The A m c n u a n Association ol P e t r o l e u m Ocolugists Bullclin
V . 7 1 , N o . 6 ( J i m e 1987), P. 650-677, 19 Figs.
Morphology, Internal Structure, Seismic Stratigraphy, and
Sedimentation of Indus Fan^
V. KOLLA' and F. COUMES'
ABSTRACT
The upper Indus Fan (1,600-3,600 m) is characterized
by up to several hundred meters relief that resulted from
the aggradation of large channel-levee complexes; gradi-
ents greater than 1:500; a distinct 3.5 kHz echo character
with several continuous subbottom reflectors; and by fine-
grained sediments, except within the channels where
coarse-grained materials are inferred. The lower fan
(4,000-4,500 + m) has a smooth relief with channels and
levees of relatively small dimensions; overall gradients of
less than 1:1,000; prolonged 3.5 kHz echo character with
few or no subbottom reflectors; and a dominantly sandy
lithology. The characteristics of the middle fan are inter-
mediate between those of the upper and lower fans.
Seismic records reveal at least three canyon complexes
on the shelf, each of which gaveriseto several leveed chan-
nels on the fan. The canyons and channels migrated exten-
sively in time and space across the fan, and channel
abandonment and avulsion were very common. Seismi-
cally, the canyon fill consists of several reflection-free
zones overlain by inclined reflections of moderate ampli-
tudes which are inferred to indicate fine-grained sedi-
ments. The channel fills consist of high-amplitude,
random reflections overlain successively by reflection-free
zones and weak to moderate-amplitude continuous reflec-
tions. These characteristics suggest coarse-grained
deposits at the base fining upward to the top of the channel
fill. The channels, especially on the upper and middle fan,
are flanked by wedge-shaped, concave-upward reflection
packages characteristic of levee-overbank deposits.
Sea level changes and the Himalayan orogenies have
profoundly affected the Indus Fan sedimentation since the
Oligocene-early Miocene. Sedimentation was dominantly
by channelized turbidity currents with overbank deposi-
©Copyright 1987. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All
rights reserved.
'Manuscript received, March 12, 1936; accepted, December 24, 1986.
L^mont-Doherty Geological Observatory No. 4101.
^Elf Aquitaine Petroleum, 1000 Louisiana, Houston, Texas 77002.
'^Socidtd Nationale Elf Aquitaine (Production), Pau, France.
This study was in part funded by NSF Grants OCE 76-83382 and OCE-82-
14819 and ONR contract N00014-80-C-98, Scope A, at Lamont-Doherty Geo-
logical Obsen/atory of Columbia University. We appreciate the technical help
of J. A. Kostecki in describing the piston cores of the Indus Fan. W. R. Normark,
R. G. Martin, T. M. Nilsen, and H. W. Posamentler critically read the manuscript
and offered helpful comments. Lou Little and N. Diplazza, U.S. Naval Oceano-
graphlc Office, kindly provided Navy seismic data. We appreciate the com-
ments of J. E. Damuth and T. R. McHargue (AAPG reviewers) who do not
necessarily agree with some of the authors' views. We thank Elf Aquitaine
Petroleum (USA) and Soci6t§ Nationale Elf Aquitaine (P) (France) for permis-
sion to publish this paper.
650
tion on the upper fan, and by both unchannelized and
channelized turbidity currents on the lower fan during the
lowstands of sea level.
INTRODUCTION
Regional Setting
The Indus Fan covers 1.1 x 10* km^ (1,500 km length
and 960 km maximum width) and Is the most extensive
physiographic province in the Arabian Sea. The fan is
developed off the passive continental margin of Pakistan-
India and is bounded by the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge on
the east, by the Owen-Murray Ridges on the west, and by
the Carlsberg Ridge (a portion of mid-oceanic ridge system)
on the south (Figures 1,2).
The Indus River system, heading in the Himalaya Moun-
tains, has been the dominant sediment source of the fan.
The Indus is about 2,900 km long. After leaving the Hima-
layas, it flows 1,000-1,200 km in relatively flat plains before
discharging into the Arabian Sea. The Kirthar and Sul-
aiman Mountains in Pakistan bound the Indus basin on the
west. The total drainage basin is 966,000 km^ (Krishnan,
1%8). The environmental setting of the Indus River is
mountainous, with subtropical to temperate climate and
low rainfall (35 cm/year); discharge is erratic and wind pat-
terns are monsoonal. Most of the river course in the flat
plains is characterized by arid to semiarid climates with an
average precipitation of 10 cm/year. Snow melt from the
Himalayas, and rains during the southwest monsoon con-
tribute most waters to the river discharge during the sum-
mer months. The sediment load of the Indus River, prior to
recent upstream damming, was 450 million tons/year—
comparable to that of the Mississippi River (Lisitzin, 1972).
The Arabian Sea evolved after the rifting of the Indian
margin from Madagascar during the Late Cretaceous, and
subsequent northward drift of the Indian plate due to sea-
floor spreading since Paleocene (64 Ma or 28 magnetic
anomaly) (Figure 1) (Whitmarsh, 1974; Norton and Sclater,
1979; Naini and Tklwani, 1983). As the Indian plate drifted
northward, the Tethys sea was greatly restricted, and the
first land bridges across portions of the Tethys sea may have
been established by the end of early Eocene, owing to the
convergence of the Indian and Eurasian plates (Figure 3)
(Sahni and Kumar, 1974; Powell, 1979; Valdiya, 1984). By
about Oligocene, the collision of the Indian plate with the
Eurasian plate caused a significant uplift of the Himalayas
(Gansser, 1964; Mohiar and Tapponnier, 1975). However, it
was during the middle to late Miocene, that the major uplift
of the Himalayas occurred (Krishnan, 1968; Valdiya, 1984).
Another major episode of the uplift took place during the
 V. Kolla and F. Coumes 651

30 40 50 60 70 80

40
EURASIAN

PLATE 40

30

20

10

Figure 1—Tectonic setting of Indus Fan region (modified from Jacob and Quitmeyer, 1979). Major plates are: Indian, Eurasian, Afri-
can, and Arabian. Plate boundaries are: open tooth marks = thrusting associated with continental collision zone; solid tooth marks
= thrusting associated with an oceanic subduction zone; double line = spreading on mid-oceanicridgeorriftingin continents; single
solid line = transform fault, the Owen fracture zone (Owen Fz)-Murray Ridge. Lines numbered 20,22,23, etc, are magnetic anoma-
lies. Arrows indicate relative sense of plate motion. DSDP Sites 221 and 222, and rough outline of fan are also shown.

late Pliocene to middle Pleistocene (Figure 3) (Valdiya,
1984). The uplift of the Himalaya Mountains continues to
the present day.
From the foregoing tectonic summary, we infer that the
Indus River probably came into existence after the early
Eocene, but before the Miocene. The mineralogical data
from DSDP Site 221 (located in the southernmost part of
the Indus Fan) (Weser, 1974), and the geology of the lower
Indus basin on land (Williams, 1959; Krishnan, 1968) and
of the offshore shelf (Shuaib, 1982), suggest that the Indus
River drainage originated by about Oligocene time. As the
Tethys sea gradually closed, the Indus River built deltas
advancing southward along the Indus Trough bordering the
Sulaiman-Kirthar mountain range (Figure 1). Although the
Indus River has its origins in active, highly uplifted terrain,
the Indus Delta and Fan are located off the passive
Pakistan-India margin. Seismic data west of the Murray
Ridge, however, suggest that a portion of the Indus Fan
may indeed be located off the active Makran margin.
Previous papers on the Indus Fan described in detail the
surface sediments of the entire Arabian Sea (e.g., Kolla et
al, 1981) and the internal structure of only the uppermost
upper fan (Coumes and Kolla, 1984; McHargue and Webb,
1986). However, the previous papers had mere cursory dis-
cussions of the internal structure and sedimentation of the
entire fan (e.g., Naini and Kolla, 1982; Kolla and Coumes,
1984). In this paper, we used all available data on bathyme-
try, shallow acoustic character of the sea floor, seismic stra-
tigraphy, internal structure, and sediment distribution of
the entire Indus Fan. On the basis of these results, we pro-
pose a preliminary model of sedimentation for the Indus
Fan and discuss the history of sedimentation in the fan in
652 Indus Fan

ss 70
26

Figure 2—Bathymetry of Arabian Sea. Contours in meters compiled by U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office.
 V. Kolla and F. Coumes 653

WEST INDIAN TECTONISM SED. DEPOSITS

ICONTINENTAL SHELF ARABIAN SEA SIND - PUNJAB
DEPOSITS ® @
SEDIMENT
AGE ® VELOCITY HIMALAVAN EXTENT OF GROUP OR ENVIRONMENT
KM/SEC SEIS HORZ. LITHOL STRUCTURE OROGENIES TETHYS SEA FORMATION OF DEPOSITION
KM/SEC

PLEIS EPISODES
1.95 III & IV
PHASE IV
PLIO, 1.72 MANCHAR
(SIWALIKS)
CONCL. SANDST.,
-• uj SHL.
PHASE III
— z 2.39 (0
2.32 o
— O
r2: z GAJ
E SANOST.. SHL.

