Module 1

Introduction
The theory of functions of a complex variable, also called complex
analysis, is one of the most beautiful as well as useful branches of
Mathematics. Also originating in an atmosphere of mystery,
suspicious and distrust, as evidenced by the terms “imaginary” and
“complex” present in the literature, it was finally placed on a sound
foundation in the 19th century through the efforts of Cauchy,
Riemann, Weirstrass, Gauss and other great Mathematicians.

Today the subject is recognized as an essential part of mathematical

background of engineers, physicists, mathematicians and other
scientists. From the theoretical point of view, this is because many
mathematical concepts become clarified and unified when examined
in the light of complex variable theory. From the applied viewpoint
the theory is of tremendous value in the solution of problems of
heat flow, potential theory, fluid mechanics, electromagnetic theory,
aerodynamics, elasticity and many other fields of science and
engineering.

The extension to the concept of complex numbers from that of real

numbers was first necessitated by the solution of algebraic
equations. The equations 𝑥 2 + 1 = 0 and 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 3 = 0, for example,
cannot be satisfied by any number in the domain of real numbers.

Euler (1707-1783) was first to introduce the symbol 𝑖 for the square
root of −1 with the property 𝑖 2 = −1. It was Gauss (1777-1855) who
first proved in a satisfactory manner that every algebraic equation
with real coefficients has complex roots of the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏, the real
roots being a particular case of complex numbers for which the
coefficient of 𝑖 is zero. His approach to the concept of complex
numbers was geometrical. Hamilton (1805-1865) also made a great
contribution to the development of the theory of complex numbers.
His approach was arithmetical.
The Algebra of Complex numbers
Complex numbers are viewed as ordered pairs of real numbers.
That is, a complex number 𝑧 is defined to be 𝑧 = 𝑥, 𝑦 , where
𝑥 and 𝑦 are both real numbers.

The reason we say ordered pair is because we are thinking of a

point in the plane. The point 2,3 , for example, is not the same as
3,2 . The order in which we write 𝑥 and 𝑦 makes a difference,
clearly, then two complex numbers are equal if and only if their 𝑥
co-ordinates are equal and their 𝑦 co-ordinates are equal. In other
words, 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑢, 𝑣 if and only if 𝑥 = 𝑢 and 𝑦 = 𝑣.

A meaningful number system requires a method for combining

ordered pairs. The definition of algebraic operations must be
consistent so that the sum, difference, product, and quotient of any
two ordered pairs will again be an ordered pair.

Let 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 be arbitrary complex numbers.

Then 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦2

= 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2

= 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑖 𝑦1 + 𝑦2

= 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 .

Similarly subtraction is defined as 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 .

Example: If 𝑧1 = 3,7 and 𝑧2 = 5, −6 , then

𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 3,7 + 5, −6 = 8,1 and 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 3,7 − 5, −6 = −2,13 .

We can also use the notation 𝑧1 = 3 + 7𝑖 and 𝑧2 = 5 − 6𝑖.

𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 3 + 7𝑖 + 5 − 6𝑖 = 8 + 𝑖 and 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 3 + 7𝑖 − 5 − 6𝑖 =
−2 + 13𝑖.
At this point, it is tempting to define the product 𝑧1 𝑧2 as 𝑧1 𝑧2 =
𝑥1 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 𝑦2 . But it is not correct. Let us see the actual definition.

𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 𝑥2 , 𝑦2

= 𝑥1 + 𝑖𝑦1 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑦2

= 𝑥1 𝑥2 + 𝑖𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑖𝑦1 𝑥2 + 𝑖 2 𝑦1 𝑦2

= 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 + 𝑖 𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑦1 𝑥2

= 𝑥1 𝑥2 − 𝑦1 𝑦2 , 𝑥1 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 .

Example: If 𝑧1 = 3,7 and 𝑧2 = 5 − 6𝑖, then

𝑧1 𝑧2 = 3,7 5, −6

= 3.5 − 7. −6 , 3. −6 + 5.7

= 15 + 42, −18 + 35 = 57,17 .

We get the same by using the notation 𝑧1 = 3 + 7𝑖 and 𝑧2 = 5 − 6𝑖

𝑧1 𝑧2 = 3,7 5, −6

= 3 + 7𝑖 5 − 6𝑖

= 15 − 18𝑖 + 35𝑖 − 42𝑖 2

= 15 − 42 −1 + −18 + 35 𝑖

= 57 + 17𝑖 = 57,17 .

