deal with graphing more thoroughly in 1x # 32 2
the next lesson. 2x # 1
24. k1x2 ! 2
x " 4x # 3
−1
Practice 25. j(x) =
(x + 1)(x + 5)
2
For questions 21 through 26, determine all asymptotes, 26. m(x) = x6

vertical and horizontal, of the following functions. (x 2 + 9)(x + 1)(x + 2)2
Also, make a sign diagram for each.
105
x2 " 1
29. lim !
xS "3 1x # 32 2
Remember, x2 + a2 ≠ (x – a)(x + a).
x#1
30. lim! 2
xS3 x " 4x # 3
Evaluate the following limits.
31. −1
lim
x#2 x → −5 + (x + 1)(x + 5)
2
27. lim"
xS4 x"4
32. lim x6
x"3 x → −2 ( x 2 + 9)( x + 1)( x + 2)2
28. lim!
xS2 x2 " 4
106
14
L E S S O N
USING CALCULUS
TO GRAPH
H
ere is where everything comes together! We know how to find the domain, how to identify asymp-
totes, and how to plot points. With the help of the sign diagrams from the previous lesson, we shall
be able to tell where a function is increasing and decreasing, and where it is concave up and down.
Quite simply, where the derivative is positive, the function is increasing. The derivative gives the slope
of the tangent line at a point, and when this is positive, the function is heading upward, viewed from left to
right. When the derivative is negative, the function slopes downward and decreases.
When the second derivative is positive, the function is concave up. This is because the second deriva-
tive says how the first derivative is changing. If the second derivative is positive, then the slopes are increas-
ing. If the slopes, from left to right, increase from –2, to –1, to 0, to 1, to 2, and so on, then the graph must
curve like the one in Figure 14.1. In other words, the curve must be concave up.
Similarly, if the second derivative is negative, the function curves downward like the one in Figure 14.2
and is concave down.
107
– USING CALCULUS TO GRAPH –
If f 1x2 is decreasing and concave down (thus,

˛
both f ¿1x2 and f –1x2 are negative), then the graph

has the shape shown in Figure 14.5.
slope = –2 slope = 2
slope = –1 + =
slope = 1 decreasing concave down
Figure 14.5
slope = 0
Figure 14.1
If f 1x2 is decreasing and concave up (thus, f ′(x)
˛
is negative and f ″(x) is positive), the graph has the

shape of the one in Figure 14.6.
+ =
Figure 14.2 decreasing concave up
Figure 14.6
The concavity governs the shape of the graph,
depending on whether the function f 1x2 is increasing
Example
˛
or decreasing. If f 1x2 is increasing and concave up

Graph f 1x2 ! x3 # 6x2 " 15x # 10 .
˛
(thus, both f ¿1x2 and f –1x2 are positive), then the

˛
graph has the shape shown in Figure 14.3.

Solution
This function is defined everywhere and thus has no
vertical asymptotes. Because lim (x + 6 x − 15 x +
3 2
+ x →∞
=
increasing concave up 10) = ∞ and xlim (x 3 + 6 x 2 − 15 x + 10) = −∞ , there
→−∞
are no horizontal asymptotes.
Figure 14.3
The derivative f ¿1x2 ! 3x2 # 12x " 15 !
31x2 # 4x " 52 ! 31x # 521x " 12 is zero at x !
If f 1x2 is increasing and concave down (thus,
˛
"5 and x ! 1. To form the sign diagram, we test:
f ¿1x2 is positive and f –1x2 is negative), then the f ¿1"62 ! 21 , f ′(0) = –15, and f ¿122 ! 21 . Note:
graph has the shape shown in Figure 14.4. These points were chosen arbitrarily. Any point less
than "5 will give the same information as the value
x ! "6, for instance, and any point between "5
+ = and "1 will give the same information as the value at
increasing concave down x ! 0. Thus, the sign diagram for f ¿1x2 is shown in
Figure 14.7.
Figure 14.4
108
INCREASING OR DECREASING
Remember, the sign of f ′(x) determines whether f (x) is increasing or decreasing.

Note: We use f ′(x) to see if the graph is increasing or decreasing, but f (x) to find the y-value at a point.
f '(x)
+ – +
f(x) –5 1
increasing decreasing increasing
Figure 14.7
Because the function increases up to x ! "5 and A guideline for identifying local minimum and
then decreases immediately afterward, there is a local maximum points is shown in Figure 14.8.
maximum at x ! "5. The corresponding y-value is The second derivative is f –1x2 ! 6x + 12 =
y ! f 1"52 ! 110 . Thus, ("5,110) is a local maxi-
˛
6(x + 2), which is zero at x ! "2. If we test the sign at
mum. Similarly, because the graph goes down to x ! x ! "3 and x ! 0, we get f –1"32 ! "6 and
1 and then goes up afterward, there is a local minimum f –102 ! 12 . Thus, the sign diagram for f –1x2 is as
at x ! 1. The corresponding y-value is f 112 ! 2 , so
˛
shown in Figure 14.9.
(1,2) is a local minimum.
local maximum decreasing increasing
increasing decreasing local minimum
Figure 14.8
f "(x) – +
f (x) –2
concave down concave up
Figure 14.9
109
Clearly x ! "2 is a point of inflection, because Example

this is where the concavity switches from concave x#3
Graph g1x2 ! .
down to concave up. The y-value of this point is x"2
f 1"22 ! 56 .
˛
Solution
Before we draw the axes for the Cartesian plane,
The domain is x $ 2 . There is a vertical asymptote at x
we should consider the three interesting points we
! 2. The sign diagram for g1x2 is shown in Figure 14.11.
have found: the local maximum at ("5,110), the local
minimum at (1,2), and the point of inflection at x + 3 x + 3
Thus, lim− = − ∞ and lim+ = ∞.
("2,56). If our x-axis runs from x ! "10 to x ! 10, x − 2
x →2 x → 2 x − 2
and our y-axis runs from 0 to 120, then all of these x + 3 x + 3
Because xlim
→∞ x − 2
= 1 and lim = 1,
points can be plotted on our graph (see Figure 14.10). x →−∞ x − 2
g(x) + - +
above x-axis –3 below x-axis 2 above x-axis
Figure 14.11
y
120
(–5,110)
110
100
90
80
70 3 2
f(x) = x + 6x – 15x + 10
60
(–2,56) 50
40
30
20
(1,2)
10
x
–10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
–5 1
increasing/decreasing
–2
concavity
Figure 14.10
110
there is a horizontal asymptote at y ! 1, both to the 10

The second derivative g–1x2 ! has the
left and to the right. The derivative g¿1x2 ! 1x " 22 3
1 # 1x " 22 " 1 # 1x # 32 "5 sign diagram shown in Figure 14.13.
! has the sign
1x " 22 2 1x " 22 2 g "(x) – +
diagram shown in Figure 14.12.
2

g'(x) – –
Figure 14.13
2
Because we have no points plotted at all, it makes
decreasing decreasing sense to pick one or two to the left and right of the ver-
Figure 14.12 tical asymptote at x ! 2. At x ! 1, g112 ! "4 , so
(1,"4) is a point. At x ! 3, g132 ! 6 , so (3,6) is
another point. At x ! "3, g1"32 ! 0 , so ("3,0) is
Don’t automatically assume that the signs in a sign another nice point to know. Judging by these, it will
diagram will alternate. In fact, they don’t precisely be useful to have both the x- and y-axes run from
when the number on the line comes from a factor "10 to 10.
raised to an even power, like (x – 3)2. To graph g1x2 , it helps to start with the points
and the asymptotes as shown in Figure 14.14.
y
10
9
8
7
(3,6)
6
5
4 x=2
3
2
1 y=1
(–3,0)
x
–10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
–2
–3
(1,–4)
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9
–10
Figure 14.14
111
Then we establish the shapes of the lines through Solution

these points using the concavity and the intervals of x2 # 1 x2 # 1
To start, h1x2 ! ! . Thus,
decrease (see Figure 14.15). x2 " 1 1x # 121x " 12
h1x2 has vertical asymptotes at x ! 1 and x ! "1. The
Example
sign diagram for h1x2 is shown in Figure 14.16.
x2 # 1
Graph h1x2 ! 2 .
x "1
10
9
8
7
6 (3,6)
5
4
x+3 3
g(x) =_____
x–2
2
1
(–3,0)
x
–10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
–2
–3 (1,–4)
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9
–10
increasing/decreasing
concavity 2
Figure 14.15
112
h(x) + – + The second derivative is as follows:
–1 1 "41x2 " 12 2 " 21x2 " 12 # 2x1"4x2

above x-axis below x-axis above x-axis h–1x2 !
1x2 " 12 4
Figure 14.16
"41x2 " 12 " 2 # 2x1"4x2
!
1x2 " 12 3
Note: x2 # 1 can never be zero. The limits at the ver- 12x2 # 4 12x2 # 4
! 2 3 ! .
tical asymptotes are thus: 1x " 12 1x " 12 3 1x # 12 3
x2 + 1
lim − = ∞ The sign diagram is shown in Figure 14.18. It looks like
x →−1 x 2 − 1
there ought to be points of inflection at x ! "1 and x
! 1, but these are asymptotes not in the domain, so
x2 + 1
lim + = −∞ there are no actual points where the concavity changes.
x →−1 x 2 − 1
x2 + 1
lim− = −∞ h"(x) + – +
x →1 x 2 − 1
–1 1
x2 + 1 concave up concave down concave up
lim+ 2 = ∞
x →1 x − 1
Figure 14.18
x2 + 1 x2 + 1
Because lim = 1 and lim = 1,
x →∞ x 2 − 1 x →−∞ x 2 − 1
Before we graph the function, it will be useful to
there is a horizontal asymptote at y ! 1.
have a few more points. When x ! "2, then
The derivative is as follows: 5 5
y ! h1"22 ! and when x ! 2, y ! h122 ! as
2 x(x 2 − 1) − 2 x (x 2 + 1) "4x 3 3
h¿1x2 ! = 2 well. Thus, it will be useful to have the x- and y-axes
(x − 1)
2 2 1x " 12 1x # 12 2
run from about "3 to 3. We start with just the points
Its sign diagram is shown in Figure 14.17. This
and asymptotes (see Figure 14.19).
indicates that there is a local maximum at x ! 0. The Then we add in the actual curves, guided by the
corresponding y-value is y ! h102 ! "1 . concavity and the intervals of increase and decrease
(see Figure 14.20).
h'(x) + + – –
h(x) –1 0 1
increasing increasing decreasing decreasing
Figure 14.17
113
y Practice
3
Use the asymptotes, concavity, and intervals of increase
5
–2,— 2 5
2, — and decrease, and concavity to graph the following
3 3
functions.
1 y=1
1. f 1x2 ! x2 " 30x # 10
˛
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x 2. g1x2 ! "4x " x2

(0,–1)
–1
3. h1x2 ! 2x3 " 3x2 " 36x # 5
x = –1 x=1
–2
4. k1x2 ! 3x " x3
–3
5. f 1x2 ! x4 " 8x3 # 5
˛
Figure 14.19 x
6. g1x2 !
x#2
y 1
7. h1x2 ! 2
3 x +12 x "9
h(x) = ______
x2 – 1 x
8. k1x2 ! 2
5 2 5
2, — x "1
–2,—
3 3
x2 # 1
1 9. j1x2 !
x
x
10. f 1x2 ! 2
x #1
˛
x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1
–2
–3
increasing –1 0 1
decreasing
–1 1
concavity
Figure 14.20
114
15
L E S S O N
OPTIMIZATION
K
nowing the minimum and maximum points of a function is useful for graphing and even more for
solving real-life problems. Businesses want to maximize their profits, builders want to minimize their
costs, drivers want to minimize distances, and people want to get the most for their money. If we can
represent a situation with a function, then the derivative will help find optimal points.
If the derivative is zero or undefined at exactly one point, then this is very likely to be the optimal point.
The first derivative test states that if the function increases before that point and decreases afterward, it is max-
imal (see Figure 15.1). Similarly, if the function decreases before the point and increases afterward, then the
point is minimal.
The second derivative test states that if the second derivative is positive, then the function curves up, so
a point of slope zero must be a minimum (see Figure 15.2). Similarly, if the second derivative is negative, the
point of slope zero must be the highest point on the graph. Remember that we are assuming that only one
point has slope zero or an undefined derivative.
If there are several points of slope zero and the function has a closed interval for a domain, then plug
all the critical points (points of slope zero, points of undefined derivative, and the two endpoints of the inter-
val) into the original function. The point with the highest y-value will be the absolute maximum, and the one
with the smallest y-value will be the absolute minimum.
115
– OPTIMIZATION –
slope = 0 decreasing increasing
MIN
MAX
increasing decreasing slope = 0

Figure 15.1
slope = 0
MIN
MAX
slope = 0
Figure 15.2
Example These are evaluated as follows: P112 ! "34 ,

A manager calculates that when x employees are work- P122 ! "44 , P182 ! 64 , and P1102 ! 20 . If the
ing at the same time, the store makes a profit of manager wants to maximize the store profit, eight
P1x2 ! 15x2 " 48x " x3 dollars each hour. If there employees should be scheduled at the same time,
are ten employees and at least one must be working at because this will result in a maximal profit of $64
any given time, how many employees should be sched- each hour.
uled to maximize profit?
Example
Solution A coffee shop owner calculates that if she sells cookies
This is an instance of a function defined on a closed 200
at $p each, she will sell 2 cookies each day. If it costs
interval because 1 $ x $ 10 limits the options for x. p
her 20¢ to make each cookie, what price p will give her
The derivative of the profit function is P¿1x2
the greatest profit?
! 30x " 48 " 3x2 = "31x2 " 10x # 162 = –3(x –
2)(x – 8). Thus, the derivative is zero at x ! 2 and
at x ! 8. Solution
Because the function is defined on a closed inter- Profit is computed as: Profit ! Revenue " Costs. If she
val, we cannot use the first or second derivative tests. charges $p per cookie, then she’ll make and sell
Instead, we evaluate f(x) at each of our critical points. 200
cookies each day. Thus, her revenue will be
These are the points of slope zero, x ! 2 and x ! 8, plus p2
the endpoints of the interval, namely x ! 1 and x ! 10.
116
200 # 200 Example

a 2 b p ! p and her costs will be At $1 per cup of coffee, a vendor sells 500 cups a day.
p
200 # 40
When the price is increased to $1.10, the vendor sells
a 2 b 10.202 = p . Therefore, her profit function is only 480 cups. If every 1¢ increase in price reduces the
2
p
200 40 sales by two cups, what price per cup of coffee will
P ( p) = − 2 . We limit this to p % 0.20 maximize income?
p p
because the only optimal situation would be when the
cookies were sold for more than it cost to make them. Solution
200 80 Here, the income is Income ! Price & Cups Sold. So
The derivative is P ′(p) = − 2 + 3 , which is
p p if x ! the number of pennies by which the price is
80 200
zero when 3 ! 2 and therefore 80p2 ! 200p3 , so increased, then I (x) = (1 + 0.01x ) ⋅ (500 − 2 x ) . This
p p
80 simplifies to I (x) = 500 + 3x − 0.02 x 2. And, the deriva-
either p ! 0 or p ! ! 0.40. Because p ! 0 is not
200 tive is I ′(x) = 3 − 0.04 x . This is zero only when
3
in the domain, the only place where the derivative is x! ! 75 . The second derivative is
0.04
zero is at p ! 0.40. I ′′(x) = −0.04 , which is always negative, so x ! 75 is
Using the first derivative test, we see that maximal by the second derivative test. Thus, the max-
P ′(0.30) = 740 and P ′(0.50) = −160 . So the sign dia- imal income will occur when the price is raised by x !
gram for P ′ is as shown in Figure 15.3. Thus, the
75¢ to $1.75 per cup.
absolute maximal profit occurs when the cookies are
sold at 40¢ each.
P!(p)
+ –
0.40
increasing decreasing
Figure 15.3
117
Example Example
A farmer wants to build a rectangular pen with 80 feet A manufacturer needs to design a crate with a square
of fencing. The pen will be built against the side of a bottom and no top. It must hold exactly 32 cubic feet
barn, so one side won’t need a fence. What dimensions of shredded paper. What dimensions will minimize the
will maximize the area of the pen? See Figure 15.4. material needed to make the crate (the surface area)?
See Figure 15.5.
barn wall
y pen y
y
x
(overhead view)
Figure 15.4
Solution
The area of the pen is Area ! x # y . We can’t take the
derivative yet because there are two variables. We need x
to use the additional information regarding how much
fencing exists; there are 80 feet of fencing. Because no
fencing will be required against the barn wall, the total x
lengths of the fence will be y # x # y ! 80 , thus Figure 15.5
x ! 80 " 2y . We can plug this into the formula for
area in order to obtain Area ! x # y ! 180 " 2y2 # y .
Now we have a function of one variable Solution
A(y ) = 80 y − 2 y 2. The derivative is A ′(y ) = 80 − 4 y . We want to minimize the surface area of the crate. The
This is zero only when y ! 20. Using the second deriv- surface area of the box consists of four sides, each of area
ative test, A ′′(y ) = −4 . So, the curve is concave down x # y, plus the bottom, with an area of x # x ! x2. Thus,
and the point y ! 20 is the absolute maximum. The the surface area is Area ! 4xy # x2. Again, we need to
corresponding x-value is x ! 80 " 2y ! 80 " 21202 reduce this to a formula with only one variable in
!40 . Therefore, the pen with the maximal area will be order to differentiate. We know that the volume must
x ! 40 feet wide (along the barn) and y ! 20 feet out be 32 cubic feet, so Volume ! x2y ! 32 . Thus,
32
from the barn wall. y ! 2 . When we plug this into the surface area func-
x
tion, we get:
⎛ 32 ⎞ 128
Surface Area = 4 xy + x 2 = 4 x ⎜ 2 ⎟ + x 2 = + x2.
⎝x ⎠ x
128
So, we have a function of one variable A(x) = + x2 .
x
118
The derivative is: 4. A garden has 200 pounds of watermelons

