energies

Review
Constant Power Loads (CPL) with Microgrids:
Problem Definition, Stability Analysis and
Compensation Techniques
Mohammed Kh. AL-Nussairi 1,2 ID , Ramazan Bayindir 2 ID
, Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban 3, * ID
,
Lucian Mihet-Popa 4 ID and Pierluigi Siano 5
1 Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Misan, Al-Amarah,
Misan 62001, Iraq; muhammed.kh@uomisan.edu.iq
2 Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Gazi University, Besevler,
Ankara 06500, Turkey; bayindir@gazi.edu.tr
3 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Science, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park,
Johannesburg 2006, South Africa
4 Faculty of Engineering, Østfold University College, Kobberslagerstredet 5, Kråkeroy 1671, Norway;
lucian.mihet@hiof.no
5 Department of Industrial Engineering, University of Salerno, Salerno, Fisciano (SA) 84084, Italy;
psiano@unisa.it
* Correspondence: sanjeevi_12@yahoo.co.in; Tel.: +27-79-219-9845

Received: 31 August 2017; Accepted: 30 September 2017; Published: 19 October 2017

Abstract: This paper provides a comprehensive review of the major concepts associated with the
µgrid, such as constant power load (CPL), incremental negative resistance or impedance (INR/I) and
its dynamic behaviours on the µgrid, and power system distribution (PSD). In general, a µgrid is
defined as a cluster of different types of electrical loads and renewable energy sources (distributed
generations) under a unified controller within a certain local area. It is considered a perfect solution
to integrate renewable energy sources with loads as well as with a traditional grid. In addition, it can
operate with a conventional grid, for example, by energy sourcing or a controllable load, or it can
operate alone as an islanding mode to feed required electric energy to a grid. Hence, one of the
important issues regarding the µgrid is the constant power load that results from the tightly designed
control when it is applied to power electronic converters. The effect of CPL is incremental negative
resistance that impacts the power quality of a power system and makes it at negative damping. Also,
in this paper, a comprehensive study on major control and compensation techniques for µgrid has
been included to face the instability effects of constant power loads. Finally, the merits and limitations
of the compensation techniques are discussed.

Keywords: µgrid; power system distribution (PSD); power electronics; power converters; constant power
load (CPL); incremental negative resistance (INR); instability effect of CPL; compensation techniques

1. Introduction
The development of electronic switch devices has led to penetrations of power electronic
applications in a power system [1,2], advanced control approaches, and more renewable energy
sources [3], and on the other hand an increase in energy demands that has consequently led to
increased environmental problems such as greenhouse gases being emitted from non-renewable
energy sources [4,5]; all these factors have contributed to the appearance of new applications in power
systems and have taken many forms in modern life [6]. One of these applications is the µgrid, a new
concept for a power system. The µgrid is proposed to avoid other issues like voltage variations and
protection problems when renewable energy sources were placed individually in a power system [7].

Energies 2017, 10, 1656; doi:10.3390/en10101656 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 1656 2 of 20

The µgrid is a combination of distributed generations, including renewable energy sources and storage
devices, and different types and electrical loads interface with a power electronic converter under the
control approach in order to achieve proper system operation. The µgrid can connect to the LV of a
traditional distribution network and also can operate as islanded from a distribution system for some
cases like a fault in the main distribution grid [7]. From consumers’ perspective, the µgrid contributes
to feed different types of load and power quality by supporting voltage for end users and reduces
emissions by using clean energy sources [8–10]. In addition, it has improved local stability, increased
the efficiency of the system and improved the reliability of the power system by bringing renewable
energy sources into reach of consumers [7].
A few years ago, the µgrid attracted the attention of researcher [11–13]. Those researchers
introduced the concept of the µgrid and solutions to its challenges via stability analysis of the µgrid in
connected and islanded modes [8,14], integration of distributed generations [15–19] and harmonics
elimination [20]. The following factors will depict vital issues related to constant power loads (CPL)
and their effect on the µgrid. CPLs affect the power quality of electric system and bring instability,
which eventually might lead the system into failure [21–23]. Because of the demand to meet the proper
requirements of different loads, µgrids usually have a large number of power electronic elements
for cascade, parallel, driving, and isolation, which are together known as a multi-converter power
electronic system [24,25]. In control topology, the converter plays a very important role. Some controls
needs to apply to converters of µgrid to maintain the system characteristics (voltage, frequency and
power share between distributed generations (DG)) at desired values or regulate these values during
transient or sudden increasing of loads [9,10,26]. For example, a common control method is droop
control in islanded mode [8]. While most control approaches are well designed and satisfy the stability
requirements in islanded mode and grid connected for a single converter, the stability of a cascaded
convertors system is still a big issue as a result of complex interfacing among converters of the
system [1]. As a result, most load converters behave as a constant power load. Many solutions have
been proposed to mitigate or solve this problem, but these solutions have some limitations and also
focus on DC-DSP. In this paper, the major compensation techniques and their control approaches used
to face CPL instability effects in the µgrid and power system distribution will be considered.
The following topics will be addressed: Section 2. Concept of µgrid; Section 3. Definition of constant
power load and its sources and effects; Section 4. A brief review of major control and compensation
techniques to mitigate the instability effects of constant power loads; and Section 5. Discussion of results
and conclusions.

2. The µgrid
The µgrid is defined by the Consortium for Electric Reliability Technology Solutions (CERTS) in
the USA as “An aggregation of loads and micro-sources operating as a single system providing both
power and heat”. Another definition set by the European MICROGRIDS project is “a low voltage
distribution network comprising various DG, storage devices and controllable loads that can operate
interconnected or isolated from the main distribution grids” [26–28]. The µgrid was introduced as
an efficient solution to guarantee the reliable operation of distribution generating (DG) when DGs
operate in connected mode or islanded mode [6,25,29,30]. µgrid is a tiny power system consisting of a
set of different distributed generations, loads, power electronic elements, and transmission systems,
as shown in Figure 1.
Distributed generations cover renewable energy sources like a PV system, a wind power system
or micro-turbine systems, and storage systems like a fuel cell system [8,28,31,32]. The output energy
(magnitude and form of current and voltage) from distribution generating is not suitable for use by
consumers because it is affected by environmental conditions and the DGs cannot connect directly
to buses of the distribution grid [7,9,10,31,33,34]. Therefore, DGs connect to a common bus by the
interfacing converters to convert the output power (voltage and current) utility-grade for an AC or DC
system with the desired magnitude voltage and current, and frequency for an AC system [31,34,35].
 Energies2017,
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DC system with the desired magnitude voltage and current, and frequency for an AC system
The conceptThe
[31,34,35]. of the µgridofbecomes
concept the μgridsuitable
becomes and attractive
suitable anddue to power
attractive dueelectronic converter converter
to power electronic facilities,
in which it overcomes some difficulties found in the traditional AC network
facilities, in which it overcomes some difficulties found in the traditional AC network like powerlike power lossloss
in
transformers
in transformers andandlong transmission
long transmission lines, and
lines, high
and highvoltage
voltagetransformation
transformation[33].
[33].In
Inislanding
islandingmode,
mode,
the
the response
response of of the μgridfor
the µgrid forthe
theregulation
regulationof ofcommon
common bus bus isisby
bymaking
making aaoneonepower
powerconverter
converter
master
masterandandothers
othersslaves
slavesorormaking
making allall
sources take
sources part
take in the
part regulation
in the andand
regulation of transfer energy
of transfer to the
energy to
loads [13]. [13].
the loads

Figure1.1. Typical
Figure Typicalhybrid
hybridµgrid
μgridconfigurations.
configurations.