^ liJ
2.97 EPISODE
< LIMEST.

GCLL
z a. NARI O.

UJ 3.04 <o SANDST.. SHL.

o PHASE II
5 O
(3 O O
O
«<
^ UJ 3.45 k
z UJ
KIRTHAR z,
— UJ- LIMEST., SHL.
<0 END OF
s O
—O t E. EOCENE
LAKI
.. UJ 3.35 CREATION OF
LANDBRIDQE S H L , LIMEST. UJ

PALEO 4.33 I PHASE I RANIKOT LMST

GYP., S H L , COAL

L.CRET 4.46 PAB

SDST., LMST., SHL

RIFTING
I.V.Vj VOLCANICS

fSM CARBONATE

i J CLASTICS (SHALE)

^ ^ UNCONFORMITY

Figure 3—Geologic history of land region (Sind-Punjab, Pakistan), and Western Indian shelf, Himalayan orogenies, and evolution of
Arabian Sea and Indus Fan: (1) Naini (1980), (2) Ramaswamy and Rao (1980), (3) Krishnan (1968), and Valdiya (1984).

relation to the evolution of the Arabian Sea and the Hima- Phillips MCS records could not be used in our study owing
laya Mountains. to their proprietary nature.

DATABASE BATHYMETRY AND MORPHOLOGY OF INDUS FAN

We used a variety of data, including: (1) bathymetric
information compiled by U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office
(NAVOCEANO); (2) 3.5 kHz and single-channel air-gun
and sparker records obtained by Lament Doherty Geologi-
cal Observatory (LDGO) and NAVOCEANO in 1974,
1977, and 1981; (3) multichannel seismic (MCS) data
obtained by Societe Nationale Elf Aquitaine Petroleum
(Production), France, in 1977; and (4) information on
lithologies and sedimentary structures from about 60 cores
taken by LDGO, supplemented by data from NAVO-
CEANO and Meteor (Stackelberg, 1972) cores.
The channel patterns of McHargue and Webb (1986) in
the upper part of the upper fan were based on interpreta-
tions of shallower sections of Phillips Petroleum MCS lines,
and are somewhat different from our channel patterns.
These differences have not yet been reconciled because the
The Indus Fan exhibits the most typical fan morphology
within the deep Arabian Sea, although the presence of the
Laxmi (Lakshmi) Ridge and the northern extension of the
Chagos-Laccadive Ridge complicate the topography, some-
what, in the eastern part of the Indus Fan (Figure 2). The
water depths over the fan range from 1,400-1,600 m at the
foot of the continental slope to greater than 4,500 m at its
distal end near the Carlsberg Ridge.
The shelf width is about 100-150 km off the Gulf of
Kutch-Indus Delta and widens to 350 km off Bombay, far-
ther south. The shelf break occurs at an average depth of
about 100 m along the Pakistan-India margin. The most
pronounced bathymetric feature of the shelf-slope is the
Indus Canyon (Figure 2) with an average width of 8 km and
depth (relief) on the order of 800 m. The canyon is 170 km
long and apparently commences around 20-30 m water
654 Indus Fan

60 ai M 68

: FlkM D I W I t K M t

GMAWENT M/M

1 0 0 0 0 O f * T H VERSUS WIDTH ( I

TOrOQRAPHIC HIGH

^ m enosiVE CHAHWLS
> L r V U O CHANNELS COMMfCTCO

~ BATMniETIItC CONTOUM IN U

66 66 67 68 70 71 72 73

Figure 4 (Continues to next page).

