PROJECT REPORT

ON
“WIRELESS NETWORKING”

SUBMITTED IN THE PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF BUSSINESS ADMINISTRATION
(COMPUTER AIDED MANAGEMENT)
(SESSION 2018-19)

Submitted to:
Submitted by:
Under the guidance of: NAME: Sumit Singh
Mrs. Meenakshi Kaushik
CLASS: BBA (CAM) 6th Sem.
Asst. Prof. BBA dept. Roll No: 30965

University Roll No.:

D.A.V CENTENARY COLLEGE

N.H.-3, N.I.T. FARIDABAD-121001 (HARYANA)

 PREFACE

The title of my project is “WIRELESS NETWORKING”

This project report is on how NETWORKING have evolve from the earlier twenty one century till
today. It contains emergence of NETWORKING and its application in Indian market. This report
also tells you why NETWORKING becomes an essential need in today’s world and how they are
influencing our life. It also tells about the business uses NETWORKING. And what is the scope and
uses of NETWORKING and also what are the professions related to the NEWORKING in a person
can make his career.

Su
mit Singh
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am very much thankful to Mrs. Snehlata (PROJECT GUIDE) for giving me opportunity and her
guidance which helps me throughout preparing this report. She has also provided me a valuable
suggestions and excellence guidance about this project which proved very helpful to me to utilize my
theoretical knowledge in practical field.

I am thankful to M.DUniversity Rohtak for putting me this valuable exposure into the field of
research methodology.

I would also like to thanks my family for motivating me and supporting me at every part of life.

At last I am also thankful to my friends, who have given me their constructive advice, educative
suggestion, encouragement, co-operation and motivation to prepare this report.

Sumit Singh
 INDEX

CHAPTERS TOPIC PAGE NO.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE TOPIC

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

 OBJECTIVESOF THE
STUDY
 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
 DATA COLLECTION
 LIMITATIONS OF THE
STUDY
CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS
&INTERPRETATION

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION

CHAPTER 6 RECOMMENDATION
&SUGGESTIONS

CHAPTER 7 BIBLOGRAPHY
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

TO THE TOPIC
Introduction
Wireless technology has helped to simplify networking by enabling multiple computer users to
simultaneously share resources in a home or business without additional or intrusive wiring.
These resources might include a broadband Internet connection, network printers, data files, and
even streaming audio and video. This kind of resource sharing has become more prevalent as
computer users have changed their habits from using single, stand-alone computers to working
on networks with multiple computers, each with potentially different operating systems and
varying peripheral hardware. U.S. Robotics wireless networking products offer a variety of
solutions to seamlessly integrate computers, peripherals, and data.

Wireless networking enables the same capabilities and comparable speeds of a wired 10BASE-T
network without the difficulties associated with laying wire, drilling into walls, or stringing Ethernet
cables throughout an office building or home. Laptop users have the freedom to roam anywhere in
the office building or home without having to hunt down a connector cable or available jack. Every
room in a wireless home or office can be “connected” to the networks adding more users and
growing a network can be as simple as installing a new wireless network adapter.

Reasons to choose wireless networking over traditional wired networks include:

 Running additional wires or drilling new holes in a home or office could be prohibited
(because of rental regulations), impractical (infrastructure limitations).
 Roaming capability is desired; e.g., maintaining connectivity from almost anywhere
inside a home or business
 Network access is desired outdoors; e.g., outside a home or office building.

Wireless LANs in the Office

An 802.11 network is the ideal solution for a network administrator in many respects. No longer is it
a requirement that every workstation and conference room be wired up to hubs and switches with
cables in hard-to-reach areas. Wireless networking allows for impromptu meetings in cafeterias,
hallways, courtyards or wherever inspiration strikes while providing real-time LAN connectivity for
business applications such as sending e-mail, working on spreadsheets on shared drives, and
conducting market research.

Wireless LANs in the Home

Wireless networking has become commonplace, and with prices reduced to a fraction of what they
were, it is no wonder that wireless networking products have transitioned from the office and into
the home. For the home user, a wireless network provides freedom in convenience and lifestyle to
exchange words, data, and music or video with any computer – across the Internet, or around the
world. Home users can create a wireless network out of an existing wired network and wirelessly
extend the reach of the Internet throughout the home on multiple computers, making it more
convenient for everyone to get online.

IEEE Wireless Networking

Specifications

The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) released the 802.11 specifications in June
1999. The initial specification, known as 802.11, used the 2.4 GHz frequency and supported a
maximum data rate of 1 to 2 Mbps. In late 1999, two new addenda were released. The 802.11b
specification increased the performance to 11 Mbps in the 2.4 GHz range while the 802.11a
specification utilized the 5 GHz range and supported up to 54 Mbps.

Unfortunately, the two new specifications were incompatible because they used different
frequencies. This means that 802.11a network interface cards (NICs) and access points cannot
communicate with 802.11b NICs and access points. This incompatibility forced the creation of the
new draft standard known as 802.11g. 802.11g supports up to 54 Mbps and is interoperable with
802.11b products on the market today. The concern is that the 802.11g specification is currently in
development and products will not be available until a later date.

802.11 Specifications

The 802.11 specifications were developed specifically for Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs)
by the IEEE and include four subsets of Ethernet-based protocol standards: 802.11, 802.11a,
802.11b, and 802.11g.

802.11

802.11 operated in the 2.4 GHz range and was the original specification of the 802.11 IEEE standard.
This specification delivered 1 to 2 Mbps using a technology known as phase-shift keying (PSK)
modulation. This specification is no longer used and has largely been replaced by other forms of the
802.11 standard.

802.11a

802.11a operates in the 5 - 6 GHz range with data rates commonly in the 6 Mbps, 12 Mbps, or 24
Mbps range. Because 802.11a uses the orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)
standard, data transfer rates can be as high as 54 Mbps. OFDM breaks up fast serial information
signals into several slower sub-signals that are transferred at the same time via different frequencies,
providing more resistance to radio frequency interference. The 802.11a specification is also known
as Wi-Fi5, and though regionally deployed, it is not a global standard like 802.11b.

802.11b

The 802.11b standard (also known as Wi-Fi) operates in the 2.4 GHz range with up to 11 Mbps data
rates and is backward compatible with the 802.11 standard. 802.11b uses a technology known as
complementary code keying (CCK) modulation, which allows for higher data rates with less chance
of multi-path propagation interference (duplicate signals bouncing off walls).

U.S. Robotics 22 Mbps 802.11b recent developments to 802.11b have seen numerous improvements
to this well-established and widely-deployed wireless standard. New U.S. Robotics 22 Mbps
products are designed to support Packet Binary Convolution Coding (PBCC) in addition to CCK
modulation. This not only increases performance but also maintains complete 802.11b compatibility
with both 11 Mbps and 22 Mbps products. The overall benefits include:

• Up to twice the data rate of conventional 11 Mbps 802.11b standard products

• Greater WLAN coverage: up to 70% greater than standard 11 Mbps 802.11b products.
• Full interoperability with all 802.11b products: works with 802.11b 11 Mbps, 802.11b 22
Mbps, and upcoming 802.11g products.
• Improved security over standard 802.11b: 256-bit WEP encryption and MAC address
authentications

802.11g

802.11g is the most recent IEEE 802.11 draft standard and operates in the 2.4 GHz range with data
rates as high as 54 Mbps over a limited distance. It is also backward compatible with 802.11b and
will work with both 11 and 22 Mbps U.S. Robotics wireless networking products. 802.11g offers the
best features of both 802.11a and 802.11b, but as of the publication date of this document, this
standard has not yet been certified, and therefore is unavailable. time via different frequencies,
providing more resistance to radio frequency interference. The 802.11a specification is also known
as Wi-Fi5, and though regionally deployed, it is not a global standard like 802.11b.

802.11b

The 802.11b standard (also known as Wi-Fi) operates in the 2.4 GHz range with up to11 Mbps
data rates and is backward compatible with the 802.11 standard. 802.11b uses a technology known
as complementary code keying (CCK) modulation, which allows for higher data rates with less
chance of multi-path propagation interference (duplicate signals bouncing off walls).

Recent developments to 802.11b have seen numerous improvements to this well-established and
widely-deployed wireless standard. New U.S. Robotics 22 Mbps products are designed to support
Packet Binary Convolution Coding (PBCC) in addition to CCK modulation. This not only increases
performance but also maintains complete 802.11b compatibility with both 11 Mbps and 22 Mbps
products. The overall benefits include.

• Up to twice the data rate of conventional 11 Mbps 802.11b standard products

• Greater WLAN coverage: up to 70% greater than standard 11 Mbps 802.11b products.
• Full interoperability with all 802.11b products: works with 802.11b 11 Mbps, 802.11b 22
Mbps, and upcoming 802.11g products.
• Improved security over standard 802.11b: 256-bit WEP encryption and MA.
• C address authentication.

802.11g

802.11g is the most recent IEEE 802.11 draft standard and operates in the 2.4 GHz range with data
rates as high as 54 Mbps over a limited distance. It is also backward compatible with 802.11b and
will work with both 11 and 22 Mbps U.S. Robotics wireless networking products. 802.11g offers the
best features of both 802.11a and 802.11b, but as of the publication date of this document, this
standard has
Not yet been certified, and therefore is unavailable.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) technology breaks down the transmitted stream of data into
small pieces across a frequency channel. A redundant bit pattern (known as a chipping code) is
generated for each bit transmitted. Generally, the longer the chipping code, the more likely it is that
the original transmitted data will be properly received. DSSS technology uses more bandwidth than
FHSS, but DSSS is considered more reliable and resists interference. Because of the chipping code,
data can still be recovered without retransmission of the signal, even in the case of damaged data
bits. U.S. Robotics wireless networking products utilize DSSS technology.

Wireless LAN Frequency Usage

The 802.11b standard defines 14 frequency channels for use with this technology. Depending on the
country a user lives in and where he or she will be installing a WLAN, there are certain
governmental restrictions for companies offering these products and consumers or businesses
deploying these products.

In North America, the FCC (Federal Communications Commission) and IC (Indust*ry Canada)
allow manufacturers and users to use channels 1 through 11, per ETSI approval (European
Telecommunications Standards Institute); most of Europe can use channels 1 through 13, while in
Japan, users have all 14 channels available.

Even though there are 14 channel frequencies available for use, it should be noted that the actual
channel frequency indicates the “center frequency” used by the transmitter and receiver for
communication. An 802.11b radio signal consumes approximately 30 MHz of frequency spectrum,
leaving a 5 MHz separation between center frequencies. This means that the signal extends out 15
MHz of the center frequency spectrum.
 CHAPTER-2

REVIEW

OF LITERATURE
HISTORY OF WIRELESS NETWORKING

The history of wireless networks and of wireless networking goes hand in hand. Without the
discovery of technology such as the radio, wireless technology would not exist at all today. The
history of wireless networking goes as far back as the 1800's with the advent of radio waves. The
advent of more technology grew throughout the years and expanded to what we communicated with
today.

In 1888, a Hamburg, Germany born physicist named Heinrich Rudolf Hertz produced his first radio
wave ever. By 1894 this radio wave production became a way of communication. Telegraph wires
were used to receive the radio waves in signal form. Hers opened the way for radio, television, and
radar with his discovery of electromagnetic waves. An Italian inventor named Marches Guglielmo
Marconi then expanded the radius of radio wave sending to two miles, becoming the "father of the
radio." By 1899, this form of telecommunication could travel pretty far for its time. Marconi could
send a signal 9 miles across the Bristol Channel. He eventually expanded the radius to 31 miles
across the English Channel to France. By 1901 the communication area became immense. Marconi
could send signals across the entire Atlantic Ocean.

World War II became a big stepping stone for the radio wave. The United States was the first party to
use radio waves for data transmission during the war. This use of radio waves could have quite
possibly won the war for the Americans. The use of radio wave data communication lead to a lot of
speculation to whether the radio signals could be expanded into something bigger than it currently
was. In 1971, a group of researchers under the lead of Norman Abramson, at the University of
Hawaii, created the first "packet-switched" radio communications network entitled "Aloha net."
Aloha net was the first wireless local area network, otherwise known as a WLAN. The first WLAN
was not much, but it was a large discovery. The Aloha net WLAN was comprised of seven computers
that communicated to each other. In 1972, Aloha net connected with the WLAN system Arpanet on
the mainland. This length of connect was ground breaking in telecommunications between
computers.

The first types of WLAN technology used an interface in which became over crowded for
communication. Small appliances and industrial machinery caused interference so the technology
had to be updated. The second type of WLAN technology to be released ended up being four times
faster than its predecessor at 2Mbps per second. We use the third format of WLAN today, though our
current WLAN system runs at the same speed as the second system released.
Sand receivers use specially shaped devices called antennas to focus the radio signal in a particular
direction, or pattern, and to increase the amount of effective radiation (from a transmitter) or
sensitivity (in a receiver).