128 growing in it. Every day, the total amount of
A ′(x) = − + 2x . watermelon increases by 5 pounds. At the same
x2
time, the price per pound of watermelon goes
which is zero when
down by 1¢. If the current price is 90¢ per
128
" # 2x ! 0 or x3 ! 64 , so x ! 4. pound, how much longer should the
x2
watermelons grow in order to fetch the highest
price possible?
The second derivative is:
256
A ′′(x) = + 2, 5. A farmer has 400 feet of fencing to make three
x3
which is positive when x ! 4. So, the curve is concave rectangular pens. What dimensions x and y will
up and the sole point of slope zero is the absolute min- maximize the total area?
imum. Thus, the surface area of the crate will be min-
32 32
imized if x ! 4 feet and y ! 2 ! 2 ! 2 feet.
x 4
Practice y
1. Suppose a company makes a profit of P(x) =

1, 000 5, 000
− + 100 dollars when it makes
x x2
and sells x % 0 items. How many items should
it make to maximize profit? x
2. When 30 orange trees are planted on an acre,

each will produce 500 oranges a year. For every 6. Four rectangular pens will be built along a
additional orange tree planted, each tree will river by using 150 feet of fencing. What
produce 10 fewer oranges. How many trees dimensions will maximize the area of the pens?
should be planted to maximize the yield?
river (no fence needed)
3. An artist can sell 20 copies of a painting at
$100 each, but for each additional copy she
makes, the value of each painting will go down
y
by a dollar. Thus, if 22 copies are made, each
will sell for $98. How many copies should she
make to maximize her sales? x
119
7. The surface area of a can is Area = 2πr2 + 2πrh, 10. A printed page will have a total area of 96
where the height is h and the radius is r. The square inches. The top and bottom margins
volume is Volume = πr2h. What dimensions will be 1 inch each, and the left and right
minimize the surface area of a can with volume 3
margins will be 2 inches each. What overall
16π cubic inches?
dimensions for the page will maximize the area
of the space inside the margins?
r
1 in.
h
3
__ 3
__
2 in. 2 in.
printed
y
area
8. A painter has enough paint to cover 600 square

feet of area. What is the largest square-bottom
box that could be painted (including the top,
1 in.
bottom, and all sides)?
x
9. A box with a square bottom will be built to
contain 40,000 cubic feet of grain. The sides of
the box cost 10¢ per square foot to build, the
roof costs $1 per square foot to build, and the
bottom will cost $7 per square foot to build.
What dimensions will minimize the building
costs?
120
16
L E S S O N
THE INTEGRAL
AND AREAS
UNDER CURVES
A
round the same time that many great mathematicians focused on figuring out the slopes of tangent
lines, other mathematicians were working on an entirely different problem. They wanted to be able
to compute the area underneath any curve y ! f 1x2 , such as the one shown in Figure 16.1.
˛
y = f(x)
What is this area?
x
a b
Figure 16.1
121
– THE INTEGRAL AND AREAS UNDER CURVES –
The curvy nature of the upper curve y = f(x) we shall take is to approximate the region using better
presents a problem when finding area. But we know and better rectangular staircases, as follows.
how to find areas of rectangles. Therefore, the approach
Area of rectangular staircase

Number of Rectangles Diagram (Dashed Portion of the Region)
1
y
Area = f{(5) ⋅ {
4
y = f(x) height base
Bad approximation of the area of
1 5 x the original region.
2 y (3) ⋅ {
Area = f{ 2 + f{
(5) ⋅ {
2
y = f(x) height base height base
Better approximation than with
x
1 rectangle, but not great.
1 3 5
4 Area = f (2) ⋅ 1 + f (3) ⋅ 1

y { { { {
height base height base
y = f(x)
+ f{
(4) ⋅ {
1 + f{
(5) ⋅ {
1
x height base height base
12345
Even better approximation.
Figure 16.2
If we keep using more rectangles to dissect the original ure 16.3). This region happens to be a triangle with a
region, the rectangles gobble up more of the region, height of 2 and a base of 4. The area of the triangle is
!
4
and so the approximation to the actual area is better. 1 1
122142 ! 4 . Thus, x dx ! 4 .
The number to which these approximate areas get 2 0
2
close as we do so is called the integral of f on [a,b], and
! f(x)dx .
b
is denoted
a y
Note: The “elongated S” symbol (called the integral

!
sign), , is used because the process involves a sum. 4
The integrand f (x)dx resembles the form of what we

are adding, namely height × base. The dx portion 3
doesn’t actually enter into the computation, though. y = _12 x
2
Example
! 12x dx .
4
Evaluate the integral 1
0
Solution
1 x
This represents the area between the curve y ! x , 1 2 3 4 5
2
the x-axis, the line x ! 0, and the line x ! 4 (see Fig- Figure 16.3
122
If the region is below the x-axis, the area is y
! f(x)dx repre-
b
counted negatively. Therefore, really
a 3
sents “the area between the curve y ! f 1x2 , the x-axis,
˛
y = f(x)
x ! a, and x ! b, where area below the x-axis is
2
counted negatively.”
Example 1
! f(x)dx, ! f(x)dx, ! f(x)dx,

3 4 6
Evaluate the integrals
1 1 1
! f(x)dx where the graph of y ! f 1x2 is shown

3
x
and
1 2 3 4
˛
1
in Figure 16.4.
Figure 16.5
! f(x)d = 2(2) + 21 . (1) . 2 = 5 because this area

3 4
y = f(x) Next,
2 1
is a square plus a triangle (see Figure 16.6).
1
y
x
–2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
–1 3
–2
y = f(x)
–3 2
–4
1
Figure 16.4
Solution x
! f(x)dx = 2(2) = 4 because this area is a square

3
First, 1 2 3 4
1
above the x-axis (see Figure 16.5).
Figure 16.6
! f(x)dx, we must calculate how much area is

6
For
1
above the x-axis and how much is below (see Figure
16.7).
123
y Practice
3
y = f(x)
2 Evaluate the following integrals.
5 square units of area
1 above the x-axis
Use the following graph to solve practice problems 1,
2, and 3.
x
–2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
–1
y
–2
4 square units of 3
–3 area below the x-axis
y = f(x)
–4 2
Figure 16.7
1
There are 5 units of area above the x-axis and 4 units
! f(x)dx = 5 – 4 = 1.
6 x
below, so 1 2 3 4 5
1
! f(x)dx represents a rectangle of area

7
Finally,
! ! ! f(x)dx
2 1 2
6
1. f(x)dx 2. f(x)dx 3.
! f(x)dx =
6
1 0 0
4 that is entirely below the x-axis. Thus,
1 Use the following graph to solve practice problems 4,
(–4)(1) = –4 (see Figure 16.8).
5, and 6.
y
y
3
y = f(x) 3
2 y = g(x)
1 2
6 7
x 1
–2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2 x
1 2 3 4 5 6
–3
–4
! ! ! g(x)dx
4 6 6
Figure 16.8
4. g(x)dx 5. g(x)dx 6.
0 4 0
124
Use the following graph to solve practice problems 7, You might have noticed that:
8, and 9.
! f(x)dx + ! f(x)dx = ! f(x)dx
b c c
y = h(t) a b a
1
The area between a and c is the area from a to b plus
the area from b to c, assuming, of course, that
t
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 a " b " c (see Figure 16.9).
–1
y
–2
y = f(x)
! ! ! h(t)dt
6 4 6
7. h(t)dt 8. h(t)dt 9.
–1 –1 4
Use the following graph to solve practice problems 10

through 12.
2
y = k(x)
x
1 a b c
Figure 16.9
x
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
! ! ! f(x)dx.
–1 c c b
Similarly, f(x)dx – f(x)dx =
–2 a b a
We can use these to perform calculations, even when

the exact functions are unknown.
! k(x)dx ! k(x)dx ! k(x)dx

7 6 5
Example
10. 11. 12.
! !
5 10
0 4 4
If f(x)dx = 7 and f(x)dx = 15, then what is
3 3
!
10
For questions 13 through 18, compute the integral.
f(x)dx?
3
! ! ! (t – 3)dt
4 4 5
13. (x + 2)dx 14. 2dx 15. Solution
0 1 1
! ! !
10 5 10
f(x)dx = f(x)dx + f(x)dx
! xdx ! 2xdx ! (2x – 2)dx

5 6 8 3 3 3
16. 17. 18. = 7 + 15 = 22
–2 1 0
125
Example
! g(t)dt = –3,
14
For questions 22 through 24, suppose
! !
10 10
1
If g(x)dx = 38 and g(x)dx = –12, then what is
! g(t)dt = 8, and ! g(t)dt = –10. Evaluate the
14 5
0 8
! g(x)dx ?
8
10 1
0
following.
! ! ! g(t)dt
14 10 10
Solution
22. g(t)dt 23. g(t)dt 24.
! g(x)dx = ! !
8 10 10
5 1 5
g(x)dx – g(x)dx
!
11
0 0 8
For questions 25 through 27, suppose h(x)dx = 20,
= 38 – (–12) = 50 –2
! !
1 10
h(x)dx = 12, and h(x)dx = –5. Evaluate the
–2 –2
following.
Practice
! ! !
11 10 11
25. h(x)dx 26. h(x)dx 27. h(x)dx
!
6
For questions 19 through 21, suppose f(x)dx , 1 1 10
! j(x)dx = 2,
0 0
For questions 28 through 30, suppose
! f(x)dx , and ! f(x)dx . Evaluate the following.
7 11
–1
! j(x)dx = 3, ! j(x)dx = –4, and ! j(x)dx = 12.

6 6 1 2 3
0 1 –1
! ! !
7 11 11
19. f(x)dx 20. f(x)dx 21. f(x)dx Evaluate the following.
0 6 0
! j(x)dx ! j(x)dx ! j(x)dx

3 2 2
28. 29. 30.
2 0 –1
126
17
L E S S O N
THE FUNDAMENTAL
THEOREM OF
CALCULUS
H
ere comes the resounding climax of calculus. It would be best to read this lesson with some bombastic
orchestral music like that of Wagner or Orff! The initial question here is innocent enough: If we make
a function using that “area under a curve” stuff, what would its derivative be? To make this precise,
suppose that our curve is y ! f1t2 (see Figure 17.1). We use the variable t in order to save x for something
else later.
y
y = f(t)
Figure 17.1
127
– THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS –
Now let our “area under the curve function” be y

g1x2 ! the area under the curve y ! f 1t2 between 0 ˛
(3,6)
6
! f 1t2 dt . This
x
and some point x. That is, g1x2 ! ˛
0 5
area is illustrated in Figure 17.2.
4
y 3 y = f(t) = 2t
2
y = f(t)
1
t
–1 1 2 3 4 5
–1
This area is
g(x) Figure 17.3
Practice
t
x For questions 1 through 6, suppose f (t ) = 3t + 1 and
! f 1t2 dt . Evaluate the following.

x
Figure 17.2
g1x2 ! ˛
Example (Hint: The area of a trapezoid with bases b1 and b2 and
! f 1t2 dt , then what is g(3)?

x
1
If f 1t2 ! 2t and g1x2 ! height h is A = h(b1 + b2 ) .
2
˛ ˛
Solution 1. g102
! f 1t2 dt ! ! 2t dt
3 3
g132 ! ˛ ! the area beneath the 2. g112
0 0
curve y ! 2t from 0 to 3. The graph of f (t) ! 2t
3. g122
and the region are shown in Figure 17.3. This region
is a triangle with base 3 and height 6, so
4. g132
!
3
1
g132 ! 2t dt ! 132162 ! 9 .
0
2
5. g142
6. g152
128
For questions 7 through 12, suppose f 1t2 ! 7 and ˛

y
! f 1t2 dt . Evaluate the following.

x
g1x2 !
y = f(t)
˛
7. g102 (x, f(x))
8. g112 x+h
f(t) dt
x
9. g122
10. g132
t
11. g142 x x +h
Figure 17.4
12. g152
! f 1t2 dt , we
x
Now that you are familiar with g1x2 ! ˛
!
x"h
0
can answer the next question: What is the derivative of Now the integral f 1t2 dt represents the
˛
x
g1x2 ? skinny little area just to the right of point x (see Figure
17.4). This is almost a rectangle with a base of h and a
Begin with the definition of the derivative.
!
x"h
height of f 1x2 , so the integral f 1t2 dt is almost
g1x " h2 # g1x2
˛ ˛
x
h # f 1x2 . As h goes to zero, this approximation gets
g¿1x2 ! lim
hS0 h ˛
better. Therefore,
! f 1t2 dt .
x
Use g1x2 !
!
˛
x"h
0 f 1t2 dt
˛
!
x"h
! f 1t2 dt
x x
f 1t2 dt # g¿1x2 ! lim
˛ ˛
hS0 h
0 0
g¿1x2 ! lim
hS0 h h # f 1x2
˛
! lim ! lim f 1x2 ! f 1x2

h
˛ ˛
hS0 hS0
! f 1t2 dt # ! f 1t2 dt ! ! f 1t2 dt .

c b c
Use
˛ ˛
˛ ˛ ˛
a a b
!
x"h
f 1t2 dt
˛
x
g¿1x2 ! lim
hS0 h
129
THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus can be written as follows:
! ! ! f(x)dx = g(b) – g(a), where g′(x) = f (x)

b b a
f(x)dx = f(x)dx –
a 0 0
What does this mean? It means that the deriva- Solution

tive of the function g1x2 , which represents “the area By the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus,
under the curve from 0 to x,” is the very function f 1x2 ˛
! f 1x2 dx ! g1b2 # g1a2 , where g¿1x2 ! f 1x2 . Thus,

b
used to draw the curve. It came as an amazing surprise ˛ ˛
to the world of mathematics that the process of find- a
! x dx ! g122 # g1#12
2
ing the slope of a tangent line and the process of find- 2
ing the area under a curve were such inverses. In order #1
to find the area under a curve y ! f 1x2 , we need to 1 1 8 1
! 122 3 # 1#12 3 ! " ! 3 .
˛
find a function g1x2 whose derivative is f 1x2 . ˛

3 3 3 3
! f 1x2 dx using the

b
We can use this to evaluate ˛
Even if we had drawn out the graph of y ! x2,
a how would we have been able to guess that the area of
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. the two shaded curves add up to exactly three? This is
For example, the derivative of g1x2 ! x2 is why the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is so
g¿1x2 ! 2x . Thus, the area under f 1x2 ! 2x between powerful! (See Figure 17.5.)
! 2x dx ! g152 # g132 !
5
x ! 3 and x ! 5 is
3 y
52 # 32 ! 16 . This is exactly the area of the trapezoid 4
2
under the line y ! 2x between x ! 3 and x ! 5. y=x
3
Example
2
1
The derivative of g1x2 ! x3 is g¿1x2 ! x2 . Use this
3
1
!
2
to evaluate x2 dx .
#1
x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1
Figure 17.5
130
Example d 2 32
For questions 17 through 20, use a x b ! 2x to
dx 3
If g1x2 ! x4 , then g¿1x2 ! 4x3. Use this to evaluate evaluate the following.
! 4x dx.
1
3
!
1
–1
17. x dx
0
Solution
!
4
18. x dx
!
1
4x3dx = g(1) – g(–1) 0
!
–1 9
4 4
! 1 # 1#12 ! 1 # 1 ! 0 19. x dx
4
!
100
The answer is zero because there is exactly as much
20. x dx
area above the x-axis (which counts positively) as there 0
is below the x-axis (which counts negatively). d
For questions 21 through 24, use (sin(x)) = cos(x)
dx
to evaluate the following.
Practice
π
! cos(x)dx
4
d 2 21.
For questions 13 through 16, use (x + x) = 2 x + 1
dx 0
to evaluate the following. π
! cos(x)dx
2
22.
!
3 π
6
13. (2x + 1)dx π
1
23. ! cos(x)dx
! (2x + 1)dx
1 3π
14. 4
2π
–3
24. ! cos(x)dx
! (2x + 1)dx
6 3π
15. 2
! (2x + 1)dx
4
16.
0
131
18
L E S S O N
ANTIDIFFERENTIATION
! f 1x2 dx , can be calculated

b
T he Fundamental Theorem of Calculus shows that the area under the curve,
using a function g1x2 whose derivative is g¿1x2 ! f 1x2 . Symbolically,
˛
a
˛
! f 1x2 dx ! "g1x2#
b
b
˛
a ! g1b2 # g1a2
a
! , without the limits of integration, is used to represent the opposite of

Because of this, the symbol
taking the derivative. An integral like ! f 1x2 dx is called a definite integral because it represents a definite area.
b
˛
An integral like ! f 1x2 dx is called an indefinite integral because it represents another function.
˛
Thus, ! f 1x2 dx means the antiderivative of f 1x2 or “the function whose derivative is f 1x2 .” For exam-
˛ ˛ ˛
ple, ! 2x dx asks “whose derivative is 2x ?” This could be x because

d2 2
1x 2 ! 2x . However, it could also
dx
1x " 52 ! 2x . In fact, because the derivative of a constant is zero, ! 2x dx could be

2 d 2
be x " 5 because
dx
x plus any constant. Therefore, we write ! 2x dx ! x " c where c is any constant.
2 2
133
BRACKET NOTE
[ ]
b
The brackets K are just a way of keeping track of the limits of integration a and b before they are plugged
a
into g(x) and subtracted.
Solution
We usually simply write ! 2x dx ! x 2
" c with-
Because
d 3
1x " 10x2 " 3x2 ! 3x2 " 20x " 3 , we
out actually saying that c stands for “some constant.” In dx
know that:
many ways, the “plus c” is the trademark of the indef-
inite integral because every problem that begins ! 13x 2
" 20x " 32 dx ! x3 " 10x2 " 3x " c
with ! 1 p .2 dx ends with " c .

