VI. Helicopters

VI.
Helicopters
A. History A. Controls
B. Configurations B. Stabilizer Controls
C. Types of Rotor Systems C. Vibrations
D. Forces Acting on the D. Power Systems
Rotor
E. Flight Conditions
12/09/09 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 1

 History
 Configurations
Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems


 Forces Acting on the Rotor
 Flight Conditions
History 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 1483, DaVinci
– Developed “Helix”
– Kind of aerial screw
– Shows basic
understanding that the
atmosphere can support
weight but no provisions
for torque on fuselage

 History
 Configurations


History 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 1800s, Forlanini (Italy)
– Used steam engine
– Counter-rotating “butterfly” wings
– Could ascend (without pilot) to 40 feet for about
20 minutes

 History
 Configurations


History 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 1907, Cornu (France)
– First piloted helicopter
– Flew for few seconds
– Used internal combustion engine
– No controls but well balanced

 History
 Configurations


History 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 1909, Igor Sikorsky  Vibrations
 Power Systems
(Russia)
– Small counter-rotating
coaxial rotors
– First use of airfoil
shaped rotors

 History
 Configurations


History 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 1920s, Petroczy & Von
Karmon (Austria)
– Counter-rotating,
coaxial, airfoil rotors
– 3 40HP engines
– No controls, just made to
lift straight up

 History
 Configurations


History 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 1923, de Bothezat (U.S.)
– 4 rotors
– Complicated power
transmission system
– Low power
– Several flights of 1
minute @ 6 feet

 History
 Configurations


History 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 1923, de la Cierva (Spain)
– Developed Autogyro
– Solved some control
problems by allowing
rotors to Flap

 History
 Configurations


History 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 1936, Focke-Wulfe
(Germany)
– FW-61 established
endurance & speed
records
– Mostly flown by
Hannah Reich
– Flown inside stadium
for most of records

 History
 Configurations


History 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 1939, Sikorsky (U.S.)
– Developed VS-300
– Broke all FW-61
records
– Used 3-bladed main
rotor, vertical 2-
bladed tail rotor & 2
horizontal 2-bladed
outrigger rotors for
stability and control

 History
 Configurations


Configurations 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Autogyros
– Developed by de la
Cierva
– Uses free-spinning main
rotor with airplane-like
engine/prop for forward
motion
– No power to main rotor,
spins from air action =
can’t hover or ascend
vertically

 History
 Configurations


Configurations 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Dual Rotor
– 2 counter rotating main
rotors
• No tail rotor needed
• May be separate or
coaxial
– Used extensively
through history, today
few (Boeing, Kaman)

 History
 Configurations


Configurations 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Single Rotor
– Most used design
– 1 main rotor for lift and
control
– Tail rotor for anti-torque
• FAA calls it “Auxiliary
Rotor”
• More precisely known
as “Anti-torque Rotor”

 History
 Configurations
Helicopters Hughes Helicopter Types of Rotor Systems


ConfigurationsH-17 Skycrane 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
1952  Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Single Rotor Function: transport
Crew: 2
Engines: 1 * G.E. J35
Rotor Span: 130ft Length:
Height: 30ft Disc Area:
Empty Weight: Max.Weight:
46000lb
Speed: Ceiling: Range: 65km
Load: 25000lbs
Hot Cycle Blades

 History
 Configurations


Configurations 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Tilt Rotor
– Bell V-22
– Engines and main rotors
(“PropRotors”) mounted
on wingtips
• Rotate so rotor is
horizontal (on top) to
takeoff and land like
helicopter
• Rotate so rotor is
vertical to act like
prop for high speed
12/09/09 forward flight
Author: Harry L. Whitehead 15
 History
 Configurations


Types of Rotors 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 General  Power Systems
– All must change blade

angle or Pitch for
control actions
– Called “Feathering”
– Is rotation around the
span axis of the blade

 History
 Configurations


Types of Rotors 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Some also:
• Flap or Teeter

