CRT – Accounting Basics

What is Accounting?
Accounting is a system of recording information about a business. The information that is collected
is primarily numerical. This information is then presented to various people (internal or external) to help them
make decisions.

To account for something means to keep a record of something in your business by using the accounting
system.

An accountant (or book-keeper) collects documents and records this information, categorizes it and presents
it in specific formats.

Accounting information is finally presented in the form of financial statements – the key reports of a business.

Meaning of Accounting Cycle An accounting cycle is a complete sequence of accounting process, that begins
with the recording of business transactions and ends with the preparation of final accounts.

Accounting Cycle

Transactions

Balance Sheet Journal

P & L A/C Ledger

Trading A/C Trial Balance

Branches of Accounting
1 CRT – Accounting Basics
Financial Accounting : It is concerned with recording of business transactions in the books of accounts in such
a way that operating result of a particular period and financial position on a particular date can be known.

Cost Accounting : It relates to collection, classification and ascertainment of the cost of production or job
undertaken by the firm.

Management Accounting : It relates to the use of accounting data collected with the help of financial
accounting and cost accounting for the purpose of policy formulation, planning, control and decision making
by the management.

Basic Accounting Terms

Cash : Transaction is one where cash receipt or payment is involved in the transaction. For example, When
Ram buys goods from Kannan paying the price of goods by cash immediately, it is a cash transaction.

Credit : Transaction is one where cash is not involved immediately but will be paid or received later. In the
above example, if Ram, does not pay cash immediately but promises to pay later, it is credit transaction.

Capital : It is the amount invested by the proprietor/s in the business. This amount is increased by the amount
of profits earned and the amount of additional capital introduced. It is decreased by the amount of losses
incurred and the amounts withdrawn. For example, if Mr.Anand starts business with Rs.5,00,000, his capital
would be Rs.5,00,000.

Assets : Assets are the properties of every description belonging to the business. Cash in hand, plant and
machinery, furniture and fittings, bank balance, debtors, bills receivable, stock of goods, investments, Goodwill
are examples for assets. Assets can be classified into tangible and intangible.

Tangible Assets: These assets are those having physical existence. It can be seen and touched. For example,
plant & machinery, cash, etc.

Intangible Assets: Intangible assets are those assets having no physical existence but their possession gives rise
to some rights and benefits to the owner. It cannot be seen and touched. Goodwill, patents, trademarks are
some of the examples.

Liabilities : Liabilities refer to the financial obligations of a business. These denote the amounts which a
business owes to others, e.g., loans from banks or other persons, creditors for goods supplied, bills payable,
outstanding expenses, bank overdraft etc.

Drawings : It is the amount of cash or value of goods withdrawn from the business by the proprietor for his
personal use. It is deducted from the capital.

Debtors : A person (individual or firm) who receives a benefit without giving money or money’s worth
immediately, but liable to pay in future or in due course of time is a debtor. The debtors are shown as an asset
in the balance sheet. For example, Mr.Arul bought goods on credit from Mr.Babu for Rs.10,000. Mr.Arul is a
debtor to Mr.Babu till he pays the value of the goods.

2 CRT – Accounting Basics

Creditors : A person who gives a benefit without receiving money or money’s worth immediately but to claim
in future, is a creditor. The creditors are shown as a liability in the balance sheet. In the above example
Mr.Babu is a creditor to Mr.Arul till he receive the value of the goods.

Purchases : Purchases refers to the amount of goods bought by a business for resale or for use in the
production. Goods purchased for cash are called cash purchases. If it is purchased on credit, it is called as
credit purchases. Total purchases include both cash and credit purchases.

Purchases Return or Returns Outward : When goods are returned to the suppliers due to defective quality or
not as per the terms of purchase, it is called as purchases return. To find net purchases, purchases return is
deducted from the total purchases.

Sales : Sales refers to the amount of goods sold that are already bought or manufactured by the business.
When goods are sold for cash, they are cash sales but if goods are sold and payment is not received at the time
of sale, it is credit sales. Total sales includes both cash and credit sales.

Sales Return or Returns Inward : When goods are returned from the customers due to defective quality or not
as per the terms of sale, it is called sales return or returns inward. To find out net sales, sales return is
deducted from total sales.

Stock : Stock includes goods unsold on a particular date. Stock may be opening and closing stock. The term
opening stock means goods unsold in the beginning of the accounting period. Whereas the term closing stock
includes goods unsold at the end of the accounting perid. For example, if 4,000 units purchased @ Rs. 20 per
unit remain unsold, the closing stock is Rs.80,000. This will be opening stock of the subsequent year.

Revenue : Revenue means the amount receivable or realised from sale of goods and earnings from interest,
dividend, commission, etc.

Expense : It is the amount spent in order to produce and sell the goods and services. For example, purchase of
raw materials, payment of salaries, wages, etc.

Income : Income is the difference between revenue and expense.