To motivate our definition for division, we proceed along the same

lines as we did for multiplication, assuming that 𝑧2 ≠ 0.
𝑧1 𝑥 1 ,𝑦1 𝑥 1 +𝑖𝑦 1 𝑥 1 +𝑖𝑦 1 𝑥 2 −𝑖𝑦 2 𝑥 1 𝑥 2 +𝑦 1 𝑦 2 +𝑖 −𝑥 1 𝑦 2 +𝑥 2 𝑦1
= = = =
𝑧2 𝑥 2 ,𝑦2 𝑥 2 +𝑖𝑦 2 𝑥 2 +𝑖𝑦 2 𝑥 2 −𝑖𝑦 2 𝑥 22 +𝑦 22

𝑥 1 𝑥 2 +𝑦 1 𝑦2 −𝑥 1 𝑦 2 +𝑥 2 𝑦 1 𝑥 1 𝑥 2 +𝑦 1 𝑦2 −𝑥 1 𝑦 2 +𝑥 2 𝑦1
= +𝑖 = , .
𝑥 22 +𝑦 22 𝑥 22 +𝑦22 𝑥 22 +𝑦 22 𝑥 22 +𝑦 22
Example: If 𝑧1 = 3,7 and 𝑧2 = 5, −6 , then
𝑧1 3,7 15−42 18+35 27 53
= = , = − , .
𝑧2 5,−6 25+36 25+36 61 61

We also get this answer if we use the notation 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦:

𝑧1 3,7 3+7𝑖 3+7𝑖 5+6𝑖 15+18𝑖+35𝑖+42𝑖 2 15−42+ 18+35 𝑖
= = = . = =
𝑧2 5,−6 5−6𝑖 5−6𝑖 5+6𝑖 25+30𝑖−30𝑖−36𝑖 2 25+36

27 53 27 53
=− + 𝑖= − , .
61 61 61 61

The algebraic definitions of complex numbers that we have defined

above give all the properties of a field. A field is a set (in this case,
the complex numbers) together with two binary operations (in this
case, addition and multiplication) having the following properties.

Commutative law for addition: 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧2 + 𝑧1 .

Associative law for addition: 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 = 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 .

Additive identity: There is a complex number 𝜔 such that

𝑧 + 𝜔 = 𝑧 for all complex numbers 𝑧. The number 𝜔 is obviously the
ordered pair 0,0 .

Additive inverses: For any complex number 𝑧, there is a unique

complex number 𝜂 (depending on 𝑧) with the property that 𝑧 + 𝜂 =
0,0 . Obviously, if 𝑧 = 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, the number 𝜂 will be – 𝑥, −𝑦 =
−𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 = −𝑧.

Commutative law for multiplication: 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑧2 𝑧1 .

Associative law for multiplication: 𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑧3 = 𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑧3 .

Multiplicative identity: There is a complex number 𝜉 such that

𝑧𝜉 = 𝑧 for all complex numbers 𝑧. As you might expect, (1,0) is the
unique complex number 𝜉 having this property.
Multiplicative inverses: For any number 𝑧 other than the number
0,0 there is a complex number (depending on 𝑧), which we denote
𝑧 −1 , having the property that 𝑧𝑧 −1 = 1,0 = 1 . Based on our
definition for division, it seems reasonable that the number 𝑧 −1
1,0 1
would be 𝑧 −1 = = .
𝑧 𝑧

The distributive law: 𝑧1 𝑧2 + 𝑧3 = 𝑧1 𝑧2 + 𝑧1 𝑧3 .

None of these properties is difficult to prove. Most of the proofs

make use of corresponding facts in the real number system. To
illustrate, we give a proof of property “commutative law for
addition”.

Let 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 be arbitrary complex numbers.

Then,

𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦2

= 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 (Sum of two complex numbers)

= 𝑥2 + 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 + 𝑦1 (By commutative law for real numbers)

= 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 + 𝑥1 , 𝑦1

= 𝑧2 + 𝑧1 .

Suppose that 𝑧 = 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is a complex number. Then we have

the following definitions.