 V. Kolla and F. Coumes 655

Figure 4—A. Channel patterns with ships' tracks having seismic data. Where data warrant, channels are connected by continuous or
dotted lines. Otherwise, locations of channels are shown as isolated arrows. Channel patterns in upper fan modified after Coumes and
Kolla (1984). B. Blowup of upper and middle Indus Fan showing not only patterns of channels as in A, but also their gradients and
dimensions. Legend for both A and B is same.
656 Indus Fan
depths on the inner shelf, and ends at 1,400 m depth at the
foot of the continental slope where the canyon is about 20
km wide with a relief of about 325 m (Figures 2,4A, B). The
width to depth ratio is about 10 on the shelf but increases to
60 at the foot of the slope (Figure 4B). There is a pro-
nounced eastward bend in the canyon at about 1,000 m
water depth, which resembles channel bends in the North-
ern Hemisphere, attributed to Coriolis force (Menard,
1955). The canyon gradient on the shelf is about 1:100, and
on the slope, 1:50-1:20 (Figure 43). The gradient of the con-
tinental slope adjacent to the canyon is 1:60-l :30. Another
valley, Saraswati Valley (Figure 4A, B), of lesser magnitude,
is present off the Gulf of Kutch and also appears to make a
bend toward the east. Several other canyons occur south-
ward along the Indian margin but are of relatively low sig-
nificance for sediment transport to the fan. At least two
major canyons existed in the past on the Indus shelf to the
west of the present Indus Canyon, as apparent on the bathy-
metric map (Figure 2) and as clearly seen on seismic lines.
The depths of the Indus Canyon are too great to be
accounted for only by subaerial river-cutting during sea
level lowstands. It is possible that the turbidity currents gen-
erated at the river mouth during the low sea levels could
have initiated canyon cutting (Shepard, 1981), but we do
not believe that this was the main cause for the formation of
the Indus Canyon. We suspect that the canyon originated
mainly by slumping and related mass wasting processes on
the continental slope at a location that corresponded to a
huge depocenter near the river mouth during a sea level
drop during the Pleistocene. The canyon then grew by sub-
sequent retrograde slumping during the following sea level
rise. This proposed model of the origin of the Indus Canyon
is similar to that proposed by Coleman et al (1983), for the
origin of the Mississippi Canyon. Once formed, the canyon
back-cutting may have been controlled by the river course,
and the canyon relief may have been subsequently enhanced
by sedimentation on the shelf and by processes within the
canyon.
The sea floor has a relief of several hundred meters with
overall gradients greater than 1:500 in the upper fan, but is
relatively smooth with less than 1:1,000 gradients in the
lower fan (Figure 5). The gradients of the middle fan are
between 1:500 and 1:1,000. The conspicuous seaward
bulges in the bathymetric contours of the upper fan reflect
the channel-levee buildups. Opposite the present canyon,
there is a pronounced seaward bulge in the contours to
depths exceeding 3,600-3,800 m that resulted from sediment
influx through the canyon and consequent channel-levee
buildups (Figures 2,4A, B).
Channel Dimensions
Channel-levee complexes of different generations exist
on the upper fan. Widths and depths of the most recent
upper fan channels (Figure 4A, B; lines 3A", 3A, 3B, 3C),
which extend downfan from the recent Indus Canyon, and
of their possible extensions into the middle and lower fan
regions (Figures 2,4A; isolated arrows in the region of pro-
nounced seaward bulge of bathymetric contours) were
taken from 3.5 kHz records, and their gradients and cross-
section areas were calculated (Figures 4A, B, 6). The widths
and depths of upper fan channels vary, and may locally
exceed 10 km and 100 m, respectively. Commencing from
the shelf and slope areas, the depths and cross-sectional
areas of canyons and/or channels decrease seaward (Figure
6). On the upper portions of the upper fan, at a distance of
about 100 km from the foot of the continental slope (Figure
6), the channel dimensions are minimum. On the middle
portions of the upper fan, at a distance of 150-300 km, the
depths and cross sectional areas increase. Farther downfan,
on the lower portions of the upper fan, the dimensions
decrease again. These changes in channel dimensions on the
upper fan may be related to changes in thickness of the tur-
bidity currents, influenced by sea-floor gradients (Komar,
1973). The gradients of the channels in the upper section of
the upper fan are steeper than those in the middle section
(Figure 4B), leading to thicker turbidity currents and greater
channel depths in the latter areas, in conformity with
Komar's explanation. An alternative explanation is that
during sea level rise small turbidity currents may have
deposited sediments only in the more proximal portions of
channels, thus partially filled the channels.
The width to depth ratios of channels on the fan vary
greatly. The average width to depth ratio of channels on the
upper fan is about 60. With greater decrease in depth com-
pared to width, the width to depth ratios of the channels on
the middle and lower fan regions are generally higher than
for the upper fan (Figure 4A, B).
There are more channels in the areas of seaward bathy-
metric bulge between the 4,000 and 4,400 m water depths
than elsewhere on the lower fan (Figures 2,4A). This bathy-
metric bulge in the lower fan, as in the upper fan, is appar-
ently due to channel-levee buildups.
Morplio-Acoustic (3.5 kHz) Structure of Fan
Division of the Indus Fan into upper, middle, and lower
fan regions (Figure 7) is based on the combined 3.5 kHz and
low-frequency seismic profiles and sediment characteris-
tics. The classification of the echo character adopted for the
Indus Fan is similar to that used by Damuth and Kumar,
(1975) for the Amazon Fan, and KoUa et al (1984) for the
Magdalena Fan. Actual boundaries between different
regions of the Indus Fan are arbitrary because (1) the fan
characteristics change gradually from one region to
another, (2) the fan was influenced by multiple episodes of
sedimentation through migration of channels in space and
time, and (3) sedimentary processes peculiar to the Indian
margin complicate the eastern portion of the fan.
Much of the upper fan, which extends from the foot of
the continental slope to about the 3,400-m contour, is char-
acterized, on 3.5 kHz records, by distinct echoes with sev-
eral continuous subbottom reflectors and about 40 m
penetration (echo type I) (Figures 7, 8A-C). In addition,
indistinct to distinct echoes with continuous to discontinu-
ous subbottom reflectors (echo type II) are returned from
the eastern part of the upper fan (Figures 7, 8D-E). The
echo type I extends from the upper fan to the western
 V. Kolla and F. Coumes
^/^oooj^'^"
1/500
LOWER FAN
MIDDLE
DISTANCE (KM)
Figure 5—Longitudinal profile of Indus Fan with average gradients for upper, middle, and lower fan.
fringes of the middle and lower fan (Figure 7). However, 3.5
kHz records of these fringe areas and also the western por-
tions of the upper fan, show a well-developed transparent
zone between the distinct surface echoes and continuous
subbottom reflectors below (Figure 8C). In Figure 7, the
area with echo type I having transparent zone is outlined by
bold dotted line. The transparent zone is believed to repre-
sent pelagic to hemipelagic sedimentation with no active
turbidite deposition during the Pleistocene, compared to
the more easterly areas of the fan. The upper fan generally
has channels with well-developed levees and relief com-
monly exceeding 1(X) m, within the upper half-second (two-
way traveltime) of sedimentary section, as observed on
seismic records.
The middle fan extends to 3,800-4,000 m depths, and
excluding the basement ridges, this region is characterized
Figure 6—Depths and cross-sectional areas of Indus Canyon,
most-recent channels 3A, 3B, 3C (connected by continuous lines parent horizon) (Figures 7, 8C, H). We estimate from 3.5
on Figure 4A, B) on upper fan and continuations into middle and kHz records that the channel-levee systems cover about
lower fan.
657
,2000
^0-
G^
,00
M^'
3000
m
•D
H
UPPER FAN Z
Z
•?cw
FAN
5aW
primarily by echo type II and, to a lesser extent, by pro-
longed echoes with few or no subbottom reflectors and little
or no penetration (echo type III) (Figures 7, 8D-G). The
channel levees are smaller than those on the upper fan, and
the channel relief is on the order of 30-40 m or less. Groups
of multiple, closely spaced channels are observed on some
3.5 kHz records from the middle fan (Figure 8D). Such a
group of channels probably represents an oblique ship-
crossing of a single, but highly meandering, channel. This
has been previously documented by side-scan sonar (Gloria)
for the Amazon Fan (Damuth et al, 1983).
The echo type II (indistinct to distinct echoes) (Figure 8D,
E) is also recorded from deep areas between the Indian con-
tinental slope and Chagos-Laccadive Ridge and from the
easternmost portions of the fan. The Indian continental
slope returns irregular hyperbolic echoes (echo type IV)
(Figures 7, 81), and the basementridgeswithin and around
the fan return irregular hyperbolic echoes with rolling
topography The echo type IV changes directly into echo
type II or, locally, first into regular hyperbolic echoes (wave-
like features) (echo type V, Figure 8J) and then into echo
type II in the deep areas adjacent to the Indian continental
slope and Chagos-Laccadive Ridge (Figure 7). The change
from echo type IV to types V and II can be very gradual
(Figures 7, 81, J).
The lower fan extends to depths exceeding 4,600 m. Pro-
longed echoes with few or no subbottom reflectors (echo
type III) characterize the entire lower fan (Figures 7, 8F).
Numerous, small channels, with or without levees (rehef 20
m or less), exist throughout the lower fan (Figure 4A).
Where there are levees bordering the charmels, the sea floor
exhibits more subbottom reflectors in contrast to other
areas of the lower fan which return prolonged echoes (Fig-
ure 8G, H). Toward the western fringes of the fan, the pro-
longed echo character (type III), typical of the lower fan,
onlaps the distinct echo character (echo type I with trans-
30% of the lower fan.
658 Indus Fan