Voucher : It is a written document in support of a transaction. It is a proof that a particular transaction has
taken place for the value stated in the voucher. It may be in the form of cash receipt, invoice, cash memo,
bank pay-in-slip etc. Voucher is necessary to audit the accounts.

Invoice : Invoice is a business document which is prepared when one sell goods to another. The statement is
prepared by the seller of goods. It contains the information relating to name and address of the seller and the
buyer, the date of sale and the clear description of goods with quantity and price.

Receipt : Receipt is an acknowledgement for cash received. It is issued to the party paying cash. Receipts form
the basis for entries in cash book.

Account : Account is a summary of relevant business transactions at one place relating to a person, asset,
expense or revenue named in the heading. An account is a brief history of financial transactions of a particular
person or item. An account has two sides called debit side and credit side.

3 CRT – Accounting Basics

 Basic Concepts of Accounting
Dual Aspect Concept : Dual aspect principle is the basis for Double Entry System of book-keeping. All business
transactions recorded in accounts have two aspects - receiving benefit and giving benefit. For example, when a
business acquires an asset (receiving of benefit) it must pay cash (giving of benefit).

Revenue Realisation Concept : According to this concept, revenue is considered as the income earned on the
date when it is realised. Unearned or unrealised revenue should not be taken into account. The realisation
concept is vital for determining income pertaining to an accounting period. It avoids the possibility of inflating
incomes and profits.

Historical Cost Concept : Under this concept, assets are recorded at the price paid to acquire them and this
cost is the basis for all subsequent accounting for the asset. For example, if a piece of land is purchased for
Rs.5,00,000 and its market value is Rs.8,00,000 at the time of preparing final accounts the land value is
recorded only for Rs.5,00,000. Thus, the balance sheet does not indicate the price at which the asset could be
sold for.

Matching Concept : Matching the revenues earned during an accounting period with the cost associated with
the period to ascertain the result of the business concern is called the matching concept. It is the basis for
finding accurate profit for a period which can be safely distributed to the owners.

Basic Principles of Accounting

 Accrual principle. This is the concept that accounting transactions should be recorded in the
accounting periods when they actually occur, rather than in the periods when there are cash flows
associated with them.
 Conservatism principle. This is the concept that you should record expenses and liabilities as soon as
possible, but to record revenues and assets only when you are sure that they will occur. Conversely,
this principle tends to encourage the recording of losses earlier, rather than later.
 Consistency principle. This is the concept that, once you adopt an accounting principle or method,
you should continue to use it until a demonstrably better principle or method comes along.
 Economic entity principle. This is the concept that the transactions of a business should be kept
separate from those of its owners and other businesses.
 Going concern principle. This is the concept that a business will remain in operation for the
foreseeable future. This means that you would be justified in deferring the recognition of some
expenses, such as depreciation, until later periods.
 Materiality principle. This is the concept that you should record a transaction in the accounting
records if not doing so might have altered the decision making process of someone reading the
company's financial statements.

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 Time period principle. This is the concept that a business should report the results of its operations
over a standard period of time. This is intended to create a standard set of comparable periods, which
is useful for trend analysis.

Double Entry System

The basic principle of this system is, for every debit, there must be a corresponding credit of equal amount and
for every credit, there must be a corresponding debit of equal amount. Every business transaction has a two-
fold effect and that it affects two accounts in opposite directions and if a complete record were to be made of
each such transaction, it would be necessary to debit one account and credit another account.

What is an Account ?

Every transaction has two aspects and each aspect has an account. It is stated that ‘an account is a summary of
relevant transactions at one place relating to a particular head’. All accounts are divided into two sides. The
left hand side of an account is called Debit side and the right hand side of an account is called Credit side. In
the abbreviated form Debit is written as Dr. and Credit is written as Cr.

Accounts can be classified into Personal and Impersonal (Real and Nominal) :

I. Personal Accounts : The accounts which relate to persons. Personal accounts include the following.

a) Natural Persons : Accounts which relate to individuals. For example, Mohan’s A/c, Shyam’s A/c etc. b)
Artificial persons : Accounts which relate to a group of persons or firms or institutions. For example, HMT Ltd.,
Indian Overseas Bank, Life Insurance Corporation of India, Cosmopolitan club etc. c) Representative Persons:
Accounts which represent a particular person or group of persons. For example, outstanding salary account,
prepaid insurance account, etc. The proprietor being an individual his capital account and his drawings account
are also personal accounts.

II. Impersonal Accounts : All those accounts which are not personal accounts. This is further divided into two
types viz. Real and Nominal accounts. A) Real Accounts: Accounts relating to properties and assets which are
owned by the business concern. Real accounts include tangible and intangible accounts. For example, Land,
Building, Goodwill, Purchases, etc. B) Nominal Accounts: These accounts do not have any existence, form or
shape. They relate to incomes and expenses and gains and losses of a business concern. For example, Salary
Account, Dividend Account,etc.

Golden Rules of Accounting : All the business transactions are recorded on the basis of the following rules.