According to [3,18], loads in the electronic power system are divided among three groups:
According to [3,18], loads in the electronic power system are divided among three groups: constant
constant voltage load, constant current load, and constant power load. The first group sinks the
voltage load, constant current load, and constant power load. The first group sinks the constant value
constant value of voltage from the source regardless of the current. This type includes conventional
of voltage from the source regardless of the current. This type includes conventional resistive loads
resistive loads such as heating equipment, and inductive loads [19]. The constant current load draws
such as heating equipment, and inductive loads [19]. The constant current load draws a fixed current
a fixed current under wide variations of voltage source and has transducer and arc lamp as examples.
under wide variations of voltage source and has transducer and arc lamp as examples. The last type is
The last type is CPL and will be the subject of this research. More details and examples about constant
CPL and will be the subject of this research. More details and examples about constant power loads
power loads are given in the following sections. The connection between elements of μgrid, like the
are given in the following sections. The connection between elements of µgrid, like the traditional grid,
traditional grid, can be achieved by ring or radial connections [9].
can be achieved by ring or radial connections [9].

3.3.Constant
ConstantPower
PowerLoads
Loads

3.1.Problem
3.1. ProblemDefinition
Definition
Somepower
Some powersystems
systems need
need a multiconverter
a multiconverter to provide
to provide the system
the system with various
with various power and power and
voltage
voltage
forms forms [22,36,37];
[22,36,37]; these arethese
known areasknown as multiconverter
multiconverter power electronic
power electronic system This
system [24,25]. [24,25].
typeThis
of
type of system consists of large number of power electronic devices in parallel, cascade,
system consists of large number of power electronic devices in parallel, cascade, stacking and splitting stacking and
splitting configurations
configurations for source
for loads and loads toand sourceproper
achieve to achieve
requiredproper required
operation operation
[24]. One [24]. One
multiconverter
power electronic type is the cascade system of a converter, shown in Figure 2, which consists of a2,source
multiconverter power electronic type is the cascade system of a converter, shown in Figure which
consists of a source converter that provides the regulated voltage to the system
converter that provides the regulated voltage to the system (others are called upstream converters (others are called
or
upstream
voltage converters
regulators) andora second
voltageconvertor
regulators) and
that a second
converts the convertor
line voltagethat converts
to proper the and
value line frequency
voltage to
proper
for eachvalue and frequency
load [21,38]. for each load
A multiconverter has[21,38].
a largeAvariety
multiconverter has instructions
of operation a large variety of operation
because of the
instructions because
interconnection of the interconnection
of components of components
of the multiconverter of the multiconverter [22,36,37].
[22,36,37].
Energies 2017, 10, 1656 4 of 20
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Figure 2.
2. DC-DC converter
converter with resistive
resistive load behaves
behaves as aa constant
constant power load
load (CPL).
Figure 2. DC-DC
Figure DC-DC converterwith
with resistiveload
load behavesas
as a constantpower
power load(CPL).
(CPL).

The load converters (second stage of multiconverter) tend to display the properties of a constant
The load converters
The converters(second
(secondstagestageof multiconverter)
of multiconverter) tendtend
to display the properties
to display of a constant
the properties of a
power load when control is applied tightly [22,36,37], which means a converter has a fast response
power load when control is applied tightly [22,36,37], which means a converter has a fast response
constant power load when control is applied tightly [22,36,37], which means a converter has a fast
and low output ripple [37]; therefore, the converter behaves as the CPL with their control bandwidth
and low output
response and low ripple
output[37]; therefore,
ripple the converter
[37]; therefore, behaves asbehaves
the converter the CPLas with
the their
CPL control bandwidth
with their control
[39]. Constant power loads (CPL) means that the output power of the convertor is constant, i.e., the
[39]. Constant
bandwidth [39].power
Constantloads (CPL)
power means
loads (CPL)that the output
means that thepower
output ofpower
the convertor is constant,
of the convertor i.e., the
is constant,
output voltage drops when small variations occur in the current value (increasing current amount),
output
i.e., the voltage drops when
output voltage dropssmall
when variations occur in occur
small variations the current
in thevalue (increasing
current current amount),
value (increasing current
which means that when neglecting the dissipated power into the circuit, the output power and input
which means
amount), whichthat whenthat
means neglecting the dissipated
when neglecting power into
the dissipated the circuit,
power into thethecircuit,
outputthe power
outputandpower
input
power are equal [22,36]. In fact, the converter behaves as a CPL when it has closed loop control and
power
and arepower
input equal [22,36].
are equal In [22,36].
fact, theInconverter
fact, thebehaves
converter as behaves
a CPL when it haswhen
as a CPL closedit loop controlloop
has closed and
as a resistive load in open loop as in Figure 3 [1,40]. The power electronic converters tends to have
as a resistive
control and as load in open
a resistive loadloop as inloop
in open Figure 3 [1,40].
as in FigureThe power
3 [1,40]. Theelectronic converters
power electronic tends totends
converters have
CPL properties if them output voltage is bigger than voltage reference (Vc) [21,22,30,41–43]; in other
CPL
to have properties if them if
CPL properties output
them voltage is biggeristhan
output voltage biggervoltage reference
than voltage (Vc) [21,22,30,41–43];
reference in other
(Vc ) [21,22,30,41–43];
word, the converter behaves as resistive load at start-up but as a CPL when it exceeds the value of
word,
in otherthe converter
word, behavesbehaves
the converter as resistive load at start-up
as resistive but as a but
load at start-up CPLaswhen
a CPL it when
exceeds the valuethe
it exceeds of
voltage reference (Vc) [30].
voltage
value reference
of voltage (Vc) [30].(Vc ) [30].
reference

Figure
Figure 3. V–I curve
3. V–I curve of
of load
load converter.
converter.
Figure 3. V–I curve of load converter.

Manyloads
Many loads likemotor motor drives or electronic
loadsloads
with with tightly regulated controllers behave as a
Many loadslike like motor drives or electronic
drives or electronic loads tightly regulated
with tightly controllers
regulated behave as
controllers a constant
behave as a
constant
power power
load load
[22,36,37]. [22,36,37]. Figure
Figure 4 isFigure 4 is
an examplean example of CPL, where the motor is driving by DC-AC
constant power load [22,36,37]. 4 is an of CPL, where
example of CPL, thewhere
motorthe is driving
motor isby DC-AC
driving byinverter,
DC-AC
inverter,
and and the
the inverter is inverter
tightly is tightlytoregulated
regulated control theto control
speed. the the
When speed.
loadWhen the load
is rotating, is rotating,
the motor the
will have
inverter, and the inverter is tightly regulated to control the speed. When the load is rotating, the
motor
one to will
one have
of one
torque-speed to one of torque-speed
characteristics and characteristics
the relationship and the
between relationship
the speed and between
torque isthe speed
linear.
motor will have one to one of torque-speed characteristics and the relationship between the speed
and torque is linear.
and For a linear
torque relationship, each value of speed has only one corresponding value of torque.
is linear.
For a the
Therefore, linear
power relationship,
equals the each value of speed
multiplication hasand
only one which
corresponding value of torque.
For a linear relationship, each value of of torque
speed has only speed, will be constant
one corresponding value [22,36,37].
of torque.
Therefore,
Anotherthe power equals the multiplication of torque and speed, which will be constant [22,36,37].
Therefore, theexample is a DC-DC
power equals converter, which
the multiplication feedsand
of torque the speed,
electricwhich
load andwillisbetightly controlled
constant [22,36,37].to
Another
maintain example is a DC-DC converter, which feeds the electric load 2.and is tightly controlled to
Another example is a DC-DC converter, which feeds the electric load and is tightly controlled is
an output voltage fixed on the load [22,36,37], as shown in Figure The power of the load to
maintain
constant an
when output
there voltage
is a fixed
linear on the
relationshipload [22,36,37],
between as
voltage shown
and in Figure
current. 2. The power of the load
maintain an output voltage fixed on the load [22,36,37], as shown in Figure 2. The power of the load
is constant when there is a linear relationship between voltage and current.c
is constant when there is a linear relationship between voltage and current.c
Energies 2017,
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Figure
Figure 4. DC-AC inverter
4. DC-AC inverter that
that presents
presents aa constant
constant power
power load
load characteristic.
characteristic.