Figure 7—Morpho-acoustic structure (echo character) of Indus Fan mapped from 3.5 kHz records. Letters A-J refer to locations of
3.5 kHz examples of acoustic character shown in Figure 8.
 NW
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Figure 8—3.5 kHz examples of acoustic character of Indus Fan. A, B, and C = echo type I from upper fan (Figure 7); D and E = echo type II from middle fan; F = echo type III from
lower fan; G and H = echo type III character onlapping echo character with more subbottom reflectors, which resulted from channel-levee complexes, lower fan; I = echo type IV,
and J = echo type V, from upper and lower continental slope, respectively, of Indian margin.
662 Indus Fan
FAN SEDIMENTS
The topographic highs (Chagos-Laccadive Ridge, Laxmi
Ridge, etc) contain carbonate-rich sediments. The surface
sedunents (30-60 cm thick in piston cores) from the Indus
Fan proper commonly consist of light-brown foraminiferal
marl or ooze, except in deep distal areas that contain brown
pelagic clay. These sediments are of Holocene age with sedi-
mentation rates of 4-5 cm/lO' years. Below the Holocene
sedunents are gray, gray-green, and dark gray interbedded
sands, silts, and muds. These sediments were deposited dur-
ing the latest Pleistocene lowered sea levels when sedimenta-
tion rates were significantly higher (40 cm/lO' years) than
during the Holocene. The following description refers only
to these late Pleistocene sediments of the Indus Fan.
Areas with distinct echo character (echo type I) in the
upper Indus Fan and elsewhere contain primarily fine-
grained muds with only a few sand-silt beds, except in chan-
nels where relatively coarse-grained beds (fine to very
fine-grained sands) may be common (Figures 9, lOA, B).
The 10-20% sand isolith loop in the upper fan in Figure lOA
is based on a core located in a channel. The distinct echo
character (echo type I) of the upper fan apparently results
from the dominance of fine-grained muds. A similar rela-
tionship between echo character and lithology has been
observed in other upper fan regions (e.g., Damuth and
Kumar, 1975). As the sand content in the sediments
increases downfan, the echo character becomes increasingly
indistinct. Excluding the areas adjacent to the Indian conti-
nental margin in the eastern Arabian Sea, it is in the lower
fan that the proportions of sand-silt beds in the cores are the
highest (Figure lOA, B). The prolonged echo character
(echo type III), with little or no penetration in the lower fan,
resuhs from the dominance of sand lithologies, similar to
other lower fan regions (Damuth and Kumar, 1975; Kolla et
al, 1984). Within the lower fan, two extensive sand-rich
zones are separated by a zone of relatively low sand content
(but still higher than in the upper fan) (Figure lOA, B). This
relatively sand-poor zone in the lower fan corresponds
roughly to a seaward bathymetric bulge caused by the devel-
opment of numerous small channel-levee complexes. How-
ever, the channels in the lower fan have higher sand
percentages than the associated levees.
In the upper and middle fan regions adjacent to the
Indian margin, characterized by echo type II, the sand con-
tent is in the 20-30% range (Figure lOA). These sand per-
centages are higher than in the upper and middle fan proper
farther seaward from the margin. The northerly three of the
six cores defining the 20% isolith near the Indian margin
(Figure lOA) are along a channel which apparently origi-
nated from the Saraswati Valley (Figure 4A). However, seis-
mic and 3.5 kHz records show that these and other core
locations within the 20-30% isolith loop near the margin
appear to have been heavily influenced by debris and turbi-
dite flows generated by slumping on the Indian margin.
These cores commonly contain carbonate turbidites derived
from the Indian continental slope. Thus, the higher sand
percentages in the deep areas along the Indian margin
mainly reflect local derivation rather than input from
northerly Indus and Saraswati River sources.
The types of Bouma turbidite sequences (Bouma, 1962),
shown in Figure 11, are not unique to any particular fan
region. However, the sand-rich regions, especially the lower
fan, more commonly have coarser grained turbidites
(Bouma's Ta-e, Tb-e, etc) than does the generally sand-poor
upper fan.
SEISMIC STRUCTURE, CHANNEL BEHAVIOR AND
MIGRATION
Canyon Anatomy
The 3.5 kHz records commonly show slumping on the
western flanks of the Indus Canyon. The western bank of
the canyon is slightly higher than the eastern bank. The
MCS records (Figure 12A) show that the strata, into which
the canyon was cut, consist of continuous, smooth reflec-
tions. The Indus Canyon floor fill consists of transparent
zones and moderate-amplitude reflections, organized into
parallel or subparallel groups (Figure 12A) (see also
McHargue and Webb, 1986). These reflection groups
resemble those of the adjacent shelf strata and appear to be
their continuations, especially from the shelf areas west of
the canyon. Figure 12A shows that the earlier locations of
the Indus Canyon were to the west, and the canyon cutting
and filling progressed successively from west to east. The
reflection-free and inclined reflection zones of these succes-
sive fill deposits resemble wedges prograding from west to
east. It appears from this that the eastern banks of the can-
yon were preferentially eroded, whereas deposition
occurred on the western banks. The seismic reflection char-
acteristics of the present canyon and its immediate ances-
tors also occur in other, older canyons on the shelf. Thus,
our data on the Indus shelf suggest numerous episodes of
cut and fill in all the canyons.
The reflection-free zones probably are homogenous fine-
grained sediments, some of which may have slumped from
the western flanks. The moderate-amplitude inclined
reflections appear to indicate normal, quiet-water, shelf
sedimentation. However, some of the moderate-amplitude
reflections, such as those below the present canyon floor,
may reflect coarse-grained lag deposits.
One of several wells drilled on the shelf was apparently
located in a paleocanyon (Canyon 1 in Figure 4A) (Shuaib,
1982). Lithologic samples from this well generally confirm
the foregoing lithologic inferences made from seismic lines.
However, lack of wireline well logs and precise information
on weU location with respect to our seismic line, preclude cor-
relation of the well lithology to the seismic reflection
character.
Channel Anatomy
The channels in the upper fan have spectacularly well-
developed levees, in contrast to the absence of the levees
along the shelf canyons (Figure 12B). However, looking
downstream, the right-side levees of channels in the upper
fan are higher than those on left-side, similar to the banks of
 V. Kolla and F. Coumes 663

TYPE I ECHO

° ff I fl *
PERCENT OR CORE
COMPOSED OF
SILT/SAND BEDS
A H I M
THICKEST SILT/SAND
BED PER CORE (CM)
50 113
° I I fl I P I fl
0
AVERAGE SILT/SAND
BED THICKNESS PER
CORE (CM)
50
I I I I I I I I I I

SILT/SAND BEDS PER

10 METERS OF CORE

TYPE I I ECHO

(/)
UJ
OC
o
o B
UL
O
OC
LiJ

3
Z
0
PERCENT OF CORE
COMPOSED OF
SILT/SAND BEDS
5 0

THICKEST SILT/SAND
BED PER CORE (CM)
60 100
10
AVERAGE SILT/SAND
BED THICKNESS PER
CORE (CM)
50
';
0

SILT/SAND BEDS PER

10 METERS OF CORE
50
*
I I n M

TYPE I I I ECHO

PERCENT OF CORE THICKEST SILT/SAND AVERAGE SILT/SAND SILT/SAND BEDS PER

COMPOSED OF BED PER CORE (CM) BED THICKNESS PER 10 METERS OF CORE
SILT/SAND BEDS CORE (CM)

Figure 9—Abundance of silt and/or sand beds in piston cores from three main echo-character (A = type I, B = type II, C = type III)
provinces (Figure 7).
664 Indus Fan

PERCENT SAND/SILT LAYERS IN

UPPER 10 METERS

55 60 65 75 eo
Figure 10—A. Areal distribution of percentages of sand and/or silt layers in piston cores of Quaternary sediments from Indus Fan. B.
Areal distribution of tliickness (CM) of largest sand and/or sUt layers in piston cores. (Figure continues to next page.)

the canyon on the shelf. The levee height differences sissippi Fan channel) deposited as erosional lags or laid
between the two sides of each channel are commonly attrib- down when the turbidity currents were relatively strong
uted to Coriolis force (Menard, 1955). These levee height during the lowstands of sea level. Reflection-free zones of
differences may not persist in the subsurface because of the channels represent homogenous, fine-grained sediments
effects of sediment loading. deposited during the waning stages of a turbidity-current
The channel-floor fill consists of zones of high- episode or during rising sea level. The uppermost zone of
amplitude discontinuous reflections (H.A. in Figure 12B) continuous reflections in the channel reflects overbank
overlain by transparent or reflection-free zones (T in Figure deposition from a neighboring channel, hemipelagic sedi-
12B), which are in turn overlain by weak to moderate- mentation subsequent to the cessation of turbidity-current
amplitude continuous reflections (C in Figure 12B). The activity, or the sea level rise.
levees bordering the channels consist of zones of continuous The wedge-shaped reflection packages of the levees
reflections and reflection-free zones organized into wedge- obviously reflect overbank deposition by turbidity cur-
shaped, concave-upward packages. The reflection-free rents. Thicker reflection-free horizons in the areas proxi-
zones of the levees appear to be thicker at locations proxi- mal to channels reflect deposition of more homogenous
mal to channels. The anatomy described for upper fan sediments, whereas the continuous reflections in the distal
channels is also displayed by middle and lower fan chan- areas suggest deposition of alternating layers of fine (silty)
nels, except that the dimensions of these latter channels and and very fine-grained (clayey) sediments.
levees (wedge-shaped reflection packages) decrease pro- As the Indus Canyon, with an average width of 8 km,
gressively downfan. descends onto the foot of the continental slope, it becomes
We believe that the high-amplitude reflections beneath very wide (20 km) and divides into several channels. The
the channel floors represent coarse sediments (McHargue channel widths on the upper fan vary, but may exceed 10
and Webb, 1986; see also Stelting et al, 1985, for the Mis- km. The combined widths of the channels and levees
 V. Kolla and F. Coumes
_65_
3::
55 60 65
Figure 10 (Continued).
(overbank deposits) may exceed 30-40 km. The thickness
of the individual levees may be as much as 0.6 sec two-way
traveltime (approximately 600 m) (Figure 13). The relief of
levee-overbank deposits associated with deeply buried
channels in the sedimentary section is significantly higher
than that of the levee-overbank deposits at or near the sur-
face (Figure 13). This is probably due to greater compac-
tion, with depth, of very fine-grained sediments on
portions of overbank deposits distal to the channels as
compared to the more competent, relatively coarse sedi-
ments on portions of overbank deposits proximal to the
channels. The sizes of the channel-levee complexes gener-
ally increase upward in the sediment column (Figure 13) in
the upper fan region. This may reflect progradation of fan
sedimentation and/or an increase in turbidity-current
activity through time, due to the uplift of the Himalayas.
Types of Canyon and Channel Migration
Both the canyons on the shelf and the channels in the
upper fan apparently migrated gradually, as well as in dis-
665
LARGEST SAND/SILT LAYERS IN
THE UPPER 5 METERS
OF SEDIMENT
CONTOURS IN CENTIMETERS
THICKNESS
• CORES WITM SAND/SILT LAYERS
• CORES WITHOUT SANO/SILT
LAYERS
B
70 75
crete "jumps" (Figures 12A, B, 13, 14). During periods of
gradujd migration, channels and canyons moved generally
in one direction as the banks on one side of the channels
eroded and receded, and the banks on the opposite side
advanced by deposition. Some channels in the upper fan
migrated consistently westward (shown in Figure 13)
whereas other channels moved eastward (not shown here).
The canyons on the shelf frequently moved to the east (Fig-
ure 14A). At the foot of the continental slope, where the
Indus Canyon is very wide (20 km), the gradual eastward
migration of the Indus Canyon is more pronounced than
that on the shelf. During jump migrations, the channels
(Figure 13) and canyons (Figure 14) abandoned their pre-
vious courses and moved entirely to new locations. Causes
for both gradual and jump migrations might include: (1) sea
level changes, (2) uplift of the Kirthar-Sulaiman mountain
ranges and tectonic upUft in the rest of the Indus River
drainage basin, causing the eastward migration of the river
and the depocenters (Snelgrove, 1967), (3) uplift of the
Murray Ridge, (4) Coriolis force, (5) channel meander (see
Komar, 1969), (6) slumping and channel plugging (Droz
and Bellaiche, 1985), and (7) sediment buildups due to locus
666 Indus Fan