S.No Name of Account Debit Aspect Credit Aspect

1 Personal The Receiver The Giver
2 Real What Comes In What Goes Out
3 Nominal All Expenses & Losses All Incomes & Gains

Accounting Equation :

5 CRT – Accounting Basics

 ASSETS = LIABILITIES + CAPITAL

Elements of Accounting Debit Credit

Equation
Asset Increase Decrease
Liability Decrease Increase
Capital Decrease Increase
Revenue Decrease Increase
Expense Increase Decrease

Source Documents : These are the evidences of business transactions which provide information about
the nature of the transaction, the date, the amount and the parties involved in it.

1. Cash Memo : When a trader sells goods for cash, he gives a cash memo and when he purchases goods
for cash, he receives a cash memo. Details regarding the items, quantity, rate and the price are
mentioned in the cash memo.

2. Invoice or Bill : When a trader sells goods on credit, he prepares a sale invoice. It contains full details
relating to the amount, the terms
of payment and the name and
address of the seller and buyer.

6 CRT – Accounting Basics

 3. Debit note : This is prepared by the buyer and it contains the date of the goods returned, name of
the supplier, details of the goods returned and reasons for returning the goods. On the basis of debit
note, the suppliers account is debited in the books.

4. Credit Note : A credit note is prepared by the seller and it contains the date on which goods are
returned, name of the customer, details of the goods received back, amount of such goods and
reasons for returning the goods. Each credit note is serially numbered. On the basis of credit note, the
customer’s account is credited in the books.

7 CRT – Accounting Basics

5. Pay-in-slip : It is a form available in banks and is used to deposit money into a bank account. Each pay-
in-slip has a counterfoil which is returned to the depositor duly sealed and signed by the bank official.

6. Cheque : A cheque is a document in writing drawn upon a specified banker to pay a specified sum to
the bearer or the person named in it and payable on demand.

8 CRT – Accounting Basics

 7. Voucher : A voucher is a written document in support of a business transaction. Vouchers are
prepared by an accountant and each voucher is counter signed by an authorised person of the
organisation.

Journal : Journal is a date-wise record of all the transactions with details of the accounts debited and
credited and the amount of each transaction.

When two or more transactions of similar nature take place on the same date, such transactions can be
entered in the journal by means of a combined journal entry is called Compound Journal Entry. The only
precaution is that the total debits should be equal to total credits.

1. Date : In the first column, the date of the transaction is entered. The year and the month is written
only once, till they change. The sequence of the dates and months should be strictly maintained.
2. Particulars : Each transaction affects two accounts, out of which one account is debited and the other
account is credited. The name of the account to be debited is written first, very near to the line of
particulars column and the word Dr. is also written at the end of the particulars column. In the second
line, the name of the account to be credited is written, starts with the word ‘To’, a few space away
from the margin in the particulars column to the make it distinct from the debit account.
3. Narration : After each entry, a brief explanation of the transaction together with necessary details is
given in the particulars column with in brackets called narration. The words ‘For’ or ‘Being’ are used
before starting to write down narration. Now, it is not necessary to use the word ‘For’ or ‘Being’.
4. Ledger Folio (L.F): All entries from the journal are later posted into the ledger accounts. The page
number or folio number of the Ledger, where the posting has been made from the Journal is recorded
in the L.F column of the Journal. Till such time, this column remains blank.
5. Debit Amount : In this column, the amount of the account being debited is written.
6. Credit Amount : In this column, the amount of the account being credited is written.

9 CRT – Accounting Basics

LEDGER : Ledger is a principal or main book which contains all the accounts in which the transactions
recorded in the books of original entry are transferred.

Subsidiary Books : In addition to Journal which is the primary book of entry, there are various subsidiary
books that cater to various requirements of a business entity. They are :

i. Purchases Book records only credit purchases of goods by the trader.

ii. Sales Book is meant for entering only credit sales of goods by the trader.
iii. Purchases Return Book records the goods returned by the trader to suppliers.
iv. Sales Return Book deals with goods returned (out of previous sales) by the customers.
v. Bills Receivable Book records the receipts of bills (Bills Receivable).
vi. Bills Payable Book records the issue of bills (Bills Payable).
vii. Cash Book is used for recording only cash transactions i.e., receipts and payments of cash.

Cash Book can further be classified into different types :

10 CRT – Accounting Basics

Example of Triple Column Cash Book :

TRIAL BALANCE AND RECTIFICATION OF ERRORS

“Trial balance is a statement, prepared with the debit and credit balances of ledger accounts to test the
arithmetical accuracy of the books”. Since, every debit should have a corresponding credit as per the rules
of double entry system, the total of the debit balances and credit balances should tally (agree).

In the ledger there are many personal accounts, some of them may show debit balances, some others may
show credit balances. If all the names are to be written in the trial balance it will be unduly long.
Therefore, a list of names with the debit balances is prepared. This list is known as ‘Sundry Debtors’
(Sundry means ‘many’). Similarly, a list of names with the credit balances is prepared. This list is known as
‘Sundry Creditors’.

