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Measuring the depth of an impact

crater using an internal shadow
Robert Scott1 , Xinrong Shen2 , Ian Mulley3 and Zili Pan2
1
The Radclyffe School, Oldham, UK
2
Tianyi High School, Wuxi City, People’s Republic of China
3
Suman Education International, UK

E-mail: doctorrsscott@googlemail.com

Abstract
The introduction of a planetary science topic into teaching provides an
opportunity for teachers to broaden the science base and offer an enrichment
activity outside the National Curriculum. It enables students to undertake
independent learning by engaging in a scientific investigation relevant to the
real world. Here, more able students are given the opportunity to carry out a
classroom-based investigation to measure the depth of an impact crater
using the length of a shadow and the angle of the source rays of light. This
investigation provides the opportunity for teaching staff to extend the
traditional impact cratering practical and demonstrate how scientific
knowledge expands. Students also learn the importance of evaluating
conclusions by comparing data which have been analysed using different
techniques.

Introduction contact stage, the projectile and part of the target

In the school laboratory some of the key
factors involved in the cratering process may
be visualized by the students in different ways;
variations in mass, variations in density, the
velocity on impact, energy on impact, the size
of the projectile and the texture and composition
of the target surface. These factors have formed
the basis of school experiments available in
the literature, for example, Scott (2002a) and
Claycomb (2009). In many such experiments the
independent variable is often the kinetic energy
of impact. Unfortunately, during real cratering
events, kinetic energy plays very little part in
the dimensions of the final crater (Melosh 1989,
Hörz et al 1991). During these events the initial
energy and momentum of the projectile is almost
entirely coupled into the target during the brief
actually vaporize and expand back out as a hot
gas, after which the projectile plays little role
in the developing flow of excavated material
(Melosh 1989). Consequently, although cratering
investigations are useful for demonstrating how
the dimensions of a depression in a tray of sand
are dependent on the distance a spherical object
falls, they offer a poor analogy of an actual crating
event. Nevertheless, so long as misconceptions
are clarified, (see Scott et al 2012, Scott 2013),
these types of investigations can form the basis of
good science.
Impact craters formed in the school labora-
tory resemble the excavation and displacement
stage of the cratering event. The crater has a
hemispherical shape with no noticeable slumping.
The rim diameter and the pre-crater surface
diameter are the same (figure 1). However,

520 PHYSICS EDUCATION 48 (4) 0031-9120/13/040520+09$33.00 c 2013 IOP Publishing Ltd

 Measuring the depth of an impact crater using an internal shadow
Figure 1. Diagram of a typical school laboratory crater
where the depth and diameter are represented by the
symbols ds and Ds , respectively. The crater depth,
ds , and diameter, Ds , are measured in relation to the
pre-crater surface level.
during a real impact cratering event the formation
process is more complex. Simple crater formation
is a three-stage process (Melosh 1989, Hörz et al
1991):
(1) impact, excavation and rim formation;
(2) compression followed by rebound of the
target area; and finally,
(3) the slumping of material from the crater
sides onto the crater floor.
The resultant crater, whilst hemispherical in
shape, has a crater rim and may also have a central
flat crater floor (figure 2) (see also Scott 2013,
figures 1–3).
Measuring the depth of impact craters
Using lunar orbiting satellites or Earth-based
telescopes to photograph the Moon’s surface, and
knowing the angle of the Sun’s rays, some of the
early data relating to the dimensions of an impact
crater were obtained by measuring the length
of the shadow cast by a feature; for example,
the height of the rim or the depth of the crater
(Baldwin 1965, Pike 1967, Short and Forman
1972, Pike 1976).
The basis of this investigation is to use
the same technique, measuring the length of
the shadow cast by the feature to establish in
the school laboratory the empirical relationship
between the depth and diameter of an impact
crater.
This investigation is ideal as an enrichment
activity for higher-ability students studying as-
tronomy, physics and mathematics, at secondary
schools, high schools and sixth-form colleges.
July 2013
Figure 2. Diagram of a simple impact crater where the
depth and diameter are represented by the symbol d and
D, respectively. The crater depth, d, and diameter, D,
are measured in relation to the top of the crater rim.
The complexity of the investigation can be
differentiated mathematically to suit a range
of higher-level abilities; however, the general
procedure is likely to be the same in all cases.
Experimental procedure
Forming and measuring the impact craters
The procedure involves the dropping of an
object (the projectile) onto a target surface.
This target surface can consist of a variety of
materials, although damp, coarse sand was found
to offer the best surface. However, with this
investigation, the cratering process and the key
factors—variations in mass, variations in density,
the velocity on impact, energy on impact, and the
texture and composition of the target surface—are
of secondary importance. The only factors of
interest are the diameter of the crater and the angle
of the light source relative to the pre-cratered
surface (figure 3). By varying the diameter of
the projectile and the height fallen, a variety of
depressions with different diameters and depths
can be formed (figure 4). Care must be taken
to avoid making craters for which the depth is
greater than the diameter.
The selection of equipment and resources
needs to reflect the complexity of the task and
could include, for each group of students,
• a retort stand with clamp attachments,
• a narrow light source,
• sufficient 40 cm × 30 cm × 6 cm, or similar
sized, sturdy plastic trays,
• sufficient damp sand to fill the trays to the
top edge,
PHYSICS EDUCATION 521
R Scott et al