 History
 Configurations


Types of Rotors 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Some also:
• Lead/Lag (Hunt
or Drag)

 History
 Configurations


Types of Rotors 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Semi-Rigid Rotor  Power Systems
– 2-bladed
– Blades Feather and
entire rotor Teeters
– No Hunting action
allowed
– Very popular in early
Bell designs (and
others)

 History
 Configurations


Types of Rotors 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Semi-Rigid
– Bell 206

 History
 Configurations


Types of Rotors 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Fully Articulated Rotor

– 3 or more blades
– Blades can Feather, individually Flap, and Hunt
–Hunting limited by mechanical Dampers
 History
 Configurations


Types of Rotors 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Fully Articulated
– Is most complicated but smoothest in flight
– Problem: Ground Resonance potential

 History
 Configurations


Types of Rotors 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Fully Articulated
– Hughes 500
(McDonnell-
Douglas,
Boeing)

 History
 Configurations


Types of Rotors 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Fully
Articulated
– Sikorsky S58

 History
 Configurations


Types of Rotors 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Fully
Articulated
– AStar 350
 History
 Configurations


Types of Rotors 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Rigid
– 2 or more blades
– Blades Feather but all other forces absorbed by
bending of the blades
– Strongest and most maneuverable but needs
composites to withstand fatigue
 History
 Configurations


Forces on the Rotors 


Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Static Forces  Power Systems
– Gravity pulls down and

blades can bend
relatively low
• Called Droop
– All need some kind of
Droop (Static) Stop to
prevent too low and
possible Tail Boom strike
• Especially for Fully
Articulated at low
RPM
12/09/09 27
 History
 Configurations




Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Turning Forces  Power Systems
– Centrifugal Force tries to hold the blades straight

out but lift tries to bend up
– Result is Coning
• Upward bending into Cone shape
• More lift = more Coning

 History
 Configurations




Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Torque  Power Systems
– From Newton’s 3rd

Law
– Main rotor turns in
one direction =
fuselage tries to turn
opposite (Torque)
– Is directly
proportional to power
applied to M/R

 History
 Configurations




Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Compensated for by
Tail Rotor thrust
What happens if Tail Rotor

fails during flight?

 History
 Configurations




Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Compensated for by
Tail Rotor thrust or
counter-rotating M/Rs

 History
 Configurations




Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Problem: Tail Rotor

causes “Translating
Tendency” or “Drift”
• Is movement of
entire helicopter in
direction of T/R
thrust (to right in
U.S.)
• Compensated by
slight tilt of M/R
mast to left

 History
 Configurations




Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Gyroscopic Precession  Power Systems
– Any rotating body (M/R) acts like a Gyroscope

and exhibits 2 characteristics:
• Rigidity
• Precession
– Rigidity resists the change from it’s position in
relation to space, not the Earth
– Precession is the fact that the effect of any
upsetting force applied to the body is felt 90o later
in direction of rotation
• Affects the design and rigging of the M/R
 History
 Configurations




Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– For flight = need to tilt

“Rotor Disk” in direction
of desired flight
• Changes lift & thrust Desired
directio
n of flig
vectors toward that ht
direction =
movement of
helicopter
– To accomplish = need
to make pitch change
90o earlier
 History
 Configurations




Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– For flight = need to tilt

“Rotor Disk” in direction
of desired flight
• Changes lift & thrust
vectors toward that
direction =
movement of
helicopter
– To accomplish = need
to make pitch change
90o earlier
 History
 Configurations




Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems

 History
 Configurations




Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Ground Effect  Power Systems
– Increased lift within ½ rotor diameter of ground

– “Cushion of Air”
– Comes from change in angle of attack near
ground because relative wind changes

Ground Effect History

  Configurations


– Out of Ground Effect (OGE)  Forces Acting on the Rotor
• Rotor wash is free to accelerate straight down = given

Forces on the Rotors

angle of attack and lift and large tip vortex

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
Rotation
Downwash
Angle of Attack
Relative Wind