11 CRT – Accounting Basics

 Errors in Accounting

I. Errors of Principle : Transactions are recorded as per generally accepted accounting principles. If
any of these principles is violated or ignored, errors resulting from such violation are known as
errors of principle. For example, Purchase of assets recorded in the purchases book.
II. Clerical Errors : These errors arise because of mistakes committed in the ordinary course of
accounting work. These can be further classified into three types as follows.
a) Errors of Omission : This error arises when a transaction is completely or partially omitted to
be recorded in the books of accounts.

12 CRT – Accounting Basics

 Complete omission error arises when a transaction is totally omitted to be recorded in the
books of accounts. For example, Goods purchased from Ram completely omitted to be
recorded. This error does not affect the trial balance.

Partial omission error arises when only one aspect of the transaction either debit or credit is
recorded. For example, a credit sale of goods to Siva recorded in sales book but omitted to be
posted in Siva’s account. This error affects the trial balance.

b) Errors of Commission : This error arises due to wrong recording, wrong posting, wrong casting,
wrong balancing, wrong carrying forward etc. Errors of commission may be classified as
follows:
i. Error of Recording: This error arises when a transaction is wrongly recorded in the
books of original entry. For example, Goods of Rs.5,000, purchased on credit from
Vijay, is recorded in the book for Rs.5,500. This error does not affect the trial balance.
ii. Error of Posting: This error arises when information recorded in the books of original
entry are wrongly entered in the ledger. Example could be like right amount posted in
the right side of wrong account, right amount posted in the wrong side of correct
account and so on. These errors may or may not affect the trial balance.
iii. Error of Casting (Totalling) : This error arises when a mistake is committed while
totalling the subsidiary book. For example, instead of Rs.12,000 it may be wrongly
totalled as Rs.13,000. This is called overcasting. If it is wrongly totalled as Rs.11,000, it
is called undercasting.
iv. Error of Carrying Forward : This error arises when a mistake is committed in carrying
forward a total of one page to the next page. For example, Total of purchase book in
page 282 of the ledger Rs.10,686, while carrying forward the balance to the next page
it was recorded as Rs.10,866.
c) Compensating Errors : The errors arising from excess debits or under debits of accounts being
neutralised by the excess credits or under credits to the same extent of some other account is
compensating error. For example, If the purchases book and sales book are both overcast
(excess totalling) by Rs.10,000, the errors mutually compensate each other. This error will not
affect the agreement of trial balance.

Steps to Locate the Errors:

Step 1 → Check the total of the trial balance and ascertain the exact amount of difference in the trial
balance.

Step 2 → The difference is halved to find out whether there is any balance of the same amount in the trial
balance. It is because, such a balance might have been recorded on the wrong side of the trial balance and
hence, the difference is double the amount.

Step 3 → If the second step fails to locate the error, the difference in the trial balance is divided by 9. If it is
divisible by 9 without any remainder, the error is due to transposition of figures. For example,
transposition of figures represents writing of Rs.780 for Rs.870.

13 CRT – Accounting Basics

Step 4 → See whether the balance of all ledger accounts including cash and bank balances are included in
the trial balance.

Step 5 → Ensure that all the opening balances have been correctly brought forward in the current year’s
books.

Step 6 → If the difference in the trial balance is of large amount, the trial balance of the current year is
compared with that of the previous year and an account showing a large difference over the figure in the
previous year’s trial balance should be rechecked.

Step 7 → If the error is not detected by the above steps, care should be taken to scrutinise the (i) totals of
all the subsidiary books. (ii) posting made from the journal and the subsidiary books to the relevant ledger
accounts. (iii) balances extracted from the various ledger accounts. (iv) totalling of the ledger balances.

Basic Principles for Rectification of Errors : All errors, whatever may be their kind or nature, result in one
of the following four positions in one or more accounts.

i. Excess debit in one or more accounts: This must be rectified by ‘crediting’ the excess amount to
the respective account or accounts.
ii. Short debit in one or more accounts: This must be rectified by a ‘further debit’ to the respective
account or accounts involved.
iii. Excess credit in one or more accounts: This can be rectified by ‘debiting’ the respective account
with the excess amount involved.
iv. Short credit in one or more accounts: This can be rectified by a ‘further credit’ to the respective
account or accounts involved.

Revenue Vs Capital Vs Deferred Revenue Expenditure

Examples Purchase of Salaries to staff, Advertisement,

Furniture,Licence purchase of goods Research &
, Machinery, for sale, insurance, Development,
Expenses for stationery, etc Heavy marketing
installation, etc. expenses, etc

14 CRT – Accounting Basics

Trading Account, Profit & Loss Account, Balance Sheet

What is Trading Account : At the end of each year, it is necessary to ascertain the net profit or net loss of a
Trading business. For this purpose, it is first necessary to know the gross profit or gross loss. The trading
account is prepared to ascertain this.