Figure 3. Measuring the angle of the rays of light shining onto the craters.

Figure 4. Images showing the craters and their interior shadows; rays of light are at (a) a shallow angle and (b) a
steep angle. (Note the slightly different scales.)

• a selection of balls, ‘the projectiles’, of A second tray may provide additional rigidity
different sizes, to the tray that contains the sand. This measure
• a 15-cm ruler, will considerably reduce the probability of the
• a 15-cm diameter fine wire sieve, sand cracking due to flexing of the sand tray if
• some powdered filler (such as plaster of it has to be moved around pre- and post-cratering.
Paris), Good reproducible results can be obtained by
• cotton and scissors, thoroughly drying out coarse builders’ sand and
then mixing it with water in a ratio of 10:1 by
• Blu Tack or White Tack,
mass, respectively. It is important that the sand is
• a ball of string, damp since this will ensure that craters are well
• a plumb line, formed. The retort stand should be placed on a
• a small permanent magnet, bench and the height adjusted to suit. Place the
• a good digital camera. tray on the floor.

522 PHYSICS EDUCATION July 2013

 Measuring the depth of an impact crater using an internal shadow
Figure 5. Modified table tennis ball (see text).
A variety of different sized spheres should
be used; their mass is not important other than
it should be sufficient to make a depression in
the damp sand. A billiard ball, a golf ball and
a table tennis ball, are quite suitable for this
purpose.
All three balls need to be modified so
that they can be suspended above the sand
box. The billiard ball needs to be drilled and
tapped with a M4 thread and a 15-mm long M4
bolt inserted. A small wood screw should be
screwed into the golf ball. The table tennis ball
needs two modifications. Firstly, cut a small hole
approximately 5 mm diameter and fill the ball
two-thirds full with dry sand. Bend a standard
paperclip into a split pin shape. Pour hot candle
wax into the ball to take up the remaining space,
insert the split pin into the molten wax and gently
open its ends so that they are wider than the
hole. Leave the wax to set (figure 5). For the best
results you need an understanding and patient lab
technician. Projectiles can be suspended above
the sand by the cotton thread and scissors used
to cut the thread.
Since the only factors relevant to this
investigation are the crater diameter and angle
of the rays of light, the distance the projectiles
fall is irrelevant. A plumb line can be used to
help position the tray so that the projectile falls
where required. To avoid disturbing the crater
dimensions, the small permanent magnet should
be used to lift the projectile from the sand. Repeat
the whole process until there are at least three
craters for each projectile. Results can then be
pooled.
One of the main problems students have
when attempting cratering investigations is mea-
July 2013
suring the dimensions of the craters without
disturbing the shape or dimensions of the crater.
This problem can be solved by using a fine wire
sieve to sprinkle a thin layer of plaster of Paris
over the surface of the damp sand; when dry,
this will form a hard surface. It is important
that this layer covers the whole surface and is
spread as evenly as possible. If the tray has
been placed on the floor for the crater-forming
stage of the investigation, the tray should be
lifted on to a desk before adding the plaster
of Paris. This will prevent any cracking of the
surface after it has hardened; although the odd
crack (rille?) does add some authenticity to the
images.
Once the surface layer has hardened, the
15-cm ruler can be used to measure the diameter
of each crater without disturbing the shape in any
way. Two measurements, at 90◦ to each other,
need to be taken and the average recorded.
Forming and measuring the internal shadow
Set up the lamp as shown in figure 3. Although
not strictly necessary, it is good practice to keep
the light intensity as near constant as possible.
This can be achieved by keeping both the tray
and the retort stand holding the lamp in the
same place throughout. A length of string is fixed
in line with the lamp and attached to the tray
(figure 3). The angle of the string represents
the angle of the rays of light falling onto the
surface of the hardened sand. By moving the
lamp vertically, the angle of the rays of light
can be adjusted. Photographs of this set-up need
to be taken and the different angles measured
from these images (figure 3). Students should be
given the opportunity to select their own range of
angles.
A suitable wide-angle digital camera is
required to take photographs of the craters on the
hardened surface (figure 4). By measuring and
scaling the shadow length S to the previously
measured crater surface diameter Ds and crater
surface radius Rs , and knowing the angle β of the
Sun’s rays, the maximum depth of the crater, ds ,
can be determined by,
0.5
D2