Ground Effect History

  Configurations


– In Ground Effect (IGE)  Forces Acting on the Rotor
• Rotor wash is forced to move outward as well as down =

Forces on the Rotors  Controls

reduced down vector = increased angle of attack
Stabilizer +
Controls
smaller tip vortex  Vibrations
 Power Systems
Rotation
Downwash
Angle of Attack
Relative Wind

 History
 Configurations




Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Flight Forces  Power Systems
– Same as
airplane:
• Lift up
• Weight
(Gravity) down
• Thrust forward
and up
• Drag back and
down

 History
 Configurations




Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– In hover:
• Lift and Thrust
both act up
• Weight and
Drag act down

 History
 Configurations




Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Forward Flight:
• Thrust vector
tilted in
desired
direction =
overall loss of
upward lift =
need more
power applied
• Similar to
airplane in turn

 History
 Configurations


Flight Conditions 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Dissymmetry of Lift  Power Systems
– At a hover with no
wind the rotor
blades are all
traveling at the
same speed in
relation to the air
around them

 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
100 mph
– Any relative air
motion (wind or
flight) = blade
going into wind
(Advancing
Blade) travels
faster than
Retreating Blade
• Think in terms
of Airspeed

 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Faster airfoil = more

lift on Advancing
side (and less lift on
Retreating side)
– Lift not equal =
Dissymmetry of Lift
– Without
compensation = roll
to left (and gets
more severe with
speed increase)
 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Dissymmetry of Lift
– Compensated for by allowing the blades to Flap or the rotor
to Teeter
• Advancing blade Flaps (Teeters) up = decrease in angle
of attack due to upward vector of Relative Wind
 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Dissymmetry of Lift
– Compensated for by allowing the blades to Flap or
the rotor to Teeter
• Retreating blade Flaps (Teeters) down =
increase in angle of attack due to Relative Wind
change
 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Coriolis Effect  Power Systems
– Caused by
Flapping or
Teetering up
– Blade flaps up =
Center of Mass
moves closer to
axis of rotation =
RPM increases

 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– The inertia of the

rotor stays
constant so as the
Axis of Rotation is
reduced the Speed
of Rotation must
increase
– Is same as skater
in spin with arms
out then speeds
up when arms are
12/09/09
moved in to sides 49
 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Creates force to
accelerate the
blade (Hunting
action)
– Fully Articulated
head allows limited
Hunting action
• Uses hydraulic
or composite
dampers to
minimize
movement
 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Semi-Rigid usually
uses “UnderSlung
Rotor Head”
• Teetering Axis
is above
Feathering Axis
(“Delta Hinge”
arrangement) =
as teeters it
also swings to
high side

 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Semi-Rigid usually
uses “UnderSlung
Rotor Head”
• Center of Mass
of the Rotor
then stays
basically in line
with driveshaft/
mast

 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Translational Lift  Power Systems
– Increased lift during

the translation to
forward flight from a
hover
– Occurs between 16
and 24 knots airspeed
• Feel vibration and
definite increase in
lift (that point is
called “Effective
Translational Lift”)

 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Translational Lift
– At hover and below 15 knots, the ground is forcing
the rotor downwash outward and creating some
turbulence around rotor blades

 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
– At hover and below 15 knots, the ground is forcing
the rotor downwash outward and creating some
turbulence around rotor blades
–Above 15 kts, the blades “bite” into undisturbed
air = more efficient
12/09/09 = less
Author: Harry L.power
Whiteheadneeded 55
 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
– Above about 50 knots, drag starts to increase
greatly and we need more power to further
accelerate

 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Transverse Flow  Power Systems
Effect
– At slow airspeeds
(less than 20 kts.) =
air through rear of
rotor is accelerated
downward longer than
air at front = decrease
in angle of attack in
rear

 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
Effect
– Effect felt 90o later =
drift to right
– Pilot must
compensate with
some left Cyclic to
keep going in a
straight line