The difference between the selling price and the cost price of the goods is the gross earning of the
business concern. Such gross earning is called as gross profit.

Wages : It means remuneration paid to workers. Carriage or carriage inwards: It means the transportation
charges paid to bring the goods from the place of purchase to the place of business. Octroi Duty: Amount
paid to bring the goods within the municipal limits. Customs duty, dock dues, clearing charges, import
duty etc.: These expenses are paid to the Government on the goods imported. Other trading expenses :
Fuel, power, lighting charges, oil, grease, waste related to production and packing expenses.

Profit and Loss Account : After calculating the gross profit or gross loss the next step is to prepare the
profit and loss account. To earn net profit a trader has to incur many expenses apart from those spent for
purchases and manufacturing of goods. If such expenses are less than gross profit, the result will be net
profit. When total of all these expenses are more than gross profit the result will be net loss.

Profit and loss account should be closed by transferring the net profit or net loss to capital account.

Profit and Loss A/c.............Dr xxx

To Capital A/c xxx

(Net profit transferred to capital A/c)

15 CRT – Accounting Basics

Balance Sheet : This forms the second part of the final accounts. It is a statement showing the
financial position of a business.
Balance Sheet - Sintex Industries Ltd.
Rs (in Crores)
Particulars Mar'17 Mar'16
Liabilities
Share Capital 54.47 44.66
Reserves & Surplus 3851.98 4879.68
Net Worth 3906.45 4924.34
Secured Loan 3499.76 4328.97
Unsecured Loan 456.05 198.99
TOTAL LIABILITIES 7862.26 9452.3
Assets
Gross Block 3969.08 6588.29
(-) Acc. Depreciation 207.31 190.61
Net Block (A) 3761.77 6397.68
Capital Work in Progress (B) 2493.23 172.05
Investments {C} 34.62 357.4
Inventories 205.06 181.04
Sundry Debtors 478.09 1540.54
Cash and Bank 704.11 520.49
Loans and Advances 761.37 1478.75
Total Current Assets 2148.63 3720.82
Current Liabilities 559.55 1171.68
Provisions 16.44 23.97
Total Current Liabilities 575.99 1195.65
NET CURRENT ASSETS (D) 1572.64 2525.17

TOTAL ASSETS(A+B+C+D) 7862.26 9452.3

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Tangible Assets: Assets which have some physical existence are known as tangible assets. They can be
seen, touched and felt, e.g. Plant and Machinery.

Fixed assets : Assets which are permanent in nature having long period of life and cannot be converted
into cash in a short period are termed as fixed assets.

Current assets : Assets which can be converted into cash in the ordinary course of business and are held
for a short period is known as current assets. This is also termed as floating assets. For example, cash in
hand, cash at bank, sundry debtors etc.

Intangible Assets : The assets which have no physical existence and cannot be seen or felt. They help to
generate revenue in future, e.g. goodwill, patents, trademarks etc.

Current liabilities : are those which are repayable within a year. For example, creditors for goods
purchased, short term loans etc.

Accounting for Depreciation

All assets whose benefit is derived for a long period of time, usually more than one year period are called
as Fixed Assets. These assets decrease in value year after year due to wear and tear or lapse of time. This
reduction in value of Fixed Assets is called Depreciation.

Factors Determining the Amount of Depreciation

1. Original cost of the asset : It implies the cost incurred on its acquisition, installation, commissioning and
for additions or improvements thereof which are of capital nature
2. Estimated life: It implies the period over which an asset is expected to be used.
3. Residual value : It implies the value expected to be realised on its sale on the expiry of its useful life. This
is otherwise known as scrap value or turn-in value.

Methods of Calculating Depreciation :

1. Straight Line Method (or Fixed Instalment Method or Original Cost Method) : Under this method, the
same amount of depreciation is charged every year throughout the life of the asset. The amount and
rate of depreciation is calculated as under

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 Rs.21,000
= x 100
Rs.1,10,000

= 19.09 %
2. Written Down Value Method (or Diminishing Balance Method or Reducing Balance Method): Under
this method, depreciation is charged at a fixed percentage each year on the reducing balance (i.e., cost
less depreciation) of asset. The amount of depreciation goes on decreasing every year.
For example, if the asset is purchased for Rs.1,00,000 and depreciation is to be charged at 10% p.a. on
reducing balance method, then
Depreciation for the 1st year = 10% on Rs.1,00,000, ie., Rs.10,000
Depreciation for the 2nd year = 10% on Rs.90,000 (Rs.1,00,000 –– Rs.10,000) = Rs. 9,000
Depreciation for the 3rd year = 10% on Rs.81,000 (Rs.90,000 - Rs.9,000) = Rs.8,100 and so on.
Note : The WDV method is the most popular method of depreciation which is also recognised by the Income Tax
Authorities.