By adjusting the rate at which alternating current flows from each trans- miter through the
antenna and out into space (the frequency), and by adjusting a receiver to operate only at that
frequency, it’s possible to send and receive many different signals, each at a different frequency, that
don’t interfere with one another. The overall range of frequencies is known as the radio spectrum. A
smaller segment of the radio spectrum is often called a band.

Radio frequencies and other AC signals are expressed as cycles per second, or hertz (Hz), named
for Heinrich Hertz, the first experimenter to send and receive radio waves. One cycle is the distance
from the peak of an AC signal to the peak of the next signal. Radio signals generally operate at
frequencies in thousands, millions, or billions of hertz (kilohertz or KHz, megahertz or MHz, and
gigahertz or GHz, respectively).

The simplest type of radio communication uses a continuous signal that the operator of the
transmitter interrupts to divide the signal into accepted patterns of long and short signals (dots and
dashes) that correspond to individual letters and other characters. The most widely used set of these
patterns was Morse code, named for the inventor of the telegraph, Samuel F.B. Morse, where this
code was first used.

In order to transmit speech, music, and other sounds via radio, the trans- miter alters, or
modulates, the AC signal (the carrier wave) by either mixing an audio signal with the carrier as
shown in Figure 2-2 (this is called amplitude modulation, or AM) or by modulating the frequency
within a narrow range as shown in Figure 2-3 (this is called frequency modulation, or FM). The AM
or FM receiver includes a complementary circuit that separates the carrier from the modulating
signal.
Individual letters and other characters. The most widely used set of these patterns was Morse code,
named for the inventor of the telegraph, Samuel F.B. Morse, where this code was first used.

Because two or more radio signals using the same frequency can often interfere with one another,
government regulators and international agencies, such as the International Telecommunication
Union (ITU), have reserved certain frequencies for specific types of modulation, and they issue
exclusive licenses to individual users. For example, an FM radio station might be licensed to operate
at 92.1 MHz at a certain geographical location. Nobody else is allowed to use that frequency in close
enough proximity to interfere with that signal. On the other hand, some radio services don’t require a
license. Most unlicensed services are either restricted to very short distances, to specific frequency
bands, or both.

Both ARE and FM are analog methods because the signal that comes out of the receiver is a replica
of the signal that went into the transmitter. When we send computer data through a radio link, it’s
digital because the content has been converted from text, computer code, sounds, images or other
info- motion into ones and zeroes before it is transmitted, and it is converted back to its original form
after it is received. Digital radio can use any of several different modulation methods: The ones and
zeroes can be two different audio tones, two different radio frequencies, timed interruptions to the
carrier, or some combination of those and other techniques.

Wireless Data Networks

Each type of wireless data network operates on a specific set of radio fare- quenches. For example,
most Wi-Fi networks operate in a special band of radio frequencies around 2.4 GHz that have been
reserved in most parts of the world for unlicensed point-to-point spread spectrum radio services.
Other Wi-Fi systems use a different unlicensed band around 5 GHz.

Unlicensed Radio Services

Unlicensed means that anybody using equipment that complies with the tech- nical requirements can
send and receive radio signals on these frequencies without a radio station license. Unlike most radio
services (including other broadband wireless services), which require licenses that grant exclusive
use of that frequency to a specific type of service and to one or more specific users, an unlicensed
service is a free-for-all where everybody has an equal claim to the same airwaves. In theory, the
technology of spread spectrum radio makes it possible for many users to co-exist (up to a point)
without significant interference.
Point-to-Point

A point-to-point radio service operates a communication channel that carries information from a
transmitter to a single receiver. The opposite of point-to- point is a broadcast service (such as a radio
or television station) that sends the same signal to many receivers at the same time.

Spread Spectrum

Spread spectrum is a family of methods for transmitting a single radio signal using a relatively wide
segment of the radio spectrum. Wireless Ethernet networks use several different spread spectrum
radio transmission systems, which are called frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), direct-
sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), and orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM). Some
older data networks use the slower FHSS system, but the first Wi-Fi networks used DSSS, and more
recent systems use OFDM. Table 2-1 lists each of the Wi-Fi standards and the type of spread
spectrum modulation they use.

Table 2-1: Wi-Fi Standards and Modulation Type

Wi-Fi Type Frequency Modulation

802.11a 5 GHz OFDM

802.11b 2.4 GHz DSSS
802.11g 2.4 GHz OFDM

Spread spectrum radio offers some important advantages over other types of radio signals that use a
single narrow channel. Spread spectrum is extremely efficient, so the radio transmitters can operate
with very low power. Because the signals operate on a relatively wide band of frequencies, they are
less sensitive to interference from other radio signals and electrical noise, which means they can
often get through in environments where a conventional narrow-band signal would be impossible to
receive and under- stand. And because a frequency-hopping spread spectrum signal shifts among
more than one channel, it can be extremely difficult for an unauthorized listener to intercept and
decode the contents of a signal.
Spread spectrum technology has an interesting history. It was invented by the actress Hendy
Lamar and the American avant-garde composer George Antheil as a “Secret Communication
System” for directing radio-controlled torpedoes that would not be vulnerable to enemy jamming.
Before she came to Hollywood, Lamar had been married to an arms merchant in Austria, where she
learned about the problems of torpedo guidance at dinner parties with her husband’s customers. Years
later, shortly before the United States entered World War II, she came up with the concept of
changing radio fre- quenches to cut through interference. The New York Times reported in 1941 that
her “red hot” invention (Figure 2-4) was vital to the national defense, but the government would not
reveal any details.

Figure 2-4: Hendy Lamar and George Antheil received this patent in 1942 for the invention that
became the foundation of spread spectrum radio communication. She is credited here under her
married name, H.K. Markey. The complete deco- meant is accessible at http://uspto.gov.

Antheil turned out to be the ideal person to make this idea work. His most famous composition was
an extravaganza called Ballet Technique, which was scored for sixteen player pianos, two airplane
propellers, four xylophones, four bass drums, and a siren. His design used the same kind of
mechanism that he had previously used to synchronize the player pianos to change radio frequencies
in a spread spectrum transmission. The original slotted paper tape system had 88 different radio
channels—one for each of the 88 keys on a piano.

In theory, the same method could be used for voice and data commune- action as well as guiding
torpedoes, but in the days of vacuum tubes, paper tape, and mechanical synchronization, the whole
process was too complicated to actually build and use. By 1962, solid-state electronics had replaced
the vacuum tubes and piano rolls, and the technology was used aboard US Navy ships for secure
communication during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Today, spread spectrum radios are used in the US
Air Force Space Command’s Minstar Satellite Communications System, in digital cellular
telephones, and in wireless data networks.

Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum

Lamar and Antheil’s original design for spread spectrum radio used a frequency-hopping system
(FHSS). As the name suggests, FHSS technology divides a radio signal into small segments and
“hops” from one frequency to another many times per second as it transmits those segments. The
transmitter and the receiver establish a synchronized hopping pattern that sets the sequence in which
they will use different sub channels.
FHSS systems overcome interference from other users by using a narrow carrier signal that
changes frequency many times per second. Additional transmitter and receiver pairs can use different
hopping patterns on the same set of sub channels at the same time. At any point in time, each
transmission is probably using a different sub channel, so there’s no interference between signals.
When a conflict does occur, the system resends the same packet until the receiver gets a clean copy
and sends a confirmation back to the transmitting station.

For some older 802.11 wireless data services, the unlicensed 2.4 MHz band is split into 75 sub
channels, each of them 1 MHz wide. Because each frequency hop adds overhead to the data stream,
FHSS transmissions are relatively slow.

Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum

The direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) technology that controls 802.11b networks uses an 11-
chip Barker Sequence to spread the radio signal through a single 22 MHz–wide channel without
changing frequencies. Each DSSS link uses just one channel without any hopping between
frequencies. As Figure 2-5 shows, a DSSS transmission uses more bandwidth, but less power than a
conventional signal. The digital signal on the left is a conventional transmission in which the power
is concentrated within a tight bandwidth. The DSSS signal on the right uses the same amount of
power, but it spreads that power across a wider band of radio frequencies. Obviously, the 22 MHz
DSSS channel is a lot wider than the 1 MHz channels used in FHSS systems.
A DSSS transmitter breaks each bit in the original data stream into a series of redundant bit
patterns called chips, and it transmits them to a receiver that reassembles the chips back into a data
stream that is identical to the original. Because most interference is likely to occupy a narrower
bandwidth than a DSSS signal, and because each bit is divided into several chips, the receiver can
usually identify noise and reject it before it decodes the signal.
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) modulation, used in 802.11a Wi-Fi networks,
is considerably more complicated than DSSS technology. The physical layer splits the data stream
among 52 parallel bit streams that each use a different radio frequency called a subcarrier. Four of
these sub- carriers carry pilot data that provides reference information about the remaining 48
subcarriers, in order to reduce signal loss due to radio inter- ferrous or phase shift. Because the data
is divided into 48 separate streams that move through separate subcarriers in parallel, the total
transmission speed is much greater than the speed of data through a single channel.

The subcarrier frequencies in an OFDM signal overlap with the peak of each subcarrier’s
waveform match- in the baseline of the overlapping signals as shown in this is called orthogonal
frequency division. The 802.11a standard specifies a total of eight data channels that are 20 MHz
wide. Each of these channels is divided into 52 300 kHz subcarriers.

When a Wi-Fi radio receiver detects an 802.11a signal, it assembles the parallel bit streams back
into a single high-speed data stream and uses the pilot data to check its accuracy. Under ideal
conditions, an 802.11a network can move data at 54Mbps, but like DSSS modulation, the OFDM
transmitter and receiver automatically reduce the data speed when the maximum trans- mission rate
is not possible due to interference, weak signals, or other less- than-perfect atmospheric conditions.

The more recent 802.11g specification was designed to combine the best features of both
802.11b (greater signal range) and 802.11a (higher speed). To accomplish this objective, it uses
OFDM modulation on the 2.4 GHz fre- quench band.

Why This Matters

The great science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke once observed that “Any sufficiently advanced
technology is indistinguishable from magic.” For most of us, the technology that controls high-speed
spread spectrum radio could just as easily be a form of magic, because we don’t need to understand
the things that happen inside a transmitter and a receiver; they’re just about invisible when we
connect a computer to the Internet. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, you don’t need to understand
these technical details about how a Wi-Fi transmitter splits your data into tiny pieces and reassembles
them into data unless you’re a radio circuit designer.

But when you know that there’s a well-defined set of rules and methods that make the
connection work (even if you don’t know all the details), you are in control. You know that it’s not
magic, and if you think about it, you might also know some of the right questions to ask when the
system doesn’t work correctly. If knowledge is power, then knowledge about the technology you use
every day is the power to control that technology rather than just use it.

Wireless Data Services

Because radio signals move through the air, you can set up a network connect- tion from any place
within range of the network base station’s transmitter; it’s not necessary to use a telephone line,
television cable, or some other dedicated wiring to connect your computer to the network. Just turn
on the radio connected to the computer and it will find the network signal. There- fore, a radio (or
wireless) network connection is often a lot more convenient than a wired one.

This is not to say that wireless is always the best choice. A wired network is usually more secure
than a wireless system because it’s a lot more difficult for unauthorized eavesdroppers and other
snoops to monitor data as it moves through the network, and a wired link doesn’t require as many
complex negotiations between the sender and receiver on protocols and so forth. In an environment
where your computer never moves away from your desk and there are no physical obstacles between
the computer and the network access point, it’s often easier to install a data cable between the
computer and a modem. So now we have a bunch of radio transmitters and receivers that all operate
on the same frequencies and all use the same kind of modulation. (Modulation is the method a radio
uses to add some kind of content, such as voice or digital data, to a radio wave.) The next step is to
send some network data through those radios. Several different wireless data systems and services
are available to connect computers and other devices to local networks and to the Internet, including
Wi-Fi, WiMAX, and a handful of services based on the latest generations of cellular mobile
telephone technology.

Wi-Fi

The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) has produced a set of standards and
specifications for wireless networks under the title IEEE 802.11 that define the formats and structures
of the relatively short-range signals that provide Wi-Fi service. The original 802.11 standard (without
any letter at the end) was released in 1997. It covers several types of wireless media: two kinds of
radio transmissions and networks that use infrared light.