 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
Effect
– As airspeed increases
= entire rotor has
basically undisturbed
airflow = no
Transverse Flow
Effect is felt

 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Autorotations
– Flight with no engine power applied to the main
rotors
– Air is normally drawn down through rotors but if
have engine failure = aircraft drops and wind goes
up through rotors = keeps them rotating at near
normal RPM
 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Autorotations
– When engine fails, pilot lowers Collective stick
to bottom = sets in minimal angle on all blades
and adjusts Cyclic to certain forward airspeed

 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Autorotations  Power Systems
– With Relative Wind

from underneath and
forward:
• Lift and Drag
vectors are
changed so
Resultant is
forward of Axis of
Rotation = tries to
accelerate rotor
and is called
Autorotative Force
 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations

from underneath and
forward:
• Occurs in middle
25 – 75% of rotor
• Is called the
Autorotative
(Autorotation)
Region

 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations

from underneath and
forward:
• In outer 30% of
rotor = blade twist
makes the angle of
attack low and the
speed makes the
drag high
• Resultant is behind
the Axis of
Rotation
 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations

from underneath and
forward:
• Is a Decelerating
force (Anti-
Autorotative Force)
and is called the
Driven (or
Propeller) Region

 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations

from underneath and
forward:
• Inner 25% has an
angle of attack
higher than the
Critical Angle of
the airfoil = Stall
Region and also
creates an Anti-
Autorotative Force
 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Autorotations
– At some forward airspeed these forces combine to
stabilize the RPM (achieve equilibrium)
– RPM means Inertia = energy available to use when
near the ground
• This Autorotation RPM is critical rigging
12/09/09
adjustment Author: Harry L. Whitehead 67
 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Autorotations
– At about 50 feet above the ground, the pilot pulls
back on the Cyclic to flare the aircraft (pulls the
nose up some = reduced airspeed)
• = momentary increase in airflow and higher RPM
(= more inertia)

 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Autorotations
– At about 10 feet above the ground, the pilot pulls
up on the Collective and starts to use that energy
in the rotor to cushion the landing

 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Also leads
manufacturers to
publish “Height-
Velocity Diagram” in
Flight Manual
– Also known as the
“Dead Man’s Curve”
– If fly in shaded area
combinations of
Height (Altitude) and
Velocity = can’t
successfully
Autorotate
 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Retreating Blade Stall  Power Systems
– As we move forward = Retreating Blade flaps

down to compensate for Dissymmetry of Lift by
increasing the angle of attack
– At some high forward airspeed (especially if the
rotor RPM is allowed to get low) a portion of the
airfoil (rotor disk) will exceed the Critical Angle of
Attack and Stall

 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Generally occurs at
the 7 – 9 o’clock
position (looking
down on the rotor =
left rear of rotor) =
vibrations + nose
pitches up
• gyroscopic
precession = loss
of lift in rear of
rotor
 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Nose pitch up =
excessive angle of
attack in front (stall) =
loss of lift on left and
roll to left

 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Vortex Ring State  Power Systems
(Settling With
Power)
– If descending at 300
fpm or more + less
than 10 mph forward
airspeed + 20 to
100% power applied
= can descend
inside rotor
downwash

 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
(Settling With Power)
– Blades produce tip
vortices (like any
airfoil) + upward
flow of air in
middle of rotor
(from descent) =
Vortex across
entire rotor = loss
of lift and
increased descent
rate
 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
(Settling With Power)
– Increasing power
to control descent
rate = increases
problem by
increasing the
amount of vortex
created
– Must accelerate
out of it or
descend below it
(if there’s enough
altitude)
 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Vortex  Power Systems
Ring State
(Settling
With
Power)

 History
 Configurations



Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Ground  Power Systems
Resonance
http://www.chinook-
helicopter.com/Fundamentals_of_Flight/Ground_Resonance
/Ground_Resonance.html