Real Part: The real part of 𝑧, denoted 𝑅𝑒 𝑧 , is the real number 𝑥.

Imaginary Part: The imaginary part of 𝑧, denoted 𝐼𝑚 𝑧 , is the real

number 𝑦.

Conjugate: The conjugate of 𝑧, denoted 𝑧, is the complex number

𝑥, −𝑦 = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦.
Example: 𝑅𝑒 −3 + 7𝑖 = −3 and 𝑅𝑒 9,4 = 9 . 𝐼𝑚 −3 + 7𝑖 = 7 and
𝐼𝑚 9,4 = 4. −3 + 7𝑖 = −3 − 7𝑖 and 9,4 = 9, −4 .

The theorem below gives some important facts relating to these

operations. Proof is left to the students as an exercise.

Theorem: Suppose that 𝑧, 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 are arbitrary complex numbers.

Then

𝑧 = 𝑧.

𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 .

𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 𝑧2 .
𝑧1 𝑧1
= if 𝑧2 ≠ 0.
𝑧2 𝑧2

𝑧+𝑧
𝑅𝑒 𝑧 = .
2

𝑧−𝑧
𝐼𝑚 𝑧 = .
2𝑖

𝑅𝑒 𝑖𝑧 = −𝐼𝑚 𝑧 .

𝐼𝑚 𝑖𝑧 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑧 .

The Geometry of Complex Numbers

Because complex numbers are ordered pairs of real numbers, there
is a one to one correspondence between them and points in the
plane. In this section, we show the effect that algebraic operations
on complex numbers have on their geometric representations.

We can represent the number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑥, 𝑦 by a position vector

in the 𝑋𝑌 plane whose tail is at the origin and whose head is at the
point 𝑥, 𝑦 . When the 𝑋𝑌 plane is used for displaying complex
numbers, it is called the complex plane or Argand plane (because it
is used in Argand diagrams. These are named after Jean-Robert-
Argand (1768-1822)), or more simply the 𝑧 -plane. Recall that
𝑅𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑥 and 𝐼𝑚 𝑧 = 𝑦 . Geometrically, 𝑅𝑒 𝑧 is the projection of
𝑧 = 𝑥, 𝑦 onto the 𝑋-axis, and 𝐼𝑚 𝑧 is the projection of 𝑧 onto the 𝑌-
axis. It makes sense, then to call the 𝑋-axis the real axis and the 𝑌-
axis the imaginary axis.

Addition of complex numbers is analogious to addition of vectors in

the plane. Hence 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 can be obtained vectorially by using the
parallelogram law as shown in the figure below.

𝑌
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑧 𝑦

3 + 2𝑖

𝑥 𝑋
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
The Complex plane

𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑧1 (𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑧2 )

𝑧1 + 𝑧2
𝑧2
𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑧2 (𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑧1 )

𝑧1

The sum 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
The difference 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 can be represented by the displacement vector
from the point 𝑧2 = 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 to the point 𝑧1 = 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 as shown in the
figure below.

𝑌 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 (𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑧2 )

𝑧2

𝑧1

𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 −𝑧2 (𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑧1 )

𝑋
𝑧1 − 𝑧2

The difference 𝑧1 − 𝑧2

Modulus: The modulus or absolute value of the complex number

𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is a nonnegative real number denoted by 𝑧 and is given
by 𝑧 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2.

Example: The number 𝑧 = 4 + 3𝑖 has modulus 5 and is depicted in

the figure below.
 𝑌

4 + 3𝑖

4
The real and imaginary parts of a complex number

Note:

1) The number 𝑧 is the distance between the origin and the

point 𝑧 = 𝑥, 𝑦 .
2) The only complex number with modulus zero is the number 0.
3) The numbers 𝑅𝑒 𝑧 , 𝐼𝑚 𝑧 , and 𝑧 are the lengths of the sides
of the right triangle 𝑂𝑃𝑄 shown in the figure below.