ds = R − R − s 2
for R 6= 0 (1)
4
ds = S tan β for R = 0, (2)
PHYSICS EDUCATION 523
R Scott et al

Table 1. The connection between the angle of the Sun’s rays, crater diameter Ds , shadow length S, the average
ratio of crater depth to crater diameter and the predicted maximum crater depth.
Calculated Calculated
Length Radius radius of depth of Predicted
Angle Diameter of of arc (mm) crater depth of
beta of crater shadow crater S−Rs (equa- (equation Calculated crater
(deg) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) tion (3)) (1) or (2)) ds :Ds (equation (4))
Ds S Rs R ds ds
CELL B C D E F F/H = I J J/C
24.5 43 18 21.5 −3.5 31.67 8.41 0.20
24 43 24 21.5 2.5 26.83 10.78 0.25
20 43 23 21.5 1.5 31.79 8.37 0.19
12 43 30 21.5 8.5 34.84 7.43 0.17
Average 43 8.82 0.21 8.94
24.5 42 14 21 −7 34.59 7.10 0.17
24 42 22 21 1 27.48 9.75 0.23
20 42 22 21 1 31.64 7.97 0.19
12 42 28 21 7 36.61 6.62 0.16
Average 42 7.97 0.19 8.73
24.5 35 21 17.5 3.5 20.46 9.86 0.28
24 35 18 17.5 0.5 23.26 7.94 0.23
20 35 17 17.5 −0.5 27.58 6.26 0.18
12 35 22 17.5 4.5 33.26 4.98 0.14
Average 35 7.39 0.21 7.27
24.5 33 14 16.5 −2.5 24.13 6.52 0.20
24 33 16 16.5 −0.5 22.50 7.20 0.22
20 33 19 16.5 2.5 22.86 7.04 0.21
12 33 23 16.5 6.5 26.78 5.69 0.17
Average 33 6.58 0.20 6.86
24.5 32 16 16 0 0.00 7.29 0.23
24 32 13 16 −3 24.38 5.79 0.18
20 32 20 16 4 20.53 7.67 0.24
12
Average 32 6.79 0.20 6.65
24.5 20 10 10 0 0.00 4.56 0.23
24 20 11 10 1 12.62 4.90 0.24
20 20 14 10 4 11.51 5.81 0.29
12 20 14 10 4 16.11 3.48 0.17
Average 20 4.51 0.23 4.16
For illustrative purposes only, all cells start on row 5
Cell
A
B. Angle β Measured
C. Diameter of crater (Ds ) Measured
D. Length of shadow (S) Measured
E. Radius of crater (Rs ) = C5/2
F. S − Rs = D5 − E5
G. tan β =TAN(B5*3.142/180)
H. cos θ =COS((90+B5− (DEGREES ((ATAN((D5*G5)/(C5-D5))))))*(3.142/180))
I. Radius (R) (equation (3)) =F5/H5
J. Depth of crater (ds ) =I5- ((I5∧ 2)-(C5∧ 2/4))∧ 0.5
(equation (1))
K. ds :Ds = J5/C5
Note: where cell D = cell E then F5/H5 = 0, then
J. Depth of crater (ds ) =D5*G5
equation (2)

524 PHYSICS EDUCATION July 2013

 Measuring the depth of an impact crater using an internal shadow
Table 2. A summary of the data collected. The table shows the ratio of crater depth, ds , to crater diameter, Ds .
The predicted crater depth based on equation (4) is also shown for comparison.
Diameter of crater, Ds Calculated depth of crater Predicted depth of crater,
(mm) (equation (1) or (2)) Calculated ds :Ds ds (equation (4))
48 9.82 0.21 11.22
47 12.43 0.21 10.97
44 11.40 0.27 10.23
43 8.76 0.20 9.98
42 8.45 0.20 9.73
41 10.28 0.25 9.48
40 10.30 0.26 9.24
39 9.10 0.24 8.99
38 8.04 0.21 8.74
37 8.79 0.25 8.50
36 6.60 0.20 8.25
35 6.48 0.19 8.01
34 7.56 0.22 7.76
33 7.28 0.23 7.52
32 7.41 0.26 7.28
30 5.75 0.20 6.79
25 5.22 0.22 5.59
20 4.68 0.23 4.40
Average 0.23±0.02

where R can be determined by: i.e. an empirical ratio ds :Ds of 0.23 ± 0.02
  or approximately 1:5 (figure A.3) and (tables 1
 S − Rs  and 2).
R= i . (3)
 cos 90 + β − tan−1 S tan β 
 h
Ds −S