nel map (Figures 4A, B) as well as on MCS lines (Figures 13,

of deposition at any one place, and as a consequence the 14A, B). Thus, channels labeled lA, IB, IC, and ID corres-
tendency of channels to occupy the adjacent topographi- pond to canyon complex 1; and 2A, 2B, 2C, etc, correspond
cally low areas. to canyon complex 2. "A" represents the oldest channel,
Given the uplifted source terrain of the Himalayas, sea and the other letters sequentially represent younger chan-
level lowering was probably the most important factor in nels. It is not certain whether 3A", 3A', 3B', and 3C'
the creation of channel-levee complexes. Coriolis force and channels belong to older stages of canyon 3 as shown in Fig-
channel meander were probably more effective in gradual ures 4A and 4B, or to other canyons. Channels labeled
than in jump migration. The other factors may have signifi- "CH" in Figure 13 have not yet been related to any specific
cantly affected both types of migrations, although their rel- canyon complex, but may belong to older stages of either
ative influence on each type of migration cannot be canyon complex 1 or 3. On sparker seismic lines, downfan
evaluated at the present time. from the MCS lines, the 1 and 2 channel-levee systems are
In Figure 13, the higher amplitude discontinuous reflec- referred to as old channels, whereas the system 3 channel-
tions in some channels appear to have migrated in time levees are referred to as recent (Figure 15).
either to the left or to the right without the preservation of In the younger channel-levee complexes (2 and 3), indi-
the concomitant bank migration. If these reflections are vidual channels become younger eastward (Figures 13,15),
indicative of high energy in the charmel axis, their migration and hence discrete "jump" migration of channels occurred
might trace the movement of the channel axis (thalweg) in eastward. The uplift of the Murray Ridge and Kirthar-
time, although this migration may or may not reflect in the Sulaiman mountain ranges might have been important in
bank (levee) migration. causing this migration. However, the individual channels of
channel-levee complex 1 migrated westward, and the ones
labeled "CH", migrated extensively both eastward and
Channel Patterns and Age RelationsMps westward (Figure 13). Presently available data do not per-
mit the assignment of relative ages to the Saraswati channel
complex. It is clear, however, that the upper Indus Fan con-
At least four canyon or valley systems or complexes on
sists of numerous channel-levee complexes that migrated
the shelf slope and several channels on the upper fan that
extensively both in space and time (Figures 13,15). As many
are inferred to have originated from these canyons are
as six layers, each layer consisting of many channel-levee
shown in Figures 4A, B, 13-15. The canyon complexes
complexes, are stacked in the upper fan, as can be seen on
(labeled 1, 2, and 3) served as conduits for the Indus River
the MCS-12 and sparker lines (Figures 13, 15). This exten-
sediments. The most recent Indus Canyon complex is
sive channel migration in the upper fan must have pro-
labeled 3; two older canyon complexes (1 and 2) exist to the
foundly affected the channel migration and sedimentation
west and, of these, canyon complex 1 is older than canyon
in the middle and lower fan. The aggradational buildups by
complex 2. Relative ages are assigned to these canyon com-
the most recent channel levee complexes (3A, 3B, and 3C in
plexes on the basis of reflection stratal relationships and
Figure 15, lines SPl to SP4) caused the pronounced bathy-
timing of the dominant canyon activity. For example, the
metric bulge discussed previously (Figure 2).
bottommost portion of the canyon complex 3 appears to be
older than canyon complex 1 (Figure 14); however, we con- Apart from the types of shelf-slope canyon systems and
sider canyon complex 3 to be the youngest because the tim- upper fan channels discussed, several non-leveed channels
ing of dominant activity in this complex was probably the are locally restricted to the continental slope off the Indus
most recent, as inferred from stratal relationships (Figure Deka. Some of these channels are connected by dotted line
14A). in Figures 4A and 4B. These channels may be V-, U-, or
spoon-shaped depressions on the sea floor, and may reflect
The three canyon complexes merge landward into one instabilities of the sea floor on the slope. Some areas of the
extensive erosional zone called the Indus Trough (Figure continental slope appear extensively gullied with such chan-
4A). East of the Indus Canyon, there existed another valley, nels. Although most of the channels on the Indus Fan are of
called the Saraswati Valley, located on the continental slope. depositional/erosional origin, a few of them (indicated by
Until at least 500 B.C., a now-extinct Saraswati River (or bold arrows in Figures 4A, B) may be in part tectonic in ori-
Hakra-Nara River) fed by the Sutlej and Jamuna Rivers (at gin, influenced by faulting.
present tributaries of the Indus and Ganges Rivers, respec-
tively) joined the Arabian Sea (Krishnan, 1968; Wilhelmy,
1%9). We suggest that the Saraswati Valley most probably
served as a conduit for funneling the Saraswati River sedi- Gross Internal Structure
ments into the deep sea during pre-Holocene time.
On the shelf, the canyons have little or no development of On single-channel air-gun records, there are focusing
levees (Figure 14A). However, at the foot of the continental effects of reflected sound energy under channel floors, and
slope, the canyons or valleys have well-developed levees defocusing effects under the levees, compared to MCS
(Figure 14B). We suspect that the avulsion of channels in the records (Figure 16A, B). Otherwise, the gross structure of
upper fan originates at the foot of the continental slope the upper fan as shown by single channel and multichannel
where the Indus Canyon (canyon system 3) becomes very records is generally shnilar (Figure 16A, B). The upper fan
wide, with apparent braiding. region has high relief resulting from overlapping and stack-
The channels originating from the canyon complexes 1, ing of large leveed channel complexes. The relief of the mid-
2, and 3 are labeled with suffixes A, B, C, etc, on the chan- dle and lower fan regions becomes progressively smooth
 V. Kolla and F. Coumes 667

a> a>
:^-Q TJ (l>
H h- 1-

a> o>

I
in o
f^° 1-

I
1
i
•

I
I
1
 W 1500
OS

o
a>
in
a>
E
>
o

o
I
o

3
Q.

bank migration 3

Older banks Most recent bank

w 1500
o
<x>

o
E
>
CO

CO

I
o A-Portion of M C S - 1 0 (Shelf) ^Q ^^
Figure 12 (Continues to next page).
 3500 3400 3300 3200 3100 3000 2900 E
w I •
3600

o
a>
CO
<o
E
•33
>

o
I ;gij£;^?ipi j^j'^tf jj'^ri ~-'i^^^^
o

I
•^^^•a:p^,Z:r
i^^i^^^Ssi^iili^lSi^PiK
^.-^':~~:sas: "•"im^^-iii^^Fm^^M^i?
^^^sm^i^^^^^m-^'^:^^
I
O
o
w 3600 3500 3400 3300 3200 3100 3000 2900
c
3
n