Journal Entries for recording depreciation in books of account :

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Accounting Standards : Accounting Standards are the standards of accounting recommended by the
Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI) and prescribed by the Central Government in
consultation with the National Advisory Committee on Accounting Standards (NACAS). In India, the
Accounting Standards Board (ASB) was constituted by the ICAI on April 21, 1977 with the function of
formulating accounting standards. So far ASB has issued twenty nine accounting standards.

The purpose of accounting standards is to standardize diverse accounting policies with a view to eliminate,
to the extent possible, incomparability of financial statements information and provide a set of standard
accounting policies, valuation norms and disclosure requirements.

19 CRT – Accounting Basics

 Bank Reconciliation Statement

‘Bank reconciliation statement is a list in which the various items that cause a
difference between bank balance as per cash book and pass book on any given
date are indicated’. While Cash book indicates transactions record maintained by the business, Pass
book indicates transactions record maintained by the bank (customer’s account in the bank ledger).

Format : When bank balance as per cash book is taken as the starting point

Debit balance as per cash book indicates excess of debit (cash inflows) over credit ( cash outflows). This
should ideally match with Credit balance as per Pass book (excess of credit over debit).

Bank overdraft is an amount drawn over and above the actual balance kept in the bank account. This
facility is available only to the current account holders. Interest will be charged for the amount overdrawn
i.e., overdraft.

20 CRT – Accounting Basics

Causes of Disagreement :
1. Cheques paid into bank but not yet collected : As soon as the cheques are sent to the bank, entries are
made in the debit side of the cash book (bank column). But, usually bank credits the customer’s
account only when they have received payment from the bank concerned. The gap could be due to a)
not collected & credited till date b) collected by bank but forgotten to make an entry in books c)
collected by bank but credited to wrong account. d) cheque has been dishonoured for some reason.
2. Cheques issued but not yet presented for payment : The entry in the cash book is made immediately
on the issue of cheque but naturally the entry will be made by bank only when the cheque is
presented for payment. The gap could be due to a) Cheque is not cashed till date/ or presented till
date b) The cheque was presented but was dishonoured for some reason. c) The cheque was lost by
the person to whom it was issued.
3. Amount credited by the banker in the pass book without the immediate knowledge of the customer :
Examples a) bank might have collected rent, dividend, interest etc as per the standing instructions
given by the customer b) some debtors might have directly paid into the bank c) bank directly credits
interest on balance amount d) bank has wrongly credited the account instead of some other account.
4. Amount debited by the banker in the pass book without the immediate knowledge of the customer :
Examples a) bank has debited bank charges, interest on overdraft
b) bank has paid insurance premium, subscriptions, bills etc as per standing instructions c) wrong debit
by the bank in one account instead of another.
Particulars Amount (Rs.) Amount (Rs.)
A Balance as per Pass Book XXX
B Add : Cheques deposited but not credited by the
bank XXX
Dishonoured cheques only appearing in the Pass
Book XXX
Bank Charges as per Pass book XXX
Wrong debit by Bank XXX
Payments made as per standing instructions XXX
Total (B) XXX
C (Total A + B) XXX
D Less : Cheques issued but not presented for
payment XXX
Interest credited only by bank XXX
Debtors directly paid into the bank
Wrong credit by Bank XXX
Collections by bank as per standing instructions
Total (D) XXX
Balance as per Cash Book (C – D) XXX
E XXX

21 CRT – Accounting Basics

Ratio Analysis
1. Current Ratio : This ratio is used to assess a firms’s ability to meet its current liabilities. The
relationship of current assets to current liabilities is known as current ratio. The ratio is calculated as :

Current Assets are those assets, which are easily convertible into cash within one year. This includes
cash in hand, cash at bank, sundry debtors, bills receivable, short term investments, closing stock and
prepaid expenses.

Current Liabilities are those liabilities which are payable within one year. This includes bank overdraft,
sundry creditors, bills payable and outstanding expenses.

2. Liquid Ratio : This ratio is used to assess the firm’s short term liquidity. The relationship of liquid
assets to current liabilities is known as liquid ratio, also called as Acid Test ratio or Quick ratio. The
ratio is calculated as :

Liquid assets means current assets less closing stock and prepaid expenses.

3. Debt Equity Rato : This ratio helps to ascertain the soundness of the long term financial position of
the concern. It indicates the proportion between total long term debt and shareholders funds. This
also indicates the extent to which the firm depends upon outsiders for its existence. The ratio is
calculated as:

Long term debts include debentures, long term loans from banks and financial institutions.
Shareholders funds include Equity Share capital, Preference Share capital and Reserves and Surplus.
4. Return on Equity Ratio : It measures the returns the company is generating on shareholders’ equity.
More the better.
Return on Equity = Profit After Tax / Shareholders funds

5. Return on Capital Employed : The comparison is between operating profit and total capital
employed including debt.
ROCE = Profit Before Interest and Tax / Total capital employed
22 CRT – Accounting Basics
6. Inventory Turnover Ratio : The inventory turnover ratio is an efficiency ratio that shows how
effectively inventory is managed by comparing cost of goods sold with average inventory for a period.
This measures how many times average inventory is “turned” or sold during a period.