See the appendix and figures A.1 and A.2 for a
proof of the above equations.
Results and analysis
Many of the early data relating to the dimensions
of a lunar impact crater were obtained by
measuring the length of the shadow cast by a
feature.
The main aim of the investigation is to
determine, in the school or college laboratory,
the empirical relationship between the depth and
diameter of an impact crater (table 1) using the
same technique, i.e. measuring the length of the
shadow cast by the feature. The experiment was
carried out jointly by students from The Radclyffe
School and Tianyi High School during a visit of
UK students to China in November 2012.
By using equations (1)–(3) to analyse the data
collected during the investigation, the predicted
maximum crater depth, ds , for any measured
crater diameter, Ds , can be determined by
ds = 0.1792D1.0687
s (4)
Conclusion and evaluation
Scott (2002b) analysed the depths and diameters
of 127 simple craters which had been extracted
from a catalogue of the 484 craters published
by Pike (1976). These 127 craters had diameters
within the range 3–21 km and were all well
preserved. The data were analysed to establish the
empirical relationship between the depth, d, and
the diameter, D, of simple craters (see figure 2),
where d and D are measured in relation to the top
of the crater rim. Scott (2002b) established that
the predicted maximum crater depth, d, for any
measured crater diameter, D, can be determined
by
d = 0.2295 D0.9224 (5)
i.e. an empirical d : D ratio of 0.19 ± 0.01 or
approximately 1:5.
A further and more comprehensive analysis
of 174 simple craters from the same catalogue
(Scott 2013) established that the predicted
maximum crater depth, d, for any measured crater

July 2013 PHYSICS EDUCATION 525

R Scott et al
diameter, D, can be determined by
d = 0.2369D 0.8882
(6)
i.e. again an expected empirical ratio of
0.19 ± 0.01.
This empirical relationship is similar to the
relationship obtained using the shadow angle
method, and thus at first glance, appears to
provide supporting evidence that the relationship
between the depth and diameter of impact
craters is approximately 1:5. However, putting
aside the different cratering processes involved,
the classroom-generated craters do not have a
noticeable crater rim and neither do they contain
a crater floor (see figure 1), whereas a real
cratering event does result in craters having both
a rim and often a distinctive crater floor (Melosh
1989, Hörz et al 1991) (see figure 2). On that
basis is not unreasonable to argue that, since the
resultant topography for each process is different
then so might the depth:diameter ratio, i.e., d:D
could be different to ds :Ds , some other supporting
secondary source of evidence should be sought.
Consequently, in order to verify the correctness
of this result it will be necessary to investigate
the relationship between the depth and diameter
of impact craters when measured from the level
of the surface before cratering, i.e. with the rim
removed.
Scott (2013) investigated the volume of
material displaced from a crater during impact.
This displaced material will spread out around the
crater to form ejecta rays; some will also add to
the height and width of the rim. The volume of
ejected material can be calculated if the diameter
and depth of the crater at the pre-cratering surface
level is known. Scott (2013) established that when
measured from the pre-cratering surface level, the
predicted crater depth, ds , for its corresponding
diameter, Ds , should yield an empirical ratio of
0.19 ± 0.01.
This ds :Ds ratio of 0.19 provides some inde-
pendent supporting evidence that this classroom
investigation to measure the depth of a crater
using the length of an internal shadow does yield
viable results. Additional supporting evidence
can be provided by using the depth gauge to
physically measure the depression.
526 PHYSICS EDUCATION
Acknowledgments
Students Samiha Akter, Maysun Begum,
Saadiqah Begum, Fahmida Bibi, Pengfei Cao,
Shuyao Gu, Sicheng Guo, Reza Haque, Ajmal
Hasnat, Yingjie Hua, Jiacheng Huang, Imran
Khan, Tianhao Li, Xidong Li, Ziming Lu, Xin-
gang Qiu, Halima Rahman, Mostafizor Rahman,
Ziyao Wei, Liji Yang, Jiahao Zhang, Yipan Zhou
and Zhexiao Zhao were responsible for data
collection for the main investigation.
Finally the first author would like to thank
Dr Eve Scott and Mrs P Fielding for their
organization skills during the data gathering
session.
Appendix
Figure A.1 represents the cross section of a simple
crater where the length AC is the surface diameter,
Ds , and PB is the maximum depth, ds , measured
from the pre-cratered surface level to the crater
floor.
Figure A.2 can be treated as the arc and the
chord of a circle where ABC is the arc of a circle
whose centre is O and with radius R. The lengths
OA, AP, PB and OP can be expressed as R, X, Y
and Z respectively. PC is equal to AP and can also
be expressed as X.
R2 = X 2 + Z 2
= [R − Y]2 + X 2
= [R2 − 2YR + Y 2 ] + X 2
so
X 2 = 2YR − Y 2 (A.1)
and
X = [2YR − Y 2 ]0.5
(A.2)
2X = 2[2YR − Y 2 ]0.5
and surface diameter, Ds ,
Ds = 2[2ds R − ds2 ]0.5 . (A.3)
To express the depth, ds , of the crater in terms
of R and the diameter Ds , from equation (1) we
have
X 2 = 2YR − Y 2
ds2 − 2ds R + X 2 = 0.
July 2013
 Measuring the depth of an impact crater using an internal shadow