--2

--3

-.4

Figure 12—Examples of multichannel seismic lines showing canyon and channel migrations (modified after Coumes and Kolla, 1984). A. Portion of MCS-10 line from shelf (Figure
4A) and line-drawing interpretation showing gradual eastward migration of modern Indus Canyon. B. Portion of MCS-line 12 (Figure 4A) from upper fan and line-drawing interpre-
tation showing gradual and jump migrations of channels. Banks of each of channels 2A and 2B migrated westward. Channel 2A is older than channel 2B and both channels are
mterpreted to have originated from canyon 2 (Figure 4A). After channel 2A was abandoned, channel 2B was opened. The channel abandonment and avulsion are an example of jump
migration. See text for explanation of H. A., T, and C. a>
670 Indus Fan

w
_, „ _ ' -^^^K^Kr-^:- ^
_
u
- 2
__ ~^~~~^~^^'^^_ ^ ~~
1 1
2

<
1-
/^ -
i<
o

MCS LINE 10.LINE DRAWING

w

B
^V-5

MCS LINE 11, LINE DRAWING

Figure 14—A. Line-drawing interpretation of MCS line 10, showing migration and chronological sequence of canyons on shelf. Can-
yons 1, 2, and 3 are progressively younger. (See Figure 4A, B for location.) B. Line-drawing interpretation of MSC line 11 showing
nugration and chronological sequence of canyons-channels on continental slope. (See Figure 4A, B for location.)

with more continuous reflections (Figure 16C, D). The 17) also exist off India. The Eastern and Western basins are
mounding characteristic of the lower fan lobes reported by separated by the Laxmi Ridge and its buried northward
Mitchum (1984) are absent on the seismic sections across the extensions. The offshore Indus basin has transitional to
lower Indus Fan (Figure 16D). However, owing to the pres- continental crust and the Eastern basin has transitional
ence of channel-levee complexes, some mounding might be crust, whereas the Western basin has oceanic crust (Naini
apparent on seismic records of the lower fan. and Talwani, 1983). After the uplift of the Himalayas in the
Along the Indian continental slope, slumping and the late Cenozoic, turbidite (fan) deposition became the domi-
resulting debris flow and turbidite deposits that approach nant mode of sedimentation in all the basins. The thickness
and overlap the fan deposits appear to be common. Simi- of the fan-type sediments may exceed 3 sec of two-way
larly, slumping on the Indus continental slope occurs traveltime (> 5 km) in the Indus basin.
between major canyons and channels, as discussed previ-
ously. However, slumping does not appear as widespread
on the Indus Fan proper as it is on the Mississippi and Episodes of Fan Sedimentation
Amazon Fans (Walker and Massingill, 1970; Damuth and
Embley, 1981; Feeleyetal, 1985).
As the Indian plate moved northward, a significant colli-
sion occurred between the Indian and Eurasian plates, and
the first Himalayan uplift took place during the Oligocene
SEDIMENT-TfflCKNESS DISTRTOUTION AND INDUS FAN
(Figure 3). According to the latest sea level chart by Exxon
SEDIMENTATION IN RELATION TO GEOLOGIC
fflSTORY OF REGION geologists (Haq et al, 1987), many sea level drops occurred
during the Paleogene and Neogene, but the most important
ones occurred during the middle Oligocene and early and
The total sediment thickness (i.e., the thickness of fan late Miocene. The Himalayan uplift, combined with middle
plus pre-fan sequences) ranges from less than 0.5-1.0 sec Oligocene-early Miocene sea level lowering, probably initi-
two-way traveltime (0.5-1 km) in the distal areas to 6.0 sec ated the Indus Fan sedimentation. According to the data
(> 10 km) in the proximal areas of the fan (Figure 17). from DSDP Site 221 in the distal Indus Fan, illite-rich sedi-
Three broad basins with relatively high sediment thick- ments, characteristic of the Indus River, began to be sup-
nesses, that are separated by ridges or basement highs plied to the distal Arabian Sea by late Oligocene (Weser,
include: the offshore Indus basin, probably an extension of 1974). The Oligocene-early Miocene period of sedimenta-
the onshore Indus basin, with sediment thicknesses exceed- tion corresponds to episode I in Figure 3.
ing 6 sec; the Western basin with thicknesses up to 3 sec; and The major Himalayan uplift took place during the mid-
the Eastern basin with thicknesses greater than 2 sec. Sev- dle to late Miocene. From the data on the Indus Marine A-
eral shelf-slope basins (not included in contouring in Figure 1 well, located in the paleocanyon complex 1, Shauib
 2900 2800 2700 2600

CO
o
w
E 4- 5gj^VTJ^-;-_Lv,.[!.J,-.. l ^ j y ^ ' ^ ^ ^ ^ — r i ^ t ^ ^ ^ ' ^ ^ M B B E

i I 11 i I II I III I III I III • •• i ^ ^ T P l V - ^ T P t r ^ W ^ ^ f r ^ ^ i r ^ ^ ^

NW
2900
2600 2500 2400 2300 22.00
I

2600 2400 2200

—I— 1 1

Figure 13 (Continues on the backside).

00 2200 2100 2000 1900

2200 2000
1 1

^ _ CH

CH

10 km

A portion of MCS- 1 2
 1800 1700 1600 15.00

i;^ _ _i_Ji^. _ J. . _ J ] ^ " JTTX—"T. . •! - I. . ^^S.~

1800 1600
1 1

Figure 13—Portion of MCS line 12 Qocation shown in Figure 4A, B) and line-drawing interpretation showing channel migration on
upper fan and chronological sequence of channels. Channel-levee complexes originating from canyons 1 and 2 are labeled as lA, IB
etc, and 2A, 2B, etc, respectively. Channels not yet specifically related to particular canyon are labeled as CH. All channels shown on
this MCS line are older and west of most recent channels 3A, 3B, etc, which originated from Indus Canyon (shown on sparker lines 1,
2, and 3 in Figure 15).
00 15.00 1400 1300 1200
\

00 1400 1200
1 1

CH
terpretation showing channel migration on
From canyons 1 and 2 are labeled as lA, IB
n are labeled as CH. All channels shown on
m Indus Canyon (shown on sparker lines 1,
 1200 1 100 1000 900
I
l__

^m-mim • J ^ ,

•-3

-• 4

CH --5
;H

--6
 V. Kolla and F. Coumes 671

W SP1 SP1 E
Saraswati
Most Canyon Indian
Recent Margin
Channels
,>3A? 3B

SP1 Line

+
W SP2 SP2 E
Old Channels Recent Channels J ^ S a r aa: s w a t i
^ ^ C h a n nels
3 A " i i i r i ' i A h i - 3 B ,r'3C|i«-

. S P 2 Line

SP3

H Recent Channels
+ Saraswati
Channels
SP3

Figure IS—Sparker (SP) lines 1,2, and 3 arranged sequentially downfan to sliow locations and clironological sequence, especially of
most recent (3A', 3A", 3A, 3B, and 3C) and to some extent other (2C, 2D, Saraswati) cliannel complexes in upper fan (see Figure 4A,
B for locations of sparker lines and channels).

