Cuba

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This article is about the country. For other uses, see Cuba (disambiguation).

Republic of Cuba
República de Cuba  (Spanish)

Motto: Patria o Muerte (Spanish)

[1]
"Homeland or Death"

Anthem: La Bayamesa  ("The Bayamo Song")[2]

Capital Havana
(and largest city)
Official language(s) Spanish
65.05% White (Spanish, others),
Ethnic groups  10.08% African (Igbo, other), 23.84%
Mulatto and Mestizo[3]
Demonym Cuban
Socialist State of workers, organized as
Government a united and democratic republic[4]
Communist state[5]
 - President Raúl Castro
First Vice
 -  J. R. M. Ventura
President
First Secretary of
 -  Fidel Castro
PCC
Independence from Spain 
 - Declared October 10, 1868 
May 20, 1902
 - Republic declared
from United States 
 - Cuban Revolution January 1, 1959 
 Area
109,886 km2
 (105th)
 - Total
42,427 sq mi 
 - Water (%) negligible[6]
Population
 - 2008 estimate 11,236,444[7] (75th)
 - 2002 census 11,177,743[7] 
102/km2 (97th)
 - Density
265/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2009 estimate
 - Total $111.1 billion[8] (62nd)
 - Per capita $9,700 (86th)
GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate
 - Total $65.67 billion[9] (63rd)
 - Per capita $5,844 (80th)
HDI (2007) 0.863[10] (high) (51st)
Cuban peso(CUP)
Currency
Cuban convertible peso[11] (CUC)
Time zone (UTC-5)
 - Summer (DST) (March 11 to November 4) (UTC-4)
Drives on the right
ISO 3166 code CU
Internet TLD .cu
Calling code +53
The Republic of Cuba (pronounced /ˈkjuːbə/ ( listen); Spanish: República de Cuba,
pronounced [reˈpuβlika ðe ˈkuβa]  ( listen)) is an island country in the Caribbean. The nation of
Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos.
Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second
largest city.[12][13]
Cuba is home to over 11 million people and is the most populous island nation in the Caribbean.
Its people, culture, and customs draw from diverse sources, such as the aboriginal Taíno and
Ciboney peoples, the period of Spanish colonialism, the introduction of African slaves and its
proximity to the United States.
Contents
 1 Etymology
 2 History
o 2.1 Pre-Columbian era
o 2.2 Spanish colonization
o 2.3 Independence wars
 2.3.1 Ten Years' War
 2.3.2 Period between wars
 2.3.3 War of 1895
 2.3.4 Spanish-American War
 2.3.4.1 USS Maine
o 2.4 Early 20th century
o 2.5 Revolution
 o 2.6 Recent affairs
 3 Human rights
 4 Economy
 5 Government and politics
o 5.1 Military
o 5.2 Foreign relations
 6 Geography
o 6.1 Climate
o 6.2 Resources
 7 Demographics
o 7.1 Immigration to Cuba
o 7.2 Current demographics
o 7.3 Cuban migration
 8 Education
 9 Health
 10 Culture
o 10.1 Music
o 10.2 Cuisine
o 10.3 Literature
 11 See also
 12 References
 13 External links
Etymology
The name Cuba comes from the Taíno language. The exact meaning of the name is unclear but it
may be translated either as where fertile land is abundant (cubao),[14] or great place (coabana).[15]
Scholars who believe that Christopher Columbus was Portuguese state that Cuba was named by
Columbus for the ancient town of Cuba in the district of Beja in Portugal.[16]
The Republic of Cuba remains the only country in the world whose name has not been changed
in any way following the communist revolution. Adjectives such as "Soviet", "Socialist",
"People's" or "Democratic" were in common use in other communist states.[citation needed]
History
Main articles: History of Cuba and Timeline of Cuban history
Pre-Columbian era
Sketch of a Taíno woman, also known as the Arawak by the Spanish
Cuba was inhabited by Native American people known as the Taíno, also called Arawak by the
Spanish, and Ciboney people before the arrival of the Spanish. The ancestors of these Native
Americans migrated from the mainland of North, Central and South America several centuries
earlier.[17] The native Tainos called the island Caobana.[18] The Taíno were farmers and the
Ciboney were farmers and hunter-gatherers.
Spanish colonization

Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, conquistador of Cuba

On October 12, 1492, Christopher Columbus landed near what is now Baracoa. He claimed the
island for the new Kingdom of Spain[19] and named Isla Juana after Juan, Prince of Asturias.[20]
In 1511, the first Spanish settlement was founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar at Baracoa;
other towns soon followed including the future capital of San Cristobal de la Habana which was
founded in 1515. The Spanish enslaved the approximately 100,000 indigenous people who
resisted conversion to Christianity, setting them primarily to the task of searching for gold.
Within a century the indigenous people were virtually wiped out due to multiple factors,
including Eurasian infectious diseases aggravated in large part by a lack of natural resistance as
well as privation stemming from repressive colonial subjugation.[21][22]
Cuba remained a Spanish possession for almost 400 years (1511–1898), with an economy based
on plantation agriculture, mining, and the export of sugar, coffee, and tobacco to Europe and
later to North America. The work was done primarily by African slaves brought to the island.
The small land-owning elite of Spanish settlers held social and economic powers supported by a
population of Spaniards born on the island (Criollos), other Europeans, and African-descended
slaves. The population in 1817 was 630,980, of which 291,021 were white, 115,691 free black,
and 224,268 black slaves.[23]
Independence wars
In the 1820s, when the rest of Spain's empire in Latin America rebelled and formed independent
states, Cuba remained loyal. Although there was agitation for independence, the Spanish Crown
gave Cuba the motto La Siempre Fidelísima Isla ("The Always Most Faithful Island"). This
loyalty was due partly to Cuban settlers' dependence on Spain for trade, their desire for
protection from pirates and against a slave rebellion, and partly because they feared the rising
power of the United States more than they disliked Spanish rule.[citation needed]
Ten Years' War
Independence from Spain was the motive for a rebellion in 1868 led by Carlos Manuel de
Céspedes. The 1868 rebellion resulted in a prolonged conflict known as the Ten Years' War. The
United States declined to recognize the new Cuban government although many European and
Latin American nations did so.[24] In 1878, the Pact of Zanjón ended the conflict with Spain
promising greater autonomy to Cuba. In 1879–1880, Cuban patriot Calixto Garcia attempted to
start another war known as the Little War but received little support.[25]
Period between wars
Slavery was abolished in 1886 but the African-descended minority remained socially and
economically oppressed.[citation needed] During this period, rural poverty in Spain, provoked by the
Spanish Revolution of 1868 and its aftermath, led to an increase of Spanish emigration to Cuba.
[citation needed]

Pro-independence agitation was revived in part by resentment of the restrictions imposed on

Cuban trade by Spain during the 1890s. This caused hostility to Spain's increasingly oppressive
and incompetent administration of Cuba.[citation needed] Few of Spain's promises for economic reform
in the Pact of Zanjón were kept.[citation needed]
War of 1895
An exiled dissident named José Martí founded the Cuban Revolutionary Party in New York in
1892. The aim of the party was to achieve Cuban independence from Spain.[26] In January 1895
Martí traveled to Montecristi and Santo Domingo to join the efforts of Máximo Gómez.[26] Martí
recorded his political views in the Manifesto of Montecristi.[27] Fighting against the Spanish army
began in Cuba on 24 February 1895, but Martí was unable to reach Cuba until 11 April 1895.[26]
Martí was killed in the battle of Dos Rios on 19 May 1895.[26] His death immortalized him as
Cuba's national hero.[27]
Around 200,000 Spanish troops outnumbered the much smaller rebel army which relied mostly
on guerrilla and sabotage tactics. The Spaniards began a campaign of suppression. General
Valeriano Weyler, military governor of Cuba, herded the rural population into what he called
reconcentrados, described by international observers as "fortified towns". These are often
considered the prototype for 20th-century concentration camps.[28] Between 200,000 and 400,000
Cuban civilians died from starvation and disease in the camps, numbers verified by the Red
Cross and United States Senator and former Secretary of War Redfield Proctor. American and
European protests against Spanish conduct on the island followed.[29]
Spanish-American War
Main article: Spanish American War
USS Maine
The U.S. battleship Maine arrived in Havana on 25 January 1898 to offer protection to the 8,000
American residents on the island, but the Spanish saw this as intimidation. On the evening of 15
February 1898, the Maine blew up in the harbor, killing 252 crew. Another eight crew members
died of their wounds in hospital over the next few days.[30] A Naval Board of Inquiry headed by
Captain William T. Sampson was appointed to investigate the cause of the explosion on the
Maine. Having examined the wreck and taken testimony from eyewitnesses and experts, the
board reported on 21 March 1898 that the Maine had been destroyed by "a double magazine set
off from the exterior of the ship, which could only have been produced by a mine."[30]
The facts remain disputed today although an investigation by Admiral Hyman G. Rickover in
1976 established that the blast was most likely a large internal explosion. Rickover believes the
explosion was caused by a spontaneous combustion in a inadequately ventilated bituminous coal
which ignited gunpowder in an adjacent magazine.[31][32] The original 1898 board was unable to
fix the responsibility for the disaster, but a furious American populace, fueled by an active press
— notably the newspapers of William Randolph Hearst— concluded that the Spanish were to
blame and demanded action.[30] The U.S. Congress passed a resolution calling for intervention,
and President William McKinley complied.[33] Spain and the United States declared war on each
other in late April.
Early 20th century
After the Spanish-American War, Spain and the United States signed the Treaty of Paris (1898),
by which Spain ceded Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam to the United States for the sum of
$20 million.[34] Under the same treaty, Spain relinquished all claim of sovereignty over Cuba.
Theodore Roosevelt, who had fought in the Spanish-American War and had some sympathies
with the independence movement, succeeded McKinley as U.S. President in 1901 and
abandoned the treaty. Cuba gained formal independence from the U.S. on May 20, 1902 as the
Republic of Cuba. Under Cuba's new constitution, the U.S. retained the right to intervene in
Cuban affairs and to supervise its finances and foreign relations. Under the Platt Amendment, the
U.S. leased the Guantánamo Bay naval base from Cuba.
Following disputed elections in 1906, the first president, Tomás Estrada Palma, faced an armed
revolt by independence war veterans who defeated the meager government forces.[35] The U.S.
intervened by occupying Cuba and named Charles Edward Magoon as Governor for three years.
Cuban historians have attributed Magoon's governorship as having introduced political and
social corruption.[36] In 1908, self-government was restored when José Miguel Gómez was
elected President, but the U.S. continued intervening in Cuban affairs. In 1912, the Partido
Independiente de Color attempted to establish a separate black republic in Oriente Province,[37]
but was suppressed by General Monteagudo with considerable bloodshed.