If we are dealing with a definite integral like Also,
!
5
2x dx , then it does not matter what constant we
! 13x
2
3
use. For example:
2
" 20x " 32 dx ! "x3 " 10x2 " 3x#21
1
= 1 122 3 " 10 # 122 2 " 3 # 122 2 #

! 2x dx ! "x
5
2
" c#53
3 1 112 3 " 10 # 112 " 3 # 112 2
! 152 " c2 # 132 " c2 = 8 " 40 " 6 # 11 " 10 " 32 ! 54 # 14 ! 40
= 25 + c/ − 9 − c/ = 16
The general process for finding antiderivatives of
The “plus c” will always cancel out in the subtraction. powers is fairly simple. To take the derivative of
As such, we simply use c ! 0 and write: f 1x2 ! x5, we first multiply by the exponent 5, and
˛
then we subtract one from the exponent. Thus,
! 2x dx ! "x #
5
25
! 52 # 32 ! 25 # 9 ! 16 f ¿1x2 ! 5x4 .
3
! 5x dx , we must do the
3 4
To antidifferentiate ˇ
Example exact opposite of this process. First, we add one to the

exponent, and then we divide the result by the new
d 3
Use
dx
1x " 10x2 " 3x2 ! 3x2 " 20x " 3 to
exponent. Thus, 5x4dx !
5x4"1
4"1 ! " c ! x5 " c . In
ˇ
evaluate ! 13x
2
" 20x " 32 dx and general, we write:
! ! xn"1
2
13x2 " 20x " 32 dx . xndx ! " c if n $ #1
n"1
ˇ
134
VERIFICATION HINT
You can verify your answer by taking its derivative. If the derivative of your answer is what you were trying to
integrate, then you are correct.
3 ⎛ 3 ⎞ 1 1
2 2 d 2 2 2 3 2
The derivative of x + c is ⎜ x + c ⎟ = ⋅ x + 0 = x 2 = x . This verifies that
3 dx ⎜⎝ 3 ⎟
⎠ 3 2
!
3
2 2
xdx = x + c.
3
Example Solution
Evaluate ! x dx. 7 2
!
2
⎡1 ⎤
x dx = ⎢ x 4 ⎥
3
0 ⎣ 4 ⎦0
Solution
1 4 1 4
= ⋅2 − ⋅0
! x dx =
7 x7 + 1
7 + 1
1
+ c = x8 + c
8
4
1#
4
16 # # 0 ! 4 # 0 ! 4
1
!
4 4
Example
Evaluate ! xdx
Practice
Solution Evaluate the following integrals.
! ! x dx
1
xdx =
!x dx
2
1. 4
1 3
x 2 "1 x2 2 3
" c ! 3 " c ! x2 " c
!x
! 1
2 " 1 2
3 2. 12dx
Example 3. !u du 6
! x dx.
2
Evaluate 3
! x dx
1
0
4. 5
–1
! xdx
9
5.
–1
6. !t –3dt
ADDITION AND CONSTANT
135
RULES
! cf (x )dx = c ! f (x )dx, ! (f (x ) + g(x ))dx = ! f (x )dx + ! g(x )dx

b b b b b
a a a a a
Solution
!
–1
7. t–2dt
!(2t ! ! ! 7dt
–4
3
− 8t + 7)dt = 2 t 3dt − 8 tdt +
!x dx
5
8.
3
1 4 1
= 2 ⋅ t − 8 ⋅ t 2 + 7t + c
9. ! x dx4 4 2
1 4
= t − 4t 2 + 7t + c
10. ! udu
3
2
Example
11. !5dx
! ⎛⎜⎝ 6
4
8⎞
Evaluate x − ⎟ dx .
1 x5 ⎠
12. ! 8dx
4
–1 Solution
Just as with derivatives, constants can stand aside, It always helps to first write everything in exponential
and the terms of sums can be dealt with separately. form.
! ! (6x
4 4
⎛ 8⎞ 1
⎜ 6 x − 5 ⎟ dx =
2
− 8 x −5 ) dx
Example 1 ⎝ x ⎠ 1
!
Evaluate 5 x 2dx . ⎡ ⎛2 3⎞ ⎛ x −4 ⎞ ⎤
= ⎢6 ⋅ ⎜ x 2 ⎟ − 8⎜
4
⎟⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝3 ⎠ ⎝ −4 ⎠ ⎥⎦
1
Solution ⎡ 3
4
2⎤
= ⎢4 x 2 + 4 ⎥
!5x dx = 5 ! x dx = 5⎛⎜⎝ 13 x
2 2 3 ⎞ 5
+c⎟ = x3 +c
⎠ 3 ⎢⎣ x ⎦⎥
1
⎛ 2 ⎞ ⎛ 2⎞
= ⎜ 4(8) + ⎟ − ⎜4 + ⎟
Example ⎝ 256 ⎠ ⎝ 1⎠
!
Evaluate (2t 3 − 8t + 7)dt . = 26 +
1
128
=
3, 329
128
136
– ANTIDIFFERENTIATION –
Practice The antiderivatives of ex , sin1x2 , and cos1x2

follow directly from their derivatives:
Evaluate the following integrals.
13. ! 9x dx 4 !e dx = e
x x
+ c because
d x
dx
1e 2 ! ex
14. !8u du 2
! cos(x)dx = sin(x) + c because
15. !( x − x ) dx
d
3 1sin1x2 2 ! cos1x2
dx
16. ! (6 x − 10 x + 5)dx
! (10u
2 2
4
− 4u + 1) du because
0
! 12x dx
2
d
17. 3
1#cos1x2 2 ! sin1x2
0
dx
! (3x
2
18. 2
+ 4) dx The integral of ln1x2 will have to wait until Les-
1
d 1
son 20, though we can use the fact that 1ln1x2 2 !
19. !(3t 11
+ 9t 2 + t ) dt
dx x
right now. We are inclined to say that x dx =

1
!
! (1 − t ) dt
3
20. 2
ln(x) + c , but this is not entirely correct. The
0
d 1 # d
! (2t )
−3 −2
derivative of ln1#x2 is 1ln1#x2 2 ! 1#x2
21. − 4t − t dt dx #x dx
1
= ⋅ (−1) = 1 as well. It does not matter if the
−x
! (10u
2 x
22. 4
− 4u + 1) du x inside the natural logarithm is positive or negative, so
0
we can generalize with the absolute value |x|.
! 12
9
23.
1
xdx
! x1 dx = ln x + c
!
10 4
24. (3x − 8 x )dx

3 7
Incidentally, this nicely fills a hole in an earlier

formula:
!x dx =
n xn + 1
n + 1
+ c if n $ #1
137
– ANTIDIFFERENTIATION –
and if n ! #1 then Practice
!x −1
dx = ! x1 dx = ln x + c Evaluate the following integrals.
Example 25. !(x − 5 cos(x))dx

2
!
Evaluate (3 sin(x) + 5 cos(x))dx . 26. !(3e + 2 x )dxx 3
27. ! 2 du
e3
Solution u
e
!(3 sin(x) + 5 cos(x))dx = 28. !(θ + 2 sin(θ))dθ

#3cos1x2 " 5sin1x2 " c
29. !(5 sin(x) + 2e ) dx x
Example
30. ! (x + e ) dx
1
x
! (3t
1
Evaluate 2
− 5e ) dt .
t
0
!
0 ln(3)
31. 4e xdx
ln(2)
Solution
5π
! (3t
1
2
− 5e t ) dt = [t 3 − 5e t ]10
32. !
π
6
2
8 cos(x)dx
0
= (13 − 5e1) − (0 3 − 5e 0 )
= 1 − 5e + 5 = 6 − 5e
Example
Evaluate ! ⎛⎜⎝ x 2
+ x + 1 +
1
x
1⎞
+ 2 ⎟ dx .
x ⎠
Solution
! ⎛⎜⎝ x + x + 1 + x1 +
2 1⎞
⎟ dx =
x2 ⎠
! (x + x + x + x
2 1 0 −1
)
+ x −2 dx
1 3 1 2
= x + x + x 1 + ln x − x −1 + c
3 2
1 1 2 1
= x3 + x + x + ln x − + c
3 2 x
138
19
L E S S O N
INTEGRATION BY
SUBSTITUTION
T
he opposite of the Chain Rule is an integration technique called substitution. Using the Chain Rule,
1813x2 " 72 5 2 ! 8 # 513x2 " 72 4 # 6x !
d
for example, the derivative of 813x2 " 72 5 is
dx
240 x(3x 2 + 7) 4 . The corresponding antiderivative is thus ! 240x13x 2

" 72 4 dx ! 813x2 " 72 5 " c . It is easy
to recognize this after seeing the derivative worked out, but how should we know this otherwise?
The mantra of the Chain Rule is “multiply by the derivative of the inside.” So the first step to undoing
it is to identify what “the inside” must have been. We substitute a new variable u for this and then try to rewrite
the whole integral in terms of u.
!
For example, when confronted by 240x13x2 " 72 4 dx , we first notice that if we multiplied out the
fourth power, then it would be a polynomial that we know how to evaluate, but doing so would be very tire-
some! Instead, we guess that “the inside” is the stuff inside the parentheses, and substitute u ! 3x2 " 7 .
139
– INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION –
To convert the integral entirely in terms of u, we dx with the expression involving du, then try using
must actually get a du into the integrand. Because u = something else as u. Sometimes, the entire denomina-
3x2 + 7, we know that du = 6x, so du = 6xdx, or equi- tor can be used as u. Sometimes, nothing works and a
dx different technique must be tried.
alently, dx = du . So what? The steps below will illus-
6x Example
trate why this is so useful.
Evaluate ! x sin1x 2 dx .
2 3
Start with the original integral.
! 240x13x 2
" 72 4 dx Solution
If we use the stuff inside the only set of parentheses,
du
du then u ! x3 , and thus du ! 3x2 dx and dx ! 2 .
Substitute u ! 3x2 " 7 and dx ! . 3x
6x
! 240x1u2 du
6x
4 Start with the original integral.
! x sin1x 2 dx
2 3
Simplify.
du
! 40u4 du Substitute u ! x3 and dx !
3x2
.
Note, in particular, that substituting in dx =

du ! x sin1u2 3xdu
2
2
6x
resulted in the cancellation of all remaining x’s in the
integrand, so that the integral is not entirely in terms Simplify.
of u.
! 13sin1u2 du
Evaluate.
8u5 " c
Every x is gone, so we can evaluate.
1
Replace u ! 3x2 " 7 . # cos1u2 " c
3
813x2 " 72 5 " c
Replace u ! x3 .
1
Thus, ! 240x13x 2
" 72 4 dx ! 813x2 " 72 5 " c , as # cos1x3 2 " c
3
we saw earlier.
Thus, ! x sin1x 2 dx ! #13cos1x 2 " c . This can be
2 3 3
Before actually computing the integral, all of the d ⎛ 1 ⎞

⎜ − 3 cos(x ) + c ⎟ !
3
verified by differentiating
x’s must be gone! You cannot integrate with mixed dx ⎝ ⎠
# 1#sin1x3 2 # 3x2 2 " 0 ! x2sin1x3 2 .
variables. 1
3
In general, try using something inside parenthe-
ses with u. If every x doesn’t cancel out when replacing
140
Every x is gone, so we can evaluate.

If we had been faced with ! sin1x3 2 dx in the last
3
example, then substituting u ! x3 would have ln|u| " c
2
! du
resulted in sin1u2 2 . This cannot be evaluated
3x Replace u ! 2x " 7 .
because it is not entirely in terms of u. In fact, this inte-
3
gral is very difficult to solve and requires the advanced ln|2x " 7| " c
2
technique of replacing sin1x3 2 with an infinitely long
! 2x 3" 7 dx ! 32 ln|2x " 7| " c .

polynomial called a power series. Many such integrals
Thus,
exist that are difficult to solve. This book will focus on
the ones that can be evaluated with basic techniques.
Basically, the goal is to find a u whose derivative
is essentially the rest of the integral, except for possibly
Example
a constant, so that between the u and the du, every x
Evaluate ! 2x 3" 7 dx . goes away. This leads to some clever tricks, as will be
demonstrated in the following examples.
Solution Example
Because there are no parentheses, try using the
!
ln1x2
du Evaluate dx .
denominator: u ! 2x " 7 . Here, ! 2 , so x
dx
du
du ! 2 dx and dx ! .
2
ˇ
Solution
Here, we use u ! ln1x2 . This is not because it is in
Start with the original integral. du 1
parentheses but because its derivative ! makes
dx x
! 2x 3" 7 dx 1
up the rest of the integral. Here, du ! dx , so
x
dx ! x du .
du
Substitute u ! 2x " 7 and dx ! .
2
! u3 du2 Start with the original integral.
!
ln1x2
dx
x
Simplify.
! 32 # u1 du Substitute u ! ln1x2 and dx ! x du .
! ux 1x du2
141
Simplify. Every x is gone, so we can evaluate.

1
!udu # u4 " c
4
Every x is gone, so we can evaluate. Replace u ! cos1x2 .

1 2 1
u "c # cos4 1x2 " c
2 4
Replace u ! ln1x2 .
! 1
Thus, sin(x)cos 3 (x)dx ! # cos4 1x2 " c .
4
1
1ln1x2 2 2 " c
2 To use substitution on a definite integral, evalu-
ate the indefinite integral first, and then compute at the
Thus, ! ln(xx) dx !
1
2
1ln1x2 2 2 " c . limits.
Example
Example
!xe
1
2 x3
Evaluate dx .
!
Evaluate sin(x)cos (x)dx . 3
Solution
0
First, evaluate the following indefinite integral.

Solution
Here, the trick is to use u ! cos1x2 so that !x e 2 x3
dx
du du du
! #sin1x2 and dx ! # . Use u = x3, du = 3x2dx, and so dx = .
dx sin1x2
3x 2
Start with the original integral.

!x e 2 u du
3x 2
!
Simplify.
sin(x)cos 3 (x)dx
! 13 e du
u
du
Substitute u ! cos1x2 and dx ! # . Every x is gone, so we can evaluate the indefinite integral.
sin1x2
1 u
! sin(x) ⋅ u 3 ⎛⎜ −du ⎞
⎟ 3
e +c
⎝ sin(x) ⎠
Replace u = x3.
Simplify. 1 x3
e +c
3
! −u du3
3
! 1 3
Now, because x 2e x dx = e x + c , it follows that
3
!xe
1 1
⎡1 3 ⎤
dx = ⎢ e x ⎥ = e1 − e 0 = (e − 1)
2 x3 1 1 1
0 ⎣ 3 ⎦0 3 3 3
142
You will know that you chose the wrong u if

either some of the variables x still remain or the sim- 11. !(8x + 5)(4x 2
+ 5 x − 1) 3 dx
plified integral will still be hard to solve. If this happens,
go back to the beginning and try a different u. Don’t
forget that many integrals, like those of the previous
12. !(4x x+ 5) dx 2 3
! 4x −+2 10 dx
lesson, don’t require substitution at all. Like much of
13.
mathematics, learning to integrate often requires
patience and a knack that is developed with practice.
14. ! sin(x)cos(x)dx
Practice 15. !sin (x)cos(x)dx
2
Evaluate the following integrals.