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Axes of Flight  Power Systems
– Same as airplane: Longitudinal Axis = Roll,

Lateral Axis = Pitch, Vertical Axis = Yaw

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Flight Controls  Power Systems
– 3 basic controls:
Cyclic, Collective,
Pedals

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Flight Controls  Power Systems
– 3 basic controls:
Cyclic, Collective,
Pedals
– Cyclic:
• Controls Pitch and
Roll
• Tilts rotor disk in
desired direction of
movement
• Is primary airspeed
and flight path
control (pitch & roll)
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Axes of Flight
– Cyclic:
• Uses Swashplate to do job
– Is device with rotating component and
stationary component
– Connected by double-row ball bearing
– Lower (stationary) part connected to Cyclic
stick via push-pull tubes and/or hydraulics
– Upper (rotating) part connected to main
12/09/09 blades and rotates
Author: with them
Harry L. Whitehead 82
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Axes of Flight
– Cyclic:
• Uses Swashplate to do job
– Pilot pushes Cyclic stick in direction of desired
movement
– Swashplate is tilted to change M/R blade pitch a
different amount depending on where it is in
rotation
» The pitch changes cyclically as it rotates
» Direction of tilt is designed to take Gyroscopic
Precession into account
» May or may not tilt same as rotor disk action
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Cyclic:
Lateral
• Example tubes
system:
Huey (Bell
UH-1)
Fore &
Aft tubes

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Axes of Flight
– Collective:
• Changes the pitch of all blades the same
amount at the same time (collectively)
• Controls the overall lift generated by the rotors

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Axes of Flight
– Collective:
• Uses the Swashplate to do the job by raising
or lowering it to change the pitch on all blades

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Axes of Flight
– Collective:
• Collective stick also has engine throttle(s)
– Motorcycle style rotating throttle except must
rotate away from you to increase
– Turbines usually governed so open throttle
12/09/09 wide openAuthor:
and let
Harrygovernor
L. Whitehead keep RPM steady87
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Collective:
• Example
system:
Hughes
(Schweizer)
269

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Pedals:
• Control Yaw by controlling the thrust of the Tail
Rotor (on single-rotor helicopters) and driven by
main transmission so will still work if engine quits
– Dual rotors = differential cyclic control by
pedals
– Coaxial rotors = rudder in rotor downwash
• Push left pedal to yaw to the left, right pedal to
yaw to the right
– Left pedal increases T/R thrust
• Needed especially during slow and high power
12/09/09 conditions (I.e.
Author:takeoff and landing)
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Tail Rotor Types:

• Semi-rigid
– Most common until recently
– Usually 2-bladed
– Has same Dissymmetry of Lift problems as M/
R so will teeter usually (some let blades flap)

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations

• Semi-rigid
– Most common until recently
– Usually 2-bladed
– Has same Dissymmetry of Lift problems as M/
R so will teeter usually (some let blades flap)
– Most use Offset Hinges so pitch is physically
changed as rotor teeters = minimal actual
teetering action

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations

• Fenestron
– French design
– Enclosed multi-bladed
variable-pitch fan
– Safer and quieter

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations

• NOTAR
– Developed by Hughes Helicopters (then
McDonnell-Douglas now Boeing)
– Uses fan inside tail boom with exhaust out
side of boom through variable vent connected
to pedals
– Also uses Coanda Effect from rotor
downwash
» Air flowing over the curved surface “sticks”
12/09/09 to that surface
Author: and creates lift sideways93
Harry L. Whitehead
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Miscellaneous
– Stabilizer surfaces
• Fixed Horizontal
– Creates download on tail to keep fuselage
more level during high speed flight
• Synchronized Elevator
– Connected to Cyclic
– Changes pitch to change tail down load for
various flight speeds
• Fixed Vertical
12/09/09
– For directional stability 94
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Miscellaneous
– Hydraulics
• For larger or heavier M/R systems
• Mostly use Irreversible type systems to overcome
flight loads and dampen vibrations in sticks
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Miscellaneous
– Example system:
• Bell 206
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Stabilizer Controls  Power Systems
– Are inherently
unstable
– As rotor lift/thrust
vector tilts away from
vertical = creates
vector to pull away
from center
– = negative stability