CPL,the
In CPL, theoutput
outputpower
power will
will be be equal
equal to input
to the the input power,
power, neglecting
neglecting powerpower losses
losses in in the
the system.
system.
As Asthe
in [44], in [44], the mathematical
mathematical model ofmodel of CPL
CPL can can be as
be derived derived as follows:
follows:

 PPout =
PPinin =  cons
cons.. (1)
(1)
out

The differential change in the input power can be expressed as:

The differential change in the input power can be expressed as:
P(v, i)  0  vdi  idv . (2)
∂P(v, i ) = 0 = vdi + idv. (2)
The input incremental resistance rin can be defined as:
The input incremental resistance rin can be defined as:
dv v
rin   . (3)
rin =
di = − vi.
dv
(3)
di i
The negative sign that appears in Equation (3) means that the CPL characteristics can be
The negative
explained by the sign that appears
negative slope ofin theEquation
V−I curve(3) meansshown thatinthe CPL characteristics
Figure 5 [45]. The CPL can has
be explained
inherent
by the negative slope of the V − I curve shown in Figure 5 [45]. The
incremental negative resistance (INR). There is more than one way to realise a mathematical formula CPL has inherent incremental
negative
of INR [22].resistance (INR). There
This instability effectis of
moreNIRthan does onenotway to realise
discuss whena mathematical
the converter is formula
designed of INR
but [22].
in a
This instability effect
multiconverter of NIR
the level does not
should be discuss
taken into when the converterThis
consideration. is designed
phenomenonbut in awill
multiconverter
impact the
the level of
stability should
μgridbe andtaken
make intotheconsideration.
LC filter oscillatoryThis phenomenon
[46]. will impact the stability of µgrid and
make the LC filter oscillatory [46].
3.2. The Negative Incremental Resistance (NIR) of the Constant Power Loads (CPL)
3.2. The Negative Incremental Resistance (NIR) of the Constant Power Loads (CPL)
The converter that is used for open loop or bad close loop control does not have constant power
load The converter
properties. that
The CPLis used for open
consumed a loop
fixedor bad close
power and loop control
Negative does not have
Incremental constantwith
Resistance powerits
load properties. The CPL consumed a fixed power and Negative
bandwidth control. In the CPL, the relative rate of change between the voltage and current is negativeIncremental Resistance with its
bandwidth control.
(dv/di < 0), but In the CPL, the
the instantaneous relative
value rate of change
of impedance between
is positive (V/Ithe voltage
> 0) and current is negative
[21,22,36,37,42,43,47,48]. The
(dv/di
stability< point
0), butofthe instantaneous
a system means; the value of impedance
system will returnistopositive
a specific (V/I > 0)if [21,22,36,37,42,43,47,48].
point any disturbance occurs.
The
The stability
steady statepoint of ain
point system
a systemmeans;that the system
includes thewill
CPL return to a specific
is obtained when point
the CPL if any disturbance
voltage is equal
occurs. The steady state point in a system that includes the CPL is
to the voltage source. At this point, the system will be stable. Nevertheless, if any disturbance obtained when the CPL voltage
occurs,is
equal to thecannot
the system voltagereturn
source. At this
to this pointpoint, the system will be stable. Nevertheless, if any disturbance
[49,50].
occurs, the system cannot return to this
This can be understood as follows: if a small point [49,50]. disturbance makes the load voltage less than the
This
voltage can be
value understood
of the stable point as follows:
then the if a small
load current disturbance
will be bigger makes thanthethe
load
loadvoltage
current less
at than the
constant
voltage value of the stable point then the load current will be bigger
power of the load and result in the filter capacitor being discharged. Thus, the load current will than the load current at constant
power
increase of to
themake
load the
andpower
result in the filter
constant andcapacitor beingtime
at the same discharged.
the voltage Thus, thedecrease.
will load current
If a will
systemincrease
does
to
notmake
havethe powercontrol
a proper constant toand at thethis
prevent same time the voltage
phenomenon during will decrease.
transient or If
anya system does not have
small disturbance, thea
proper control to prevent this phenomenon during transient or
voltage will be zero and the current will go to infinity. Previously the system behaved as aany small disturbance, the voltage will
be zero and the
feedforward. Nowcurrent willare
if there go any
to infinity.
changes Previously
in the voltage the system
of the behaved as a feedforward.
source converter Now if
(i.e., decreasing),
there
the load converter will increase the duty cycle to regulate the voltage, which means the current will
are any changes in the voltage of the source converter (i.e., decreasing), the load converter will
increase to maintain constant power [49].
Energies 2017, 10, 1656 6 of 20

increase the duty cycle to regulate the voltage, which means the current will increase to maintain
Energies 2017,
constant 10, 1656
power [49]. 6 of 20
Energies 2017, 10, 1656 6 of 20

Figure 5. Negative impedance behaviour of constant power loads.

5. Negative impedance behaviour of constant
Figure 5. constant power
power loads.
loads.

Figure 6 includes the connection of CPL with the parallel capacitor [22]; the state equation of the
Figure 66 includes
Figure includes the
the connection
connection of
of CPLCPL with
with the
the parallel
parallel capacitor
capacitor [22];
[22]; the
the state
state equation
equation of
of the
the
circuit can be written as follows:
circuit can
circuit can be
be written
written as
as follows:
follows:
𝑃 P 𝑑𝑣𝑐 dv c
𝑣𝑐 =
vc 𝑃𝑖=and −𝑖 =
and − 𝐶𝐶
i=𝑑𝑣𝑐C. .
𝑣𝑐 = and
i −𝑖 = 𝑑𝑡 . dt
𝑖 𝑑𝑡
The solution of these equations gives
The solution of these equations gives
𝑃 𝑃
𝑣𝑐22 =2 𝑉𝑐22 −P2 𝑃 𝑡 and 𝑖 = P𝑃 2𝑃 .
𝑣𝑐 V= −
v2c = 𝑉 − 2 𝐶 𝑡 and i =𝑖 q
= √𝑉 2+ 2𝑃𝑡 . .
c 𝑐 2 t and
C 𝐶 √𝑉𝑐2 + 𝐶 𝑡
Vc2𝑐 +𝐶2PC t

Figure 6. A constant power load parallel with a capacitor.

Figure 6. A constant power load parallel with a capacitor.
Figure 6. A constant power load parallel with a capacitor.