16. !cos(4x)dx
1. ! x (x 4 5
+ 1) dx7
17. ! 4 cos(x)dx
2. !(4x 4
+ 3) dx 10
18. ! sin(7x − 2)dx

! x (x
1
3. 2 3
− 1) dx4
0
19. !e x
sin(e x )dx
4. !( x 3
− 9 x + 4)dx
20. ! (ln(x)) 3
dx
!
x
x3 ⋅
3
5. x 2 − 1dx
21. ! x ln(1 x) dx
6. ! 2 x + 1 dx
!
x
22. e dx
!
1
x
7.
5
1 − x dx
! tan(x)dx = ! cos(
0
sin(x)
23. dx
8. ! 9x 2 − 5
3x 3 − 5
dx x)
24. ! e2 x
dx
9. !2x 3
cos(x 4 )dx 1 + e2 x
10. ! 6x 3 − 1
3x 4 − 2 x + 1
dx
143
20
L E S S O N
INTEGRATION
BY PARTS
T
he integral of the product of two functions is unfortunately not the product of the integrals. For
example, the integral x ! ⋅ cos(x)dx is not ( !x dx ) . ( !cos(x)dx ) = ⎛⎜⎝ 21 x ⎞⎟⎠ ⋅ (sin(x)) + c . We

2
1 d 1 2
know this because the derivative of x2sin1x2 " c is, by the Product Rule, a x sin1x2 " cb !
2 dx 2
x ⋅ sin(x) + cos(x) ⋅ x 2 , which is not equal to x # cos1x2 . It is unfortunate that this does not work because,
1
2
if it did, evaluating integrals would be simple and would not require so many different techniques.
The integration technique that undoes the Product Rule is called integration by parts. We derive the for-
mula as follows.
The product rule for differentiating f(x) ⋅ g(x) says
d
dx
( f (x) ⋅ g (x)) = f ′(x) ⋅ g (x) + g ′(x) ⋅ f (x).
Integrating both sides of the formula gives ! d
dx ![ ]
( f (x) ⋅ g (x)) dx = f ′(x) ⋅ g (x) + g ′(x) ⋅ f (x) dx .
!
This simplifies to f (x) ⋅ g (x) = f ′(x) ⋅ g (x) dx + ! g ′(x) ⋅ f (x)dx .
145
– INTEGRATION BY PARTS –
Now, we introduce two variables, u and v, as follows to simplify the formula:

du
u = f (x) so that = f ′(x), which is equivalent to du = f ′(x)dx
dx
dv
v = g (x ) so that = g ′(x), which is equivalent to dv = g ′(x)dx
dx
f (x) ⋅ g{
Plug these into the above formula to get {
u
(x) =
v
! g{ v
12
4 4
du
3 !
f (x) ⋅ g ′(x) dx preceding.
(x) ⋅ f ′(x )dx + {
u
12
4 4
dv
3
! !
Simply put, uv = vdu + udv. Move the first integral on the right-hand side to the left and voilà!, we have
the integration by parts formula:
!udv = uv − ! vdu.
Work through the following examples to see how this

is applied to help us compute more complicated inte-
grals. The dx must be part of what you decide to let
This can often be used to transform a difficult equal dv.
integral into one that is solvable. For example, take
! x ⋅ cos(x)dx . This looks just like !udv if u ! x and Example
dv ! cos1x2 dx . In order to use the formula, we !

Evaluate xe xdx .
will need to get du by differentiating u. Because
du Solution
u = x, we know that ! 1 , so du ! dx . We will
dx This cannot be solved by basic integration or by sub-
also need to get v from dv by integrating. And because stitution. Since it is a product, there is a good chance
dv = cos(x)dx, it must be that v ! sin1x2 . Thus: that integration by parts will work. First, try u = x. The
dv must then be everything else after the integral sign,
!x ⋅ cos(x)dx = !udv so dv ! ex dx . After differentiating u and integrating
dv, we get:
!
= uv − vdu u!x
du ! dx
!
= xsin(x) − sin(x)dx
And:
! xsin1x2 " cos1x2 " c
dv ! ex dx
This is the correct answer, as can be verified by taking v ! ex

d Note: Although there is technically a “+ c ” here, we will
the derivative 1xsin1x2 " cos1x2 " c2 ! 1 ⋅ sin(x) +
dx wait until the end to add the “+ c” once all integrals
cos(x) ⋅ x – sin(x) + 0 = x ⋅ cos(x). have been computed.
146
Thus, using the integration by parts formula
! u dv ! uv # ! v du , we evaluate as follows:
! uv # ! v du
! ln1x2 # x4 #
1
! 14x # 1x dx
4
! xe dx ! ! u dv
x 4
1
! x4ln1x2 #
4 ! 14x dx
3
Don’t forget that there is a minus in the formula! 1 1

! x4ln1x2 # x4 " c
4 16
Example
! uv # ! v du
Evaluate ! ln1x2 dx .
! xex # ! e dx
x
Solution
Because there seems to be only one part to this inte-
! xex # ex " c gral, one wouldn’t think to try integration by parts
first. However, because nothing else will work, we can
Example try u ! ln1x2 . The only thing left for the dv is dx, so
Evaluate ! x ln1x2 dx .
3 we use dv ! dx, which leads to v ! x.
u ! ln1x2
Solution
1
Here, since we don’t know how to integrate ln(x) du ! dx
x
(yet!), we can’t let it equal dv. So, we set u ! ln1x2 and
And:
dv ! x3 dx . Thus:
dv ! dx
u ! ln1x2 v!x
1 And now evaluate as follows.

du ! dx
x
And:
! ln1x2 dx ! ! u dv
dv ! x3 dx
! uv # ! v du
1
v ! x4
4
! ln1x2 # x # ! x # 1x dx
And then we evaluate. ! xln1x2 # ! 1 dx
! x ln1x2 dx ! ! u dv
3
! xln1x2 # x " c
Sometimes, integration by parts needs to be done
more than once to compute an integral.
147
Example !
Evaluate ! x cos1x2 dx .
2
x2sin1x2 # 12x # 1#cos1x2 2 # ! 1#cos1x2 2 # 2 dx2
Solution !
2
Here, u ! x , so du ! 2x dx , and dv ! cos1x2 dx , so
v ! sin1x2 . x2sin1x2 " 2xcos1x2 " ! #2cos1x2 dx
Thus,
! x2cos1x2 dx ! ! u dv
! x cos1x2 dx !
2
! uv # ! v du x2sin1x2 " 2xcos1x2 # 2sin1x2 " c
! x2sin1x2 # ! sin1x2 # 2x dx The final example utilizes a clever trick.
! x2sin1x2 # ! 2xsin1x2 dx Example
In order to compute ! 2xsin1x2 dx , we have to Evaluate ! e sin1x2 dx .

x
use integration by parts a second time, but this time,

with u ! 2x and dv ! sin1x2 dx . Solution
The terms ex and sin(x) are equally good candidates for
u ! 2x u. Let us use
du ! 2 dx u = ex and dv = sin(x)dx.
And: u ! ex
dv ! sin1x2 dx du ! exdx ˇ
v ! #cos1x2 And:
Now we evaluate as follows. dv ! sin1x2 dx
v ! #cos1x2
! x cos1x2 dx ! x sin1x2 # ! 2xsin1x2 dx
2 2
! x2sin1x2 # ! u dv
! x2sin1x2 # 1uv # ! v du2
148
Now, evaluate as follows. !
! e sin1x2 dx ! ! u dv
x #excos1x2 " exsin1x2 # ! sin1x2 # e dxx
! uv # ! v du Thus, we have:
! e sin1x2 dx !
x
!
#excos1x2 " exsin1x2 # ! e sin1x2 dx
x
ex 1#cos1x2 2 # ! 1#cos1x2 2 # e dx
x
Here is the moment of despair: To evaluate
! #excos1x2 " ! e cos1x2 dx

x
! e sin1x2 dx , we need to be able to evaluate
x
To evaluate ! e cos1x2 dx , we use integration by parts

x
! e sin1x2 dx ! And yet, the trick here is to bring both
x
again, but with u = ex and dv = cos(x)dx. integrals to one side of the equation:
u ! ex
! e sin1x2 dx " ! e sin1x2 dx !
x x
du ! exdx
#excos1x2 " exsin1x2
ˇ
And:
dv ! cos1x2 dx
!
2 exsin1x2 dx ! #excos1x2 " exsin1x2
v ! sin1x2
! e sin1x2 dx ! 12 1#e cos1x2 " e sin1x2 2 " c
x x x
And then the evaluation: 1

( )
= e x − cos(x ) + sin(x ) + c
2
! e sin1x2 dx ! #e cos1x2 " ! e cos1x2 dx

x x x
! #excos1x2 " ! u dv
! #excos1x2 " uv # ! v du
149
Practice
12. ! x − 1dx
Evaluate the following integrals using integration by
parts, substitution, or basic integration. 13. !x x − 1dx
1. !x 5
ln(x)dx 14. !xe −x
dx
2. ! x sin(x)dx 15. ! cos (x)⋅sin(x)dx

3
3. !x sin(x )dx 2
16. ! x (ln(1x)) dx 5
4. !(x + 3)cos(x)dx 17. ! 3x1 dx

5. ! ln(xx) dx 18. !e − cos( x )
sin(x)dx
!
1
6. x 2 sin(x)dx
19. ! ex
x2
dx
7. ! (x 2
+ sin(x))dx
20. ! sin(x) cos(x) dx
8. !x e 2 x3+ 1
dx
21. !cos(x)⋅ln(sin(x))dx
! e e + 9 dx
3x
9. 3x 22. !e x
cos(x)dx
10. ! (x 3
+ 3x − 1)ln(x)dx
11. ! ⎛⎜⎝ x1 + ln(x)⎞⎟⎠ dx
150
POSTTEST
I
f you have completed all 20 lessons in this book, you are ready to take the posttest to measure your progress.
The posttest has 50 multiple-choice questions covering the topics you studied in this book. Although the
format of the posttest is similar to that of the pretest, the questions are different.
Take as much time as you need to complete the posttest. When you are finished, check your answers with
the answer key that follows the posttest. Along with each answer is a number that tells you which lesson of
this book teaches you about the calculus skills needed for that question. Once you know your score on the
posttest, compare the results with the pretest. If you scored better on the posttest than you did on the pretest,
congratulations! You have profited from your hard work. At this point, you should look at the questions you
missed, if any. Do you know why you missed the question, or do you need to go back to the lesson and review
the concept?
If your score on the posttest doesn’t show much improvement, take a second look at the questions you
missed. Did you miss a question because of an error you made? If you can figure out why you missed the prob-
lem, then you understand the concept and simply need to concentrate more on accuracy when taking a test.
If you missed a question because you did not know how to work the problem, go back to the lesson and spend
more time working that type of problem. Take the time to understand basic calculus thoroughly. You need a
solid foundation in basic calculus if you plan to use this information or progress to a higher level. Whatever
your score on this posttest, keep this book for review and future reference.
151
– LEARNINGEXPRESS ANSWER SHEET –
1. a b c d 18. a b c d 35. a b c d
2. a b c d 19. a b c d 36. a b c d
3. a b c d 20. a b c d 37. a b c d
4. a b c d 21. a b c d 38. a b c d
5. a b c d 22. a b c d 39. a b c d
6. a b c d 23. a b c d 40. a b c d
7. a b c d 24. a b c d 41. a b c d
8. a b c d 25. a b c d 42. a b c d
9. a b c d 26. a b c d 43. a b c d
10. a b c d 27. a b c d 44. a b c d
11. a b c d 28. a b c d 45. a b c d
12. a b c d 29. a b c d 46. a b c d
13. a b c d 30. a b c d 47. a b c d
14. a b c d 31. a b c d 48. a b c d
15. a b c d 32. a b c d 49. a b c d
16. a b c d 33. a b c d 50. a b c d
17. a b c d 34. a b c d
153
– POSTTEST –
Posttest x + 1
4. What is the domain of f (x) = ?
x
1. Evaluate f 1!22 when f 1x2 " x3 ! 2x .
˛ ˛
a. all real numbers greater than or equal to –1

a. !12 b. all real numbers except 0
b. !10 c. all real numbers except –1 and 0
c. !4 d. all nonzero real numbers greater than or
d. 4 equal to –1
2. Simplify f 12x # 12 when f 1x2 " x2 # x .

˛ ˛
Use the following graph for problems 5 through 7.
a. 4x2 # 6x # 2 y
b. 4x2 # 2x # 2 y = g(x)
3
c. 2x2 # 3x
d. 2x3 # 3x2 # x 2
1
3. Evaluate (g ° h)(x) when g1x2 " x2 # 5x # 1
1 x
and h1x2 " .
x –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1
a. x 2 + 5 x + 1 + 1
x
–2
1
b. x # 5 #
x –3
1
c.
x2 # 5x # 1
1 5
d. # #1
x2 x 5. Where does g1x2 have a local maximum?
a. x"0
b. x"1
c. x"2
d. x"3
6. On what interval(s) is g1x2 decreasing?

a. (1,2) and (2,3)
b. (!q,2)
c. (!q,0)
d. (q,1) and (3,q)
155
– POSTTEST –
7. What is the slope of the line passing through p

(2,!4) and (1,7)? 11. Evaluate cos a b .
4
1 a. 1
a. –
11 1
b. –11 b.
2
c. 11
2
d. 3 c.
2
3
d.
8. Simplify 4 .3
2
a. 7
b. 12
c. 16 4p
12. Evaluate sin a b.
d. 64 3
3
a. –
1
2
9. Simplify 16 ! 2 .
3
a. !8 b.
2
b. 4
1 2
c. c. –
4 2
1
d. 2
16 d.
2
10.Solve for x when 4x " 10 .

x2 ! 5x # 6
13. Evaluate lim .
ln1102 xS2 x2 ! 2x ! 3
a.
ln142 a. 0
b. 2.5 b. 1
c. 104 c. –2
5 d. undefined
d. ln a b
2
156
– POSTTEST –
x2 ! 5x # 6 18. What is the derivative of

14. Evaluate lim .
xS3 x2 ! 2x ! 3 g1x2 " 8x4 ! 10x3 # 3x ! 1 ?
a. –2 a. g′(x) = 0
1 b. g′(x) = 8x4 ! 10x3 # 3x – 1
b.
4 c. g′(x) = 32x3 ! 10x2 # 3x ! x
c. 1 d. g′(x) = 32x3 ! 30x2 # 3
d. undefined
19. Suppose that after t seconds, a falling rock is
s1t2 " !16t2 # 5t # 200 feet off the ground.
x + 4
15. Evaluate lim . How fast is the rock traveling after 2 seconds?
x →1+ x2 − 1
a. 5 a. 10 feet per second
b. !q b. –32 feet per second
c. q c. 59 feet per second
d. –4 d. 146 feet per second
16. What is the slope of the tangent line to f(x) = x2

at x " 3? 20. Differentiate y = x + 4sin(x).
a. 2 dy 1
a. = + 4 cos(x)
b. 6 dx 2 x
c. 9 dy
d. 2x b. = x + 4cos(x)
dx
dy x
17. What is the slope of the tangent line to c. = + 4sin(x)
dx 2
y " 4x ! 7 at x " 2? dy 1
d. = − 4 cos(x)
a. !7 dx 2 x
b. !3
c. 1
d. 4
157
– POSTTEST –
21. What is the derivative of f 1x2 " 5ex ! 2ln1x2 ?

˛ 24. What is the derivative of f 1x2 " sec1x2 ?
˛
2 a. f ′(x) = sec1x2
a. f ′(x) = 5ex !
x
b. f ′(x) = tan2 1x2
2
b. f ′(x) = 5xe x!1
!
x c. f ′(x) = sec1x2tan1x2
c. f ′(x) = 5xex!1 ! 2x d. f ′(x) = 0
d. f ′(x) = 5ex ! 2x
25. What is the slope of the line that is tangent to
y " 1x2 ! 22 3 at x " 2?
22. Differentiate y " xex. a. 8
dy b. 12
a. = ex
dx c. 24
dy
b. = xex d. 48
dx
dy
c. = 1x # 12ex
dx 26. Differentiate y = xsin1x2 2 .
dy
d. = xex!1 dy
dx a. = xcos1x2 2 # sin1x2 2
dx
dy
cos1x2 b. = 2x2cos1x2 2 # sin1x2 2
23. Differentiate g1x2 " 2 . dx
x # 5x
dy
sin1x2 c. = 2x2cos1x2 2
dx
a. g′(x) =
2x # 5 dy
d. = –2x2cos(x2) + sin(x2)
!sin1x2 dx
b. g′(x) =
2x # 5
12x # 52cos1x2 # 1x2 # 52sin1x2 dy
c. g′(x) = 27. Find when tan1y2 # y " ln1x2 ! 1 .
1x2 # 52 2 dx
dy 1
d. g′(x) = a. = ! sec2 1x2
dx x
!1x2 # 5x2sin1x2 ! 12x # 52cos1x2 1
dy
1x2 # 5x2 2 b. =
dx x(1 + sec (y ))
2
dy x
c. =
dx 1 + sec 2 (y )
dy 1
d. =
dx x (1 + sec(y ) tan(y ))
158
– POSTTEST –
dy 31. If a 10-foot ladder slides down a wall at 2 feet

28. Find when x2y " xy2 . per minute (see the figure that follows), how
dx
dy 1 fast does the bottom slide when the top is 6 feet
a. =
dx y up?
dy y ! 2x
b. =
dx x ! 2y
wall
2
dy y ! 2xy
c. = 2
dx x ! 2xy ladder
2
dy y # 2xy 10 feet
d. = 2
dx x # 2xy y
29. What is the slope of the curve

y3 ! y " 3x # 3 at (1,2)?
x ground
3
a.
11
3
b. 2
2 a. foot per minute
3
30 3
c. b. feet per minute
6 2
d. 6 c. 2 feet per minute
d. 12 feet per minute
4 3
30. The volume of a sphere is V = πr . If the
3
radius increases by 3 meters per second, how 3x2 # 7x ! 2
32. Evaluate lim .
fast is the volume changing when r " 10 xSq x2 # 5x ! 1
meters? a. 2
b. 3
m3
a. 240 π 7
sec c.
5
4, 000 πm 3 d. ∞
b.
3 sec
m3 33. Where does y " ex have a vertical asymptote?
c. 4, 000 π
sec a. y"0
3
m b. x"1
d. 1, 200 π
sec c. x"e
d. no vertical asymptote
159
– POSTTEST –
x5 # 3x3 b.
34. Evaluate lim x .
xSq e ! 1
y
a. 5
3
b. 0
c. q 2
d. –3x3
1
35. On what interval(s) is f(x) = x3 + 6x2 – 15x + 2 x

–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
decreasing?
–1
a. (4,5)
b. (!5,1) –2
c. (2,6) and (15,q)
–3
d. (!q,!5) and (1,q)
36. Which of the following is the graph of

c.
y " 3x ! x3 ?
a. y
3
y 2
3
1
2
x
1 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 x
–2
–1
–3
–2
–3
d.
y
3
x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–1
–2
–3
160
– POSTTEST –
37. If up to 30 apple trees are planted on an acre,