There are two more names in the alphabet soup of wireless LAN standards that you ought to
know about: WECA and Wi-Fi. WECA (Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance) is an industry
group that includes all of the major manufacturers of wireless Ethernet equipment. Their twin
missions are to test and certify that the wireless network devices from all of their member companies
can operate together in the same network, and to promote 802.11 networks as the worldwide standard
for wireless LANs. WECA’s marketing geniuses have adopted the more friendly name of Wi-Fi
(short for wireless fidelity) for the 802.11 specifications.
Once or twice per year, the Wi-Fi Alliance conducts an “interoperability bake-off” where
engineers from many hardware manufacturers confirm that their hardware will communicate
correctly with equipment from other suppliers. Network equipment that carries a Wi-Fi logo has been
certified by the Wi-Fi Alliance to meet the relevant standards and to pass inter- operability tests.
Figure 2-7 shows one version of the Wi-Fi logo.

Wi-Fi was originally intended to be a wireless extension of a wired LAN, so

the distances between Wi-Fi base stations and the computers that
communicate through them are limited to about 100 feet (35 meters) indoors or up to 300 feet (100
meters) outdoors, assuming there are no obstructions between the access point and the computer.
When 802.11n equipment becomes available, it will sup-
Port connections between computers and base Figure 2-7: A Wi-Fi logo stations at least as far apart as
the older Wi-Fi versions. There are ways to extend the range of a Wi-Fi signal, but those techniques
require special equipment and careful installation.

Because most Wi-Fi signals have such a limited range, you must find a new access point, or hot
spot, and set up a new connection every time you move your computer to a new location. And
because many Wi-Fi access points don’t permit strangers to connect through them, you may have to
establish a separate account for each location.
The Wi-Fi networks described in this book follow the 802.11a, b, and g standards, but much of
the same information will also apply to the new 802.11n networks when they become available.

Metropolitan Wi-Fi Services

In some metropolitan areas, a large number of interconnected Wi-Fi base stations are being installed
by either local government agencies or private businesses to provide wireless service throughout an
entire region or in selected neighborhoods as an economical alternative to cable and telephone (DSL)
services. The base stations for these services are often mounted on utility poles or rooftops.
 These same networks might also provide a variety of special data services to the local
government and major subscribers. For example, the local natural gas, electric, and water utilities
could add small Wi-Fi adapters to their meters and use the system to send readings once a month.
And city buses might have transponders that report their locations to a central tracking system, like
the one in Seattle at http://busview.org/busview_launch.jsp, as shown in Figure 2-8.

It’s not yet clear whether these city-wide Wi-Fi services will be able to overcome possible
interference problems and competition from other wireless data alternatives, or whether they will
attract enough business to remain viable. But if they do, any computer within the coverage area that
has a Wi-Fi adapter should detect the signal and have access to a broadband Internet connection.

Figure 2-8: Wireless technology tracks city buses in Seattle and reports locations on a website.

Cellular Mobile Wireless Services

Several broadband wireless data services are extensions of cellular mobile telephone technology. You
might see them described as 3G services because they’re based on the third generation of cellular
telephone technology. If you have been using a mobile telephone for more than a year or two, you
probably remember that the earliest phones were only good for voice calls, but as each new
generation was introduced, your mobile carrier offered more and better features. Table 2-2 describes
the various generations.
For people who use their computers away from their home or office, the great advantage of a
mobile broadband service is that it covers a much wider territory than any Wi-Fi base station; you
can connect your computer to the Internet without the need to search for a new hot spot and use a
different access account in each new location, and you can even keep the same connec- tion alive in a
moving vehicle. Each of the major wireless broadband services offers coverage in most metropolitan
areas and much of the countryside between cities.

Table 2-2: Cellular Mobile Telephone Generations

Name Features

1G Analog voice communication only

2G System can handle more calls

Digital voice
Uses less power
Less background noise
Digital data
Simple text messages
Email

2.5G Packet-switched signaling

Faster data transfer (up to 144Kbps)
Supports relatively slow Internet connections

3G Even more calls at the same time

Much faster data transfer rates (up to 2.4Mbps)
Broadband Internet
Video and music

4G (not yet available) Based on Internet technology

Packet signaling

Very high speed (100Mbps–1Gbps)will combine telephone, computer, and other technologies Of
course, computer technology has also been improving at the same time, so today’s 2.5G and 3G
mobile telephones often incorporate enough computing power to allow them to double as pocket-size
Internet terminals (as well as cameras and media players). And equally important, from the
perspective of this book, broadband data adapters that use 2.5G and 3G technology can attach to a
laptop or other portable computer and provide a direct wireless connection to the Internet through the
same cellular telephone company that offers mobile telephone service.

Today, most cellular broadband wireless services offer credit card–size adapters that connect to your
computer through the PC Card socket on the side of a laptop or into the front or back panel of a
desktop computer. In another year or two, many new laptops will come with internal adapters and
integrated antennas for both Wi-Fi and 3G wireless or WiMAX that mount directly on the
motherboard, just as they contain internal Wi-Fi adapters and dial-up modems today.
NOTE: Some cellular service providers also offer mobile telephones that can connect a computer to
the Internet through a USB cable linked to the phone, but separate PC Card adapters are a lot more
convenient and easy to use.

WiMAX

Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) is yet another method for distributing
broadband wireless data over wide geographic areas. It’s a metropolitan area network service that
typically uses one or more base stations that can each provide service to users within a 30-mile
radius. The IEEE 802.16 specification contains the technical details of WiMAX networks.

In the United States, the earliest WiMAX services were offered by Clear wire as a wireless
alternative to DSL and cable broadband Internet access in fixed locations (such as homes and
businesses), but mobile WiMAX access is not far behind. By early 2008, Clear wire plans to offer
access to their wireless networks through an adapter on a PC Card. When those adapters become
available, WiMAX, 3G cellular data services, and metropolitan Wi-Fi networks will compete for the
same commercial niche: wireless access to the Internet through a service that covers an entire metro-
polite area. Each WiMAX service provider uses one or more licensed operating fre- quencies
somewhere between 2 GHz and 11 GHz. A WiMAX link can transfer data (including handshaking
and other overhead) at up to 70Mbps, but most commercial WiMAX services are significantly slower
than that. And as more and more users share a single WiMAX tower and base station, some users
report that their signal quality deteriorates.
 Unlike the cellular broadband wireless data services that piggyback on existing mobile
telephone networks, WiMAX is a separate radio system that is designed to either supplement or
replace the existing broadband Internet distribution systems. In practice, WiMAX competes with
both 3G wireless services and with Internet service providers that distribute Internet access to fixed
locations through telephone lines and cable television utilities. Home and business subscribers to a
WiMAX service usually use either a wired LAN or Wi-Fi to distribute the network within their
buildings. Figure 2-9 shows a typical WiMAX network.
 CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH
METHODOLGY
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Introduction

It is a process of planning acquiring and analyzing relevant data and information. It can define
research as an organized, systematic data base critical objective scientific problem undertaken with a
purpose of finding answer to it.
Research is a way of assimilating a great amount of knowledge, events, information, all happening
around us all the time .This helps in gaining new knowledge. It moves a man from known to the
unknown .while on the Jenney of research man keeps discovering new knowledge. Through this new
knowledge It create principles and laws which govern It behavior and decisions later on .principles
of research are generic in nature and can be applied in any branch of knowledge gets strengthened
and modernized because of the quantity and quality of research which the people concerned with it
keep doing .people assimilate this as a vast flowing river of knowledge and draw important elixir
(cure) out of it and store it in the form of their conclusions and principles. Research can be one of the
most interesting features of any degree cease as it offers you a measure of control and autonomy over
what you learn. It gives you an opportunity to confirm, clarify, pursue – or even discover – new
aspects of a subject or topic you are interested in. It is a process of enquiry and investigation; it is
systematic, methodical and .ethical; research can help solve practical problems and increase
knowledge Research is one of many different ways of knowing or understanding. It is different from
other ways of knowing, such as insight, divine inspiration, and acceptance of authoritative dictates,
in that it is a process of systematic inquiry that is designed to collect, analyze, interpret, and use data.
Research is conducted for a variety of reasons, including to understand, describe, predict, or control
an educational or psychological phenomenon or to empower individuals in such contexts .The exact
nature of the definition of research is influenced by the researcher’s theoretical framework and by the
importance that the researcher places on distinguishing research from other activities or different
types of research from each other. For example, many students go to the Internet or the library and
look up facts from a variety of sources and say that they are doing a research paper.
Some jwenalists follow a similar search strategy and often include interviews with people close to
the action that is the focus of a news report. The focus of this text is not on that type of “research.”
Rather, this text focuses on empirical research that is characterized as building on existing
knowledge about a phenomenon.

A research methodology defines the purpose of the research how it proceeds, how to
measure progress and what constitute success with respect to the objective determine for
carrying out the research study Research can be understood by breaking it up into various
component:
 Defining and redefining problems

 Formulating hypothesis

 Suggesting solutions

 Collecting organizing and evaluating data

 Making deductions and reaching conclusions

DEFINITION
According to Clifford Woddy ,”Research comprises defining and redefining problems formulating
hypothesis collecting organizing and evaluating data making deduction and reaching conclusion.
Objective of study
The objectives of present study are:
1. To understand the evolution of wireless networking.
2. To describe the conceptual framework of wireless networking in India.
3. To analyze the present trends of wireless networking in India.
4. To examine the barriers of wireless networking in India.
5. To predict the future of wireless networking.

Scope of study

1. This study comprises of in-depth coverage of History wireless networking, Evolution

of wireless networking technology through various generations.
2. This study is limited to the extent that it is only related to the study of history of
wireless networking, evolution of wireless networking through various generations.
3. This study does not focus on the wide spectrum impact of wireless networking which
it has on our social lives and businesses. There is no doubt in saying that technology is
changing our view of living but side by side it has some side effects or we can say bad effects
especially on our children and society and it can’t be neglected.
DATA COLLECTION
The various types of research designs which are used in collection of data are:

1. Exploratory Research
Design- Exploratory research is an important part of any marketing or business strategy. Its focus
is on the discovery of ideas and insights as opposed to collecting statistically accurate data. That
is why exploratory research is best suited as the beginning of your total research plan. It is most
commonly used for further defining company issues, areas for potential growth, and alternative
courses of action, and prioritizing areas that require statistical research.

2. Descriptive Research Design- Descriptive research takes up the bulk of online surveying
and is considered conclusive in nature due to its quantitative nature. Unlike exploratory research,
descriptive research is preplanned and structured in design so the information collected can be
statistically inferred on a population. The main idea behind using this type of research is to better
define an opinion, attitude, or behavior held by a group of people on a given subject

3. Casual Research Design-

Causal research is quantitative in nature as well as preplanned and structured in design. For this
reason, it is also considered conclusive research. Causal research differs in its attempt to explain
the cause and effect relationship between variables. This is opposed to the observational style of
descriptive research, because it attempts to decipher whether a relationship is causal through
experimentation

This is an Exploratory Study

The type of research design which is used in this study is exploratory research design depending on
the source, statistical data are classified under two categories:

Primary Data: Primary data are obtained by a study specifically designed to fulfill the data needs of
the problem at hand. Such data are original in character and are generated in large no. of survey
conducted with a sample.

 Surveys/polls: Surveys/polls are used to gather information from a predefined group of

respondents. It is one of the most important quantitative method. Various types of surveys
or polls can be used to explore opinions, trends, etc. With the advancement in technology,
surveys can now be sent online and can be very easy to access. For instance, use of a survey
app through tablets, laptops or even mobile phones. This information is also available to the
researcher in real time as well.
  Interviews: While you may get a lot of information from public sources, but sometimes an in
person interview can give in-depth information on the subject being studied. Such a research is
a qualitative research method. An interview with a subject matter expert can give you meaningful
insights that a generalized public source won’t be able to provide. Interviews are carried out in
person or on telephone which have open-ended questions to get meaningful information about
the topic.
 Focus groups: Focus group is yet another widely used method in exploratory research. In
such a method a group of people is chosen and are allowed to express their insights on the topic
that is being studied. Although, it is important to make sure that while choosing the individuals in
a focus group they should have a common background and have comparable experiences.
 Observations: Observation research can be qualitative observation or quantitative
observation. Such a research is done to observe a person and draw the finding from their reaction
to certain parameters. In such a research, there is no direct interaction with the subject.

Secondary Data: These data are not originally collected but rather obtained from published or
unpublished source
The source of data collection is Secondary Data.