The solved equations show the circuit that exists from the CPL and parallel capacitor is unstable
The solved equations
22
show the circuit that exists from the CPL and parallel capacitor is unstable
because as (t(t == VV
cc C/2P)
2 C/2P) the
the voltage
voltagegoes
goestotozero
zeroand
andthe
thecurrent
currentgoes
goestotoinfinity.
infinity.Therefore,
Therefore, thethe
CPL
CPLis
because as (t = Vc C/2P) the voltage goes to zero and the current goes to infinity. Therefore, the CPL
unstable
is unstablewith
witha parallel
a parallelcapacitor. TheThe
capacitor. equilibrium point
equilibrium of the
point ofcircuit is when
the circuit voltage
is when of CPL
voltage ofisCPL
equal
is
is unstable
to the source with a parallel
voltage. In capacitor.
other cases, Thesystem
the equilibrium
loses point
its of the
stability circuit
and cannotis when
restorevoltage
the of CPL
steady is
state
equal to the source voltage. In other cases, the system loses its stability and cannot restore the steady
equal
becauseto the source
the INR voltage. In other cases, the system loses its stability and cannot restore the steady
state because the of
INR CPLof and
CPLvoltage will go
and voltage togo
will infinity as the
to infinity ascurrent goesgoes
the current to zero and and
to zero vice vice
versa.
versa.
state because the INR of CPL and voltage will go to infinity as the current goes to zero and vice versa.
3.3. Negative Incremental Resistance Effects on the µgrid
3.3. Negative Incremental Resistance Effects on the μgrid
3.3. Negative Incremental Resistance Effects on the μgrid
As mentioned previously, a system that has a CPL could be unstable. This instability is produced
As mentioned previously, a system that has a CPL could be unstable. This instability is produced
by theAsinteraction
mentionedbetween previously,
the apower
systemsystem
that has a CPL could
structure be unstable.
and the negativeThis instability
impedance is produced
created by the
by the interaction between the power system structure and the negative impedance created by the
by the interaction between the power system structure and the negative impedance
CPLs. Negative incremental impedance impacts the power quality of the system and can lead to system created by the
CPLs. Negative incremental impedance impacts the power quality of the system and can lead to
CPLs. Negative
voltage oscillationsincremental impedance
or even collapse, impactssystem
and reduces the power quality
damping. of the
These system
system and can
voltage lead to
oscillations
system voltage oscillations or even collapse, and reduces system damping. These system voltage
system voltage oscillations or even collapse, and reduces system damping.
put additional stress on the components and may lead to the system failing or its components being These system voltage
oscillations put additional stress on the components and may lead to the system failing or its
oscillations
damaged put additional stress on the components and may lead to the system failing or its
[23,25].
components being damaged [23,25].
components
Most often,being damaged
a filter, which [23,25].
usually consist of inductor (L) and capacitor (C), place after a pulse
Most often, a filter, which usually consist of inductor (L) and capacitor (C), place after a pulse
Most often, a filter,
width modulation power converter which usually consist ofthe
to minimise inductor (L) and harmonics.
input current capacitor (C), place after
Because of thea small
pulse
width modulation power converter to minimise the input current harmonics. Because of the small
width modulation power converter to minimise the input current harmonics. Because of the small
value of the resistance of the LC filter, a large transient oscillation can occur between L, C when
value of the resistance of the LC filter, a large transient oscillation can occur between L, C when
operating conditions change suddenly [51].
operating conditions change suddenly [51].
CPL instability will occur when the applied control on a system is tightly regulated and has a
CPL instability will occur when the applied control on a system is tightly regulated and has a
closed loop. Feedback controllers of the closed loop depend on the process output (voltage or power).
closed loop. Feedback controllers of the closed loop depend on the process output (voltage or power).
Energies 2017, 10, 1656 7 of 20

value of the resistance of the LC filter, a large transient oscillation can occur between L, C when
operating conditions change suddenly [51].
CPL instability will occur when the applied control on a system is tightly regulated and has a
closed loop. Feedback controllers of the closed loop depend on the process output (voltage or power).
The NIR of CPL makes the damping of the input LC filter of multiconverter system negative and the
LC filter oscillatory [52]. Therefore, this oscillation at the output will make the system unstable. Thus,
the instability effects of CPL (INR) can be summarised on any power electronic system as mentioned
in [2,25] as follows: CPL reduces the equivalent resistance of the system, causes a high inrush current
as the voltage builds up slowly from its initial value, makes the system poorly dampened and impacts
on the stability [37,38,47,53,54], which causes limit cycle oscillation in the DC bus voltage and currents
and may lead to voltage collapse [23,53,55].

4. Compensation Techniques Used to Combat the Instability Effects of CPL

Because of the non-linearity and time dependency of converters’ operation and the incremental
negative impedance effects of constant power loads, classical linear control methods (like a
conventional proportional integral PI controller) have stability limitations around the operating points
and are not applicable to these systems. Therefore, digital and nonlinear stabilising control methods
must be applied to ensure large-signal stability [21,22,36,42,48,56,57]. Compensation Techniques of
the instability of CPL can be achieved by adding an extra element like passive elements or devices to
the power system, or redesigned the control loop of a source or load converter [25,58]. The following
sections summarise the methods used to compensate for the instability effects of INR in previous years.

4.1. Passive Damping

Passive damping is a simple method to increase the damping of a system by adding passive
elements; which are contain resistance (R), inductor (L) and capacitor (C), to the input filter of the
system, as described in [39,59]. The authors introduced three methods for passive damping by adding
RC and RL in parallel with input filter and RL in series. In [60], the method used is adding only R in
parallel with the L-filter. As in [39], the method proposed here to stabilise the system is minimisation
of the peak output impedance of the filter by adding a passive damping (passive elements) circuit
to the LC filter. The stability of the CPL system requires the impedance ratio Zd /Z1 to meet the
Nyquist stability criterion, or alternatively, the characteristic polynomial of (1/(1 + Zd /Z1 )) to meet
the Routh–Hurwitz criterion. The paper introduced three methods of passive damping: (a) RC parallel
damping; (b) RL parallel damping; (c) RL series damping, as shown in Figure 7.
These methods were tested by the authors, who obtained the following results: the best method is
adding RC parallel damping because large CPL compensation by RL parallel damping is needed to
minimise the L-filter, which is undesirable. RL series damping can compensate only if RCPL > (3L/2C)1/2
and the dissipated average power is the biggest in RL series damping and RC parallel damping and the
smallest in RL parallel damping.
Another method to achieve passive damping was developed by [61,62]. The effect of the converter
parasitic, which includes the resistance of the ‘ON’ switch, inductor and diode in the presence of CPLs,
is analysed in detail under both converter operation modes; continuous conduction mode (CCM)
and discontinuous conduction mode (DCM). Also, design recommendations are presented to face
instabilities of CPL in a DC distribution system with a pure CPL and a combination of CPL with
resistive loads.
This method is simple to implement. It does not require the addition of any control terms to the
control loop of the system. By using this method, the stability of the system is achieved. The efficiency
of the system is decreased because there will be a greater power loss when using this method. It will
be expensive when passive elements are added, especially capacitors. This method in [39,59] is valid
for small disturbances [60].
Energies 2017, 10, 1656 8 of 20
Energies 2017, 10, 1656 8 of 20

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 7. Passive damping techniques: (a) RC parallel damping; (b) RL parallel damping; (c) RL series
Figure 7. Passive damping techniques: (a) RC parallel damping; (b) RL parallel damping; (c) RL
damping.
series damping.