!
7
!
10
each will produce 400 apples a year. For every 39. If f 1x2 dx " 2 and
˛ f 1x2 dx " 8 , then
˛
1 7
tree over 30 on the acre, each tree will produce
!
10
10 apples less each year. How many trees per what is f 1x2 dx ?
˛
1
acre will maximize the annual yield?
a. 5 trees a. 6
b. 32 trees b. 9
c. 35 trees c. 10
d. 40 trees d. 16
38. An enclosure will be built, as depicted, with

! f 1x2 dx ?
4
100 feet of fencing. What dimensions will 40. What is ˛
0
maximize the area?
3
y = f(x)
2
y
x
1 2 3 4
x –1
a. x = 20 ft, y = 20 ft –2
b. x = 25 ft, y = 10 ft
c. x = 25 ft, y = 25 ft
d. x = 50 ft, y = 10 ft
a. –4
b. 0
c. 4
d. 6
161
– POSTTEST –
! t dt , then what is g¿1x2 ?

x
41. If g1x2 "
0
3
44. Evaluate ! cos1x2 dx
a. g′(x) = x3 a. !sin1x2 # c
1 b. sin1x2 # c
b. g′(x) = t4 # c
4
c. !cos1x2 # c
1
c. g′(x) = x4 # c
4 d. cos1x2 # c
d. g′(x) = 3x2
45. Evaluate ! 13e ! sin12x2 2 dx .

x
! 16x
3
42. Evaluate 2
! 4x2 dx .
1
a. 3ex # cos12x2 # c
a. 6
b. 24 b. 3ex ! cos12x2 # c
c. 36 1
c. 3e x + cos(2 x) + c
d. 40 2
3ex#1
d. ! sin1x2 2 # c
x#1
43. Evaluate ! ax 5
!
1
x2
b dx .
!
1 6 3 ln1x2
a. x # 3#c 46. Evaluate dx .
6 x x
1 6 1 1
b. x # #c a. #c
6 x x
2 1 2
c. 5x4 # b. x #c
x3 2
2 c. 1ln1x2 2 2 # c
d. 5x4 # #c
x3
1
d. 1ln1x2 2 2 # c
2
162
– POSTTEST –
47. Evaluate ! xe 1x22

dx . 49. Evaluate ! ln1x2 dx .
2
a. e1x 2 # c a. ln112 # c
1 1x22 1
b. e #c b. #c
2 x
1 1x22 1
c. xe # c c. 1ln1x2 2 2 # c
2 2
1 2 1x22 d. xln1x2 ! x # c
d. xe #c
2
50. Evaluate ! xe dx .
x
! 24x # 1 dx .
6
48. Evaluate
0
1 x
a. xe # c
2 2
a.
3 1 2x
248 b. xe #c
b. 2
3
c. xex ! ex # c
125
c. d. xex # ex # c
6
d. 124
163
– POSTTEST –
Answers 26. b. Lessons 9, 10

27. b. Lesson 11
2. a. Lesson 1 29. a. Lesson 11
3. d. Lesson 1 30. d. Lesson 12
5. b. Lesson 2 32. b. Lesson 13
7. b. Lesson 2 34. b. Lesson 13
11. c. Lesson 4 38. b. Lesson 15
16. b. Lessons 6, 7 43. b. Lesson 18
17. d. Lessons 6, 7 44. b. Lesson 18
18. d. Lesson 7 45. c. Lessons 18, 19
21. a. Lesson 8 48. a. Lesson 19
23. d. Lesson 9 50. c. Lesson 20
24. c. Lesson 9
25. d. Lesson 10
164
SOLUTION KEY
Lesson 1 10. f 1x # a2 " x2 # 2xa # a2 # 3x # 3a ! 1

˛
11. f (x + h) − f (x) =
1 1
1. f 152 " 9 −
2(x + h) 2 x
˛
h =
2. g1!32 " !20 x − (x + h) h
2 x(x + h)
⎛ 1⎞ h
3. h ⎜ ⎟ = 1
⎝ 2⎠ = −x −h =
x −h
2hx(x + h) 2hx(x + h)
4. f 172 " 2 . Because there is no x in the
˛
description of f, the 7 never gets used. This is = −1

called a constant function because it is always 2x(x + h)
equal to the constant 2. 8
3
12. g1x2 # 2x2 " ! 61x2 # 2x2
x # 2x
2
5. m ⎛⎜ − 1 ⎞⎟ = −5⎛⎜ − 1 ⎞⎟ = −5 ⋅ ⎛⎜ − 1 ⎞⎟ ⋅ ⎛⎜ − 1 ⎞⎟ ⋅ ⎛⎜ − 1 ⎞⎟
⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ 5⎠ 13. g12x2 ! g1x2 "
=
1 (−(x + a) 2
) (
+ 5 − −x 2 + 5 )
25 a
6. h1642 " 4 14. (−(x + a) 2
) (
+ 5 − −x 2 + 5 )
7. The rock is s132 " 16 feet high after a
3 seconds.
= ( ) (
−(x + a) + 5 − − x 2 + 5
2
)
8. The profit on 100 cookies is P(100) = $39. a
−2ax − a −a(2 x + a)
2
9. f 1y2 " y2 # 3y ! 1 = = = −(2 x + a)
a a
˛
165
– SOLUTION KEY –
15. h(x + a) − h(x) ( −2(x + a) + 1) − ( −2 x + 1) 32. ⎛ 4 ⎞ (Note that this single interval is
= ⎜ − , ∞⎟ enough because it excludes by 4
a a ⎝ 3 ⎠ −
and –3. 3
−2 x − 2a + 1 + 2 x − 1
=
a
−2a
= = −2 Lesson 2
a
16. g (x + 2) − g (x) = (x + 2) − x
3 3
2 2 y
=
( )
(x + 2) x 2 + 4 x + 4 − x 3
6
5
1. (3,5)
2 2.(–3,4) 4
= x 3
+ 6 x 2
+ 12 x +8 − x3
= 3x 2 + 6 x + 4 3 5. (0,3)
2
2
17. ( f o g )(x ) = 1 1 __
9 __
1
x − 2x 2 + 1
3
6.(–5,0) 7. (0,0) 8. ( 2 , 4 )
x
18. (g o f )(x) = 13 − 22 + 1 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1
1 2 3 4 5 6
x x
–2
19. ( f o h)(t ) = 1
–3
t− t
–4
4.(–1,–5)
20. ( f o f )(z ) = 1 = z –5
1 3.(2,–6)
z –6
21. (h o h)(w ) = (w − )
w − w− w
y
22. ⎛ ⎞ 13
(g o h)(16) = g ⎜16 − {
16 ⎟ = g (12) = 1, 441 12. (–2,13)12
⎝ =4 ⎠
11
23. (h o f o g )(x) = h( f (g (x))) = 10
9
1 1 9. (3,8)
! 8
x3 ! 2x2 # 1 B x3 ! 2x2 # 1
7
24. ⎛ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎞ 1 6
( f o h o f )(2 x) = f ⎜ h ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ =
⎝ ⎝ 2x ⎠ ⎠ 1 1 5
11. (0,5)
−
2x 2x 4
10. (1,4)
25. ( −∞, −3), ( −3, 5), and (5, ∞) 3
[
26. −1, ∞)
2
1
27. (−5, ∞) (Note that t cannot equal –5.)
x
28. (−∞, ∞) –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
29. (−∞, ∞)
30. (−∞, ∞)
31. (−∞, −8) and ( −8, 2]
166
13. There is a discontinuity at x " 0. The graph of 17. There is a discontinuity at x " !1. The
f is decreasing on (!q,0) and on (0,q). The function increases on (!q,!1) and on
graph of f is concave down on (!q,0) and (!1,2), and it decreases on (2,q). There are
concave up on (0,q). There are no points of local maxima at (!1,3) and (2,3). The graph is
inflection, no local maxima, and no local concave up on (!1,0) and concave down on
minima. There is a vertical asymptote at x " 0 (0,q), so there is a point of inflection at (0,2).
and a horizontal asymptote at y " 0. Because the line is straight before x " !1 , it
14. There are no discontinuities. The function does not bow upward or downward, and thus
increases on (!q,!3) and on (0,3), and it has no concavity. There are no asymptotes.
decreases on (!3,0) and on (3,q). There are 18. There are no discontinuities. The graph
local maxima at (!3,4) and (3,4), and there is decreases on (!q,q), is concave down on
a local minimum at (0,2). The graph is concave (!q,0), and is concave up on (0, q). There is
up on (!1,1) and concave down on (!q,!1) a point of inflection at (0,0). There are
and on (1,q). There are points of inflection at horizontal asymptotes at y " !2 and y " 2.
(1,3) and (–1,3). There are no asymptotes. 19. There are no discontinuities. The graph
15. There is a discontinuity at x " 1. The function increases on (0,2), has a local maximum at
increases on (!1,1) and on (1,q), and (2,5), and decreases on (2,q). The graph is
decreases on (!q,!1). The function is concave down on (0,3) and concave up on
concave up on (!q,1) and on (1,q). There is (3,q) with a point of inflection at (3,3). There
a local minimum at (–1,!2). There are no is a vertical asymptote at x " 0 and a
asymptotes, nor any points of inflection. horizontal asymptote at y " 1.
16. The discontinuities occur at x " !2 and x " 2. 20. The discontinuities occur at x " 2, x " 5, x " 6,
The function increases on (0,1), (1,2) and and x " 7. The function increases on (!q,1),
(2,q), and decreases on (!q,!2), (–2,–1) on (4,5), and on (5,q). The function decreases on
(!1,0). The point (0,2) is a local minimum. (1,2), on (2,4), and on (6,7). There is a local
The graph is concave up on (!2,–1), (–1,1), maximum at (1,2) and at (2,3). The points (4,2)
and (1,2) and concave down on (!q,!2) and and (17,4) are a local minima. The graph is
(2, q). There are no points of inflection. There concave up on (–q,1), (1,2), (2,5), (5,6), and
are vertical asymptotes at x " !2 and x " 2, (6,7). Since the line is straight after x = 7, it does
and a horizontal asymptote at y " 0. not bow upward or downward and thus has no
concavity. There is a horizontal asymptote at y =
0 and a vertical asymptote at x = 6.
21. 3
22. 0
9
23. !
4
w!7 7!w
24. "
3 !3
167
25. 27.
y y
3
3 (5,3)
y = 2x – 4
2
2
1
y=x–2
1
x
–1 1 2 3 4
–1
x
–2 (1,–2)
–1 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–3
–4 –2
(–1,–3)
–5
–3
–6
28.
26.
y
y
6
6 y=5 5 (2,5) (6,5)
5 4
2 x+5
y=–— 3
4 3
2
3 1
2
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
1
(6,1)
x
–2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
168
Lesson 3 21. ln17 # 22 " ln1142
24
1. 25 " 32 22. ln a b " ln142
6
⎛ 5⎞ ⎛ 2⎞ ⎛ 5 2⎞
2. 43 " 64 23. ln⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠ + ln⎜⎝ 5 ⎟⎠ = ln⎜⎝ 2 ⋅ 5 ⎟⎠ = ln(1) = 0
ln1102
3. 104 " 10,000 24. x "
ln122
1
4. 6!2 " 25. ln(3x ⋅ 35 ) = ln(100)
36
ln(3x ) + ln(35 ) = ln(100)
5. 1
x ln(3) + 5 ln(3) = ln(100)
ln(100) − 5 ln(3) ln(100)
6. 34 " 81 x= = −5
ln(3) ln(3)
26.
7. 9 ⎛ x⎞
log a ⎜ 3 ⎟ = log a x − log a (y 3 )
⎝y ⎠
8. 50 = 1 = log a x − 3 log a y = 2 − 3(−3)
1 1 = 2 + 9 = 11
9. =
23 8
2 3⋅ 2
10. (3 ) 3 = 3
3 3 = 32 = 9 Lesson 4
−6 1 1 p
11. 5 = 6
= 1.
6
5 15, 625
−2
8 1 1
12. 2 = 4 = 4, 096 2. p
8 8
3p
43 3.
13. −1 = 4 = 256
4
2
4
5π
3−2 3−2 4.
3
14. (34 ) −2 3−8 = 3 = 729
= 6
3π
5.
4
15. e11
6. 60°
16. e 7
7. 90°
17. 1
8. 360°
18. 2
9. 18°
19. 5
10. 330°
20. ln(1) = 0
169
11. 1 33. !2
2 3
12. 3 34. !
3
13. 2 3
35.
3
14. 2 36. 2
1
15.
1
=
3 37. − 2
3 3
38. 3
16. 3 2
4π 5π
17.
2
=
2 3 39. x = ,
3 3
3 3
40. x = π
18. 2
3
19.
3 Lesson 5
2 3
20.
3 1. 1
2
21. 2. 1
2
2 3. 1
22. !
2
4. undefined
23. !1
5. no
24. ! 2
6. !1
25. 2
7. 4
26. !1
8. undefined
27. 0
9. !1
28. undefined
10. yes
29. 3
11. 1
30. ! 3
2 12. 3
1
31. ! 13. q
2
32. 3 14. q
170
15. 2 35. 2x
16. !2 36. lim a x +a + x

⋅
a →0 x +a − x x +a + x
17. 16
= lim
a ( x +a + x )
a →0 a
18. 0
= lim
a →0
( )
x +a + x =2 x
96
19. 0
23 37. =0
1 −2
2 3
20. p "
6 p 38. First note that
21. 2x # 1 (x + h) 3 = (x + h)2 (x + h) = (x 2 + 2hx + h 2 )(x + h)
= x 3 + 2hx 2 + h 2 x + x 2 h + 2h 2 x + h 3
−3( −2 ) 2 −12 1
22. e =e = 12 = x 3 + 3hx 2 + 3h 2 x + h 3
e
So,
23. !q
2(x + h) 3 − 2 x 3
lim
h→0 h
24. q
2(x 3 + 3hx 2 + 3h 2 x + h 3 ) − 2 x 3
= lim
1 h→0 h
25.
6 2 x + 6hx + 6h 2 x + 2h 3 − 2 x 3
3 2
= lim
26. !q h→0 h
h(6 x 2 + 6hx + 2h 2 )
7 = lim
27. h→0 h
2
= lim(6 x + 6hx + 2h 2 ) = 6 x 2
2
h→0
28. !q x 3 + 2 x 2 − 15 x x(x − 3)(x + 5)
39. lim = lim
x →3 x2 − 9 x → 3 ( x − 3)( x + 3)
29. 8 x(x + 5) 3(3 + 5)
= lim =
x →3 x + 3 3+3
x − 2 1
30. lim = 24
x →2 ( x − 2)( x + 2) 4 = =4
6
31. 1
(e z − 4)(e − 2)
2
40. lim = lim − (e z − 4)
(x − 3)(x − 1) 1 z → ln(2 ) −(e 2 − 2) z → lm(2 )
32. lim =
x → 3 ( x − 2)( x + 5) 4
= −(e ln(2 ) − 4) = −(2 − 4)
33. !q =2
34. ( x − 5 )( x + 5 )
( )
lim
x →25 ( x − 25)(x + 1) x +5
(x − 25) 1
= lim =
x →25
(x − 25)(x + 1) ( x + 5 ) 260
171
Lesson 6 31x # a2 2 # 1x # a2 ! 13x2 # x2

6. f ¿1x2 " lim
aS0 a
81x # a2 # 2 ! 18x # 22
1. f ¿1x2 " lim
aS0 a 6xa # 3a2 # a
" lim
aS0 a
8x # 8a # 2 ! 8x ! 2
" lim "8 = lim(6 x + 3a + 1) = 6 x + 1 .
aS0 a a→0
Thus, at x " 2, the slope is f ¿122 " 13 .