The various sources which I used for collecting data for this study involve:

 Online research: In today’s world, this is one of the fastest way to gather information on any
topic. A lot of data is readily available on the internet and the researcher can download it
whenever he needs it. An important aspect to be noted for such a research is the genuineness and
authenticity of the source websites that the researcher is gathering the information from.
 Literature research: Literature research is one of the most inexpensive method used for
discovering a hypothesis. There is tremendous amount of information available in libraries,
online sources, or even commercial databases. Sources can include newspapers, magazines,
books from library, documents from government agencies, specific topic related articles,
literature, Annual reports, published statistics from research organisations and so on.
 Case study research: Case study research can help a researcher with finding more
information through carefully analyzing existing cases which have gone through a similar
problem. Such analysis are very important and critical especially in today’s business world. The
researcher just needs to make sure he analyses the case carefully in regards to all
the variables present in the previous case against his own case. It is very commonly used by
business organisations or social sciences sector or even in the health sector.
These sources really help me a lot in gathering and collecting knowledge about wireless networking
which helped me in completing my project on the topic evolution of wireless networking
successfully.

Limitations of the study

 This study is not so vast because of lack of time.

 In this study the data is not real because it is collected from the secondary sources.

 All the data is Qualitative so the quality of the data is not so good.

 It is one sided study only which involves basically how wireless networking emerge
and developed.

 This study does not focus on the impact of wireless networking on the society.
 CHAPTER-4

DATA ANALYSIS

&

INTERPRETATIONS
DATA ANALYSIS & INTERPRETATIONS

Wireless networking

A wireless network is any type of computer network that uses wireless data connections for
connecting network nodes.

Wireless networking is a method by which homes, telecommunications networks and enterprise

(business) installations avoid the costly process of introducing cables into a building, or as a
connection between various equipment locations. Wireless telecommunications networks are
generally implemented and administered using radio communication. This implementation takes
place at the physical level (layer) of the OSI model network structure.

Examples of wireless networks include cell phone networks, Wi-Fi local networks and terrestrial
microwave networks.
Computers are very often connected to networks using wireless links

 Terrestrial microwave – Terrestrial microwave communication uses Earth-based

transmitters and receivers resembling satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves are in the low
gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Relay stations are spaced
approximately 48 km (30 mi) apart.

 Communications satellites – Satellites communicate via microwave radio waves,

which are not deflected by the Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space,
typically in geosynchronous orbit 35,400 km (22,000 mi) above the equator. These Earth-
orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals.

 Cellular and PCS systems use several radio communications technologies. The
systems divide the region covered into multiple geographic areas. Each area has a low-power
transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next area.

 Radio and spread spectrum technologies – Wireless local area networks use a high-
frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular and a low-frequency radio technology.
Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable communication between multiple
devices in a limited area. IEEE 802.11 defines a common flavor of open-standards wireless
radio-wave technology known as Wifi.

 Free-space optical communication uses visible or invisible light for communications.

In most cases, line-of-sight propagation is used, which limits the physical positioning of
communicating devices.
 Wireless links

Types of wireless networks

Wireless PAN

Wireless personal area networks (WPANs) interconnect devices within a relatively small area, that is
generally within a person's reach. For example, both Bluetooth radio and invisible infrared light
provides a WPAN for interconnecting a headset to a laptop. ZigBee also supports WPAN
applications. Wi-Fi PANs are becoming commonplace (2010) as equipment designers start to
integrate Wi-Fi into a variety of consumer electronic devices. Intel "My WiFi" and Windows 7
"virtual Wi-Fi" capabilities have made Wi-Fi PANs simpler and easier to set up and configure.

Wireless LAN

A wireless local area network (WLAN) links two or more devices over a short distance using a
wireless distribution method, usually providing a connection through an access point for internet
access. The use of spread-spectrum or OFDM technologies may allow users to move around within a
local coverage area, and still remain connected to the network.
Products using the IEEE 802.11 WLAN standards are marketed under the Wi-Fi brand name. Fixed
wireless technology implements point-to-point links between computers or networks at two distant
locations, often using dedicated microwave or modulated laser light beams over line of sight paths. It
is often used in cities to connect networks in two or more buildings without installing a wired link

Wireless LAN.

Wireless LANs are often used for connecting to local resources and to the Internet

Wireless mesh network

A wireless mesh network is a wireless network made up of radio nodes organized in a mesh
topology. Each node forwards messages on behalf of the other nodes. Mesh networks can "self-heal",
automatically re-routing around a node that has lost power.

Wireless MAN

Wireless metropolitan area networks are a type of wireless network that connects several wireless
LANs.

WiMAX is a type of Wireless MAN and is described by the IEEE 802.16 standard.

Wireless WAN

Wireless wide area networks are wireless networks that typically cover large areas, such as between
neighbouring towns and cities, or city and suburb. These networks can be used to connect branch
offices of business or as a public internet access system. The wireless connections between access
points are usually point to point microwave links using parabolic dishes on the 2.4 GHz band, rather
than omnidirectional antennas used with smaller networks. A typical system contains base station
gateways, access points and wireless bridging relays. Other configurations are mesh systems where
each access point acts as a relay also. When combined with renewable energy systems such as
photovoltaic solar panels or wind systems they can be stand alone systems.

Global area network

A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile across an arbitrary number of
wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing
off user communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves
a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs.Downlink speeds of high-end BGAN terminals are up to
492 kbit/s and upload speeds are also up to 492 kbit/s - Best Effort as BGAN Background IP (BIP) is
a contended (shared) channel. As with all geosynchronous satellite connections, latency is an issue.
Common latency is 1–1.5 seconds round trip for the Background IP service. It is slightly better for
the Streaming services at 800 ms – 1 second. This latency is mainly due to the great distance that has
to be traveled before a packet can reach the Internet, but is slightly exacerbated by the back-end
technology as normal latency over a Very small aperture terminal (VSAT) system is roughly 550ms.
BGAN users frequently use PEP software or other TCP packet accelerators to improve performance.

BGAN terminals are made by multiple manufacturers. They all have similar capabilities. The main
two that apply to basic BGAN usage are the Standard Background IP (Internet) and Telephone Voice.
Data costs from the many ISPs that offer BGAN service averages about US$7.50 per Background
Megabyte. Voice calling is on average US$1 per min and varies slightly based on the destination of
the call (Land lines, Cell phones, other Satellite phones which are the most expensive).

BGAN is currently the fastest global data link available via a portable terminal. It can be easily set
up by anyone, and has excellent voice calling quality. It works on the L band, avoiding rain fade and
other issues of traditional larger satellite systems.

Space network

Space networks are networks used for communication between spacecraft, usually in the vicinity of
the Earth. The example of this is NASA's Space Network.

Different uses

Some examples of usage include cellular phones which are part of everyday wireless networks,
allowing easy personal communications. Another example, Intercontinental network systems, use
radio satellites to communicate across the world. Emergency services such as the police utilize
wireless networks to communicate effectively as well. Individuals and businesses use wireless
networks to send and share data rapidly, whether it be in a small office building or across the world.

Properties

General

In a general sense, wireless networks offer a vast variety of uses by both business and home users.

"Now, the industry accepts a handful of different wireless technologies. Each wireless technology is
defined by a standard that describes unique functions at both the Physical and the Data Link layers of
the OSI model. These standards differ in their specified signaling methods, geographic ranges, and
frequency usages, among other things. Such differences can make certain technologies better suited
to home networks and others better suited to network larger organizations."

Performance

Each standard varies in geographical range, thus making one standard more ideal than the next
depending on what it is one is trying to accomplish with a wireless network. The performance of
wireless networks satisfies a variety of applications such as voice and video. The use of this
technology also gives room for expansions, such as from 2G to 3G and, most recently, 4G
technology, which stands for the fourth generation of cell phone mobile communications standards.
As wireless networking has become commonplace, sophistication increases through configuration of
network hardware and software, and greater capacity to send and receive larger amounts of data,
faster, is achieved.

Space

Space is another characteristic of wireless networking. Wireless networks offer many advantages
when it comes to difficult-to-wire areas trying to communicate such as across a street or river, a
warehouse on the other side of the premises or buildings that are physically separated but operate as
one. Wireless networks allow for users to designate a certain space which the network will be able to
communicate with other devices through that network. Space is also created in homes as a result of
eliminating clutters of wiring. This technology allows for an alternative to installing physical
network mediums such as TPs, coaxes, or fiber-optics, which can also be expensive.

Home

For homeowners, wireless technology is an effective option compared to ethernet for sharing
printers, scanners, and high-speed internet connections. WLANs help save the cost of installation of
cable mediums, save time from physical installation, and also creates mobility for devices connected
to the network. Wireless networks are simple and require as few as one single wireless access point
connected directly to the Internet via a router.

Wireless Network Elements

The telecommunications network at the physical layer also consists of many interconnected wireline
Network Elements (NEs). These NEs can be stand-alone systems or products that are either supplied
by a single manufacturer or are assembled by the service provider (user) or system integrator with
parts from several different manufacturers.

Wireless NEs are the products and devices used by a wireless carrier to provide support for the
backhaul network as well as a Mobile Switching Center (MSC).

Reliable wireless service depends on the network elements at the physical layer to be protected
against all operational environments and applications (see GR-3171, Generic Requirements for
Network Elements Used in Wireless Networks – Physical Layer Criteria).
What are especially important are the NEs that are located on the cell tower to the Base Station (BS)
cabinet. The attachment hardware and the positioning of the antenna and associated closures/cables
are required to have adequate strength, robustness, corrosion resistance, and rain/solar resistance for
expected wind, storm, ice, and other weather conditions. Requirements for individual components,
such as hardware, cables, connectors, and closures, shall take into consideration the structure to
which they are attached.

Difficulties

Interferences

Compared to wired systems, wireless networks are frequently subject to electromagnetic

interference. This can be caused by other networks or other types of equipment that generate radio
waves that are within, or close, to the radio bands used for communication. Interference can degrade
the signal or cause the system to fail.

Absorption and reflection

Some materials cause absorption of electromagnetic waves, preventing it from reaching the receiver,
in other cases, particularly with metallic or conductive materials reflection occurs. This can cause
dead zones where no reception is available. Aluminium foiled thermal isolation in modern homes can
easily reduce indoor mobile signals by 10 dB frequently leading to complaints about the bad
reception of long-distance rural cell signals.

Multipath fading

In multipath fading two or more different routes taken by the signal,due to reflections, can cause the
signal to cancel out at certain locations, and to be stronger in other places (up fade).

Hidden node problem

The hidden node problem occurs in some types of network when a node is visible from a wireless
access point (AP), but not from other nodes communicating with that AP. This leads to difficulties in
media access control.

Shared resource problem

The wireless spectrum is a limited resource and shared by all nodes in the range of its transmitters.
Bandwidth allocation becomes complex with multiple participating users. Often users are not aware
that advertised numbers (e.g., for IEEE 802.11 equipment or LTE networks) are not their capacity,
but shared with all other users and thus the individual user rate is far lower. With increasing demand,
the capacity crunch is more and more likely to happen. User-in-the-loop (UIL) may be an alternative
solution to ever upgrading to newer technologies for over-provisioning.

Capacity

Channel

Understanding of SISO, SIMO, MISO and MIMO. Using multiple antennas and transmitting in
different frequency channels can reduce fading, and can greatly increase the system capacity.

Shannon's theorem can describe the maximum data rate of any single wireless link, which relates to
the bandwidth in hertz and to the noise on the channel.

One can greatly increase channel capacity by using MIMO techniques, where multiple aerials and/or
multiple frequencies can exploit multiple paths to the receiver to achieve much higher throughput –
by a factor of the product of the frequency and aerial diversity at each end.
Under Linux, the Central Regulatory Domain Agent (CRDA) controls the setting of channels.

Network

The total network bandwidth depends on how dispersive the medium is (more dispersive medium
generally has better total bandwidth because it minimises interference), how many frequencies are
available, how noisy those frequencies are, how many aerials are used and whether a directional
antenna is in use, whether nodes employ power control and so on.

Cellular wireless networks generally have good capacity, due to their use of directional aerials, and
their ability to reuse radio channels in non-adjacent cells. Additionally, cells can be made very small
using low power transmitters this is used in cities to give network capacity that scales linearly with
population density.

Wireless community networks

Wireless community networks or wireless community projects are the organizations that attempt to
take a grassroots approach to providing a viable alternative to municipal wireless networks for
consumers.

Because of evolving technology and locales, there are at least four different types of solution:

 Cluster: Advocacy groups which simply encourage sharing of unmetered internet

bandwidth via Wi-Fi, may also index nodes, suggest uniform SSID (for low-quality roaming),
supply equipment, DNS services, etc.

 Mesh: Technology groups which coordinate building a mesh network to provide Wi-Fi
access to the internet.

WISP: A mesh that forwards all traffic back to consolidated link aggregation point(s) that
have centralized access to the internet

 WUG: A wireless user group run by wireless enthusiasts. An open network not used
for the reselling of internet. Running a combination of various off the shelf WIFI hardware
running in the license free ISM bands 2.4 GHz/5.8 GHz

Certain countries regulate the selling of internet access, requiring a license to sell internet access over
a wireless network. In South Africa it is regulated by the Independent Communications Authority of
South Africa (ICASA). They require that WISP's apply for a VANS or ECNS/ECS license before
being allowed to resell internet access over a wireless link.