4.2. Active Damping

4.2. Active Damping
Active damping, another solution to the instability problem introduced by INR, involves a
Active damping, another solution to the instability problem introduced by INR, involves a
modification control loop by creating a damping effect of passive damping or modifying the DC bus
modification control loop by creating a damping effect of passive damping or modifying the DC bus
capacitance. Also, it can be achieved by adding a device that injects a compensating current [63]. The
capacitance. Also, it can be achieved by adding a device that injects a compensating current [63].
active damping can be done by three methods [2]. The first is source-side active damping. The
The active damping can be done by three methods [2]. The first is source-side active damping.
compensation at the source subsystem by active damping aims to add loop in loop control to improve
The compensation at the source subsystem by active damping aims to add loop in loop control to
the output impedance of feeder converter to satisfy the impedance stability criterion. This type is
improve the output impedance of feeder converter to satisfy the impedance stability criterion. This type
impossible to apply to a system when the input stage is LC or uncontrolled rectifiers. To overcome
is impossible to apply to a system when the input stage is LC or uncontrolled rectifiers. To overcome
the instability effect of INR, the CPL side Active Damping is considered when the source subsystem
the instability effect of INR, the CPL side Active Damping is considered when the source subsystem
of a CPL is LC filter. The concept of this method is achieved by injecting a current or power into the
of a CPL is LC filter. The concept of this method is achieved by injecting a current or power into the
CPL control loops to modify the input impedance Zin, such that Middlebrook’s stability criteria are
CPL control loops to modify the input impedance Z , such that Middlebrook’s stability criteria are
satisfied [2,25]. The third is adding auxiliary deviceinthat injects the desired compensating current
satisfied [2,25]. The third is adding auxiliary device that injects the desired compensating current
within operation range system.
within operation range system.
Virtual impedance or resistance is one method of active damping introduced by researchers in
Virtual impedance or resistance is one method of active damping introduced by researchers
[34,45,54,63–68]. Active damping, by adding virtual resistance, achieves the improvement transfer
in [34,45,54,63–68]. Active damping, by adding virtual resistance, achieves the improvement transfer
function of a system and forces the movement of the poles towards stable region (left half of s-plane).
function of a system and forces the movement of the poles towards stable region (left half of s-plane).
It guarantees that any extra power does not dissipate into the system [45,63,64], as in Figure 8a. In
It guarantees that any extra power does not dissipate into the system [45,63,64], as in Figure 8a. In fact,
fact, the virtual resistance makes the output impedance of the source converter less than its maximum
the virtual resistance makes the output impedance of the source converter less than its maximum
value [58]. The output voltage V is measured and controlled to track the reference voltage Vref − iLReq
value [58]. The output voltage V is measured and controlled to track the reference voltage Vref −
instead of a constant voltage reference, as shown in Figure 8b. The new reference value will vary
iL Req instead of a constant voltage reference, as shown in Figure 8b. The new reference value will
according to the value of the load current and hence produces the equivalent function of adding
vary according to the value of the load current and hence produces the equivalent function of adding
physical resistor Req. [45,64]. In [63] the authors presented a new method to overcome the problems
physical resistor Req . [45,64]. In [63] the authors presented a new method to overcome the problems of
of CPL by adding virtual resistance, which will affect the series resistance with an inductor to
CPL by adding virtual resistance, which will affect the series resistance with an inductor to feedback
feedback control system. In [34] the authors introduced the virtual impedance as series-connected
control system. In [34] the authors introduced the virtual impedance as series-connected resistance
resistance and inductance and two types of stabiliser; one is based on capacitor voltage feedback, and
and inductance and two types of stabiliser; one is based on capacitor voltage feedback, and the other
the other is based on inductance current feedback for achieving a virtual impedance method and a
is based on inductance current feedback for achieving a virtual impedance method and a model
model including a droop control index. In [66] an additional proportional voltage feedback control is
including a droop control index. In [66] an additional proportional voltage feedback control is inserted
inserted with virtual resistance to improve the system performance and overcome the disadvantages
with virtual resistance to improve the system performance and overcome the disadvantages which
which produced from adding a large value of virtual resistance. One of these advantages is the region
stability of virtual resistance will narrow as the output power increases [2].
Energies 2017, 10, 1656 9 of 20

Energies 2017, 10, 1656 9 of 20

produced from adding a large value of virtual resistance. One of these advantages is the region stability
of virtual resistance will narrow as the output power increases [2].

(a)

(b)
Figure8.8.The
Figure Theproposed
proposedactive-damping
active-dampingmethod
methodbased
basedon
onadding
addingvirtual
virtualresistance:
resistance:(a)
(a)[45];
[45];(b)
(b)[64].
[64].

In [69] a feed-forward control with extra elements to improve the stability of hybrid electric
In [69] a feed-forward control with extra elements to improve the stability of hybrid electric
vehicles (HEV) with CPL is introduced. The purpose of this method is changing the impedance of the
vehicles (HEV) with CPL is introduced. The purpose of this method is changing the impedance of the
load converter to match the impedance of the source. The changes are approved by the impedance
load converter to match the impedance of the source. The changes are approved by the impedance
frequency and analysed by a low pass filter, and negative impedance can be eliminated by adjusting
frequency and analysed by a low pass filter, and negative impedance can be eliminated by adjusting the
the virtual resistance in the control loop. In [70], active damping was achieved by modifying the duty
virtual resistance in the control loop. In [70], active damping was achieved by modifying the duty ratio
ratio of the converter by using a first-order high-pass filter with a corner frequency and high
of the converter by using a first-order high-pass filter with a corner frequency and high magnitude.
magnitude.
In [71,72], the authors presented an input-resistance compensator to eliminate the instability of
In [71,72], the authors presented an input-resistance compensator to eliminate the instability of
INR in a system that has a power electronic brushless DC motor drive with constant power-load
INR in a system that has a power electronic brushless DC motor drive with constant power-load
characteristics, as shown in Figure 9. The strategy is to feed a portion of the changes in the DC-link
characteristics, as shown in Figure 9. The strategy is to feed a portion of the changes in the DC-link
voltage into the current control loop to modify the system input impedance in the mid-frequency
voltage into the current control loop to modify the system input impedance in the mid-frequency
range and thereby to damp the input filter. The input-resistance compensator is a high-pass filter
range and thereby to damp the input filter. The input-resistance compensator is a high-pass filter
with corner frequency and high frequency magnitude. Its operation depends on the DC link voltage.
with corner frequency and high frequency magnitude. Its operation depends on the DC link voltage.
the current output is a current (the stabilising signal) that will act with the speed control loop to give
the current output is a current (the stabilising signal) that will act with the speed control loop to give
a current reference to the control motor current by high frequency pulse width modulation (PWM)
a current reference to the control motor current by high frequency pulse width modulation (PWM)
with a duty cycle determined by the PI controller. At steady state, the authors assumed the output of
with a duty cycle determined by the PI controller. At steady state, the authors assumed the output of
IRC will be zero if there is a change in the DC link voltage but if the output of IRC is non-zero, then a
IRC will be zero if there is a change in the DC link voltage but if the output of IRC is non-zero, then
signal will be generated to modify the motor current and the inverter input impedance, damp the
a signal will be generated to modify the motor current and the inverter input impedance, damp the
DC-link oscillations.
DC-link oscillations.
Energies 2017, 10, 1656 10 of 20
Energies2017,
Energies 2017,10,
10,1656
1656 10 of
10 of 20
20

Figure
Figure 9.
9. Negative
Negative input-resistance
input-resistance compensator
compensator of
of motor
motor drive.
Figure 9. Negative input-resistance compensator of motor drive.