1x # a2 2 # 5 ! 1x2 # 52
2. h¿1x2 " lim
aS0 a
x # 2xa # a2 # 5 ! x2 ! 5 7. g ′(x) = lim 3 x + a − 3 x
2
" lim a→0 a
aS0 a
" lim 2x # a " 2x 3 x +a −3 x 3 x +a +3 x
aS0 = lim ⋅
a→0 a 3 x +a −3 x
g1x # a2 ! g1x2 9(x + a) − 9 x
3. g¿1x2 " lim = lim
aS0 a a→0 a(3 x + a − 3 x
9a/ 3
10 ! 10 0 = lim =
a→0 a(3 x + a − 3 x )
" lim " lim " 0 / 2 x
aS0 a aS0 a
3
So, the slope at x = 16 is g ′(16) = .
3 x + a − 3 x 8
4. f ′(x) = lim
a→0 a 1x # a2 2 ! 41x # a2 #
8. g¿1x2 " lim
⎛3 x + a − 3 x ⎞ aS0 a
= lim⎜ ⎟
a→0
⎝ a ⎠ 1 − (x 2 − 4 x + 1)
a
⎛3 x + a + 3 x ⎞
⎜ ⎟ 2xa # a2 ! 4a
" lim
⎝3 x + a + 3 x ⎠ aS0 a
9(x + a) − 9 x " lim(2 x + a − 4) = 2 x − 4 .
a→0
= lim
a→0 3 x + a + 3 x Thus, there is a slope of zero when g′(x) =
9 9 2x – 4 = 0. This happens when x " 2.
= lim =
a→0 3 x + a + 3 x 3 x + 3 x 1 ! 1x # a2 2 ! 11 ! x2 2
3 9. h¿1x2 " lim
= aS0 a
2 x
!2xa ! a2
1x # a2 3 ! x3 " lim
aS0 a
5. k¿1x2 " lim
aS0 a
" lim( −2 x − a) = − 2 x .
a→0
3 2 2 3 3
x # 3x a # 3xa # a ! x
" lim The slope at (2,!3) is h¿122 " !4 , so
aS0 a
the equation of the tangent line is
13x2 # 3xa # a2 2a y " !41x ! 22 ! 3 " !4x # 5 .
" lim
aS0 a
= lim(3x 2 + 3xa + a 2 ) = 3x 2
a→0
172
10. k¿1x2 " 1 1 −3

14. g (x) = 1
= 3
= x 2.
51x # a2 2 # 21x # a2 ! 15x2 # 2x2 x ⋅x
x 2 2
lim "
aS0 a 3 − 52 3
So, g ′(x) = − x = − 5 .
10xa # 5a2 # 2a
lim " lim(10 x + 5a + 2)= 2
2x 2
aS0 a a→0
10x #2. The y-value at x " 1 is k 112 " 7 .
15. h(t ) = t 7 . So, h ′(t ) = 7t 6 .
˛
The slope at x " 1 is k¿112 " 12 . The 1

t3 1−1 1
= t 12 . So, dy = 1 t 12 = 1 11 .
equation of the tangent line is − 11
16. y = 1 =t3 4
y " 121x ! 12 # 7 " 12x ! 5 . t 4 dt 12 12t 12

dy
17. = 42 x 6
dx
Lesson 7 30
18. f ¿1x2 " 30x!11 "
x11
1. f ¿1x2 " 5x4
19. V¿1r2 " 4p r2
dy
2. = 21x 20 48 3
dx 20. g ¿1t2 " t
5
˛
!5
3. g¿1u2 " !5u!6 "
u6 21. k¿1x2 " !2x
4. h¿1x2 " 0 dy
22. = 12t 2 − 6t
dy dt
5. = 12t 11
dt 23. f ¿1x2 " 24x2 # 6x
" # x5
dy 7 2
6. dy 4 6
dx 5 24. = −4 x −3 − 2(−3x −4 ) − 1 = − 3 + 4 − 1
dx x x
7. f ¿1x2 " 100x99
25. s ′(t ) = 3πt 2 + 2et + 3
8. f ¿1t2 " 0
26. F¿1x2 " 600x99 # 500x49 ! 100x24 # 20x9
4 9 4
9. g¿1x2 " ! x!5 " ! 9 3 4 3
5 5x 5 27. g ¿1x2 " x!5 # 15x2 " 4 # 15x2
5
˛
5x 5
1 1 3 1
10. k1x2 " x 4 , so k¿1x2 " x!4 " 3
4 28. h¿1u2 " 5u4 # 16u3 ! 21u2 ! 4u # 8
˛
4x 4 ˛
1 dy 1 −1 1 dy 2 2
11. y " u2 , so = u 2= 29. " !2x!2 ! 2x!3 " ! 2 ! 3
du 2 2 u dx x x
dy dy 2
1 30. " 2u # 2u!3 " 2u # 3
12. y " x!1 , so " !x!2 " ! 2 du u
dx x
dy −1 −2 2 3
13. f 1x2 "
1 !12 1 3 1
, so f ¿1x2 " ! x!2 " ! 3 31. = 2 x 2 + 3x 3 = + 2
1 " x dx
˛
x 2
˛˛
2 2x 2
˛
˛
x x3
− 3 −5
32. f (x) = 3 x 4 − 5 x 2 , so f ′(x) = 6 x 3 + 15 x 2
2 2
173
33. f ¿1x2 " !x!2 , f –1x2 " 2x!3 , 10. The position function is s1t2 " !16t2 # 64 ,
f ‡1x2 " !6x!4 , the velocity function is v1t2 " !32t , and the
and f 1x2 " 24x!5 acceleration is a constant a1t2 " !32 . Since
s(2) = 0, it will hit the ground when t " 2
34. s–1t2 " !32 seconds and be traveling at v122 " !64 feet
per second (downward) at that instant.
d 3y
35. = −180 x −6 + 48 x −5 − 6 x −4
dx 3 11. The position function is s1t2 " !16t2 # 800t
dy 2 d2y 4 5 d3y 20 8 and the velocity function is v1t2 " !32t # 800.
36. " 2t!3 , 2 " ! t!3 , and 3 " t!3
dt dt 3 dt 9 The bullet will stop in the air when the velocity
is zero. This happens at t " 25 seconds, when
the bullet is s1252 " 10,000 feet in the air.
Lesson 8
12. The position function is s1t2 " !16t2 ! 10t #
1. pay rate in dollars per hour
1,000, so after 4 seconds, it is s142 " 704 feet
2. fuel economy in miles per gallon
off the ground. It has therefore fallen 296 feet
3. baby’s growth rate in pounds per month
by this moment. Since ν(t) = –32t – 10, it is
4. rate at which the radius shrinks in inches per
traveling v142 " !138 feet per second
hour
(downward) at this moment.
25
5. h ′(t ) = 2 , so h ′(5) = 1 . So, it is increasing at dy
t 13. " 20x4 ! 10sin1x2
the rate of 1 foot per year. dx
2
6. L ′(t ) = −2t + 8 , so L ′(7) = −6 . So, it is 14. f ¿1t2 " 3cos1t2 !
t2
decreasing at the rate of 6 feet per day.
5 −4
15. g ′(x) = −6 x −3 − x 3 + π sin(x)
7. P ′(x) = 3 x 2 − 120 x + 9, 000 , so 3
10
6 5
P ′(50) = 3, 750 . So, the profit is increasing at = − 3 − 4 + π sin(x)
x 3x 3
the rate of $3,750 per car sold.
8 1 1
8. C ′(3) = 4.8 − ≈ 2.13, so the cost would 16. r¿1u2 " cos1u2 ! sin1u2
3 2 2
increase at a rate of $2.13 per inch at the
17. h¿1x2 " !sin1x2 because cos152 is a constant
instant when x = 3 inches.
9. After 3 seconds, it is at s132 " 75 meters from p p p
18. Because f a b " sin a b # cos a b "
the start. Note that ν(t) = 3t 2 + 4t + 10 and 2 2 2
a(t) = 6t + 4. At that moment, it is traveling at p
v132 " 49 meters per second and accelerating 1 # 0 " 1 , the point is a ,1b . Since
2
at a132 " 22 meters per second per second. f ′(x) = cos(x) – sin(x), the slope is
p
f ¿ a b " !1 , so the equation is y "
2
p p
!ax ! b # 1 " !x # # 1 .
2 2
174
19. f ¿1x2 " 1 # 2x # 3x2 # ex 8. h ′(t )
20. g ¿1t2 "

12
# 2t
(
= 3t 2 (sin(t ) − cos(t )) + (cos(t ) + sin(t )) t 2 + 4 )
t
˛
dy ⎛ 1 ⎞
dy 9. = 15 x 2 − ⎜ 1 ⋅ ln(x) + ⋅ x⎟
21. " !sin1x2 ! 10e x # 8 dx ⎝ x ⎠
dx
˛
= 15 x 2 − ln(x) − 1
1 8
22. h¿1x2 " ! . (Note that e–3 is a
22x x
constant.) 10. f ¿1x2 " cos1x2sin1x2 # cos1x2sin1x2
15 32 " 2cos1x2sin1x2
23. k¿1u2 " x # 5ex. (Note that ln(π) is a
2
" exsin1x2 # 1exsin1x2 # cos1x2ex 2 # x
dy
constant.) 11.
dx
1 1 12. g¿1x2 " 12x3ln1x2cos1x2 #
24. f ¿1x2 " ex # , so f –1x2 " e x ! 2
x x
˛
a cos1x2 ! sin1x2ln1x2b # 3x4

1
25. g 11002 1x2 " 3ex
˛
x
" 12x3ln1x2cos1x2 #
1
26. f ¿1102 " 3x3cos1x2 ! 3x4sin1x2ln1x2
10
13. f ′(x) = 2 xe x + e x x 2 + 1.
Lesson 9 So, f ¿102 " 2102e0 # e0 102 2 # 1 " 1 ,
so the slope is 1.
1. f ¿1x2 " 2xcos1x2 ! sin1x2 # x2 = x(2cos(x) – x
sin(x)) 14. y " !p1x ! p2 " !px # p2
13x2 # 10213x2 # 5x # 22
" 24t 2et # et # 8t 3 " 8t 2et 13 # t2
dy
2. 15. h¿1x2 " !
dt 13x2 # 5x # 22 2
˛ ˛ ˛
dy 16x # 521x3 # 10x # 72

3. = π(cos2 (x) − sin2 (x))
dx 13x2 # 5x # 22 2
1
4. g ¿1x2 " 6xln1x2 # 13x2 2 ! 20x3 16. f ¿1x2 "
x
˛
= x(6ln(x) + 3 – 20x2) 2x1x2 # 12 ! 2x1x2 ! 12 4x

" 2
1x2 # 12 2 1x # 12 2
5. h ′(u) = e (u + 3u) + (2u + 3)e
u 2 u
11 # 1x 21ex ! 12 ! ex 1x # ln1x2 2
= e u (u 2 + 5u + 3) 17. f ¿1x2 "
1ex ! 12 2
6. k ′(x) = 1 x − 2 ⋅ cos(x ) − sin(x ) ⋅ x 2
1 1 dy 5x4ln1x2 ! 1x # x5 5x4ln1x2 ! x4
18. " "
2 dx 1ln1x2 2 2 1ln1x2 2 2
⎛ ⎞
1 −5 x 4 (5 ln(x) − 1)
−1
− ⎜ cos(x) ⋅ x 4 − x 4 ⋅ sin(x)⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
(ln(x))
2
dy 8sin1x2 dy
7. " # 8ln1x2cos1x2 ! sin1x2 19. "
dx x dt
14e # 121t3 # 2t # 12 ! 13t2 # 2214et # t2
t
1t3 # 2t # 12 2
175
3π t 2 sin(t ) − πt 3 cos(t ) d d 1
20. g ′t = 29. 1csc1x2 2 " a b
π2 sin2 (t ) dx dx sin1x2
3t 2 sin(t ) − t 3 cos(t ) cos(x) 1 cos(x)
= =− =− ⋅
π sin2 (t ) 2
sin (x) sin(x) sin(x)
= − csc(x)cot(x)
− x 2 ⎛1 + x 2 ⎞ − x 2 ⎛1 − x 2 ⎞
3 1 3
3 1 3
dy 2 ⎝ ⎠ 2 ⎝ ⎠
21. = d d cos1x2
dx ⎛ 1 + x 32 ⎞
2
30. 1cot1x2 2 " a b
dx dx sin1x2
⎝ ⎠
!sin2 1x2 ! cos2 1x2
1 "
−3x 2 sin2 1x2
= 2
⎛ 1 + x 32 ⎞ "
!1
" !csc2 1x2
⎝ ⎠ sin2 1x2
cos(u) ⋅ (u 3 − 3u) − (3u 2 − 2) ⋅ sin(u) 31. f ¿1x2 " tan1x2 # x # sec2 1x2
22. g ′(u) =
(u )
2
3
− 3u
32. g ′(x) = e sec(x) + sec(x) tan(x )e
x x
dy = e x sec(x)(1 + tan(x ))
23. dx
=
(
0 − cos(x) ⋅ (cos(x) − π ) − sin(x) ⋅ (sin(x) + π ) ) ⎛ ⎞
33. h ′(t ) = ⎜ e t ⋅ ln(t ) + 1 ⋅ e t ⎟ tan(t ) + sec 2 (t )
⎝ t ⎠
(sin(x) + π) (cos(x) − π)
2 2
⋅ e t ⋅ ln(t )
h ′(t ) =
⎛ ⎞ 34. j ′(x) =
24. ⎜ 1 + 1⎟ ⋅ sin2 (t ) −
⎝t ⎠ ⎛ 1 − 23 1 − 34 ⎞ ⎛ 13 4⎞
1
⎜ 3 x + 4 x ⎟ sec(x) − sec(x) tan(x) ⋅ ⎝ x + x ⎠
⎛ 64444 =2 sin( t )cos( t )
4744444 8⎞ ⎝ ⎠
⎜ cos(t ) ⋅ sin(t ) + cos(t ) ⋅ sin(t )⎟ ⋅ (ln(t ) + t ) sec 2 (x)
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
sin (t )4 Lesson 10
dy 1ln1x2 # 12ex ! xex ln1x2 ˛
25.
dx
"
ex # ex 1. f ¿1x2 " 418x3 # 72 3 # 124x2 2
ln1x2 # 1 ! xln1x2
" 31x2 # 8x # 92 2 # 12x # 82
" dy
ex 2.
dx
12xex # ex # x2 2cos1x2 # sin1x2 # x2ex 3. h¿1t2 " 101t8 ! 9t3 # 3t # 22 #
26. f ¿1x2 "
cos2 1x2
˛
18t7 ! 27t2 # 32
dy
" 1u5 ! 3u4 # 72 2 # 15u4 ! 12u3 2
27. = 1 ⋅ e x + e x ⋅ x + e = e x ⋅ (x + 1) + e dy 7 5
dx 4.
du 2
d2y
1x # 9x # 12 !2 # 12x # 92
= e x ⋅ (x + 1) + 1 ⋅ e x = e x ⋅ (x + 2) 1 2 1
dx 2 5. g¿1x2 "
2
28. f ′(x) = 2 x ⋅ ln(x) + x , so 2x # 9
"
f ′(e) = 2e ln(e) + e = 2e + e = 3e . 22x2 # 9x # 1
{
=1
176
sec2 1et # 12 # et
" 1ex # 12 !3 # ex "
dy 1 2 ex
6. 23. g¿1t2 "
dx 3 2
31ex # 12 3 tan1et # 12
( )2 " cos1sin1sin1x2 2 2 # cos1sin1x2 2 # cos1x2

1 dy
7. f ′(x) = sec 2 x ⋅ 24.
x dx
# 1 #
1
(tan(x)) 25. k¿1u2 " sec1ln18u3 2 2tan1ln18u3 2 2 24u2
− 12
8. g ′(x) = ⋅ sec 2 (x) 8u3
2
3
dy 3 " sec1ln18u3 2 2tan1ln18u3 2 2
9. " u
dt 3t # 5
⎛ e 4 x 2 − 1⎞ ⎛ ⎛ e 4 x 2 − 1⎞ ⎞
10. h′(x) = π cos(πx) 26. h ′(x) = 2 cos⎜ ⋅
x ⎟ ⎜
− sin⎜ x ⎟⎟
⎝ 1 − e ⎠ ⎜⎝ ⎝ 1 − e ⎠ ⎟⎠
11.
dy
dx
"
51ln1x2 2 4
x ⋅⎜
( )
⎛ e 4 x 2 ⋅ 8 x ⋅ 1 − e x + e x ⋅ ⎛ e 4 x 2 − 1⎞ ⎞
⎝ ⎠⎟
⎜
( ) ⎟
2
⎜ 1−e x ⎟
12. f ¿1x2 " ex # 2e2x # 3e3x ⎝ ⎠
1 1
13. g1x2 " 1ex ! e!x 2 , so g ¿1x2 " 1ex # e!x 2 Lesson 11
2 2
˛
cos12u2 # 2 # u ! 1 # sin12u2
14. f ¿1u2 "
u2
1. 31y # 12 2 #
dy
2θ cos(2θ) − sin(2θ) " 4x3 ! 8 , so
= dx
θ2 dy 4x3 ! 8
dy "
15. " e2x # 2xe2x dx 31y # 12 2
dx
2. 3y2 #
dy dy dy cos1x2
16. f ¿1x2 " # " cos1x2 , so " 2
dx dx dx
sec110x2 # ex 2tan110x2 # ex 2 # 120x # ex 2
3y # 1
dy 4
dy 2 3. " " 4sec1y2
17. = e x ⋅ 2 x + 2ex 2 e−1 dx cos1y2
dx
1
2 2y
⋅ (sin(x) + cos(x) ⋅ x )
dy 1 dy
18. = 4. "
x
"
dx x sin(x) dx 1
1 ! 2 1y 2x2y ! x
19. s ′(u) = 3(sin(u) + cos(u)) ⋅ (cos(u) − sin(u))
2
dy 12x3 ! 1
5. "
dx 2y ! 8
20. dx = sec (cos(x)) ⋅ ( − sin(x))
dy 2
dy e x + 2e 2 x
6. = y
21. f ¿1x2 " 3cos2 18x2 # 1!sin18x2 2 # 8 dx e + 2e 2 y
" !24cos2 18x2sin18x2 dy !sin1x2