The cluster and mesh approaches are more common but rely primarily on the sharing of unmetered
residential and business DSL and cable Internet. This sort of usage might be non-compliant with the
Terms of Service (ToS) of the typical local providers that deliver their service via the consumer
phone and cable duopoly. Wireless community network sometimes advocate complete freedom from
censorship, and this position may be at odds with the Acceptable Use Policies of some commercial
services used. Some ISPs do allow sharing or reselling of bandwidth.
These projects are in many senses an evolution of amateur radio, and more specifically packet radio,
as well as an outgrowth of the free software community (which in itself substantially overlaps with
amateur radio). The key to using standard wireless networking devices designed for short-range use
for multi-kilometre Long Range Wi-Fi linkups is the use of high-gain directional antennas. Rather
than purchasing commercially available units, such groups sometimes advocate homebuilt antenna
construction. Examples include the cantenna, which is typically constructed from a Pringles potato
chip can, and RONJA, an optical link that can be made from a smoke flue and LEDs, with circuitry
and instructions released under the GFDL. As with other wireless mesh networks, three distinct
generations of mesh networks are used in wireless community networks. In particular, in the 2004
timeframe, some mesh projects suffered poor performance when scaled up.

Organization

Organizationally, a wireless community network requires either a set of affordable commercial

technical solutions or a critical mass of hobbyists willing to tinker to maintain operations. Mesh
networks require that a high level of community participation and commitment be maintained for the
network to be viable. The mesh approach currently requires uniform equipment. One market-driven
aspect of the mesh approach is that users who receive a weak mesh signal can often convert it to a
strong signal by obtaining and operating a repeater node, thus extending the mesh network.

Such volunteer organizations focusing in technology that is rapidly advancing sometimes have
schisms and mergers. The Wi-Fi service provided by such groups is usually free and without the
stigma of piggybacking. An alternative to the voluntary model is to use a co-operative structure.

Wireless site survey

A wireless site survey, sometimes called an RF site survey or wireless survey, is the process of
planning and designing a wireless network, to provide a wireless solution that will deliver the
required wireless coverage, data rates, network capacity, roaming capability and Quality of Service
(QoS). The survey usually involves a site visit to test for RF interference, and to identify optimum
installation locations for access points. This requires analysis of building floor plans, inspection of
the facility, and use of site survey tools. Interviews with IT management and the end users of the
wireless network are also important to determine the design parameters for the wireless network.
As part of the wireless site survey, the effective range boundary is set, which defines the area over
which signal levels needed support the intended application. This involves determining the minimum
signal to noise ratio (SNR) needed to support performance requirements.

Wireless site survey can also mean the walk-testing, auditing, analysis or diagnosis of an existing
wireless network, particularly one which is not providing the level of service required.

Wireless site survey process

Wireless site surveys are typically conducted using computer software that collects and analyses
WLAN metrics and/or RF spectrum characteristics. Before a survey, a floor plan or site map is
imported into a site survey application and calibrated to set scale. During a survey, a surveyor walks
the facility with a portable computer that continuously records the data. The surveyor either marks
the current position on the floor plan manually, by clicking on the floor plan, or uses a GPS receiver
that automatically marks the current position if the survey is conducted outdoors. After a survey, data
analysis is performed and survey results are documented in site survey reports generated by the
application.

All these data collection, analysis, and visualization tasks are highly automated in modern software.
In the past, however, these tasks required manual data recording and processing

Types of wireless site surveys

There are three main types of wireless site surveys: passive, active, and predictive.
During a passive survey, a site survey application passively listens to WLAN traffic to detect active
access points, measure signal strength and noise level. However, the wireless adapter being used for
a survey is not associated to any WLANs. For system design purposes, one or more temporary access
points are deployed to identify and qualify access point locations. This used to be the most common
method of pre-deployment wifi survey.

During an active survey, the wireless adapter is associated with one or several access points to
measure round-trip time, throughput rates, packet loss, and retransmissions. Active surveys are used
to troubleshoot wifi networks or to verify performance post-deployment.

During a predictive survey, a model of the RF environment is created using simulation tools. It is
essential that the correct information on the environment is entered into the RF modeling tool,
including location and RF characteristics of barriers like walls or large objects. Therefore, temporary
access points or signal sources can be used to gather information on propagation in the environment.
Virtual access points are then placed on the floor plan to estimate expected coverage and adjust their
number and location. The value of a predictive survey as a design tool versus a passive survey done
with only a few access point is that modeled interference can be taken into account in the design.

Additionally, some survey application allow the user to collect RF spectrum data using portable
hardware spectrum analyzers, which is beneficial in case of high RF interference from non-802.11
sources, such as microwave ovens or cordless phones

Site survey software and hardware

Depending on the survey type, a number of software and software/hardware options are available to
WLAN surveyors.

Software

Passive and active surveys are performed using software and typically require only a compatible off-
the-shelf Wi-Fi adapter; no additional specialized hardware is required. Predictive surveys require no
hardware at all, as no wireless data collection is needed. Currently, professional-level site survey
supplications exist primarily for Microsoft Windows. Some site survey applications for other
platforms, including iOS and Android, also exist, however they are limited in functionality due to the
limitations of the underlying platform API. For example, signal level measurements cannot be
obtained on iOS without jailbreaking. The feasibility of creating professional-level applications for
non-Windows tablets is debated.

Hardware

Unlike passive and active surveys, RF spectrum surveys require specialized RF equipment. There are
various types of spectrum analyzers ranging from large and expensive bench-top units to portable
("field units") and PC-based analyzers. Because portability is a decisive factor in conducting wireless
site surveys, PC-based spectrum analyzers in CardBus and USB form factors are widely used today.
WLAN chipset manufacturers are starting to incorporate spectrum analysis into their chipset designs;
this functionality is integrated into some high-end enterprise-class 802.11n access points.

Wireless access point

In computer networking, a wireless access point (WAP) is a networking hardware device that allows
a Wi-Fi compliant device to connect to a wired network. The WAP usually connects to a router (via a
wired network) as a standalone device, but it can also be an integral component of the router itself. A
WAP is differentiated from a hotspot, which is the physical location where Wi-Fi access to a WLAN
is available.
Prior to wireless networks, setting up a computer network in a business, home or school often
required running many cables through walls and ceilings in order to deliver network access to all of
the network-enabled devices in the building. With the creation of the wireless access point, network
users are now able to add devices that access the network with few or no cables. A WAP normally
connects directly to a wired Ethernet connection and the WAP then provides wireless connections
using radio frequency links for other devices to utilize that wired connection. Most WAPs support the
connection of multiple wireless devices to one wired connection. Modern WAPs are built to support
a standard for sending and receiving data using these radio frequencies. Those standards, and the
frequencies they use are defined by the IEEE. Most APs use IEEE 802.11 standards.

Common AP applications

Typical corporate use involves attaching several WAPs to a wired network and then providing
wireless access to the office LAN. The wireless access points are managed by a WLAN Controller
which handles automatic adjustments to RF power, channels, authentication, and security.
Furthermore, controllers can be combined to form a wireless mobility group to allow inter-controller
roaming. The controllers can be part of a mobility domain to allow clients access throughout large or
regional office locations. This saves the clients time and administrators overhead because it can
automatically re-associate or re-authenticate.

A hotspot is a common public application of WAPs, where wireless clients can connect to the
Internet without regard for the particular networks to which they have attached for the moment. The
concept has become common in large cities, where a combination of coffeehouses, libraries, as well
as privately owned open access points, allow clients to stay more or less continuously connected to
the Internet, while moving around. A collection of connected hotspots can be referred to as a lily pad
network.

WAPs are commonly used in home wireless networks. Home networks generally have only one AP
to connect all the computers in a home. Most are wireless routers, meaning converged devices that
include the WAP, a router, and, often, an Ethernet switch. Many also include a broadband modem. In
places where most homes have their own WAP within range of the neighbours' AP, it's possible for
technically savvy people to turn off their encryption and set up a wireless community network,
creating an intra-city communication network although this does not negate the requirement for a
wired network.
A WAP may also act as the network's arbitrator, negotiating when each nearby client device can
transmit. However, the vast majority of currently installed IEEE 802.11 networks do not implement
this, using a distributed pseudo-random algorithm called CSMA/CA instead.

Wireless access point vs. ad hoc network

Some people confuse wireless access points with wireless ad hoc networks. An ad hoc network uses
a connection between two or more devices without using a wireless access point: the devices
communicate directly when in range. An ad hoc network is used in situations such as a quick data
exchange or a multiplayer LAN game because setup is easy and does not require an access point.
Due to its peer-to-peer layout, ad hoc connections are similar to Bluetooth ones.

But ad hoc connections are generally not recommended for a permanent installation. The reason is
that Isnternet acces via ad hoc networks, using features like Windows' Internet Connection Sharing,
may work well with a small number of devices that are close to each other, but ad hoc networks don't
scale well. Internet traffic will converge to the nodes with direct internet connection, potentially
congesting these nodes. For internet-enabled nodes, access points have a clear advantage, with the
possibility of having multiple access points connected by a wired LAN.

Limitations

One IEEE 802.11 AP can typically communicate with 30 client systems located within a radius of
103 meters. However, the actual range of communication can vary significantly, depending on such
variables as indoor or outdoor placement, height above ground, nearby obstructions, other electronic
devices that might actively interfere with the signal by broadcasting on the same frequency, type of
antenna, the current weather, operating radio frequency, and the power output of devices. Network
designers can extend the range of APs through the use of repeaters and reflectors, which can bounce
or amplify radio signals that ordinarily would go un-received. In experimental conditions, wireless
networking has operated over distances of several hundred kilometers.

Most jurisdictions have only a limited number of frequencies legally available for use by wireless
networks. Usually, adjacent WAPs will use different frequencies (Channels) to communicate with
their clients in order to avoid interference between the two nearby systems. Wireless devices can
"listen" for data traffic on other frequencies, and can rapidly switch from one frequency to another to
achieve better reception. However, the limited number of frequencies becomes problematic in
crowded downtown areas with tall buildings using multiple WAPs. In such an environment, signal
overlap becomes an issue causing interference, which results in signal drop page and data errors.
Wireless networking lags wired networking in terms of increasing bandwidth and throughput. While
(as of 2013) high-density 256-QAM (TurboQAM) modulation, 3-antenna wireless devices for the
consumer market can reach sustained real-world speeds of some 240 Mbit/s at 13 m behind two
standing walls (NLOS) depending on their nature or 360 Mbit/s at 10 m line of sight or 380 Mbit/s at
2 m line of sight (IEEE 802.11ac) or 20 to 25 Mbit/s at 2 m line of sight (IEEE 802.11g), wired
hardware of similar cost reaches somewhat less than 1000 Mbit/s up to specified distance of 100 m
with twisted-pair cabling (Cat-5, Cat-5e, Cat-6, or Cat-7) (Gigabit Ethernet). One impediment to
increasing the speed of wireless communications comes from Wi-Fi's use of a shared
communications medium: Thus, two stations in infrastructure mode that are communicating with
each other even over the same AP must have each and every frame transmitted twice: from the
sender to the AP, then from the AP to the receiver. This approximately halves the effective
bandwidth, so an AP is only able to use somewhat less than half the actual over-the-air rate for data
throughput. Thus a typical 54 Mbit/s wireless connection actually carries TCP/IP data at 20 to 25
Mbit/s. Users of legacy wired networks expect faster speeds, and people using wireless connections
keenly want to see the wireless networks catch up.

By 2012, 802.11n based access points and client devices have already taken a fair share of the
marketplace and with the finalization of the 802.11n standard in 2009 inherent problems integrating
products from different vendors are less prevalent.

Security

Wireless access has special security considerations. Many wired networks base the security on
physical access control, trusting all the users on the local network, but if wireless access points are
connected to the network, anybody within range of the AP (which typically extends farther than the
intended area) can attach to the network.

The most common solution is wireless traffic encryption. Modern access points come with built-in
encryption. The first generation encryption scheme 'WEP' proved easy to crack; the second and third
generation schemes, WPA and WPA2, are considered secure if a strong enough password or
passphrase is used.

Some APs support hotspot style authentication using RADIUS and other authentication servers.

Opinions about wireless network security vary widely. For example, in a 2008 article for Wired
magazine, Bruce Schneier asserted the net benefits of open Wi-Fi without passwords outweigh the
risks, a position supported in 2014 by Peter Eckersley of the Electronic Frontier Foundation.
The opposite position was taken by Nick Mediati in an article for PC World, in which he takes the
position that every wireless access point should be locked down with a password.