(1982) reported the age of the basal portion of one of the
sedimentary fills within the canyon to be late Miocene. At
least, one of the cuts within the canyon complex 1 was prob-
ably made during the late Miocene sea level drop and was
subsequently filled with the Miocene-Pliocene and younger
sediments. The major uplift of the Himalayas, and sea level
drop during the late Miocene, firmly established the fan
sedimentation (episode II). Similarly, we believe that epi-
sodes III and IV (Figure 3) correspond to Pliocene and
Pleistocene sea level drops, respectively.
High sedimentation rates were reported for late Miocene
(690-1,300m/m.y) and late Pliocene (355-650 m/m.y.) time
intervals at DSDP Site 222 located on the western fringe of
the middle Indus Fan (Weser, 1974). During the Pleistocene,
sedimentation rates were relatively low (42-53 m/m.y.) at
this site, with more calcareous sediments deposited. We
infer from this that canyons 2 and 1, whose channels proba-
bly fed sediments to the western portions of the fan (Figure
4A, B), were active during the Pliocene and Miocene,
respectively By the Pleistocene, canyon 2 was abandoned,
and canyon 3 was opened. Thus, active turbidity current
sedimentation did not occur in the western portions of the
fan during the Pleistocene, but moved to the region oppo-
site the present canyon. The 3.5 kHz acoustic character in
the western portion of the upper fan (Figure 7) supports this
inference.
MODEL FOR INDUS FAN SEDIMENTATION
Several canyon complexes existed on the shelf in the past
and fed channels on the upper fan that, in turn, transported
sediments to the lower fan. The most recent canyon com-
plex (canyon 3) probably came into existence during sea
level lowstands during the Pleistocene. Large turbidity cur-
rents probably evolved from slumping that initiated the
672 Indus Fan

N^D

52 km t

Figure 16—A. Portion of MCS line 4 (dipline) showing morphology and internal structure of upper fan and slope (see Figure 4A for
location). B, C, D. Single-channel seismic records from upper, middle, and lower fan, respectively, showing gross internal structure of
these regions.

canyon cutting, and other processes both within and at the
head of the canyon. Huge loads of sediment released by the
canyon cutting as well as sediments delivered at the head of
the canyon by the Indus River, during the lowstands and
subsequently, were transported by these turbidity currents
from the shelf-slope region, to be deposited on the fan. Dur-
ing the highstands of sea level, canyon fill occurred owing
to normal shelf processes and to slumping, mainly from the
western bank of the canyon. Several cut-and-fill episodes
have been distinguished for canyon complex 3. Each can-
yon cut mainly fed only one channel on the upper fan at any
given time (Figure 18).
Channelized turbidity currents and overbank spilling
were the most important mechanisms of sedimentation on
the upper fan (Figure 18). This would result in the deposi-
tion of predominantly fine-grained sediments in the upper
fan except in channels where coarse-grained deposits would
be trapped (Figure 18). Because the depths and levee heights
for the upper fan channel systems exceed several hundred
meters (Figure 19), the turbidity currents in the upper fan
must have been several hundred meters thick.
From analogy with the Amazon Fan (Damuth et al,
1983), we suggest that the channels might have meandered
more in the middle fan where gradients are flatter than on
the upper fan. Channel abandonment and avulsion may
also have been very common on the middle fan. As chan-
nels continue downfan, the levees become smaller because
of decreasing availability of fine-grained sediments (Figure
19). There may be less chaimel meandering, but more chan-
nel branching in the lower fan with less availability of fine-
grained sediments. Some channels continue all the way to
the end of the lower fan, whereas others terminate before
 V. Kolla and F. Coumes 673

SEDIMENT THICKNESS IN

Figure 17—Sediment-thickness distributions in seconds of two-way traveltime. Industry well sites (Shuaib, 1982) and DSDP Sites 221
and 222 are also shown.
674
MORPHOLOGY AND SEDIMENTATION
CHANNELIZED
TURBIDITY
CURRENT
UPPER
FAN
MIDDLE
FAN
mm
LOWER
FAN
Figure 18—Model of sedimentation tor Indus Fan. Left-hand side of figure shows decreasing influence of channelized and overbank
turbidity currents and increasing influence of unchannelized currents with increase in sand lithology from upper to lower fan. Right-
hand side of figure depicts morphology, and apparent branching in middle and lower fan may be due to channel abandonment and
avulsion and/or actual branching.
reaching the end (Figure 18). In channels that continue,
charmeUzed turbidity currents and overbank spilling would
continue to play significant roles. However, unchanneUzed
turbidity sheet-flow deposition would be the dominant
mechanism in front of the terminated channels (Figure 18).
The unchannelized as well as channelized and overbank
deposits in the lower fan contain more sand than in other
regions (Figure 19). The unchannelized deposits are sandier
than the levee deposits in the lower fan, however, and resuk
in a prolonged echo character, on 3.5 kHz records, overly-
ing or underlying the more stratified channel-levee deposits
(Figures 7, 8F-H). From 3.5 kHz records, we estimate that
unchannelized deposits comprise as much as 70% of the
area of the lower Indus Fan, the remainder being character-
ized by channelized deposits.
Although fining-upward sequences are present in piston
cores from the upper fan channels, the cores recovered are
not long enough to establish reliable vertical sedimentary
sequences. However, on MCS records, the occurrence of
high-amplitude discontinuous reflections (indicative of
coarse deposits) overlain by reflection-free zones in chan-
nels, gradual and jump channel-levee migrations, and the
Indus Fan
OVERSPILLED
TURBIDITY
^ ^ CURRENT
SAND
UNCHANNELIZED CLAYS
TURBIDITY
CURRENT
UNCHANNELIZED
SHEET DEPOSITS
upward building of channel-levee complexes suggest that
fining-upward sequences should be common in the upper
fan channels (Figure 19). In the middle and lower fan
channels, also, fining-upward sequences may be present.
In front of the terminated channels in the lower fan,
coarsening-upward sequences may characterize the
unchannelized sheet-flow deposits (Mutti and Ricci
Lucchi, 1978). However, because the upper fan feeder
channels might migrate and may not have any relation to
the lower fan sedimentation, the coarsening-upward
sequences may not be fully developed in the lower fan. We
suggest, therefore, that the vertical sedimentary sequences
in the lower fan may be complex (Figure 19).
COMPARISON o r INDUS FAN AND
SOME TURBIDITE SYSTEMS
Mutti (1985) from outcrop studies, and Mitchum (1984,
1985) and Posamentier and Vail (1985) from multichannel
seismic reflection studies, proposed similar models of fan
or turbidite sedimentation. According to these models, dur-
 V. Kolla and F. Coumes 675

UPPER FAN MIDDLE FAN LOWER FAN

RELIEF 3-100 M <50 M SMOOTH

o GRADIENT 1 : 500 1:500 to 1:1000 <:1 : 10O0

o
_J LONGITUDINAL
IRREGULAR CONVEX UPWARD NEITHER CONVEX NOR CONCAVE
o PROFILE
I MANY CHANNELS: WIDTH <:2 KM MANY CHANNELS: WIDTH < 1.6 KM, DEPTH
Q. WIDTH UP TO 10 KM, DEPTH > 1 0 0 M
CHANNELS
<L LEVEE HEIGHT ~ 1 0 0 M DEPTH, < 5 0 M, LEVEE HEIGHT, - 2 0 M, < 5 M, LEVEE HEIGHT B-20 M
&
o COMPLEX, BUILT ( ~ 1 0 0 M)ABOVE SEA FLOOR COMPLEX, BUILT (10 M) ABOVE SEA FLOOR
LEVEES TIGHT CHANNEL MEANDERING

PROLONGED ECHOES WITH LITTLE OR NO

DISTINCT ECHO WITH CONTINUOUS DISTINCT-INDISTINCT ECHOES WITH
SUB BOTTOM REFLECTORS LEVEES: MORE
3.5 K Hz SUBBOTTOM REFLECTORS, MODERATE STRATIFICATION. COALESCENCE
STRATIFIED AWAY FROM CHANNEL: SEA
WELL STRATIFIED OF MANY LEVEE WEDGES.
FLOOR OPAQUE.

CO
SINGLE STRONG REFLECTIONS & WIDESPREAD SEISMIC RELIEF: SMALL.
o FOLD TRANSPARENT PATCHES REFLECTORS MORE CONTINUOUS THAN SMOOTH, CONTINUOUS REFLECTORS.
w CHANNEL AXIS: STRONG & DISCONTINUOUS
UPPER FAN
LU
M REFLECTIONS * TRANSPARENT PATCHES.

MULTI- SEISMIC RELIEF: SMALL.

LEVEES:WEDGES WITH CONTINUOUS
FOLD REFLECTORS MORE CONTINUOUS THAN
REFLECTIONS & TRANSPARENT PATCHES,
UPPER FAN
COALESCENCE O F LEVEE WEDGES.
INTENSE CHANNEL MIGRATION

DOMINANCE O F FINE-GRAINED SEDIMENTS.