0, 𝑦 𝑃 = 𝑥, 𝑦 = z

𝑧 𝐼𝑚 𝑧

𝑂 = 0,0 𝑅𝑒 𝑧 𝑄 = 𝑥, 0 𝑋

The moduli of 𝑧 and its components

4) The inequality 𝑧1 < 𝑧2 means that the point 𝑧1 is closer to

the origin than the point 𝑧2 , and it follows that
𝑥 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧 and 𝑦 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧 .
 5) The difference 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 represents the displacement vector from
𝑧2 to 𝑧1 , so the distance between 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 is given by 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 .
dist 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥2 2 + 𝑦1 − 𝑦2 2 .
6) If 𝑧 = 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 , then – 𝑧 = −𝑥, −𝑦 = −𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 is the
reflection of 𝑧 through the origin, and 𝑧 = 𝑥, −𝑦 = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 is the
reflection of 𝑧 through the 𝑋 -axis as illustrated below.
𝑌

0, 𝑦 𝑧 = 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦

−𝑥, 0 𝑥, 0
𝑋

0, −𝑦
−𝑧 = −𝑥, −𝑦 = −𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦 𝑧 = 𝑥, −𝑦 = 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑦

The geometry of negation and conjugation

7) 𝑧 2 = 𝑧𝑧

An important application of Note (7) is its use in establishing the

triangle inequality, which states that the sum of the lengths of two
sides of a triangle is greater than or equal to the length of the third
side.
 𝑌

𝑧1 + 𝑧2
𝑧2
|𝑧1 + 𝑧2 | 𝑧2

𝑧1 𝑧1

The triangle inequality

Theorem (The triangle inequality): If 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 are arbitrary

complex numbers, then 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 ≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 .

Proof: 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 2
= 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 𝑧1 + 𝑧2

= 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 𝑧1 + 𝑧2

= 𝑧1 𝑧1 + 𝑧1 𝑧2 + 𝑧2 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 𝑧2

= 𝑧1 2 + 𝑧1 𝑧2 + 𝑧2 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 2

2
= 𝑧1 + 𝑧1 𝑧2 + 𝑧1 𝑧2 + 𝑧2 2
2 + 2𝑅𝑒 𝑧 𝑧 + 𝑧 2
= 𝑧1 1 2 2

2 2
≤ 𝑧1 + 2 𝑧1 𝑧2 + 𝑧2

= 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 2
Taking square roots yields the desired inequality.

Example: Let 𝑧1 = 7 + 𝑖 and 𝑧2 = 3 + 5𝑖.

Then 𝑧1 = 49 + 1 = 50 and 𝑧2 = 9 + 25 = 34.

Clearly 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 10 + 6𝑖, so 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 100 + 36 = 136 = 2 34

= 34 + 34 < 50 + 34

= 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 .
Note: 1) 𝑧1 = 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + −𝑧2

≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + −𝑧2

= 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 + 𝑧2

⇒ 𝑧1 − 𝑧2 ≤ 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 .

2) 𝑧1 𝑧2 2 = 𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑧1 𝑧2
2 2
= 𝑧1 𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 𝑧2

⇒ 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑧1 𝑧2 .
𝑧1 𝑧1
3) Similarly, we have = , provided 𝑧2 ≠ 0.
𝑧2 |𝑧2 |

𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑌

𝑧1 𝑧2

The geometry of multiplication

Example: If 𝑧1 = 1 + 2𝑖 and 𝑧2 = 3 + 2𝑖 , then 𝑧1 = 1 + 4 = 5 and

𝑧2 = 9 + 4 = 13. Also 𝑧1 𝑧2 = −1 + 8𝑖.

So 𝑧1 𝑧2 = 1 + 64 = 65 = 5. 13 = 𝑧1 𝑧2 .
POLAR REPRESENTATION
Till now, we saw that a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 could be viewed
as a vector in the 𝑋𝑌 plane with its tail at the origin and its head at
the point 𝑥, 𝑦 . A vector can be uniquely specified by giving its
magnitude (i.e its length) and directions (i.e., the angle it makes
with the positive 𝑋-axis). In this section, we focus on these two
geometric aspects of complex numbers.

Let 𝑟 be the modulus of 𝑧 (i.e., 𝑟 = 𝑧 ) and let 𝜃 be the angle that the
line from the origin to the complex number 𝑧 makes with the
positive 𝑋-axis.

(Note: The number 𝜃 is undefined if 𝑧 = 0).