7. " " !sin1x2cos2 1y2
dx sec2 1y2
" 41e9x #2x#1 2 3 # 1e9x #2x#1 2 # 118x # 22
dy 2 2
22.
dx
177
dy 1 ⎛ dy ⎞ dy −1
8. = ⎜1 + ⎟ , so 17. = , so at (4,2) the tangent slope is
dx ⎝ dx ⎠ dx 3
2 x +y − 2 y 1.
1 3y − 5
dy 2 x +y 1
= = dy −1
dx 1 2 x + y −1 18. dx = π ⎛ π ⎞ , so at
1 −
2 x +y cos(y ) ⋅ sin⎜ sin(y )⎟
2 2 ⎝2 2 ⎠
dy − cos(x) + cos(x − y )
9. = ⎛ 2 π⎞ 4 2
dx − cos(y ) + cos(x − y ) the tangent slope is − .
⎜ 2 , 4⎟ π
⎝ ⎠
dy 2 3 ⎛ 1 π⎞
Though tempting, don’t cancel the terms cos(x – y). 19. = at ⎜ , ⎟ , so the tangent
dx 3 ⎝2 6⎠
−1 2 3⎛ 1⎞ π
10. dy = equation is y = ⎜x − ⎟ + .
dx x(3y 2 − 2 y − 2) 3 ⎝ 2⎠ 6
dy 5 ex
11. " ! 2x −
20. dy = e + e , so at (0,0) the tangent slope is
x y
dx 21y # x2 2 3 x
dx e
+1
dy 4 x 3 y 4 − 2 xy ex +ey
12. =
dx x 2 − 4y 3x 4 1
− . As such, the equation of the tangent line is
y!x# dy 3
13.
dxdy
# x " 1 # dy , so
#y# 1
y = − x.
y2 dx dx
3
1
1!y!
dy y y2 ! y3 ! y
" "
dx x
! 2#x!1
!x # xy2 ! y2 Lesson 12
y
" 51x3 # x ! 12 4 # a 3x2 # b
dy dx dx
2 1.
dy 3x cos1y2 dt dt dt
14. "
dx sec1y2tan1y2 # 9 # x3sin1y2 dy dy
dx
2. 4y3 ! 6x " !sin1y2
dt dt dt
15. 3y2 # # 2x " 2y # !5#
dy dy dy
, so at
dx dx dx
dy 3.
1 # dx # 1 # dy " 30x2 # dx ! 7 # dx
(!3,1), the tangent slope is " 1. 22x dt 22y dt dt dt
dx
1 # dy
# ex # " 2x #
dx # 2
y # 2y # #x
dx dy 2
dy −3x 2 − 1 4.
16. = , so at (1,!2) the tangent slope y dt dt dt dt
dx 3y 2 − 3
" x# # y# ! 2#
dz 4 dx 4 dy 3 dx
4
is − . 5.
dt 5 dt 5 dt 5x dt
9
6. 2A # # 2B # " 2C #
dA dB dC
dt dt dt
178
" 4p r2 #
dV dr dr 5 5
7. 21. " , so the radius grows at ! 0.796
dt dt dt 2p 2p
feet per hour.
" 8p r #
dA dr
8.
dt dt ds
22. " 4 , so each side is shrinking at the rate of
dt
" 2p #
dC dr
9. 4 inches per minute.
dt dt
de 1
" #
dA 1 db # dh # 1 23. =− , so each side is growing at the rate of
10. h# b dt 240
dt 2 dt dt 2
1 inch per second.
1 ⎛ db dh ⎞
= ⎜ ⋅ h + ⋅b⎟ 240
2 ⎝ dt dt ⎠
db
dS de 24. " 7 , so the base increases at the rate of
11. = 12e ⋅ dt
dt dt 7 inches per hour.
⎛ dy ⎞
12. dD = 1 dx
⋅ ⎜ 2x ⋅ + 2y ⋅ ⎟ 25. If the height is y and the base is x, then
dt 2 x 2 + y 2 ⎝ dt dt ⎠ dy
dx
x2 # y2 " 102 and 2x # 2y " 0 . After 6
dx dy dt dt
x⋅ +y⋅ seconds, y " 6 and x2 # 62 " 100 , so x " 8.
= dt dt
dy dx
x +y
2 2 Because
dt
" 1,2182 # 2162112 " 0 , so
dt
dx 3
dx 35 " ! . The end of the board is moving at
13. "! dt 4
dt 12
3
the rate of of a foot each hour along the
dy 4 4
14. "! ground.
dt 3
dK
15. " 24 26. If the base is x and the hypotenuse (length of
dt
the string) is s, then x2 # 1002 " s2 . Using
dB this, when s " 260, x must be 240. Because
16. " 28
dt dx ds
" 13 , we can calculate that " 12 .
dt dt
dA Thus, the string is being let out at 12 feet
17. Because " 172 , A is increasing at the rate
dt per second.
of 172 square feet per minute when I " 20.
dR 27 27
18. = , so R is increasing at the rate of
dt 64 64 Lesson 13
per hour at this instant.
dA 1. 0
19. = − 65 , so the area is decreasing at the
dt 4
rate of 65 square feet per minute. 2.
5
dA in2
20. = − 320 π , so the area shrinks by 5
dt hour 3.
320p square inches per hour. 2
4. q
179
5. 0 23. vertical asymptote at x " !3, horizontal

8 asymptote at y " 1, sign diagram:
6. !
9
7. !q h(x) + + - +
8. q –3 –1 1
9. 1 24. vertical asymptotes at x " 1 and x " 3, hori-

zontal asymptote at y " 0, sign diagram:
10. 0
11. 3 k(x) - + - +
12. q 1
– __ 1 3
2
13. !q
25. vertical asymptote at x = –5, horizontal asymp-
14. q tote at y = 0, sign diagram:
15. 0 j(x) + -
16. 0 –5
26. vertical asymptotes at x = –2 and x = –1, no
17. q horizontal asymptote, sign diagram:
18. 0 m(x)
- - + +
19. 0 –2 –1 0
4 27. q
20. !
7
21. vertical asymptote at x " 4, horizontal 28. q
asymptote at y " 1, sign diagram:
29. q
22. vertical asymptotes at x " 2 and x " !2,
30. !q
f (x) + - +
31. !q
–2 4
32. !q
horizontal asymptote at y " 0, sign diagram:
g(x) - + - +
–2 2 3
180
Lesson 14 2. g1x2 has no asymptotes.

g¿1x2 " !4 ! 2x " !212 # x2 , so there
1. f 1x2 has no asymptotes. f ¿1x2 " 2x ! 30 ,
˛ ˛ is a local maximum at (!2,4). Because
thus there is a local minimum at (15,!215). g–1x2 " !2 , the graph is always concave
Because f –1x2 " 2 , the graph is always down.
concave up.
y
(–2,4) 4
y
25 3
(0,10)
x
–25 5 10 15 20
2
–50 g(x) = –4x – x2
f(x) = x2 – 30x + 10
–75 1
–100
–125 (0,0)
x
–150 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3
–175
–1
–200
–225
(15,–215) –2
–250
–2 increasing
increasing 15 decreasing
decreasing
concavity
concavity
181
3. h1x2 has no asymptotes. 4. k1x2 has no asymptotes.

h¿1x2 " 6x2 ! 6x ! 36 " 61x ! 321x # 22 , k¿1x2 " 3 ! 3x2 " 311 ! x2 11 # x2 , so there
so there is a local maximum at (!2,49) and a is a local minimum at (!1,!2) and a local
local minimum at (3,!76). Because h–1x2 " maximum at (1,2). k–1x2 " !6x , so there is a
1 point of inflection at (0,0).
12x ! 6 " 12 a x ! 2 b , there is a point of
inflection at ⎛ 1 , −27 ⎞ . y
⎜ ⎟ 3
⎝2 2 ⎠
(1,2)
2
y
75
h(x) = 2x 3 – 3x 2 – 36x + 5 1
(–2,49)
50
(0,0) 1 x
–3 –2 –1 2 3
25
–1
3
x k(x) = 3x – x
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 –2
1 –27 (–1,–2)
— —
–25 2, 2
–3
–50
(3, –76) increasing

–75 –1 1
decreasing
concavity 0
increasing –2 3
decreasing
concavity 1
—
2
182
5. f 1x2 has no asymptotes.

˛
6. g1x2 has a vertical asymptote at x " !2 and a
f ¿1x2 " 4x3 ! 24x2 " 4x2 1x ! 62 , so there horizontal asymptote at y " 1. The first
is a local minimum at (6,!427). 2
derivative is g¿1x2 " , and the
f –1x2 " 12x2 ! 48x " 12x1x ! 42 , so there 1x # 22 2
are points of inflection at (0,!5) and at !4
second is g–1x2 " .
(4,!251). 1x # 22 3
y y
50
(0,5) f(x) =x 4 – 8x 3 + 5
4
x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (–3,3)
3
–50
2 x
g(x) = ______
–100 x+2
1
–150
–200 x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
(4,–251) –1
–250 (–1, –1)
–2
–300
–3
–350
–4
–400
(6,–427)
–450
–2
increasing 6 increasing
decreasing decreasing
–2
0 4 concavity
concavity
183
1 x
7. h1x2 " has vertical 8. k1x2 " has vertical
1x ! 321x # 32 1x ! 12 1x # 12
asymptotes at x " !3 and x " 3, and a asymptotes at x " 1 and x " !1, and a
horizontal asymptote at y " 0.
horizontal asymptote
The first derivative is
!2x
at y " 0. Because h¿1x2 " " x2 # 1 x2 # 1
1x2 ! 92 2 k¿1x2 " ! 2 " ! ,
1x ! 12 2 1x ! 12 2 1x # 12 2
!2x
, there is a local maximum at and the second derivative is
1x ! 32 2 1x # 32 2 2x1x2 # 32
k–1x2 " . There is a point of
1 1x ! 12 3 1x # 12 3
a 0,! b . The second derivative is
9 inflection at (0,0).
6x2 # 18 6x2 # 18
h–1x2 " 2 3 " .
1x ! 92 1x ! 32 3 1x # 32 3
y
2
y x—
k(x) = –—2—
2 1 x –1
2
(2, —
3)
1
h(x) = ______
1 x2 – 9
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
1
0,– —
–2 9 2 2
(–2, – —
3)
x –1
–5 –4 –3 –1 1 3 4 5
–1
–2
–2 –1 1
–3 0 3 –1 0 1
–3 3
184
9. j1x2 has a vertical asymptote at x " 0 but no 10. f 1x2 has a horizontal asymptote at y " 0 but
˛
horizontal asymptote. Because no vertical asymptotes. Because

x2 ! 1 1x ! 121x # 12 1 ! x2 11 ! x2 11 # x2
j¿1x2 " 2 " , there is a f ¿1x2 " 2 2 " , there is
x x2 1x # 12 1x2 # 12 2
˛
local maximum at (!1,!2) and a local

1
minimum at (1,2). The second derivative is a local minimum at a!1,! b and a local
2
ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ
2
j–1x2 " 3 .
x 1
maximum at a1, b . Because
2
ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ
2
2x1x ! 32
f –1x2 " 2
y 1x # 12 3
2 x(x − 3)(x + 3)
4 = , there are points
(x 2 + 1) 3
3
⎛ 3⎞
of inflection at ⎜ 3 ,
4 ⎟⎠
2
j(x) = x______
+1 2 , (0,0), and
x (1,2) ⎝
1 ⎛ 3⎞
⎜ 3, 4 ⎟ .
x ⎝ ⎠
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
–1
(–1,–2) y 1
1,—
–2 1 2
—
2
–3 3)
( 3 , ___
4
–4
x
______
f(x) = 2
x +1
–1 0 1
x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
(– 3, – ___
3
4)
1
–—
2
1
–1,– —
2
–1 1
– 3 0 3
185
Lesson 15 5. The area is Area " xy and the total fencing is

4y # 2x " 400 . Thus, x " 200 ! 2y , so the
1,000 10,000 area function can be written as follows:
1. P¿1x2 " ! 2 # " 0 when x " 10.
x x3 A(y) = xy = (200 – 26) ⋅ y = 200y – 2y 2. The
Using the first derivative test, P¿112 " 9,000 is
derivative A′(y) = 200 – 4y is zero when y " 50.
positive, so the function increases to x " 10 Because the second derivative is A″(y) = –4, this
1 1 9
and P¿11002 " ! # "! , so the is an absolute maximum. Thus, the optimal
10 100 100
function decreases afterward, thus x " 10 dimensions for the pen are y " 50 feet and
x " 200 ! 2y " 200 ! 21502 " 100 feet.
maximizes the profit.
6. Here, Area " xy and the total fencing is
2. If x is the number of trees beyond 30 that are
5y # x " 150 . Because x " 150 ! 5y , the
planted on the acre, then the number of
area function can be written as follows:
oranges produced will be:
A(y) = (150 – 5y)y = 150y – 5y2. The
O(x) = (number of trees) (yield per tree)
derivative A′(y) = 150 – 10y is zero when y "
" (30 + x)(500 ! 10x) " 15,000 + 200x ! 10x2.
15. Because A″(y) = –10, this is an absolute
The derivative O′(x) = 200 − 20 x is zero maximum. Thus, the optimal dimensions are y
when x " 10. Using the second derivative test, " 15 feet and therefore
O′′(x) = − 20 is negative, so this is maximal. x " 150 ! 51152 " 75 feet.
Thus, x " 10 more than 30 trees should be
7. Because Volume = πr 2h = 16π, it follows
planted, for a total of 40 trees per acre. 16
that h " 2 . Thus, the surface area function is
3. The total sales will be figured as follows: r
Sales = (number of copies)(price per copy), ⎛ 16 ⎞ 32 π
A(r)= 2 πr 2 + 2 πr ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 2 πr 2 +
so S(x) = (20 + x)(100 – x) = 2,000 + 80x – x2 ⎝r ⎠ r
where x is the number of copies beyond 20. 3
The derivative V ′(x) = 150 − x 2 is zero
The derivative S′(x) = 80 – 2x is zero when x 2
" 40. Because S″(x) = –2, this is maximal by 32 π
when 4 πr = 3
, so r " 8 . Thus, the only
the second derivative test. Thus, the artist r2
point of slope zero is when r " 2. The second
should make x " 40 more than 20 paintings, 64 π
derivative is A ′′(r ) = 4 π + , which is
for a total of 60 paintings in order to maximize r3
sales. positive when r " 2. Thus, by the second
4. After x days, there will be 200 # 5x pounds of derivative test, r " 2 is the absolute minimum.
watermelon, which will valued at 90 ! x cents Thus, a radius of r " 2 inches and a height of
16
per pound. Thus, the price after x days will be h " 2 " 4 inches will minimize the surface
r
P(x) = (200 + 5x)(90 – x) = 18,000 + 250x – 5x2 area.
cents. The derivative is P(x) = 250 – 10x, which
is zero when x " 25. Because P(x) is clearly
positive when x is less than 25 and negative
afterward, this is maximal by the first
derivative test. Thus, the watermelons will
fetch the highest price in 25 days.
186
8. Because the box has a square bottom, let x be 9. Because the box has a square bottom, let x be
both its length and its width, and let y be the both the length and width, and y be the height.
height. Thus, the volume is Volume " x2y The area of each side is thus xy, so the cost to
and the surface area is Area " x2 # 4xy # x2 build four of them at ten cents a square foot is
(the top, the four sides, and the bottom). And 0.10(4xy) = 0.4xy dollars. The area of the top is
because Area " 2x2 # 4xy " 600, the height x # x " x2 , so it will cost x2 dollars to build.
600 ! 2x2 150 x Similarly, it will cost 7x2 dollars to build the
y" " ! . Thus, the volume
4x x 2 base. The total cost of the box is therefore
is
2 ⎛ 150 x⎞ 1 Cost = 0.4xy + 8x2. Because the volume is
V( x ) = x ⎜ − ⎟ = 150 x − x 3 . 40,000
⎝ x 2⎠ 2 x2y " 40,000 , we know y " . Thus, the
x2
3 2 cost function can be written:
The derivative V ′(x) = 150 − x is zero
2 ⎛ 40, 000 ⎞
when x2 " 100 . Negative lengths are C(x) = 0.4 x ⎜ ⎟ + 8x
2
⎝ x2 ⎠
impossible, therefore this is zero only when
16,000
x " 10. By the second derivative test, " # 8x2 .
x
V ′′(x) = − 3x is negative when x " 10, so The derivative:
this is a maximum. The corresponding height ⎛ 16, 000 ⎞
150 10 C ′(x) = − ⎜ ⎟ + 16 x
is y " ! " 10 feet, ⎝ x2 ⎠
10 2
so the largest box is a cube with all sides of is zero only when x3 " 1,000 or x " 10.
length 10 feet. By the second derivative test,
⎛ 32, 000 ⎞
C ′′(x) = ⎜ ⎟ + 16 is positive when
⎝ x3 ⎠
x " 10, so this is the absolute minimum. The
cheapest box will be built when x " 10 feet and
y " 400 feet.
187
10. Inside the margins, the area is: 1