Inventory Turnover Ratio = Cost of Goods Sold / Average Inventory

Average Inventory is calculated by adding the opening and closing inventory and dividing by two.
7. Earnings Per Share (EPS) : It measures the amount of net income earned per share of stock
outstanding. In other words, this is the amount of money each share of stock would receive if all of the
profits were distributed to the outstanding shares at the end of the year.

EPS = Net Income After Tax / Wt Avg Common Shares Outstanding

Dividend paid to Preference Share holders is removed from the Net Income.
8. Dividend Pay Out Ratio : The dividend payout ratio measures the percentage of net income that is
distributed to shareholders in the form of dividends during the year. In other words, this ratio shows
the portion of profits the company decides to keep to fund operations and the portion of profits that is
given to its shareholders.

Dividend Payout Ratio = Total Dividends / Net Income

9. Gross Margin Ratio : Gross margin ratio is a profitability ratio that compares the gross margin of a
business to the net sales. This ratio measures how profitable a company sells its inventory or
merchandise. This is the pure profit from the sale of inventory that can go to paying operating
expenses.
Gross Margin Ratio = Gross Margin / Net Sales

Gross Margin = Net Sales – Cost of goods sold

Net Sales = Gross Sales – Returns/Refunds
10. Net Margin Ratio : It is the percentage of revenue left after all expenses have been deducted from
sales. The measurement reveals the amount of profit that a business can extract from its total sales.

Net Margin Ratio = Net Profit / Total Sales

11. Net Present Value (NPV) : Net present value, NPV, is a capital budgeting formula that calculates the
difference between the present value of the cash inflows and outflows of a project or potential
investment. In other words, it’s used to evaluate the amount of money that an investment will
generate compared with the cost adjusted for the time value of money. It demonstrates the money
isn’t free and one rupee today is always worth more than one rupee tomorrow.

23 NPV = Present Value of Future Cashflows - Present Value CRT

of Initial
– Accounting Basics
investment cost
 Company management compute the net present value of potential projects, expansions, or new
equipment to evaluate what option will perform the best and decide what path the company should
take in the future.
12. Internal Rate of Return (IRR) : In simple terms, the internal rate of return is the interest percentage
that company has to achieve in order to break even on its investment in new capital. Since
management wants to do better than break even, they consider this the minimum acceptable return
on an investment. (It is the discount rate at which the NPV = 0)

Management Accounting
It is the process of identifying, analyzing, recording and presenting financial information so internal
management can use it for the planning, decision making and control of a company.
While financial accounting is used for reporting to the external investors shareholders and stakeholders,
managerial accounting is information provided to the company's internal managers and the business's owners
so they can plan and control the business's activities.

 Planning and Budgeting : In managerial accounting, weekly and monthly budgets are used to
determine what to sell, how much of it to sell and what price should be charged in order to cover all
costs laid out in the budget and make a margin. The capital budget is a good example of this.
 Project Decision Making : The second concept in managerial accounting is project decision making.
Managers use managerial accounting reports such as relevant costing to weigh the costs and benefits
of undertaking a particular project.
 Performance Measurement : Performance measurement is used to compare the actual results of
operations with what was budgeted in the planning and budgeting phase. Standard costing is a good
example of this technique.

Cost Accounting
Cost accounting is an accounting method that aims to capture a company's costs of production by assessing
the input costs of each step of production as well as fixed costs. Cost accounting will first measure and record
these costs individually, then compare input results to output or actual results to aid company management in
measuring financial performance.

Elements of Cost
1. Material : The substance from which a product is made is called material.
2. Labour : For conversion of material into finished goods, human effort is needed and such human effort
is called labour.
3. Expenses : Expenses that can be either wholly or partly be allocated to specific cost centers or cost
units.
4. Overheads : This includes all indirect material or labour or expenses like oil, consumables,
gatekeeper’s salary, factory lighting, rent, salesmen’s salary, etc.
Classification of costs based on behaviour :
1. Fixed Costs : Costs which do not vary but remains constant within a given period of time and a range of
activity inspite of the fluctuations in production. Eg : Rent, Insurance Charges, Management salary, etc.
2. Variable Costs : Costs which varies directly in proportion with every increase or decrease in the volume
of output or production. Eg : Wages, Direct material, Power, etc.

24 CRT – Accounting Basics

Components of Total Cost :
The four main components of costs are: (a) Prime Cost, (b) Works Cost, (c) Office Cost and (d) Total Cost.

Prime Cost : It consists of costs of direct material, direct labour and direct expense specifically attributable to
the job. This is also known as flat, direct or basic cost.