Then 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 --------------------- (*)

𝑧 = 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

0, 𝑦

𝜃
𝑥, 0 𝑋
Polar representation of complex numbers

Equation (*) is known as polar representation of 𝑧, and the values 𝑟

and 𝜃 are called polar coordinates of 𝑧.
 𝜋 𝜋
Example: If 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖, then 𝑟 = 2 and 𝑧 = 2 cos , 2 sin =
4 4
𝜋 𝜋
2 cos + 𝑖 sin is a polar representation of 𝑧 . The polar
4 4
𝜋
coordinates in this case are 𝑟 = 2, and 𝜃 = .
4
𝑥
Note that 𝜃 can be any value for which the identities cos 𝜃 = and
𝑟
𝑦
sin 𝜃 = hold.
𝑟

Definition: If 𝑧 ≠ 0, arg 𝑧 = 𝜃: 𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 . If 𝜃 ∈ arg 𝑧 , we

say that 𝜃 is an argument of 𝑧.

Note: If 𝜃1 ∈ arg 𝑧 and 𝜃2 ∈ arg 𝑧 , then there exists some integer 𝑛

such that 𝜃1 = 𝜃2 + 2𝑛𝜋.
𝜋 𝜋
Example: Because 1 + 𝑖 = 2 cos + 𝑖 sin , we have arg 1 + 𝑖 =
4 4
𝜋
+ 2𝑛𝜋: 𝑛 is an integer .
4

Definition: Let 𝑧 ≠ 0 be a complex number. Then Arg 𝑧 = 𝜃, provided

𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 and – 𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 . If 𝜃 = Arg 𝑧 , we call 𝜃 the
argument of 𝑧.
𝜋
Example: Arg 1 + 𝑖 = .
4

Remark: Clearly, if 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 , where 𝑥 ≠ 0, then

𝑦
arg 𝑧 ⊂ tan−1 .
𝑥

𝑦
We specifically identify arg 𝑧 as a proper subset of tan−1 because
𝑥
tan 𝜃 has period 𝜋 , whereas cos 𝜃 and sin 𝜃 have period 2𝜋 . In
selecting the proper values for arg 𝑧 , we must be careful in
𝑦
specifying the choices of tan−1 so that the point 𝑧 associated with
𝑥
𝑟 and 𝜃 lies in the appropriate quadrant.

Example: If 𝑧 = − 3 − 𝑖 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 , then 𝑟 = 𝑧 = − 3 − 𝑖 = 2

𝑦 −1 𝜋
and 𝜃 ∈ tan−1 = tan−1 = + 𝑛𝜋: 𝑛 is an integer .
𝑥 − 3 6
 𝜋
It would be a mistake to use as an acceptable value for 𝜃, as the
6
𝜋
point 𝑧 associated with 𝑟 = 2 and 𝜃 = is in the first quadrant,
6
whereas − 3 − 𝑖 is in the third quadrant. A correct choice for 𝜃 is
𝜋 5𝜋
𝜃 = −𝜋 =− .
6 6

5𝜋 5𝜋
Thus − 3 − 𝑖 = 2 cos − + 𝑖 2 sin −
6 6

5𝜋 5𝜋
= 2 cos − + 2𝑛𝜋 + 𝑖2 sin − + 2𝑛𝜋 , Where 𝑛 is any
6 6
integer
5𝜋
In this case, Arg − 3 − 𝑖 = − , and
6

5𝜋
arg − 3 − 𝑖 = − + 2𝑛𝜋: 𝑛 is an integer
6

−1
Note that arg − 3 − 𝑖 is indeed a proper subset of tan−1 .
− 3

Example: If 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 = 0 + 4𝑖, it would be a mistake to attempt to

𝑦 𝑦
find Arg𝑧 by looking at tan−1 , as 𝑥 = 0, so is undefined. If 𝑧 ≠ 0
𝑥 𝑥
is on the 𝑌-axis, then
𝜋 𝜋
Arg 𝑧 = , if 𝐼𝑚 𝑧 > 0 and Arg 𝑧 = − , if 𝐼𝑚 𝑧 < 0.
2 2

𝜋 𝜋
In this case, Arg 4𝑖 = and arg 4𝑖 = + 2𝑛𝜋: 𝑛 is an integer .
2 2

As you will see in future that the complex exponential 𝑒 𝑧 has all the
properties of real exponentials that you studied in earlier
Mathematics courses. That is, 𝑒 𝑧1 𝑒 𝑧2 = 𝑒 𝑧1 +𝑧2 , and so on. You will
also see, amazingly, that if 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, then

𝑒 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥+𝑖𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + 𝑖 sin 𝑦 .