SAND & FINE-GRAINED SEDIMENTS BETWEEN SAND DOMINANCE; VERTICAL SEQUENCE
LITHOLOGY CHANNELIZED SANDS OF KILOMETERS EXTENT
UPPER & LOWER FAN COMPLEX: FINING OR COARSENING
& FINING i THINNING(?) UPWARD VERTICAL CHANNEL:SAND;LEVEE:FINE-GRAINED SEDIMErfT UPWARD; ALSO NO CHARACTERISTIC
FACIES
SEQUENCES FINING i THINNING UPWARD SEQUENCES SEQUENCE.

SLUMPING: WITHIN CHANNELS & ON THE SMALL-SCALE SLUMPING SLUMPING: RARE

LEVEES, ALONG BROAD FRONTS IN
SEDIMENTARY
UNCHANNELIZED REGIONS.
PROCESSES
TURBIDITY CURRENTS: CHANNELIZED &
0 V E R 8 A N K SPILLING
CHANNELIZED & OVERBANK DEPOSITION 70ii« CHANNELIZED & OVERBANK DEPOSITION 3 0 %
UNCHANNELIZED DEPOSITION 30% UNCHANNELIZED SHEET-FLOW DEPOSITION
NO SUPRA-FAN DEVELOPMENT. 7 0 % (Lobe?)
NO REGION OF SEDIMENT BYPASSING

Figure 19—Summary chart of Indus Fan characteristics.

ing rapid sea level drops or low seastands, large-volume tur-
bidity currents would transport sediments to the lower fan,
largely bypassing the upper fan, and would deposit them as
outer (lower) fan lobes. During the initial rise of sea level,
with decrease in volume of turbidity currents and decrease
in sediment grain size, channel-levee complexes would be
deposited in the upper fan and channel-attached lobes
would be deposited in the lower fan. Only the channel-levee
complexes would occur in the entire fan during the further
rise of sea level. The channel-levee deposits would show
onlap and/or downlap relationships to the outer fan lobes.
It follows from these models that the upper fan would be
characterized by large erosional valleys (channels) with
coarse lag deposits formed during the rapid sea level fall
Gowstand). As the sea level rises, erosional valleys would be
infilled by slump, debris flow, and non-leveed channel
deposits, and finally leveed channel complexes (Mutti,
1985).
Feeley et al (1985), from a study of multichannel seismic
lines of the Mississippi Fan, inferred that mass-flow
deposits (seismically chaotic zones) were laid down during
the lowstand or falling sea level, and channel-levee com-
plexes were initiated during the rising sea level. Recent
DSDP results have indicated, however, that within the reso-
lutions of biostratigraphy, the channel-levee complexes in
the Mississippi Fan were deposited during the last glacial
lowstand concurrent with lobes on the lower fan (Bouma et
al, 1985; Steltingetal, 1985).
Multichannel and sparker data show numerous large
channel-levee complexes deposited during different epi-
sodes in the upper Indus Fan (Figures 13, 15). Both the
channels and associated levees came into existence at the
same time, probably during the lowstands. No extensive
erosional zones (Mutti, 1985) or seismically chaotic deposits
(Feeley et al, 1985) underlie any of these channel-levee com-
plexes. The seismic character of channel floors in the upper
Indus Fan consists of generally high-amplitude, discontinu-
ous reflections, overlain successively by reflection-free
zones and weak or moderate-amplitude continuous reflec-
tions, all within the confines of levees (Figure 12B). This
Indus Fan channel seismic character reflects deposition
from strong to waning turbidity currents during an episode,
overbank-spilling from nearby channels, and sea level
changes. However, this seismic chaimel character does not
indicate depositional stages related to sea level stands as
postulated by Mutti (1985) for the upper fan channels (val-
leys).
The channel-levee complexes in the Indus and other
major modern fans in the ocean extend for hundreds of
kilometers, transporting sands all the way to the lower fan.
Both the channel-levee complexes and unchannelized
deposits are present in the lower Indus Fan (Figure 18).
Data from piston cores suggest that the most recent turbi-
dites in both the lower and upper fan regions were deposited
during the last glacial sea level lowstand in the Pleistocene.
We believe that these turbidites were deposited through an
intimate association of large channel-levee complexes and
unchannelized deposits, apparently attached to channels
(Figures 8F-H, 18). These channel-levee complexes and
channel-attached lobes, although deposited during the low-
676 Indus Fan
stand, are similar to the turbidite systems deposited during
the rising sea levels in the models of Mutti (1985) and
Mitchum(1985).
We believe that the differences in the type and timing of
turbidite events in the Indus Fan and the basins studied by
Mutti (1985) and Mitchum (1985) are due to their differ-
ences in tectonic and geologic settings. The Indus Fan is
located mainly in a large oceanic basin off a mature passive
Indian margin. The uplifted source region—the
Himalayas—is far (1,200 km) from the basin. The gradients
of the upper fan, at least during the Pleistocene sedimenta-
tion, were very low (Figure 19). The turbidite systems
reported by Mutti (1985) were deposited in relatively small,
paleo-elongated, confined troughs or depressions along
active margins, with the uplifted source region close to the
basins. The basinal gradients in the upper fan were proba-
bly steeper than those of the Indus Fan. The sediments of
the Indus Fan, as well as other large fans (e.g., Bengal and
Amazon Fans), are muddier and have less varied grain sizes
than those of Mutti's turbidite systems (Nilsen, 1984). The
subsurface fans reported by Mitchum (1984) were deposited
either in intraslope basins or in small basins at the base of
the slope on continental or transitional crust with steep gra-
dients, and probably also contain coarser sediments tham
the large modern fans. During the lowstands, the fine sedi-
ment grain size and flat gradients probably resulted in the
ready formation of channel-levee complexes in the Indus
Fan, whereas coarse sediment grain size and steep gradients
caused the deposition of outer fan lobes without leveed
channels in the upper fan regions in the basins studied by
Mitchum (1985) and Mutti (1985). During the sea level rises,
with decrease in sediment grain size, leveed channels might
have come into existence in Mutti's and Mitchum's basins,
whereas in the Indus Fan, the channel-levee complexes and
channel-attached lobes, once initiated during the lowstand,
might have continued to occur.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Although sediments in the Indus Fan region are inter-
preted to have been deposited since the Cretaceous, the fan-
type sequences were probably deposited since middle
Oligocene to early Miocene. The sea level changes and
Himalayan uplifts profoundly affected the fan sedimenta-
tion.
2. Three or more canyon complexes existed on the Indus
shelf in the past, each having fed several channels on the
upper, middle, and lower fan. However, at any given time,
only one canyon on the shelf-slope and one channel in the
upper fan were active.
3. The canyons on the Indus shelf underwent several epi-
sodes of cutting and filling. Both the canyons and channels
on the Indus Fan migrated extensively in time and space
across the fan. These migrations probably were influenced
by sea level changes, tectonics, Coriolis force, channel
meander, and channel plugging.
4. We infer the channel fills to consist of basal coarse
deposits overlain by fine-grained sediments, all within the
confines of levees, and to reflect deposition from strong to
waning turbidity currents during an episode of sedimenta-
tion.
5. The seismic reflection character of the lower fan is, on
the whole, smooth and flat. However, there may be some
apparent mounding on seismic records due to channel-levee
buildups.
6. Our model of the Indus Fan sedimentation calls for
deposition by the channelized and overbank-spilled turbid-
ity currents in the upper fan, and both the unchannelized
and channelized turbidity currents in the lower fan. These
processes resulted in characteristic acoustic signature, mor-
phology, and lithology of the upper, middle, and lower fans.
7. We expect fining-upward sequences to be common in
the upper and middle fans. However, the vertical sequences
in the lower fan may be complex—coarsening or fining
upward, or of no characteristic type.
8. The channel-levee complexes in the Indus Fan were
probably initiated during the sea level lowstands as opposed
to their formation during the rising or highstand in some
other turbidite systems. Thus, the timing and type of turbi-
dite events vary in different turbidite systems and may be
due to their differences in geologic and tectonic setting.
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