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
•Compensations
•Bell Stabilizer Bar
–Bar below M/R @ 90o to blade span
–Acts like gyroscope and uses Rigidity in Space
characteristic to try and keep rotor and aircraft in one
attitude
–Worked too well so
12/09/09 needs
Author: Harry L.hydraulic
Whitehead damper to limit it’s
98
effectiveness and allow reasonable maneuverability
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Compensations
– Offset Flapping Hinge
• On fully-articulated rotor heads and on some tail
rotors
• Hinge moved a distance from rotor’s rotation axis
12/09/09 = acts like lever
Author: to provide
Harry restoring force
L. Whitehead 99
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Compensations
• Stabilization Augmentation System (SAS)
– Like simple autopilot
– One- or two-axis
– Only to aid stability, not true autopilot
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Vibrations  Power Systems
– Large number of moving and rotating parts =

susceptible to vibrations
– Vibrations = abnormal wear, premature part failure,
and uncomfortable ride for people
– Must minimize vibes

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Types
• Low Frequency
– Feel as “beat” in structure and may be able to
almost count the beats
– Comes from Main Rotor

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Types
• Low Frequency
–Vertical vibe
»Up & down motion
»Caused by blades
being Out-of-Track

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Types
• Low Frequency
–Lateral vibe
»Side-to-side motion
»Comes from blades
being out of balance
or spaced unequally

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Types
• High Frequency
– Felt as “buzz” in structure
– Comes from cooling fan, engine and/or
accessories, gearboxes, or (most commonly)
Tail Rotor
– May only notice if some part of body goes to
sleep
» Feet = Tail Rotor (through pedals)
» Butt = others
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Measurement of vibes
• Feel
– Adjust until feels OK (at minimum level)

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Measurement of vibes
• Electronic
– Use accelerometers to measure rate and
strength accurately
– Use Strobe light or “Clock” to locate
– Use above as coordinates on chart to
determine exactly where and how much
weight to add or remove
– Can use to troubleshoot (narrow down vibe
rate and look at those components operating
at that rate)
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Correction of vibes (M/R & T/R)

• If out of balance condition
– May require Static or Dynamic procedures (or
both depending on helicopter)
– Some require Static balancing after assembly
» Put on balance stand and adjust until no
movement when released
» T/R done like propeller (knife-edge stand)
» M/R done on special stand with Bullseye
level
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Vibrations
» M/R also may require Blade Sweep to be
adjusted (for chordwise balance)
» = stretch string between blades and adjust
until blades are exactly 180o apart (adjust
by “sweeping” blades forward or aft as
12/09/09 necessary)
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Vibrations
– Dynamic balancing done during operations on
ground and in air
– Uses Electronic gear to measure rate and
strength and charts to show adjustments
• Some M/Rs don’t need dynamic after static but
12/09/09 all T/Rs do Author: Harry L. Whitehead 110
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
Example: Chadwick-Helmuth Vibrex® system

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Vibrations
– Measurement of
vibes
• Example chart:
– T/R balance

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Vibrations
– Measurement of
vibes
• Example chart:
– T/R balance

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Vibrations
– Measurement of
vibes
• Example chart:
– M/R balance

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Vibrations
– Measurement of
vibes
• Example chart:
– M/R balance

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations

• If out of Track condition
– Track = path Blade tips follow during rotation
– In-Track = all tips follow same path (or Cone
the same amount) and = minimal vertical
vibes
– All M/Rs need to be checked and adjusted
and some T/Rs

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations

– Ground check
» Use marking stick or Flag
» Marking Stick uses crayon or grease
pencil on end of long stick and carefully
raise to bottom of blades to make mark on
lowest one (adjust until marks all blades)