In
In [23] aa new device called a solid state defender (SSD) is added between the load converter and
In [23]
[23] a new
new device
device called
called aa solid
solid state
state defender
defender (SSD)
(SSD) is is added
added between
between the the load
load converter
converter and
and
source
source to protect the system and its elements against the fault and instability phenomena of INR and
source toto protect
protect the
the system
system and and its
its elements
elements against
against thethe fault
fault and
and instability
instability phenomena
phenomena of of INR
INR and
and
prevent
prevent the system
system fromfailure
failure ordamage
damageofof components. The SSD works as aas a power buffer in bus
the
preventthe the systemfromfrom failureoror damage of components.
components. The SSD
The works
SSD works aspower buffer
a power in the
buffer in the
bus
faultfault case
case case and transfers
and transfers the
the storedstored
energyenergy in a capacitor
in a capacitor to feedto feed the load and current limiting in
bus fault and transfers the stored energy in a capacitor to the
feedload
the and
loadcurrent limiting
and current in load
limiting in
load
fault fault by limiting output current.
On theOn the hand,
other hand, it as
works as an impedance transformer to
load by limiting
fault output
by limiting current.
output current. Onotherthe otherithand,
works an impedance
it works transformer
as an impedance to address
transformer to
address
the the oscillation
oscillation and transience
and transience produced produced
by INR.by The INR.
SSDThe SSD improves
improves the power the quality
power quality of the
address the oscillation and transience produced by INR. The SSD improves the power of the system
quality of the
system
and and eliminates
eliminates the oscillations
the oscillations caused by caused by the negative
the negative incremental incremental
impedance impedance characteristic
characteristic of loads.
system and eliminates the oscillations caused by the negative incremental impedance characteristic
of loads.
Active Active
damping damping has received interest from researchers [34,45,54,58,63–68,73];
however, activehowever,
of loads. Activehas receivedhas
damping interest from interest
received researchersfrom [34,45,54,58,63–68,73];
researchers [34,45,54,58,63–68,73]; damping
however,
active
causes damping
effective causes effective
performance butperformance
only compensates but only forcompensates
limited values foroflimited
CPL [25] values
andof CPL [25]
sometimes
active damping causes effective performance but only compensates for limited values of CPL [25]
and sometimes
causes the output causes the to
voltage output
drop,voltage
as in [63].to drop, as in [63].
and sometimes causes the output voltage to drop, as in [63].

4.3.
4.3. The Space Pole Placement Control
4.3. The
The Space
Space Pole
Pole Placement
Placement Control
Control
The
The Space Pole
PolePlacement
PlacementControl
Controlisisisused
usedto shift thethepole of of
the system from RHP to LHP of the
The Space
Space Pole Placement Control used totoshift
shiftthe polepole
of thethe system
system fromfromRHP RHP to LHP
to LHP of
of the
s-plane.
the A
s-plane. new
A pole
new location
pole must
location be
must chosen
be to
chosen satisfy
to the
satisfy characteristic
the equation
characteristic of
equation the closed
of the loop
closed
s-plane. A new pole location must be chosen to satisfy the characteristic equation of the closed loop
system
loop to make
system to makethe system is stable. According to the paper, this
thismethod
methodcan canbe beachieved
achieved by
system to make the the system
system is stable.
is stable. According
According to to
thethe paper,
paper, this method can be achieved by
by
multiplying
multiplying the specific gain (calculated by Ackermann’s formula) by the state variables (inductor
multiplying the the specific
specific gain
gain (calculated
(calculated by by Ackermann’s
Ackermann’s formula)formula) by by the
the state
state variables
variables (inductor
(inductor
current
current and voltage capacitor) in closed loop control. However, the result is subtracting from the
current and
and voltage
voltage capacitor)
capacitor) inin closed
closed loop
loop control.
control. However,
However, the the result
result isis subtracting
subtracting from from the
the
reference
reference voltage.
voltage. The
The generated
generated switch
switch pulse
pulse has
has been
been produced
produced from
from comparison
comparison of
of the
the difference
difference
reference voltage. The generated switch pulse has been produced from comparison of the difference
with
with the tooth signal as shown in Figure 10 [49]. This method needs to represent all the state variables
with the
the tooth
tooth signal
signal asas shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 1010 [49].
[49]. This
This method
method needs
needs toto represent
represent all all the
the state
state variables
variables
in
in aa control
control loop
loop [2,49].
[2,49].
in a control loop [2,49].

Figure 10. Pole placement control.

Figure 10. Pole
Figure 10. Pole placement
placement control.
control.
Energies 2017, 10, 1656 11 of 20
Energies 2017, 10, 1656 11 of 20

4.4. Pulse
4.4. Pulse Adjustment
Adjustment Control
Control Technique
Technique
The papers
The papers [43,48,56,74]
[43,48,56,74] presented
presented pulse
pulse adjustment
adjustment control
control technique
technique asas aa new
new control
control method
method
to damp
to damp the
the instability
instability caused
caused byby CPL
CPL with
with aa DC-DC
DC-DCconverter
converter in invehicular
vehicularsystems.
systems. TheThe pulse
pulse
adjustment control is a digital control that drives the PWM control. The adjustment
adjustment control is a digital control that drives the PWM control. The adjustment controller regulates controller
regulates
the outputthe output
voltage by voltage
generatingby generating
high and low high and pulse
power low power pulse
through throughthe
comparing comparing the output
output voltage and
voltage and
reference reference
(desired) voltage(desired) voltage
and sending and
this sending
pulse to the this
PWM. pulse
For to the PWM.
output voltageFor output voltage)
(capacitor voltage
(capacitor
less voltage)
than the referencelessvoltage
than thethereference
controllervoltage the controller
will increase will increase
the transferred energythe transferred
from energy
input to output.
The CPL will consume the required energy and voltage will be increased as a result of charging as
from input to output. The CPL will consume the required energy and voltage will be increased thea
result of charging
capacitor the capacitor
with the remaining with
power asthe remaining
in Figure power
11. This paperas presented
in Figure 11.
the This
samepaper presented
controller the
as in [48]
same controller as in [48] to provide the buck–boost converter but in discontinuous
to provide the buck–boost converter but in discontinuous conduction mode (DCM). The drawbacks conduction mode
(DCM).
of The drawbacks
this technique are highofoutput
this technique are high
voltage ripple, output
noise andvoltage ripple, noisepresented
the sub-harmonic and the sub-harmonic
at the output
presented at the output voltage, although it has fast response
voltage, although it has fast response times and a robust controller [75]. times and a robust controller [75].

Figure 11. Block

Figure 11. Block diagram
diagram of
of the
the pulse
pulse adjustment
adjustment control
control technique.
technique.