Exposed node problem

(Redirected from Exposed terminal problem)

In wireless networks, the exposed node problem occurs when a node is prevented from sending
packets to other nodes because of a neighboring transmitter. Consider an example of 4 nodes labeled
R1, S1, S2, and R2, where the two receivers (R1, R2) are out of range of each other, yet the two
transmitters (S1, S2) in the middle are in range of each other. Here, if a transmission between S1 and
R1 is taking place, node S2 is prevented from transmitting to R2 as it concludes after carrier sense
that it will interfere with the transmission by its neighbor S1. However note that R2 could still
receive the transmission of S2 without interference because it is out of range of S1.

IEEE 802.11 RTS/CTS mechanism helps to solve this problem only if the nodes are synchronized
and packet sizes and data rates are the same for both the transmitting nodes. When a node hears an
RTS from a neighboring node, but not the corresponding CTS, that node can deduce that it is an
exposed node and is permitted to transmit to other neighboring nodes.

If the nodes are not synchronized (or if the packet sizes are different or the data rates are different)
the problem may occur that the sender will not hear the CTS or the ACK during the transmission of
data of the second sender.
Applications of wireless technology

Mobile telephones

One of the best-known examples of wireless technology is the mobile phone, also known as a
cellular phone, with more than 4.6 billion mobile cellular subscriptions worldwide as of the end of
2010. These wireless phones use radio waves from signal-transmission towers to enable their users to
make phone calls from many locations worldwide. They can be used within range of the mobile
telephone site used to house the equipment required to transmit and receive the radio signals from
these instruments.

Wireless data communications

Wireless data communications are an essential component of mobile computing. The various
available technologies differ in local availability, coverage range and performance, and in some
circumstances, users must be able to employ multiple connection types and switch between them. To
simplify the experience for the user, connection manager software can be used, or a mobile VPN
deployed to handle the multiple connections as a secure, single virtual network. Supporting
technologies include:

Wi-Fi is a wireless local area network that enables portable computing devices to connect easily to
the Internet. Standardized as IEEE 802.11 a,b,g,n, Wi-Fi approaches speeds of some types of wired
Ethernet. Wi-Fi has become the de facto standard for access in private homes, within offices, and at
public hotspots. Some businesses charge customers a monthly fee for service, while others have
begun offering it for free in an effort to increase the sales of their goods.

Cellular data service offers coverage within a range of 10-15 miles from the nearest cell site.
Speeds have increased as technologies have evolved, from earlier technologies such as GSM, CDMA
and GPRS, to 3G networks such as W-CDMA, EDGE or CDMA2000.

Mobile Satellite Communications may be used where other wireless connections are unavailable,
such as in largely rural areas or remote locations. Satellite communications are especially important
for transportation, aviation, maritime and military use.

Wireless Sensor Networks are responsible for sensing noise, interference, and activity in data
collection networks. This allows us to detect relevant quantities, monitor and collect data, formulate
clear user displays, and to perform decision-making function.
Wireless energy transfer

Wireless energy transfer is a process whereby electrical energy is transmitted from a power source to
an electrical load (Computer Load) that does not have a built-in power source, without the use of
interconnecting wires. There are two different fundamental methods for wireless energy transfer.
They can be transferred using either far-field methods that involve beaming power/lasers, radio or
microwave transmissions or near-field using induction. Both methods utilize electromagnetism and
magnetic fields.

Wireless medical technologies

New wireless technologies, such as mobile body area networks (MBAN), have the capability to
monitor blood pressure, heart rate, oxygen level and body temperature. The MBAN works by
sending low powered wireless signals to receivers that feed into nursing stations or monitoring sites.
This technology helps with the intentional and unintentional risk of infection or disconnection that
arise from wired connections.

Computer interface devices

Answering the call of customers frustrated with cord clutter, many manufacturers of computer
peripherals turned to wireless technology to satisfy their consumer base Originally these units used
bulky, highly local transceivers to mediate between a computer and a keyboard and mouse; however,
more recent generations have used small, high-quality devices, some even incorporating Bluetooth.
These systems have become so ubiquitous that some users have begun complaining about a lack of
wired peripherals. Wireless devices tend to have a slightly slower response time than their wired
counterparts; however, the gap is decreasing.

A battery powers computer interface devices such as a keyboard or mouse and send signals to a
receiver through a USB port by the way of a radio frequency (RF) receiver. The RF design makes it
possible for signals to be transmitted wirelessly and expands the range of efficient use, usually up to
10 feet. Distance, physical obstacles, competing signals, and even human bodies can all degrade the
signal quality.

Digital radio

Digital radio is radio that uses digital technology to transmit and/or receive across the radio
spectrum.In many modern systems, the radio signal is a digital signal that has been produced using
digital modulation.Digital radio receivers also exist, that decode analog radio signals using digital
electronics.

Types

1. Today the most common meaning is digital radio broadcasting technologies. In these systems, the
analog audio signal is digitized, compressed using formats such as mp2, and transmitted using a
digital modulation scheme. The aim is to increase the number of radio programs in a given spectrum,
to improve the audio quality, to eliminate fading problems in mobile environments, to allow
additional datacasting services, and to decrease the transmission power or the number of transmitters
required to cover a region. However, analog radio (AM and FM) is still more popular and listening to
radio over IP (Internet Protocol) is growing in popularity. In 2012 there are four digital wireless radio
systems recognized by the International Telecommunication Union: the two European systems
Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB) and Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM), the Japanese ISDB-T and
the U.S. or Arab World HD-Radio (IBOC).

2. An older definition, still used in communication engineering literature, is wireless digital

transmission technologies, i.e. microwave and radio frequency communication standards where
analog information signals as well as digital data are carried by a digital signal, by means of a digital
modulation method. This definition includes broadcasting systems such as digital TV and digital
radio broadcasting, but also two-way digital radio standards such as the second generation (2G) cell-
phones and later, short-range communication such as digital cordless phones, wireless computer
networks, digital micro-wave radio links, deep space communication systems such as
communications to and from the two Voyager space probes, etc.

3. A less common definition is radio receiver and transmitter implementations that are based on
digital signal processing, but may transmit or receive analog radio transmission standards, for
example FM radio. This may reduce noise and distortion induced in the electronics. It also allows
software radio implementations, where the transmission technology is changed just by selecting
another piece of software. In most cases, this would however increase the energy consumption of the
receiver equipment.

Broadcast standards

Digital radio broadcasting standards may provide terrestrial or satellite radio service. Digital radio
broadcasting systems are typically designed for handheld mobile devices, just like mobile-TV
systems, but as opposed to other digital TV systems which typically require a fixed directional
antenna. Some digital radio systems provide in-band on-channel (IBOC) solutions that may coexist
with or simulcast with analog AM or FM transmissions, while others are designed for designated
radio frequency bands. The latter allows one wideband radio signal to carry a multiplex consisting of
several radio-channels of variable bit rate as well as data services and other forms of media. Some
digital broadcasting systems allow single-frequency network (SFN), where all terrestrial transmitters
in a region sending the same multiplex of radio programs may use the same frequency channel
without self-interference problems, further improving the system spectral efficiency.

While digital broadcasting offers many potential benefits, its introduction has been hindered by a
lack of global agreement on standards and many disadvantages. The DAB Eureka 147 standard for
digital radio is coordinated by the World DMB Forum. This standard of digital radio technology was
defined in the late 1980s, and is now being introduced in some European countries. Commercial
DAB receivers began to be sold in 1999 and, by 2006, 500 million people were in the coverage area
of DAB broadcasts, although by this time sales had only taken off in the UK and Denmark. In 2006
there are approximately 1,000 DAB stations in operation. There have been criticisms of the Eureka
147 standard and so a new 'DAB+' standard has been introduced.

The DRM standard has been used for several years to broadcast digitally on frequencies below
30 MHz (shortwave, mediumwave and longwave). Also there is now the extended standard DRM+
which make it possible to broadcast on frequencies above 30 MHz.This will make it possible to
digitalize transmission on the FM-band. Successful tests of DRM+ has been made in several
countries 2010-2012 as in Brazil, Germany, France, India, Sri Lanka, the UK, Slovakia and Italy
(incl. the Vatican). DRM+ will be tested in Sweden 2012.

DRM+ is regarded as a more transparent and less costly standard than DAB+ and thus a better choice
for local radio; commercial or community broadcasters. Although DAB+ has been introduced in
Australia the government has concluded 2011 that a preference for DRM and DRM+ above HD
Radio could be used to supplement DAB+ services in (some) local and regional areas.

All Digital Radio Broadcast system share many disadvantages which don't exist for Analogue to
Digital TV changeover: About x20 more power consumption, Digital Cliff effect for Mobile use,
very slow channel change, especially for a different DAB multiplex frequency, high transmission
cost resulting poorer quality than FM and sometimes AM due to low bitrate (64K mono rather than
256K stereo), higher compression is more distorted for hearing aid users, usually poor user interfaces
and Radio audio quality, not enough fill in stations for portable / mobile coverage (like 1950s UK
FM). The Multiplex & SFN concepts are advantageous to State Broadcasters and Large Pan National
Multi-channel companies and worse for all Local, Community and most Regional stations. In
contrast almost all the aspects of Digital TV vs Analogue TV are positive with almost no negative
effects. TVs could be used with a Set-box. Digital Radio requires replacement of all radios, though
an awkward DAB receiver with FM output can be used with existing FM car Radios.

To date the following standards have been defined for one-way digital radio:

Digital audio broadcasting systems

 Eureka 147 (branded as DAB)

 DAB+

 ISDB-TSB

 Internet radio (Technically not a true Broadcast system)

 FM band in-band on-channel (FM IBOC):

 HD Radio (OFDM modulation over FM and AM band IBOC sidebands)

 FMeXtra (FM band IBOC subcarriers)

 Digital Radio Mondiale extension (DRM+) (OFDM modulation over AM band

IBOC sidebands)

 AM band in-band on-channel (AM IBOC):

 HD Radio (AM IBOC sideband)

 Digital Radio Mondale (branded as DRM) for the short, medium and long
wave-bands

 Satellite radio:

 World Space in Asia and Africa

 Sirius XM Radio in North America

 Monaco! in Japan and the Republic of (South) Korea

Hotspot (Wi-Fi)

A hotspot is a physical location where people may obtain Internet access, typically using Wi-Fi
technology, via a wireless local area network (WLAN) using a router connected to an internet service
provider.

Public hotspots may be found in an increasing number of businesses for use of customers in many
developed urban areas throughout the world, such as coffee shops. Many hotels offer wifi access to
guests, either in guest rooms or in the lobby. Hotspots differ from wireless access points, which are
the hardware devices used to provide a wireless network service. Private hotspots allow Internet
access to a device (such as a tablet) via another device which may have data access via say a mobile
device. Public access wireless local area networks (LANs) were first proposed by Henrico Sodden at
the NetWorld+Interop conference in The Miscode Center in San Francisco in August 1993.Sjödin did
not use the term hotspot but referred to publicly accessible wireless LANs.
The first commercial venture to attempt to create a public local area access network was a firm
founded in Richardson, Texas known as PLANCOM (Public Local Area Network Communications).
The founders of the venture, Mark Goode, Greg Jackson, and Brett Stewart dissolved the firm in
1998, while Goode and Jackson created Mobile Star Networks. The firm was one of the first to sign
such public access locations as Starbucks American Airlines, and Hilton Hotels. The company was
sold to Deutsche Telecom in 2001, who then converted the name of the firm into "T-Mobile
Hotspot." It was then that the term "hotspot" entered the popular vernacular as a reference to a
location where a publicly accessible wireless LAN is available.

Uses

The public can use a laptop or other suitable portable device to access the wireless connection
(usually Wi-Fi) provided. Of the estimated 150 million laptops, 14 million PDAs, and other
emerging Wi-Fi devices sold per year for the last few years, most include the Wi-Fi feature.

For venues that have broadband Internet access, offering wireless access is as simple as configuring
one access point (AP), in conjunction with a router and connecting the AP to the Internet connection.
A single wireless router combining these functions may suffice.

The impasse 2014 interactive map, that shows data provided by the analysts Maravedis Rethink,
shows that in December 2014 there are 46,000,000 hotspots worldwide and more than 22,000,000
roam able hotspots. More than 10,900 hotspots are on trains, planes and airports (Wi-Fi in motion)
and more than 8,500,000 are "branded" hotspots (retail, cafés, hotels). The region with the largest
number of public hotspots is Europe, followed by North America and Asia.