R
Z

A C
X P
Y

Figure A.1. Diagram of the cross section of a simple

crater. The length AC is the surface diameter, Ds , and
PB is the maximum depth, ds , of the crater measured
from the pre-cratered level of the surface to the crater
floor. This figure can be treated as the arc and the chord
of a circle where ABC is the arc of a circle whose centre
is O with radius R. The lengths OA, AP, PB and OP can
be expressed as R, X, Y and Z, respectively. PC is equal Figure A.3. Graph showing the relationship between
to AP and can also be expressed as X. the maximum crater depth, ds , and the crater diameter
at the pre-crater surface level, Ds .

2β O
AC is the measured crater surface diameter Dṡ
R PC is the measured crater surface radius Rṡ
A D C DC is the measured shadow length S
DP = DC − PC = S − Rs
P

α β is the measured angle of the Sun’s rays

β
δ F DC tan β
 
F G α = tan−1
γ θ AC − DC
β B
δ = [180 − (α − β)]
180 − 2β
Figure A.2. Diagram of the cross section of a simple γ = = 90 − β
2
crater where the lengths AC, DC and PC are the crater
surface diameter, Ds , the shadow length, S, and the
θ = (δ − γ + β)
crater surface radius, respectively. All three lengths S − Rs
R= .
were measured from photographs (see text). cos θ
It therefore follows than the radius R of the arc
Solving for ds : ABC, which equates to the radius of the partial
hemispherical profile of the simple crater, can be
ds = 0.5(2R ± [4R2 − 4X 2 ]0.5 ) determined by
= 0.5(2R ± 2[R2 − X 2 ]0.5 )  
= R ± [R2 − X 2 ]0.5
 S − Rs 
R= (A.5)
 cos 90 + β − tan−1 S tan β 
 h i
Ds −S
where in this case ds is the lower value, so
and the surface depth of the crater, ds , can be

Ds 2
0.5 determined by
ds = R − R2 − . (A.4) 0.5
4 
Ds 2
2
ds = R − R − for R 6= 0 (A.6)
Solving to find the value of R: in figure A.2 4
α, β, δ, γ and θ are all angles, where ds = S tan β for R = 0. (A.7)

July 2013 PHYSICS EDUCATION 527

R Scott et al
Received 12 December 2012, in final form 13 December 2012
doi:10.1088/0031-9120/48/4/520
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528 PHYSICS EDUCATION
Robert Scott is a geophysicist and the
specialist physics and astronomy teacher
at The Radclyffe School, UK. He has a
PhD in planetary science and maintains
an interest in lunar global stress fields.
Xinrong Shen teaches earth and space
science, including astronomy and
geography, at Tianyi High School,
China. Students he has taught and
directed have won the first and second
prizes in the CASTIC (China
Adolescents Science & Technology
Innovation Contest) many times.
Ian Mulley retired as assistant
headteacher at The Radclyffe School in
2012 after 35 years of teaching. He now
works for Suman Education
International as their senior educational
consultant, helping to broker links
between schools in the UK and China.
Zili Pan teaches IT at Tianyi High
School. He is a school secretary in
charge of general foreign affairs.
July 2013