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations

– Ground check
» Flag is strip of canvas suspended between
F shaped pole + put crayon mark on blade
tips (different color on each blade) then
move Flag so just touches each blade to
get a colored mark
» Use colors to determine which blade needs
adjustment
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Flag Tracking
Flag Tracking

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations

– Ground check
» All are adjusted by changing the length of the
Pitch Links (controls Angle of Incidence of
blades)
» Link between Swashplate and M/R blade
» Increase angle = more lift = blade flies higher
» Each manufacturer usually has standard
adjustments (I.e. 1/6 turn = ½” blade
movement)
12/09/09 » Limitation: can’t
Author: Harry check in flight
L. Whitehead 120
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Vibrations
– Ground & Flight
» Use spotlight or strobe
» Spotlight uses colored reflectors attached to blade
» Light shows colored streaks and can see “altitude”
12/09/09 difference between them
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations 

Vibrations
Power Systems
– Ground & Flight
» Strobe is keyed by pickup on swashplate
» Flashes once for each blade
» Has reflectors on each blade with different
angled “Target” line
» Flashes ‘stop’ targets at one location and
can easily see difference and which blade
to adjust
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations

– Ground & Flight
» For ground and hover adjustment = use
Pitch Links
» For in-flight adjustment = most blades
have trailing edge fixed trim tabs to allow
limited bending

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems & Other  Power Systems
Components
– Powerplants
• Reciprocating
– See all types: Horizontal
and Vertically mounted
Opposed engines & some
Radials
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
Components
– Powerplants
• Reciprocating
– Verticals and Radials
usually are Dry-sump with
M/R Transmission
(GearBox) mounted on top
and using same Author:
12/09/09 oil supply
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
Components
– Powerplants
• Reciprocating Bell 47
– Verticals and Radials
usually are Dry-sump with
M/R Transmission
(GearBox) mounted on top
and using same oil supply

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
Components
– Powerplants
• Reciprocating
– Horizontals usually use
some form of Belt Drive
» Multiple V-belts or one
wide “timing” belt
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
Components
– Powerplants
• Reciprocating
– None have propeller for
cooling air blast and “fly
wheel” for starting
– All use some form of Cooling
Fan driven by engine to blow
air across cylinders
– All are generally hard to start
(no fly wheel to help process
keep going) Author: Harry L. Whitehead 128
12/09/09
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems & Other Components  Power Systems
– Powerplants
• Reciprocating Instruments
– Since M/R is essentially a Variable-pitch
Propeller = all use both Tachometer (RPM)
and Manifold Pressure gauges for power
measurement
– Engines must be operated at relatively
constant RPM (to allow enough Lift & Thrust)
and usually very near the manufacturer’s
Overspeed limit
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Powerplants
• Reciprocating
– Usually uses Correlated Throttle and
Collective
» Pull up on collective = more blade pitch =
more lift/thrust generated = more drag
» Need more engine power to keep RPM
constant
» Correlation increases throttle automatically
as Collective is pulled up (may not do
12/09/09 entire job, though)
 History
 Configurations
Bell 47

Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Powerplants
• Reciprocating
– Usually uses Correlated Throttle and
Collective
» Pull up on collective = more blade pitch =
more lift/thrust generated = more drag
» Need more engine power to keep RPM
constant
» Correlation increases throttle automatically
as Collective is pulled up (may not do
12/09/09 entire job, though)
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Powerplants
• Turbines
– Are ideal powerplants as operate most efficiently at
constant RPM and have very high power to weight
ratio
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Powerplants
• Turbines
– Are TurboShaft engines
» All output power is converted to rotating shaft
power (Torque)
» Torque sent to Transmission to drive Main & Tail
Rotors and other necessary components
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Powerplants
• Turbines
» Two basic types: Direct Shaft & Free
Turbine
» Direct Shaft has PTO shaft connected to
all Compressor and Turbine section
stages
» Are very hard to start as must turn all
engine + Main and Tail rotors
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Powerplants
• Turbines
» Two basic types: Direct Shaft & Free
Turbine
» Free Turbine has some Turbine stages
which only supply PTO power
» Easier to start as rotors not mechanically
connected to main part of engine