4.5.
4.5. Sliding Mode Control
Control
Sliding mode control
Sliding mode controlhas has been
been usedused to address
to address the instability
the instability effects effects
of INR of INRliterature
in the in the
literature [21,25,36,57,76–82].
[21,25,36,57,76–82]. The aim of The aim
this of this controller
controller is to controlis tothe
control
outputthe output
power of power
a DC-DC of aconverter
DC-DC
converter
with CPL by with CPL the
setting by setting
reference thevalue
reference
of power valueandofcomparing
power anditcomparing it with the
with the measured measured
output power
output power ofconverter
of the DC-DC the DC-DC converter
[21,36]. The [21,36].
proposed The proposed
sliding mode sliding mode
control control
outputs a outputs a duty
duty ratio, ratio,
which is
which
used toisgenerate
used to generate
pulse width pulse width modulated
modulated (PWM) gate (PWM) gatefor
signals signals for the converter.
the DC-DC DC-DC converter.
This
This controller
controller improves
improves signal
signal stability
stability and dynamic response; however, however, itit isis sensitive
sensitive to
to large
large
changes
changesininload load[36] andand
[36] the controller is effective
the controller at a high
is effective at voltage
a high above 400above
voltage volts but400has disturbance
volts but has
at low voltages
disturbance [57],voltages
at low which means the output
[57], which means voltage is notvoltage
the output fixed. is not fixed.
In
In [36], the
the authors
authorstested
testedthetheCPLCPL with
with a parallel
a parallel capacitor
capacitor by using
by using a series
a series inductor
inductor and aand a
buck
buck converter.
converter. The circuit
The circuit is unstable:
is unstable: instability
instability will quickly
will quickly appearappear
in theinbuck
the converter
buck converter and
and other
other instability
instability will occur
will occur withinwithin
a shortatime.
shortDuetime. to Due to the instability
the instability of CPL of CPL
that thatwithin
occurs occursanwithin an
interval
interval
smaller smaller
than thethan the switching
switching time,isthere
time, there a needis atoneed to increase
increase the switching
the switching frequency
frequency of L C.
of L and and C.
The
The
paperpaper presented
presented the the sliding
sliding mode mode as improving
as improving thethe large
large signal
signal stability
stability and and dynamic
dynamic response
response of
of
thethe buck
buck converter.The
converter. Theobjective
objectiveofofthethecontrol
controlsystem
systemin in DC-DC
DC-DC converters
converters with constant power power
loads
loads isis to
to control
control the
the output
output power.
power.PPout out is the output power and K is the output power reference.

1-
1- Buck
Buck converter
converter with
with CPL
CPL in Figure 12
in Figure 12 can
can be
be written
written using
using the
the state
state space
space averaging
averaging method:
method:
. 1 d
x1 .  x1  Vd
− 2x2 +L in
x1 = L V
L L in
. 1 1
x2  x1  x2 ,
C RC
Energies 2017, 10, 1656 12 of 20
Energies 2017, 10, 1656 12 of 20

. 1 1
where x1 and x2 are the moving average xof2 = 1−
theC xinductorx2 ,
RC current and the output voltage of the
converter, respectively.
where x1 and x2 are the moving average of the inductor current and the output voltage of the
converter, respectively.

Figure 12. DC-DC Buck converter feeding CPL.

Figure 12. DC-DC Buck converter feeding CPL.

2-
2- The authors
The authors in
in [36]
[36] assumed thatKKisisthe
assumed that theoutput
outputpower
powerreference
referenceand
andforced thethe
forced output power
output to
power
be equal to this value by sliding mode control, as follows:
to be equal to this value by sliding mode control, as follows:

Pout out < 0∀ Pout > K

∂P
∂t 0Pout  K
t
∂Pout
> 0∀ Pout < K.
Pout∂t
 0Pout  K .
3- t requirements:
The following equation satisfies the above

3- The following equation satisfies the ∂P

above
out requirements:
= −λ · ( Pout − K ),
∂t
P
   ( Pout  K ) ,
outis called the convergence factor.
where λ is a positive real number and
t
4- The objective of this paper is to obtain the duty cycle for the buck converter by combining
 is a positive
whereEquations real number and is called the convergence factor.
(1) and (3);
4- The objective of this paper is to obtain the 2duty cycle for the buck2 converter 2 by combining
1 2 λ· RC x2 1 1 λ· RC 2 x2
Equations (1) and (3); x
L 2 − λ ( 1 − 2 )( R − K ) − ·
C x2 ( 2 ) ( R − K )
2
d(t) = x2 ·vin .
L
1 2   RC x22 1 1   RC 2 x22
x2   (1  )(  K )   2 ( ) (  K )2
L
In [77] the stable sliding 2 shown
surface (s), R in Figure C 13a,
x2 is designed
2 Rto obtain system control
d (t )  .
2  vin
law (u) is to meet the system stability requirements xwith reference values for the inductor current and
capacitor voltage. The stable sliding surface (s) can beLwritten:

In [77] the stable sliding surface

s = x(s),
1 · xshown
2 − x1r in Figure
· x2r + µ(x13a,
2 − xis
2r designed
) to obtain system control
law (u) is to meet the system stability requirements with reference values for the inductor current
The
and control
capacitor law (u) canThe
voltage. be written:
stable sliding surface (s) can be written:
(
s = ux11(∙1x−2 sgn
− x(1r
s)) =2r + μ(x2 − x2r )
∙ x 1 if s < 0
2 0 if s > 0
The control law (u) can be written:
In [57], a third-order SMC is applied to control the buck converter. The signal triangle is regulated by
the input voltage to use with SMC output to 1 if to
1 generate a signal control s< 0 the converter, as in Figure 13b.
drive
u ≔ (1 − sgn(s)) = {
2 0 if s > 0
 In [57], a third-order SMC is applied to control the buck converter. The signal triangle is
regulated by the input voltage to use with SMC output to generate a signal control to drive the
converter, as in Figure 13b.

Energies 2017, 10, 1656 13 of 20

(a)

(b)
Figure 13.
Figure 13. Sliding
Sliding mode
mode control
control with
with CPL
CPL (a)
(a) ref.
ref. [77];
[77]; (b)
(b) ref.
ref. [57].
[57].

4.6. Model Predictive Control

4.6. Model Predictive Control
In the literature [51, 55, 83, 84, 85], researchers introduced a model predictive control as a
In the literature [51,55,83–85], researchers introduced a model predictive control as a solution to
solution to mitigate the instability caused by CPL. In [84], a power buffer interfaces between the
mitigate the instability caused by CPL. In [84], a power buffer interfaces between the source converter
source converter and CPL to modify the load impedance of during a transient or fault case. The
and CPL to modify the load impedance of during a transient or fault case. The model predictive
model predictive controller (MPC) controls the variation of the DC link voltage and modifies of the
controller (MPC) controls the variation of the DC link voltage and modifies of the load impedance
load impedance which is seen at the point of common coupling. In [51], MPC is used with hybrid
which is seen at the point of common coupling. In [51], MPC is used with hybrid energy storage to
energy storage to manipulate the energy flows between generator, load, and a hybrid ES which is
manipulate the energy flows between generator, load, and a hybrid ES which is shown in Figure 14.
shown in Figure 14. In [51, 84], the MPC is not utilised directly to compensate the instability effects
In [51,84], the MPC is not utilised directly to compensate the instability effects of CPL but in [84]
of CPL but in [84] there is introduced an optimal trade-off between modification of load impedance,
there is introduced an optimal trade-off between modification of load impedance, variation of DC-link
variation of DC-link voltage and battery current ripples; in [51] this is used to design and/or specify
voltage and battery current ripples; in [51] this is used to design and/or specify the requirements for
the requirements for the ES to achieve the desired transient response. The required duty cycle of
the ES to achieve the desired transient response. The required duty cycle of converter is calculated
converter is calculated based on MPC strategies to mitigate the instability induced by CPL. The
based on MPC strategies to mitigate the instability induced by CPL. The duty cycle configurations are
chosen to guarantee the stabilisation of the CPL by associating the CPL current and voltage with the
predicted output voltage values of the converter [55].
Energies 2017, 10, 1656 14 of 20
Energies2017,
Energies 2017,10,
10,1656
1656 14ofof20
14 20

Figure14.
Figure
Figure 14.Model
14. Modelpredictive
Model predictivecontrol
predictive controlwith
control withpower
with powerbuffer.
power buffer.
buffer.