If we set 𝑥 = 0 and let 𝜃 take the role of 𝑦 in the above equation, we

get a famous result known as Euler’s formula.
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 = cos 𝜃, sin 𝜃 .

If 𝜃 is a real number, 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 will be located somewhere on the circle

with radius 1 centered at the origin. This assertion is easy to verify
because

𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃 = 1.

𝜋
𝑖
𝑒 2 = 0,1 = 𝑖
𝑖
𝜋 1 3 1 3
𝑒 𝑖𝜋 = −1,0 = −1 𝑒 3 = , = + 𝑖
2 2 2 2

𝑒 𝑖0𝜋 = 𝑒 𝑖2𝜋 = 1,0 = 1

𝑋

𝑖
7𝜋
−𝑖
𝜋 2 2 2 2
𝑒 4 =𝑒 4 = ,− = − 𝑖
2 2 2 2
The unit circle

The location of 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 for various values of 𝜃

Note:

1) When 𝜃 = 𝜋, we get 𝑒 𝑖𝜋 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜋 = −1,0 = −1, so 𝑒 𝑖𝜋 + 1 = 0.

Euler was the first to discover this relationship, it is referred as
Euler’s identity.
2) Using Euler’s formula, we can now write the polar form of 𝑧 as
𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 .
3) If 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 1 and 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 2 , then
𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 1 . 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑖 𝜃1 +𝜃 2
= 𝑟1 𝑟2 cos 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 .
 𝑌

𝑧3 = 𝑧1 𝑧2

𝜃1 + 𝜃2 = 𝜃3

𝑧2

𝑟1 𝑟2 = 𝑟3

𝑟2
𝜃2

𝑧1
𝑟1
𝜃1
𝑋

The product of two complex numbers 𝑧3 = 𝑧1 𝑧2 .

It gives an interesting explanation as to why the product of two

negative real numbers is a positive real number. The negative
numbers, each of which has an angular displacement of 𝜋 radians,
combine to produce a product that is rotated to a point with an
argument of 𝜋 + 𝜋 = 2𝜋 radians, coinciding with the positive real
axis.

The following theorem gives a nice relationship between the sets

arg 𝑧1 𝑧2 = arg 𝑧1 + arg 𝑧2 .

Theorem: If 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 1 ≠ 0 and 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 2 ≠ 0 , then as sets,

arg 𝑧1 𝑧2 = arg𝑧1 + arg𝑧2 .
1 1 1
Note: 𝑧 −1 = = = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 .
𝑧 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑟

𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃 = 𝑟 cos −𝜃 + 𝑖 sin −𝜃 = 𝑟𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 .

𝑧1 𝑟1 𝑟1
= cos 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 = 𝑒𝑖 𝜃 1 −𝜃2
.
𝑧2 𝑟2 𝑟2
 𝑌

𝑖 = 0,1

𝜃 1 = 1,0
𝑋
𝑧
−𝜃

The unit circle

𝑧 −1

Relative positions of 𝑧, 𝑧 , and 𝑧 −1, when 𝑧 < 1

𝑌
𝑧
𝑖 = 0,1

𝜃 1 = 1,0
𝑋
𝑧 −1 −𝜃

The unit circle

𝑧

Relative positions of 𝑧, 𝑧 , and 𝑧 −1, when 𝑧 > 1

𝜋
Example: If 𝑧 = 1 + 𝑖, then 𝑟 = 𝑧 = 2 and 𝜃 = Arg 𝑧 = .
4

1 −𝜋 −𝜋
Therefore 𝑧 −1 = cos + 𝑖 sin
2 4 4
 1 2 2 1 2
= −𝑖 and has modulus = .
2 2 2 2 2

Example: If 𝑧1 = 8𝑖 and 𝑧2 = 1 + 𝑖 3, then representative polar forms

for these number are
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑧1 = 8 cos + 𝑖 sin and 𝑧2 = 2 cos + 𝑖 sin .
2 2 3 3

𝑧1 8 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Hence = cos − + 𝑖 sin −
𝑧2 2 2 3 2 3

𝜋 𝜋
= 4 cos + 𝑖 sin = 2 3 + 2𝑖.
6 6