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Powerplants
• Turbines
» Measure power output with Tachometers,
Torquemeters, and Turbine Temperature
gauges
» Tachs measure RPM in % (due to high
actual RPM)
» Free Turbine versions need to measure
both main engine (N1) and Power Turbine
12/09/09 (N2) and
Author:usually have separate gauges136
Harry L. Whitehead
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Powerplants
• Turbines
» Torquemeters measure power being
absorbed by M/Rs
» Similar to MAP gauge on recips
» Measures in % or in Pounds of Torque

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Powerplants
• Turbines
» Turbine Temps very important as are
directly proportional to how hard the
engine’s working and critical during the
start cycle
» May be TIT, ITT, TOT, or EGT system
(manufacturer’s choice)
» CAN NOT exceed max. limit or will
12/09/09 damage
Author:Turbine section components 138
Harry L. Whitehead
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Transmissions
• For speed and/or directional change of
rotating shaft(s)
• May be Rack & Pinion or Planetary Gear
systems
• Uses engine oil or has own supply

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
Components
– Transmissions
• For speed and/or
directional change of
rotating shaft(s)
• May be Rack & Pinion
or Planetary Gear
systems
Schweizer (Hughes) 269 Transmission: Rack (Ring Gear) and

Pinion
Bell 47 Transmission:
Planetary system

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
 Power Systems
 Power Systems & Other Components

– Transmissions
• Engine drives M/R Transmission which in turn
drives the T/R, Hydraulic pumps, Electrical
Generator, Cooling Fans (if appropriate for the
aircraft), and Rotor Tach sending unit connected
to (usually) Dual Tach (Rotor and Engine RPM
12/09/09 on same gauge)
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
– Clutch
• USED TO RELIEVE THE ENGINE LOAD
DURING STARTING
• May be Manual, Electrical, or Centrifugal
• Manual and Electrical pull Idler Pulley against

Belt(s) to tighten them and connect engine with
Transmission

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
Components
– Clutch
• Centrifugal uses hinged
Shoes pushed against a
Drum by Centrifugal
Force
– Shoes on arms
attached to engine
crankshaft
– Drum attached to
TransmissionAuthor: Harry L. Whitehead 144
12/09/09
 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
Components
– Freewheeling Unit
• FOR AUTOROTATION
PURPOSES
• Disconnects M/R from engine
if engine turns slower than M/
R
• Usually either Roller or Sprag
style

 History
 Configurations


Controls 

Controls
Stabilizer Controls
 Vibrations
Components
– Freewheeling Unit
• FOR AUTOROTATION
PURPOSES
• Disconnects M/R from engine
if engine turns slower than M/
R
• Usually either Roller or Sprag
style


VI. Helicopters

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VI. Helicopters

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VI.

12/09/09 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 1

Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

12/09/09 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 2

Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

12/09/09 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 3

Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

12/09/09 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 4

Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

12/09/09 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 5

Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

12/09/09 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 6

Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

12/09/09 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 7

Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

12/09/09 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 8

Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

12/09/09 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 9

Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

12/09/09 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 10

Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

12/09/09 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 11

Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

12/09/09 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 12

Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

12/09/09 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 13

Helicopters Hughes Helicopter Types of Rotor Systems

Hot Cycle Blades

Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

– All must change blade

12/09/09 Author: Harry L. Whitehead 16

Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

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Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

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Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

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Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

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Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

 Fully Articulated Rotor

Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

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Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

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Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

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Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

Forces on the Rotors 

– Gravity pulls down and

Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

Forces on the Rotors 

– Centrifugal Force tries to hold the blades straight

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Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

Forces on the Rotors 

– From Newton’s 3rd

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Helicopters Types of Rotor Systems

Forces on the Rotors 