4.7.Feedback
4.7.
4.7. FeedbackLinearization
Feedback Linearization
Linearization
Feedbacklinearization
Feedback
Feedback linearizationisisisaanonlinear
linearization a nonlinear
nonlinear control
control
control technique
technique
technique to overcome
to overcome
to overcome the instability
the instability
the instability caused
caused
caused by
by
by CPL,
CPL,
CPL,
as asproposed
as
proposed proposed in[47,52,86–88].
in [47,52,86–88].
in [47,52,86–88]. Thistechnique
This This technique
technique aims
aimsaims tocancel
to
to cancelcancel thenonlinearity
the the nonlinearity
nonlinearity introduced
introduced
introduced byCPL
by by
CPL CPL
by
by
by determining
determining the
the parameters
parameters that
that can
can be
be manipulated
manipulated to
to obtain
obtain aa system
system
determining the parameters that can be manipulated to obtain a system without instability without without
without instability
instability
without
without
using usingaaconventional
using
a conventional conventional PIcontroller,
PI
PI controller, controller,
which has which
which hasits
has itsdisadvantages.
disadvantages.
its disadvantages.
In
InIn[47],
[47],the
[47], theauthors
the authorsdiscuss
authors discussthe
discuss thestability
the stabilityof
stability ofaaaDC-DC
of DC-DCbuck
DC-DC buckconverter
buck converterthat
converter thatis
that isisfeeding
feedingthe
feeding theresistive
the resistive
resistive
load
load (constant
(constant voltage
voltage load
load (CVL))
(CVL)) and
and CPL
CPL as
as in
in Figure
Figure 15,
15, the
the large
large signal
signal
load (constant voltage load (CVL)) and CPL as in Figure 15, the large signal stability used, and stability
stability used,
used, andthe
and the
the
stability
stability
stability of of system
of system tested
system tested
tested byby Lyapunov
by Lyapunov
Lyapunov theory. theory. The
theory. The procedure
The procedure
procedure can can
can bebe summarised
be summarised
summarised as as follows.
as follows.
follows.

LL iiL L
SW
SW

CC
RRLL
CPL
CPL

DC
DC vvCC P/vo
P/vo

Figure 15.
Figure15.
Figure DC-DC
15.DC-DC buck
DC-DCbuck converter
buckconverter feeding
converterfeeding CPL
feedingCPL and
CPLand constant
andconstant voltage
constantvoltage load
voltageload (CVL).
load(CVL).
(CVL).

1- Two
1- Twodifferential
Two differentialequations
differential equationsdescribe
describethe
thecircuit
circuitin
inthe
theFigure
Figure15
15as
asfollows:
follows:
diLL 11
diL 1dv
dvininvvoo
di
dtdt L
dt =
L L [dv in − vo ]

c 1 1
P  .
 
dvdv
dv cc =1 iL −
vo P P
vvo  −
dt CiiLL o R vo. .
dt CC
dt RR vvoo
2- The paper authors in [47] suggested the change of variables:
2- The
2- Thepaper
paperauthors
authorsin
in[47]
[47]suggested
suggestedthe
thechange
changeof ofvariables:
variables:
vo P
x1 = i L − −
vvoo R PP vo
xx11iiLL 
x2 = voRR vvoo ,
− VoREF
where VoREF is the reference value for the output voltage of the buck converter.
xx22 vvooVVoREF
oREF, ,

WhereVVoREF
Where isthe
oREFis thereference
referencevalue
valuefor
forthe
theoutput
outputvoltage
voltageof
ofthe
thebuck
buckconverter.
converter.
Energies 2017, 10, 1656 15 of 20

Energies 2017, 10, 1656 15 of 20

3- Rewrite the equations to result in:
. dv x2  VoREF x1 Px1
3- Rewrite the equations to  inin:
x1 result  
L L RC C ( x2  VoREF )
dvin . x + VoREF x Px1
− 2
x1 = − 1 −
L L. x RC C ( x 2 + VoREF)
x2  1 .
. Cx
x2 = 1 .
C
4- Then the following equations were used to cancel out the output nonlinearity in Step 3:
4- Then the following equations were used to cancel
. out the output nonlinearity in Step 3:
dvin P x1. V
 k1 x1  k2 x2    and   oREF ,
−( x2  VoREF
dv
L in = k1 x1 − k2 x2 C Px 1 ) V
+ ω and ω = L oREF ,
L C ( x2 − VoREF ) L
Where k1, k2, and 𝑃̇ are parameters of the controller to be designed.
.
5- The equations
where in Step
k1 , k2 , and P are4parameters
can be rewritten
of theas
controller to be designed.
5- The equations in Step 4 can be rewritten as
. 1 1 x1 .
x  (k1  ) x1  (k2  ) x2  ( P  P ).
. RC 1 ) x + (k L
x = (k1 − −
1
) x
(+x2  VoREF
x1 ) 2
( P − P)
1 2 2 2
RC L ( x2 + VoREF )
. x
x 2x.  =1 x. 1 .
2 C
C
If 𝑃 = 𝑃 . ̇ then the system is linear and k1, k2 can be manipulated to put the poles of the system in
If P = P then the system is linear and k1 , k2 can be manipulated to put the poles of the system in
their proper locations to get a stable system.
their proper locations to get a stable system.
In [52] an improvement mothed of feedback linearization [47] cancels the nonlinearity of the
In [52] an improvement mothed of feedback linearization [47] cancels the nonlinearity of the
system by adding an extra feedback loop that has optimum factor which is named feedback gain (𝐾𝐹𝐵 =
system̂ by adding an extra feedback loop that has optimum factor which is named feedback gain
(𝑉𝑇𝑟 ∙ 𝑃 ∙ 𝐿̂)/𝑉_𝑖𝑛 ) in Figure 16. This factor is chosen such that 𝑃̂ and 𝐿̂ are equal to P and L,
(KFB = (VTr · P̂ · L̂)/V_in) in Figure 16. This factor is chosen such that P̂ and L̂ are equal to P and
respectively.
L, respectively.

Figure 16.
Figure 16. Feedback
Feedback linearization of buck
linearization of buck converter
converter in
in [52].
[52].

Feedback linearization ensures large signal stability and an unlimited value of CPL; however,
Feedback linearization ensures large signal stability and an unlimited value of CPL; however,
the drawbacks are low performance and speed [2,25].
the drawbacks are low performance and speed [2,25].
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
Negative incremental
Negative incremental impedance
impedance of a constant
of a constant power
power load
load makes
makes aa system
system undergo
undergo negative
negative
damping and oscillation when a small variation occurs in the load. This phenomenon subjected parts
damping and oscillation when a small variation occurs in the load. This phenomenon subjected parts
Energies 2017, 10, 1656 16 of 20

of the µgrid (converters, switches, etc.) to stress and caused voltage collapse or damage to parts of the
µgrid, which might have induced failure.
In this paper we introduce compensation methods that try to make the system stable when it
has a constant power load. Many of these methods are aimed at redesigning the feedback of source
converter such as feedback linearization, sliding mode control, pulse adjustment control technique,
and state pole placement. These have the advantage of not having any effect on the load performance.
Other methods were achieved by inserting an auxiliary circuit or power buffer between the source
converter and the load converter. However, the auxiliary circuit increases the costs and complexity of
the system, and might behave as another CPL in the system.

Author Contributions: All authors contributed for bringing the manuscript in its current state. Their contributions
include detailed survey of the literatures and state of art which were essential for the completion of this
review paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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