12. !
⎛ ⎛ 3⎞ ⎞ 2
Area = ⎜ x − 2⎜ ⎟ ⎟ (y − 2)
⎝ ⎝ 2⎠⎠ 13. 16
" 1x ! 32 1y ! 22 " xy ! 2x ! 3y # 6 . 14. 6
15. 0
The total area of the page is xy " 96, so 21
16.
96 2
y" . Therefore, the area is
x 17. 35
18. 48
⎛ 96 ⎞ ⎛ 96 ⎞
A(x) = x ⎜ ⎟ − 2 x − 3⎜ ⎟ + 6 19. 5
⎝ x⎠ ⎝ x⎠
20. !3
288 21. 7
" 102 ! 2x ! .
x
22. 7
The derivative A ′(x) = − 2 + 288 is zero 23. !11
x2
24. !1
when x2 " 144 , thus when x " 12 ignore
25. 8
negative lengths. The second derivative
576 26. !17
A ′′(x) = − 3 is negative when x " 12,
x 27. 25
so this is the absolute maximum. Thus, the
28. 11
dimensions that maximize the printed area are
29. –1
x " 12 inches and y " 8 inches.
30. 1
Lesson 16 Lesson 17
1. 2 a
3
1. 0 (Note that ∫
a
g (x)dx = 0 , for any constant a.)
2.
2 5
2.
7 2
3.
2 3. 8
4. 2p
33
5. 3 4.
2
6. 3 # 2p
5. 28
3
7. !
2 85
6.
8. 0 2
3 7. 0
9. !
2
8. 7
10. 4
11. 0 9. 14
188
10. 21 1 !2 1
6. t #c"! 2#c
!2 2t
11. 28 −1
[−t ] ⎡ 1⎤
−1 3
−1
7. = ⎢− ⎥ =
12. 35 −4
⎣ t ⎦ −4 4
13. 10 3 83
8. x #c ˛
8
˛
14. !4 4 5
9. x 4 # c
15. 36 5
3 4
16. 20 10. u 3 # c
4
2 11. 5x # c
17.
3
16 12. 40
18.
3
9 5
38 13. x #c
19. 5
3
8
2,000 14. u3 # c
20. 3
3 4 3
15. 3 x 3 − 2 x 2 + c
21. 2 4 3
2 16. 2x3 ! 5x2 # 5x # c
1
22.
2 17. 48
23. − 2
2 18. 11
24. 1 1 12 1
19. t # 3t 3 # t 2 # c
˛
4 2
˛ ˛ ˛
20. !6
Lesson 18 1 4 1
21. − t − 4 + t − 3 − t 2 + c
2 3 2
1. 1 x 5 + c
5 22. 58
1 13
2. x #c 23. 208
13
1 9 133 56 11
3. u7 # c 24. x ! x7 # c
7 13 11
⎡1 ⎤
6 1
4. ⎢ x 3 ⎥ = 72 25. x3 ! 5sin1x2 # c
3
⎣ 3 ⎦0
1
5. 0 26. 3ex # x4 # c
2
189
1 2
[ ]
e2
27. 2 ln u = 2 ln e 2 − 2 ln e 11. 14x # 5x ! 12 4 # c , by substituting
e 4
= 4 ln(e) − 2 ln(e) = 4 − 2 = 2 u = 4x 2 + 5x – 1
1
1 2 12. ! # c , by substituting
28. u ! 2cos1u2 # c 1614x2 # 52 2
2
u = 4x 2 + 5
29. −5 cos(x) + 2e + c
x
1
13. ln 4 x + 10 + c , by substituting
2
1 1 u = 4x + 10
30. a # e1 b ! 10 # e0 2 " e !
2 2 14. Using u " sin1x2 , the solution is
[ ]
ln( 3) 1 2
31. 4e
x
= 4e ln(3) − 4e ln(2 ) = 4(3) − 4(2) = 4 sin 1x2 # c . Using u " cos1x2, the solution
ln(2 ) 2
1
5π is ! cos2 1x2 # c . Because
2
[
32. 8 sin(x) ] π
6
=0
sin 1x2 # cos2 1x2 " 1, these solutions will
2
6
1
be the same if the second #c is greater
2
than the first one.
Lesson 19
1 3
1 5 15. sin 1x2 # c, by substituting u = sin(x)
1. 1x # 12 8 # c , by substituting u = x 5 + 1 3
40
1
1 16. sin14x2 # c , by substituting u = 4x
2. 14x # 32 11 # c , by substituting u = 4x + 3 4
44
17. 4sin1x2 # c
1
3. , by substituting u = x 3 + 1 1
15 18. ! cos17x ! 22 # c, by substituting
7
1 4 9 2 u = 7x – 2
4. x ! x # 4x # c
4 2
19. cos(e x) + c, by substituting u = ex (the one
4
3 2 inside sin(ex))
5. (x − 1) 3 + c , by substituting u = x 2 – 1
8
1
3 20. 1ln1x2 2 4 # c , by substituting u = ln(x)
1 4
6. (2 x + 1) 2 + c , by substituting u = 2x + 1
3
21. ln ln(x) + c, by substituting u = ln(x)
5
7. , by substituting u = 1 – x
6 22. 2e x
+ c , by substituting u = x (the one
8. ln ⏐3x3 – 5x⏐, by substituting u = 3x3 – 5x occurring in the term e x
)
1
9. sin1x4 2 # c , by substituting u = x 4 23. − ln cos(x) + c , by substituting u = cos(x)
2
1
24. ln(1 + e 2 x ) + c , by substituting u = 1 + e2x
10. 23x4 ! 2x # 1 # c , by substituting 2
u = 3x 4 – 2x + 1
190
Lesson 20 13.
2 3 4 5
x 1x ! 12 2 ! 1x ! 12 2 # c , by parts
3 15
˛
1 6 1 with u " x
1. x ln1x2 ! x6 # c , done by parts with
6 36
14. !xe!x ! e!x # c, by parts with u " x
u " ln1x2
2. !xcos1x2 # sin1x2 # c , by parts with u " x 15. − 1 cos 4 (x) + c , by substituting u = cos(x)
4
1
3. ! cos1x2 2 # c , by the substitution u " x2
2 16. − 1
+ c , by substituting u = ln(x)
4(ln(x))
4
4. 1x # 32sin1x2 # cos1x2 # c , by parts with
u"x#3
1
1 17. ln x + c , by basic integration
5. 1ln1x2 2 2 # c , by substituting u " ln1x2 3
2
18. e–cos(x) + c, by substituting u = –cos(x)
6. !x2cos1x2 # 2xsin1x2 # 2cos1x2 # c , using
parts twice, first with u = x2, and then with 1 1
19. !e x # c , by substituting u "
u = 2x x
1 3 2 3
7. x ! cos1x2 # c, by basic integration 20. ! 1cos1x2 2 2 # c , by substituting u " cos1x2

3 3
1 3 21. First, let u = six(x).
8. ex #1 # c , by substituting u " x3 # 1
" cos(x)ln(sin(x))dx = " ln(u)du.
3
1 Then,
9. ln(e 3 x + 9) + c , by substituting u = e3x + 9
3 From an earlier example,
1 3 1 3
10. a x4 # x2 ! xbln1x2 ! x4 ! x2 # x # c ,
4 2 16 4
" ln(u)du = u ln(u) − u + c. So, we get
sin(x) ⋅ ln(sin(x)) – sin(x) + c.
by parts with u " ln1x2
1 x
22. 1e sin1x2 # e xcos1x2 2 # c , by parts twice,
11. ln x + x ln(x) − x + c , evaluating 2
plus the trick from the last example in the
" ln(x)dx by parts with u " ln1x2 lesson.
2 3
12. 1x ! 12 2 # c, substituting u " x ! 1
3
191
GLOSSARY
acceleration the rate at which the velocity of a concavity the way a graph curves either upward
moving object is increasing or decreasing or downward
additive rule parts of a function added together Constant Coefficient Rule a constant c multi-
can be differentiated separately: plied in front of a function is unaffected by dif-
d #
1c f 1x2 2 ! c # f ¿1x2
d
1f1x2 # g1x2 2 ! f ¿1x2 # g¿1x2 ferentiation:
dx dx
˛
antiderivative given a function f 1x2 , the

˛ Constant Rule the derivative of a constant is
anti-derivative is a function g1x2 such that zero.
g¿1x2 ! f 1x2 .
˛ continuous function one whose graph can be
asymptote a line that a graph flattens out drawn without picking up the pencil
toward. It occurs as either an infinite limit or a cosecant abbreviated csc; see trigonometry
limit as x → ±∞ . cosine abbreviated cos; see trigonometry
cotangent abbreviated cot; see trigonometry
1f 1g1x2 2 2 ! f ¿1g1x2 2 # g¿1x2
d
Chain Rule critical points points of slope zero, points where
dx
˛
closed interval the set of all the real numbers the derivative is undefined, and endpoints of the
between and including two endpoints, like all x domain
such that a " x " b decreasing when the graph of function goes
composition the process of plugging one func- down from left to right
tion into another. The composition of functions definite integral the area between a graph
f and g is ( f o g )(x ) = f (g (x )). y ! f 1x2 and the x-axis from x ! a to x ! b
˛
where area below the x-axis counts as negative,

concave down when the graph of a function
!
a
bows downward, like a frown written f 1x2dx

˛
b
concave up when the graph of a function bows
degrees measure the size of angles in such a way
upward, like a smile
that a complete circle is 360°
193
– GLOSSARY –
derivative the derivative of function y ! f 1x2 is ˛

implicit differentiation the process of taking a
dy f 1x # a2 $ f 1x2 derivative of both sides of an equation and using
! f ¿1x2 ! lim
˛ ˛
,
dx aS0 a d d dy
the Chain Rule with 1x2 ! 1 , 1y2 ! ,
which is the slope of the tangent line at point dx dx dx
1x,f 1x2 2 . d dx
˛
1x2 ! , and so on
dt dt
discontinuity a break in a graph
increasing when the graph of a function goes up
domain the set of all the real numbers at which a
from left to right
function can be evaluated
indefinite integral represents the antiderivative:
e a transcendental number approximately equal to
2.71828 . . . ! f 1x2dx ! g1x2 # c if and only if g¿1x2 ! f 1x2
˛ ˛
explicit a function is explicit if its formula is integral see either definite integral or indefinite
known exactly. integral
exponent an exponent says how many times a L’Hôpital’s Rule If lim f (x) = ± ∞ and
x →∞
factor is multiplied by itself. In the case of roots,
f (x) f ′(x)
the exponent is a fraction. lim g (x) = ± ∞ , then lim = lim .
x →∞ x →∞ g (x) x →∞ g ′(x)
First Derivative Test if a function increases to a
The same is true when lim .
point and then decreases afterward, then that x→−∞
point is a local maximum. If the function limit the limit limf 1x2 ! L means that the values
˛
xSa
decreases to a point and then increases afterward, of f 1x2 get very close to L as x gets close to a.
˛
then the point is a local minimum.

function a mathematical object that assigns one limit from the left lim f 1x2 ! L means that the
˛
xSa "
number in its range to every number in its values of f 1x2 are close to L when x is close to,
˛
domain
and less than, a.
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus if
!
x
limit from the right lim f 1x2 ! L means that the
g1x2 ! f 1t2dt , then g¿1x2 ! f 1x2 . Thus,
˛
˛ ˛
xSa !
0 values of f 1x2 are close to L when x is close to,
˛
!
b
f 1x2dx ! g1b2 $ g1a2 where g¿1x2 ! f 1x2 .
˛ ˛
and greater than, a.
a
graph a visual depiction of a function where the limits at infinity lim f (x) = L means that
x →∞
height of each point is the value assigned to the the values of y ! f 1x2 get close to y ! L as x gets
˛
number on the horizontal axis

really big. If large negative values of x are used and
horizontal asymptote a horizontal line toward
which the graph flattens out as x → ∞ or y ! f 1x2 gets close to y ! L , then lim f (x) = L .
x →−∞
˛
x → −∞ limits of integration the limits of the integral

implicit a function is implicit if it was defined in
! f 1x2dx are a and b.
b
an indirect manner so that its exact formula is

˛
a
unknown.
local maximum the highest point on a graph in
that immediate area, like a hilltop
194
– GLOSSARY –
local minimum the lowest point on a graph in that rate of change how fast a quantity is increasing or
immediate area, like a valley decreasing
natural logarithm the inverse ln1x2 of the expo- secant abbreviated sec; see trigonometry
nential function ex. Thus, y ! ln1x2 if and only if rational function a rational function is the quo-
ey ! x . tient of two polynomials. For example,
oscillate to repeatedly go back and forth across a 8x3 $ 10x # 4 is a rational function.
range of values 5x $ 2
second derivative the derivative of the first derivative
point of inflection a point on a graph where the
Second Derivative Test a point of slope zero is the
concavity changes
maximum if the second derivative is negative at
point-slope formula the equation of a straight
the point, and a minimum if the second derivative
line through 1x1,y1 2 with slope m is
is positive at the point.
y ! m1x $ x1 2 # y1 . sign diagram tells where an expression is positive
polynomial the sum of powers of a variable, and negative
complete with constant coefficients. For example, sine abbreviated sin; see trigonometry
x2 # 3x $ 5 and 10x7 $ 12x5 # 4x2 $ x are slope a measure of steepness of a straight line. It is
both polynomials. the amount the y-value goes up or down with
position function gives the mark on a line where a each step to the right.
moving object is at a given time slope-intercept formula the equation of a straight
1x 2 ! n # xn$1
d n line with slope m that crosses the y-axis at y ! b is
Power Rule
dx y ! mx # b .
Product Rule Squeeze Theorem if f 1x2 " g1x2 " h1x2 and
˛
1f 1x2 # g1x2 2 ! f ¿1x2 # g1x2 # g¿1x2 # f 1x2

d limf 1x2 ! L ! limh1x2 , then limg1x2 ! L .
˛
xSa xSa xSa

dx
˛ ˛
substitution an integration technique used to

Pythagorean theorem the squares of the legs of a
reverse the Chain Rule
right triangle add up to the square of the
tangent abbreviated tan; see trigonometry
hypotenuse.
tangent line a straight line that indicates the direc-
Quotient Rule
f ¿1x2 # g1x2 $ g¿1x2 # f 1x2
tion of a curve at a given point
d f 1x2 ˛ ˛
third derivative the derivative of the second

a b!
dx g1x2 1g1x2 2 2
derivative
radians measure the size of angles in such a way sin1x2
trigonometric identities tan1x2 ! ,
that a complete circle is 2p radians cos1x2
range the set of all the numbers that can be the 1 1
sec1x2 ! , csc1x2 ! ,
value of a function cos1x2 sin1x2
cos1x2
cot1x2 ! , and sin2 1x2 # cos2 1x2 ! 1
sin1x2
195
– GLOSSARY –
trigonometry the study of functions formed by The derivatives are:

dividing one side of a right triangle by another.
When the right triangle has angle x, the d
1sin1x2 2 ! cos1x2
dx
hypotenuse has length H, the side adjacent to x
has length A, and the side opposite x has length O, d
1cos1x2 2 ! $sin1x2
then dx
O d
sin1x2 ! 1sec1x2 2 ! sec1x2tan1x2
H dx
A d
cos1x2 ! 1csc1x2 2 ! $csc1x2cot1x2
H dx
H d
sec1x2 ! 1tan1x2 2 ! sec2 1x2
A dx
H d
csc1x2 ! 1cot1x2 2 ! $csc2 1x2
O dx
O unit circle the circle of radius 1 centered at the
tan1x2 ! origin
A
A velocity the rate of change of a moving object at a
cot1x2 !
O particular time
vertical asymptote a vertical line x = a that a graph
more closely resembles as the inputs x approach a
196

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CALCULUS

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LESSON 3 Exponents and Logarithms 31

LESSON 8 Rates of Change 67

LESSON 10 Chain Rule 81

LESSON 11 Implicit Differentiation 85

LESSON 13 Limits at Infinity 97

LESSON 14 Using Calculus to Graph 107

LESSON 16 The Integral and Areas under Curves 121

LESSON 17 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 127

SOLUTION KEY 165

Overcoming Math Anxiety

Use the following figure for questions 5 and 6.

35. Which of the following is the graph of c.

36. On what interval is g1x2 " x4 ! 6x2 # 5 con-

! g1x2 dx " !4 , then

49. Evaluate ! xln1x2 dx . 50. Evaluate ! xsin1x2 dx.

Answers 26. d. Lesson 10

For example, the domain of the function could f 112 ! 1

1S 1 However, if the domain were large, this would get

Solution 7. Suppose that after t seconds, a rock thrown off

Simplify. Variables can be plugged into functions just as easily as

1. Find the value of f 152 when f 1x2 ! 2x # 1. Example

Replace each occurrence of x in f with 4x " 7 .

11. f (x + h) − f (x) when f (x) = 1 ( f o g )(x ) = 4 x + 7 + 2(4 x + 7)

Conversely, to evaluate (g ° f )(x), we compute: Practice

Simplify. 19. (f ° h)(t)

mathematics can be done with imaginary numbers. x≥a [a,∞)

Example Find the domain of each of the following functions.

Plot the following points on a Cartesian plane. (4,2)

7. (0,0) Figure 2.3

For the function f 1x2 " x2 ! 2x # 5 , plot the point

y There is no way to tell the difference without an actual

Solution Similarly, a point of inflection can be seen at x "

We can obtain all sorts of useful information from a

Straight Lines Example

Find the slope between the following points.

“How much a line is increasing or decreasing” is

This is called the slope-intercept formula for the line

Do not multiply the base a times the exponent n.

Simplify the following.

Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3

21. ln(7) 1 ln(2) 25. Solve for x when 3x # 35 = 100.

The six trigonometric functions, sine (abbrevi- H 1 1

A Thus, 1sin1x2 2 2 ! 1cos1x2 2 2 " 1 . To save on paren-

To convert from radians to degrees, multiply by 360° = 180° .

Solution Convert the following to degrees.

By the Pythagorean theorem, A2 ! A2 " 1 , so π

We can flip that last triangle around to calculate ⎛ π⎞

–π – –π ––π – π π π π π 2π 3π 5π π 7π 5π 4π 3π 5π 7π 11π 2π 13π 9π 7π 5π

sin1x2 cos1x2 tan1x2 sec1x2 csc1x2 cot1x2

y The difference from the limits discussed previ-

Figure 5.4 2. lim f 1x2

7. lim" f 1x2 Example

13. lim! g1x2 Practice

14. lim g1x2 Evaluate the following limits.

15. lim! g1x2 17. lim(10 x + 4 x − 5 x + 7)

16. lim" g1x2 x#3

Evaluate the following limits. When computing a limit as x goes to a, if plug-

39. lim x + 22x − 15 x