Works or Factory Cost : It comprises of prime cost and factory overheads, (cost of indirect material, indirect
labour and indirect expenses related to factory works). This cost is also known as factory cost, production or
manufacturing cost.
Cost of Production (Office Cost) : It is the sum total of works cost and office and administrative overheads
<Cost of indirect material, indirect labour and indirect expenses related to office works). This cost is known as
office cost or cost of goods sold.
Cost of Production = Works Cost + Office and Administrative Overheads
Total Cost : It comprises of cost of production and selling and distribution overheads (Cost of indirect
material, indirect labour and indirect expenses for selling and distribution activities).
Total Cost = Cost of Production + Selling and Distribution Overheads

Types of Cost Accounting

1. Standard Costing : The technique of using standard costs for the purposes of cost control is known as
Standard Costing. It involves comparison of the standard cost of each product or service with the
actual cost to determine the efficiency of the operation. It is designed to find out how much should be
the cost of a product or service under the existing conditions.

2. Activity Based Costing :It is a methodology that identifies activities in an organization and assigns the
cost of each activity with resources to all products and services according to the actual consumption
by each. Activity based costing first assigns costs to the activities that are the real cause of the
overhead. It then assigns the cost of those activities only to the products that are actually demanding
the activities.

25 CRT – Accounting Basics

 3. Marginal Costing : Marginal Cost is an increase in total cost that results from a one unit increase in
output. It is governed only by variable cost which changes with changes in output. For example, the
total cost of producing one pen is Rs. 5 and the total cost of producing two pens is Rs. 9, then the
marginal cost of expanding output by one unit is Rs. 4 only (9 - 5 = 4).

Capital Budgeting : Capital budgeting is the process in which a business determines and evaluates
potential expenses or investments that are large in nature. These expenditures and investments include
projects such as building a new plant or investing in a long-term venture.
There are different techniques used for capital budgeting. Some of them are :
 Payback Period.
 Discounted Payback Period.
 Net Present Value.(NPV)
 Accounting Rate of Return.
 Internal Rate of Return. (IRR)
 Profitability Index.
Of the above techniques, NPV and IRR have already been discussed earlier.

26 CRT – Accounting Basics

Problem on Ratio Analysis

Following is the summarised Balance Sheet of a private limited company as at

31st December:

Balance Sheet of McGraw Hill (India) Pvt Ltd

as on 31st December 2017
Liabilities Rs. Assets Rs.
6% Preference Share Goodwill 20,000
Capital 1,50,000 Land & Buildings 2,50,000
Equity Share Capital 2,50,000 Machinery 1,75,000
General Reserve 20,000 Furniture 10,000
Profit and Loss 15,000 Stock 90,000
5% Debentures 1,00,000 Sundry Debtors 21,000
Sundry Creditors 28,000 Cash at Bank 5,000
Bills Payable 12,000 Preliminary Expenses 4,000
5,75,000 5,75,000

Other information :
Total Sales Rs. 4,00,000 : 20% of which is made on credit. Gross profit and Net profit (after tax) for the year
ended amounted to Rs. 80,000 and Rs. 20,000 respectively. There are 25,000 equity shares outstanding and
dividends distributed during the year is 7,500. Calculate the below ratios :
1. Current Ratio
2. Liquid Ratio
3. Debt Equity Ratio
4. Return on Equity Ratio
5. Inventory Turnover Ratio
6. Earnings Per Share
7. Dividends Payout Ratio
8. Gross Margin Ratio
9. Net Margin Ratio

27 CRT – Accounting Basics

Problem 1 : Mrs.Karuna’s pass book showed a balance of Rs 25,000 on June 30, 2018. Her cash book
shows a different balance. On examination, it is found that
1. No record has been made in the cash book for a dishonour of a cheque for Rs.250
2. Cheques paid into bank amounting to Rs. 3,500 were paid into the bank on June 28, 2003 and
the same had not been entered in the pass book.
3. Bank charges of Rs. 300 have not been entered in the cash book.
4. Cheques amounting to Rs. 9,000 issued to Ms.Devi has not been presented for payment still.
5. Mr. Balu who owed Rs. 3,000 has directly paid the sum into the bank account.
You are required to prepare a Bank reconciliation statement and ascertain the balance as per cash
book.

Problem 2 : Prepare a Bank Reconciliation Statement as at June 30, 2018 for M/s.Jyothi Sales Private
Limited from the information given below
1. Bank overdraft as per cash book 1,10,450
2. Cheques issued on June 20, 2018 but not yet presented for payment 15,000
3. Cheques deposited but not yet credited by bank 22,750
4. Bills receivable directly collected by bank 47,200
5. Interest on overdraft debited by bank 12,115
6. Amount wrongly debited by bank 2,400

Problem 3 : From the following, calculate Debt-Equity Ratio.

Equity shares 1,00,000 General reserves 75,000 Debentures 75,000 Sundry creditors 40,000
Outstanding expenses 10,000

Solution:
Long term Debt Debt-Equity ratio = ————————— Shareholders funds
Long term Debt = Debentures
= Rs. 75,000
Shareholders funds = Equity shares + General Reserves
= 1,00,000 + 75,000
= Rs. 1,75,000
75,000 Debt-Equity ratio = ———— = 0.42 : 1

28 CRT – Accounting Basics