Security

Security is a serious concern in connection with Hotspots. There are three possible attack vectors.
First, there is the wireless connection between the client and the access point. This needs to be
encrypted, so that the connection cannot be eavesdropped or attacked by a man-in-the-middle-attack.
Second, there is the Hotspot itself. The WLAN encryption ends at the interface, then travels its
network stack unencrypted and then travels over the wired connection up to the BRAS of the ISP.
Third, there is the connection from the Access Point to the BRAS of the ISP. ...

The safest method when accessing the Internet over a Hotspot, with unknown security measures, is
end-to-end encryption. Examples of strong end-to-end encryption are HTTPS and SSH.
Types

Free hotspots operate in two ways:

 Using an open public network is the easiest way to create a free hotspot. All that is
needed is a Wi-Fi router. Similarly, when users of private wireless routers turn off their
authentication requirements, opening their connection, intentionally or not, they permit
piggybacking (sharing) by anyone in range.

 Closed public networks use a HotSpot Management System to control access to

hotspots. This software runs on the router itself or an external computer allowing operators to
authorize only specific users to access the Internet. Providers of such hotspots often associate
the free access with a menu, membership, or purchase limit. Operators may also limit each
user's available bandwidth (upload and download speed) to ensure that everyone gets a good
quality service. Often this is done through service-level agreements.

Commercial hotspots

A commercial hotspot may feature:

 A captive portal / login screen / splash page that users are redirected to for
authentication and/or payment. The captive portal / splash page sometimes includes the social
login buttons.

 A payment option using a credit card, impasse, PayPal, or another payment service
(voucher-based Wi-Fi)

 A walled garden feature that allows free access to certain sites

 Service-oriented provisioning to allow for improved revenue

 Data analytics and data capture tools, to analyze and export data from Wi-Fi clients

Many services provide payment services to hotspot providers, for a monthly fee or commission from
the end-user income. For example, Amazing ports can be used to set up hotspots that intend to offer
both fee-based and free internet access, and Zoned is a Linux distribution that provides payment
services for hotspot providers who wish to deploy their own service.
Major airports and business hotels are more likely to charge for service, though most hotels provide
free service to guests; and increasingly, small airports and airline lounges offer free service. Retail
shops, public venues and offices usually provide a free Wi-Fi SSID for their guests and visitors.

Roaming services are expanding among major hotspot service providers. With roaming service the
users of a commercial provider can have access to other providers' hotspots, either free of charge or
for extra fees, which users will usually be charged on an access-per-minute basis.

Software hotspots

Many Wi-Fi adapters built into or easily added to consumer computers and mobile devices include
the functionality to operate as private or mobile hotspots, sometimes referred to as "mi-if". The use
of a private hotspot to enable other personal devices to access the WAN (usually but not always the
Internet) is a form of bridging, and known as tethering. Manufacturers and firmware creators can
enable this functionality in Wi-Fi devices on many Wi-Fi devices, depending upon the capabilities of
the hardware, and most modern consumer operating systems, including Android, Apple OS X 10.6
and later, Windows mobile and Linux include features to support this. Additionally wireless chipset
manufacturers such as Anthers, Broadcom, Intel and others, may add the capability for certain Wi-Fi
NICs, usually used in a client role, to also be used for hotspot purposes. However, some service
providers, such as AT&T, Sprint, and T-Mobile charge users for this service or prohibit and
disconnect user connections if tethering is detected.

Third-party software vendors offer applications to allow users to operate their own hotspot, whether
to access the Internet when on the go, share an existing connection, or extend the range of another
hotspot. Third party implementations of software hotspots include:

 Amazing Ports Hotspot software

 Anta media Hotspot software

 Connective Hotspot

 Jaze Hotspot Gateway by Jaze Networks

 Hot Spot Network Manager (HSNM)

 Virtual Router
  Tanana

Li-Fi (Light Fidelity)

Light Fidelity (Li-Fi) is a bidirectional, high speed and fully networked wireless communication
technology similar to Wi-Fi. The term was coined by Herald Haas and is a form of visible light
communication and a subset of optical wireless communications (OWC) and could be a complement
to RF communication (Wi-Fi or Cellular network), or even a replacement in contexts of data
broadcasting. It is so far measured to be about 100 times faster than some Wi-Fi implementations,
reaching speeds of 224 gigabits per second.

It is wireless and uses visible light communication or infra-red and near ultraviolet (instead of radio
frequency waves) spectrum, part of optical wireless communications technology, which carries much
more information, and has been proposed as a solution to the RF-bandwidth limitations.

Technology details

This OWC technology uses light from light-emitting diodes (LEDs) as a medium to deliver
networked, mobile, high-speed communication in a similar manner to Wi-Fi. The Li-Fi market is
projected to have a compound annual growth rate of 82% from 2013 to 2018 and to be worth over $6
billion per year by 2018.Visible light communications (VLC) works by switching the current to the
LEDs off and on at a very high rate, too quick to be noticed by the human eye. Although Li-Fi LEDs
would have to be kept on to transmit data, they could be dimmed to below human visibility while
still emitting enough light to carry data.The light waves cannot penetrate walls which makes a much
shorter range, though more secure from hacking, relative to Wi-Fi. Direct line of sight is not
necessary for Li-Fi to transmit a signal; light reflected off the walls can achieve 70 Mbit.
Li-Fi has the advantage of being useful in electromagnetic sensitive areas such as in aircraft cabins,
hospitals and nuclear power plants without causing electromagnetic interference. Both Wi-Fi and Li-
Fi transmit data over the electromagnetic spectrum, but whereas Wi-Fi utilizes radio waves, Li-Fi
uses visible light. While the US Federal Communications Commission has warned of a potential
spectrum crisis because Wi-Fi is close to full capacity, Li-Fi has almost no limitations on capacity.
The visible light spectrum is 10,000 times larger than the entire radio frequency spectrum.
Researchers have reached data rates of over 10 Gbit/s, which is much faster than typical fast
broadband in 2013.Li-Fi is expected to be ten times cheaper than Wi-Fi. Short range, low reliability
and high installation costs are the potential downsides.

PureLiFi demonstrated the first commercially available Li-Fi system, the Li-1st, at the 2014 Mobile
World Congress in Barcelona.

Bg-Fi is a Li-Fi system consisting of an application for a mobile device, and a simple consumer
product, like an IoT (Internet of Things) device, with color sensor, microcontroller, and embedded
software. Light from the mobile device display communicates to the color sensor on the consumer
product, which converts the light into digital information. Light emitting diodes enable the consumer
product to communicate synchronously with the mobile device.

History

Harald Haas, who teaches at the University of Edinburgh in the UK, coined the term "Li-Fi" at his
TED Global Talk where he introduced the idea of "Wireless data from every light".He is Chair of
Mobile Communications at the University of Edinburgh and co-founder of pureLiFi.

The general term visible light communication (VLC), whose history dates back to the 1880s,
includes any use of the visible light portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to transmit information.
The D-Light project at Edinburgh's Institute for Digital Communications was funded from January
2010 to January 2012.Haas promoted this technology in his 2011 TED Global talk and helped start a
company to market it. PureLiFi, formerly pureVLC, is an original equipment manufacturer (OEM)
firm set up to commercialize Li-Fi products for integration with existing LED-lighting systems.

In October 2011, companies and industry groups formed the Li-Fi Consortium, to promote high-
speed optical wireless systems and to overcome the limited amount of radio-based wireless spectrum
available by exploiting a completely different part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
A number of companies offer uni-directional VLC products, which is not the same as Li-Fi - a term
defined by the IEEE 802.15.7r1 standardization committee.

VLC technology was exhibited in 2012 using Li-Fi. By August 2013, data rates of over 1.6 Gbit/s
were demonstrated over a single color LED. In September 2013, a press release said that Li-Fi, or
VLC systems in general, do not require line-of-sight conditions. In October 2013, it was reported
Chinese manufacturers were working on Li-Fi development kits.

In April 2014, the Russian company Stins Coman announced the development of a Li-Fi wireless
local network called BeamCaster. Their current module transfers data at 1.25 gigabytes per second
but they foresee boosting speeds up to 5 GB/second in the near future. In 2014 a new record was
established by Sisoft (a Mexican company) that was able to transfer data at speeds of up to 10 Gbit/s
across a light spectrum emitted by LED lamps.

Standards

Like Wi-Fi, Li-Fi is wireless and uses similar 802.11 protocols; but it uses visible light
communication (instead of radio frequency waves), which has much wider bandwidth.One part of
VLC is modeled after communication protocols established by the IEEE 802 workgroup. However,
the IEEE 802.15.7 standard is out-of-date, it fails to consider the latest technological developments
in the field of optical wireless communications, specifically with the introduction of optical
orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (O-OFDM) modulation methods which have been
optimized for data rates, multiple-access and energy efficiency. The introduction of O-OFDM means
that a new drive for standardization of optical wireless communications is required.

Nonetheless, the IEEE 802.15.7 standard defines the physical layer (PHY) and media access control
(MAC) layer. The standard is able to deliver enough data rates to transmit audio, video and
multimedia services. It takes into account optical transmission mobility, its compatibility with
artificial lighting present in infrastructures, and the interference which may be generated by ambient
lighting. The MAC layer permits using the link with the other layers as with the TCP/IP protocol.

The standard defines three PHY layers with different rates:

 The PHY I was established for outdoor application and works from 11.67 kbit/s to
267.6 kbit/s.

 The PHY II layer permits reaching data rates from 1.25 Mbit/s to 96 Mbit/s.
  The PHY III is used for many emissions sources with a particular modulation method
called color shift keying (CSK). PHY III can deliver rates from 12 Mbit/s to 96 Mbit/s.

The modulation formats recognized for PHY I and PHY II are on-off keying (OOK) and variable
pulse position modulation (VPPM). The Manchester coding used for the PHY I and PHY II layers
includes the clock inside the transmitted data by representing a logic 0 with an OOK symbol "01"
and a logic 1 with an OOK symbol "10", all with a DC component. The DC component avoids light
extinction in case of an extended run of logic 0's.

The first VLC smartphone prototype was presented at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas
from January 7–10 in 2014. The phone uses SunPartner's Wysips CONNECT, a technique that
converts light waves into usable energy, making the phone capable of receiving and decoding signals
without drawing on its battery. A clear thin layer of crystal glass can be added to small screens like
watches and smartphones that make them solar powered. Smartphones could gain 15% more battery
life during a typical day. This first smartphones using this technology should arrive in 2015. This
screen can also receive VLC signals as well as the smartphone camera. The cost of these screens per
smartphone is between $2 and $3, much cheaper than most new technology.

Philips lighting company has developed a VLC system for shoppers at stores. They have to
download an app on their smartphone and then their smartphone works with the LEDs in the store.
The LEDs can pinpoint where they are located in the store and give them corresponding coupons and
information based on which aisle they are on and what they are looking at.

MiFi

A Novatel MiFi 2372 "Intelligent Mobile Wi-Fi Hotspot"

MiFi is a brand name used to describe a wireless router that acts as mobile Wi-Fi hotspot. In many
countries, including the United States, Canada and Mexico, Novatel Wireless owns a registered
trademark on the "MiFi" brand name, except in the UK where mobile operator owns the "MiFi"
trademark. Novatel Wireless has never offered an "official" explanation for the origins of the name
"MiFi"; it may be short for either "Mobile Wi-Fi", "My Wi-Fi" or simply they were stumped for a
name and turned the W on its head.

A MiFi device can be connected to a cellular network and provide internet access for up to ten
devices. Novatel Wireless introduced the first MiFi device in the United States, in May 2009. "MiFi"
is a similar line from Huawei under the name.

MiFi 2200 from Novatel Wireless for Verizon Wireless

 Limited to five Wi-Fi clients such as laptops, cameras, gaming devices, and
multimedia players; with the exception of manually editing the device’s config file to allow
more clients.

 May be connected to a computer via a Micro-USB connection, though doing so

disables the Wi-Fi networking, converting the device into a traditional single-client modem.
(However, CNET has introduced a tweak to charge the device over USB while maintaining
its functionality.)

 Includes GPS unit, which is usable on some networks like Virgin Mobile and not on
others like Verizon.

Bluetooth

Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances (using short-
wavelength UHF radio waves in the ISM band from 2.4 to 2.485 GHz) from fixed and mobile
devices, and building personal area networks (PANs). Invented by telecom vendor Ericsson in 1994,
it was originally conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables. It can connect several
devices, overcoming problems of synchronization.

Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), which has more than 25,000
member companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, and consumer
electronics. The IEEE standardized Bluetooth as IEEE 802.15.1, but no longer maintains the
standard. The Bluetooth SIG oversees development of the specification, manages the qualification
program, and protects the trademarks. A manufacturer must make a device meet Bluetooth SIG
standards to market it as a Bluetooth device. A network of patents apply to the technology, which are
licensed to individual qualifying devices

Developed by Bluetooth Special Interest Group

Industry Mobile personal area networks

mobile phones, personal computers, gaming

Compatible hardware
consoles

Physical range Typically less than 10 m, up to 100 m

Implementation

Bluetooth operates at frequencies between 2402 and 2480 MHz, or 2400 and 2483.5 MHz including
guard bands 2 MHz wide at the bottom end and 3.5 MHz wide at the top. This is in the globally
unlicensed (but not unregulated) Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) 2.4 GHz short-range radio
frequency band. Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency-hopping spread spectrum.
Bluetooth divides transmitted data into packets, and transmits each packet on one of 79 designated
Bluetooth channels. Each channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz. It usually performs 800 hops per
second, with Adaptive Frequency-Hopping (AFH) enabled. Bluetooth low energy uses 2 MHz
spacing, which accommodates 40 channels.

Originally, Gaussian frequency-shift keying (GFSK) modulation was the only modulation scheme
available. Since the introduction of Bluetooth 2.0+EDR, π/4-DQPSK (Differential Quadrature Phase
Shift Keying) and 8DPSK modulation may also be used between compatible devices. Devices
functioning with GFSK are said to be operating in basic rate (BR) mode where an instantaneous data
rate of 1 Mbit/s is possible. The term Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) is used to describe π/4-DPSK and
8DPSK schemes, each giving 2 and 3 Mbit/s respectively. The combination of these (BR and EDR)
modes in Bluetooth radio technology is classified as a "BR/EDR radio".
Bluetooth is a packet-based protocol with a master-slave structure. One master may communicate
with up to seven slaves in a piconet. All devices share the master's clock. Packet exchange is based
on the basic clock, defined by the master, which ticks at 312.5 µs intervals. Two clock ticks make up
a slot of 625 µs, and two slots make up a slot pair of 1250 µs. In the simple case of single-slot
packets the master transmits in even slots and receives in odd slots. The slave, conversely, receives in
even slots and transmits in odd slots. Packets may be 1, 3 or 5 slots long, but in all cases the master's
transmission begins in even slots and the slave's in odd slots.

The above is valid for "classic" BT. Bluetooth Low Energy, introduced in the 4.0 specification, uses
the same spectrum but somewhat differently; see Bluetooth low energy#Radio interface.

Communication and connection

A master Bluetooth device can communicate with a maximum of seven devices in a piconet (an ad-
hoc computer network using Bluetooth technology), though not all devices reach this maximum. The
devices can switch roles, by agreement, and the slave can become the master (for example, a headset
initiating a connection to a phone necessarily begins as master—as initiator of the connection—but
may subsequently operate as slave).

The Bluetooth Core Specification provides for the connection of two or more piconets to form a
scatternet, in which certain devices simultaneously play the master role in one piconet and the slave
role in another.

At any given time, data can be transferred between the master and one other device (except for the
little-used broadcast mode. The master chooses which slave device to address; typically, it switches
rapidly from one device to another in a round-robin fashion. Since it is the master that chooses which
slave to address, whereas a slave is (in theory) supposed to listen in each receive slot, being a master
is a lighter burden than being a slave. Being a master of seven slaves is possible; being a slave of
more than one master is difficult. The specification is vague as to required behavior in scatternets.

Uses

Bluetooth is a standard wire-replacement communications protocol primarily designed for low-

power consumption, with a short range based on low-cost transceiver microchips in each device.
Because the devices use a radio (broadcast) communications system, they do not have to be in visual
line of sight of each other, however a quasi-optical wireless path must be viable. Range is power-
class-dependent, but effective ranges vary in practice; see the table on the right.
Officially Class 3 radios have a range of up to 1 metre (3 ft), Class 2, most commonly found in
mobile devices, 10 metres (33 ft), and Class 1, primarily for industrial use cases,100 metres (300 ft).
Bluetooth Marketing qualifies that Class 1 range is in most cases 20–30 metres (66–98 ft), and Class
2 range 5–10 metres (16–33 ft).

Version Data rate Max. application throughput

1.2 1 Mbit/s >80 kbit/s

2.0 + EDR 3 Mbit/s >80 kbit/s

3.0 + HS 24 Mbit/s See Version 3.0 + HS

4.0 24 Mbit/s See Version 4.0 LE

The effective range varies due to propagation conditions, material coverage, production sample
variations, antenna configurations and battery conditions. Most Bluetooth applications are for indoor
conditions, where attenuation of walls and signal fading due to signal reflections make the range far
lower than specified line-of-sight ranges of the Bluetooth products. Most Bluetooth applications are
battery powered Class 2 devices, with little difference in range whether the other end of the link is a
Class 1 or Class 2 device as the lower powered device tends to set the range limit. In some cases the
effective range of the data link can be extended when a Class 2 device is connecting to a Class 1
transceiver with both higher sensitivity and transmission power than a typical Class 2 device.]
Mostly, however, the Class 1 devices have a similar sensitivity to Class 2 devices. Connecting two
Class 1 devices with both high sensitivity and high power can allow ranges far in excess of the
typical 100m, depending on the throughput required by the application. Some such devices allow
open field ranges of up to 1 km and beyond between two similar devices without exceeding legal
emission limits.

The Bluetooth Core Specification mandates a range of not less than 10 metres (33 ft), but there is no
upper limit on actual range. Manufacturers' implementations can be tuned to provide the range
needed for each case.

Bluetooth profiles

To use Bluetooth wireless technology, a device must be able to interpret certain Bluetooth profiles,
which are definitions of possible applications and specify general behaviours that Bluetooth-enabled
devices use to communicate with other Bluetooth devices. These profiles include settings to
parametrize and to control the communication from start. Adherence to profiles saves the time for
transmitting the parameters anew before the bi-directional link becomes effective. There are a wide
range of Bluetooth profiles that describe many different types of applications or use cases for
devices.

Bluetooth vs. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)

Bluetooth and Wi-Fi (the brand name for products using IEEE 802.11 standards) have some similar
applications: setting up networks, printing, or transferring files. Wi-Fi is intended as a replacement
for high speed cabling for general local area network access in work areas. This category of
applications is sometimes called wireless local area networks (WLAN). Bluetooth was intended for
portable equipment and its applications. The category of applications is outlined as the wireless
personal area network (WPAN). Bluetooth is a replacement for cabling in a variety of personally
carried applications in any setting, and also works for fixed location applications such as smart
energy functionality in the home (thermostats, etc.).

Wi-Fi and Bluetooth are to some extent complementary in their applications and usage. Wi-Fi is
usually access point-centered, with an asymmetrical client-server connection with all traffic routed
through the access point, while Bluetooth is usually symmetrical, between two Bluetooth devices.
Bluetooth serves well in simple applications where two devices need to connect with minimal
configuration like a button press, as in headsets and remote controls, while Wi-Fi suits better in
applications where some degree of client configuration is possible and high speeds are required,
especially for network access through an access node. However, Bluetooth access points do exist and
ad-hoc connections are possible with Wi-Fi though not as simply as with Bluetooth. Wi-Fi Direct
was recently developed to add a more Bluetooth-like ad-hoc functionality to Wi-Fi.

Devices

A Bluetooth USB dongle with a 100 m range.

Bluetooth exists in many products, such as telephones, tablets, media players, robotics systems,
handheld, laptops and console gaming equipment, and some high definition headsets, modems, and
watches. The technology is useful when transferring information between two or more devices that
are near each other in low-bandwidth situations. Bluetooth is commonly used to transfer sound data
with telephones (i.e., with a Bluetooth headset) or byte data with hand-held computers (transferring
files).

Bluetooth protocols simplify the discovery and setup of services between devices. Bluetooth devices
can advertise all of the services they provide. This makes using services easier, because more of the
security, network address and permission configuration can be automated than with many other
network types.

Computer requirements

A typical Bluetooth USB dongle.A personal computer that does not have embedded Bluetooth can
use a Bluetooth adapter that enables the PC to communicate with Bluetooth devices. While some
desktop computers and most recent laptops come with a built-in Bluetooth radio, others require an
external adapter, typically in the form of a small USB "dongle."

Unlike its predecessor, IrDA, which requires a separate adapter for each device, Bluetooth lets
multiple devices communicate with a computer over a single adapter.

Operating system implementation

Apple products have worked with Bluetooth since Mac OS X v10.2, which was released in 2002.

For Microsoft platforms, Windows XP Service Pack 2 and SP3 releases work natively with
Bluetooth v1.1, v2.0 and v2.0+EDR. Previous versions required users to install their Bluetooth
adapter's own drivers, which were not directly supported by Microsoft. Microsoft's own Bluetooth
dongles (packaged with their Bluetooth computer devices) have no external drivers and thus require
at least Windows XP Service Pack 2. Windows Vista RTM/SP1 with the Feature Pack for Wireless or
Windows Vista SP2 work with Bluetooth v2.1+EDR. Windows 7 works with Bluetooth v2.1+EDR
and Extended Inquiry Response (EIR).

The Windows XP and Windows Vista/Windows 7 Bluetooth stacks support the following Bluetooth
profiles natively: PAN, SPP, DUN, HID, HCRP. The Windows XP stack can be replaced by a third
party stack that supports more profiles or newer Bluetooth versions. The Windows Vista/Windows 7
Bluetooth stack supports vendor-supplied additional profiles without requiring that the Microsoft
stack be replaced.

Linux has two popular Bluetooth stacks, BlueZ and Affix. The BlueZ stack is included with most
Linux kernels and was originally developed by Qualcomm. The Affix stack was developed by Nokia.
FreeBSD features Bluetooth since its v5.0 release. NetBSD features Bluetooth since its v4.0 release.
Its Bluetooth stack has been ported to OpenBSD as well.

CHAPTER 5
 CONCLUSIONS

Conclusion

 Wireless networking is being discovered as a useful medium for gaining access to

information globally and for interacting quickly with people in many parts of the world,
something which was not possible just a few years ago. Increasingly, networking is viewed as
a tool for feminist empowerment.
 Clearly, however, the cost of equipment, lack of training and the hazards and irritation
that some women have encountered on line, as well as the limitations women face in
allocating time to networking activities, are obstacles yet to be overcome in many parts of the
world.

 Which served to bring women from all parts of the globe together, including through
electronic networking, the call was for greater participation by women in the use of the new
technologies.
 To this end, networks need to be strengthened to help women overcome some of these
obstacles and to access information disseminated electronically through traditional media as
well as to provide training and assistance in direct use of the Internet.

 Some of the existing networks in this regard include the Network of East-West
Women for Eastern and Central Europe, FemNet in Africa, Laneta in Mexico, ALAI in Latin
America, Virtual Sisterhood in North America, and the APC networks, which operate
globally. The United Nations is developing Women Watch as part of the global effort to give
women better access to electronic communications (see Women Watch below).

 The information revolution offers both opportunities and challenges to women.

Lessons from efforts to make the traditional media more gender- sensitive offer some lessons
for women in order for them to participate actively in the development of the new
communication technologies.
 CHAPTER 6

SUGGESTIONS

Suggestion

 Instead of containing only

basic study, a detail knowledge about database technologies and their evolutions should be
there.
 The time period which was allotted to complete this file was short. I think if a slightly
more period of time was provided this project report can be even more better
  One can also learn about
the impact of database technology on society and what are the various professions related to
technology.
 This study involves all the
essential details which a person might need to fully understand about the database
technology.
 There are mainly two sources for data collection. Data from:

 Primary sources
 Secondary sources
But the data collected for this project include only secondary source. This report can be more
accurate if the data also has been collected from primary source
 CHAPTER-7
BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Wireless networking, C.S.V.Murthy- Himalaya Publishing
House, New Delhi 2002. Electronic Commerce from Wikipedia- the
free encyclopaedia
 Wireless networking the Cutting Edge of Business, Bajaj & Nag- New Delhi 2000
 Department of Electronics 1999, Information Technology Bill along with
Cyber Laws, Government of India, Published in Electronic Information & Planning,
 New Delhi.
 GICC Report on Internet and E-commerce 2000, Government of India, New Delhi.
 IEEE 1999, 'E-commerce Perspective from Different Parts of the World',
published in Information Technology, Special Issue, November, New Delhi.
 Information & Technology (IT) 1997, India's Advantage in Information
Technology, Vol. 1, Issue 3, pp. 117-124, December, New Delhi.

WEBSITES:

 http://newint.org/books/reference/world-development/case-
studies/2013/03/14/computers-cellphones-in-developing-world/
 http://www.iamwire.com/2014/07/e-commerce-in-india-past-present-future/27805/
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_commerce
 http://www.byte-notes.com/advantages-and-disadvantages wireless networking.
 http://www.informationq.com/uses-of-wireless networking-in-different-fields-areas-
sectors-industries-education/