The Gran Teatro (left) and Hotel Inglaterra, on the Prado, facing Parque Central in Havana
During World War I, Cuba exported considerable quantities of sugar to Britain. Cuba was able to
avoid U-boat attacks by the subterfuge of shipping the sugar to Sweden. The Menocal
government declared war on Germany very soon after the United States.
A constitutional government was maintained until 1930 when Gerardo Machado y Morales
suspended the constitution. During Machado's tenure, a nationalistic economic program was
pursued with several major national development projects which included the Carretera Central
and El Capitolio. Machado's hold on power was weakened following a decline in demand for
exported agricultural produce due to the Great Depression, attacks by independence war
veterans, and attacks by covert terrorist organizations, principally the ABC.[citation needed]
During a general strike in which the Communist Party sided with Machado,[38] the senior
elements of the Cuban army forced Machado into exile. The Party then installed Carlos Manuel
de Céspedes y Quesada, son of Cuba's founding father (Carlos Manuel de Céspedes), as
President. During 4–5 September 1933, a second coup overthrew Céspedes which led to the
formation of the first Ramón Grau government. Notable events in this violent period include the
separate sieges of Hotel Nacional de Cuba and Atares Castle. This government lasted 100 days
but engineered radical socialist changes in Cuban society and a rejection of the Platt
Amendment. In 1934, Fulgencio Batista and the army replaced Grau with Carlos Mendieta.
Fulgencio Batista was democratically elected President in the elections of 1940 [39][40][41] and his
administration carried out major social reforms. Several members of the Communist Party held
office under his administration[42] and established numerous economic regulations and pro-union
policies.[43] Batista's administration formally took Cuba to the Allies of World War II camp in
World War II. Cuba declared war on Japan on December 9, 1941, then on Germany and Italy on
December 11, 1941. Cuban armed forces were not greatly involved in combat during World War
II, although president Batista suggested a joint U.S.-Latin American assault on Francoist Spain in
order to overthrow its authoritarian regime.[44]
Many so-called yank tanks remain in use from pre-revolutionary days. The balcony above
belongs to a casa particular.
Ramón Grau won the 1944 elections and in 1948, Carlos Prío Socarrás won the elections.
An influx of investment fueled a boom which raised living standards for all segments of society
and created a prosperous middle class in most urban areas. The gap between rich and poor
became wider and more obvious.[45]
The 1952 election was a three-way race. Roberto Agramonte of the Ortodoxos party led in all the
polls, followed by Dr Aurelio Hevia of the Auténtico party, and Fulgencio Batista, seeking a
return to office, as a distant third. Both Agramonte and Hevia had decided to name Col. Ramón
Barquín to head the Cuban armed forces after the elections. Barquín, then a diplomat in
Washington, DC, was a top officer. He was respected by the professional army and had promised
to eliminate corruption in the ranks. Batista feared that Barquín would oust him and his
followers. When it became apparent that Batista had little chance of winning, he staged a coup
on 10 March 1952. Batista held on to power with the backing of a nationalist section of the army
as a "provisional president" for the next two years.
In March 1952 Justo Carrillo informed Barquín in Washington that the inner circles knew that
Batista had plotted the coup. They immediately began to conspire to oust Batista and restore
democracy and civilian government in what was later dubbed La Conspiracion de los Puros de
1956 (Agrupacion Montecristi). In 1954, Batista agreed to elections. The Partido Auténtico put
forward ex-President Grau as their candidate, but he withdrew amid allegations that Batista was
rigging the elections in advance.
At the beginning of

“ 1959 United States

companies owned
about 40 percent of
the Cuban sugar
lands - almost all
the cattle ranches -
90 percent of the
mines and mineral
concessions - 80
percent of the
utilities -
practically all the
oil industry - and
supplied two-thirds
of Cuba's imports.

”
U.S. President
John F.
Kennedy,1960 [46]
In April 1956 Batista ordered Barquín to become General and chief of the army, but Barquín
decided to move forward with his coup to secure total power. On 4 April 1956, a coup by
hundreds of career officers led by Barquín was frustrated by Rios Morejon. The coup broke the
back of the Cuban armed forces. The officers were sentenced to the maximum terms allowed by
Cuban Martial Law. Barquín was sentenced to solitary confinement for eight years. La
Conspiración de los Puros resulted in the imprisonment of the commanders of the armed forces
and the closing of the military academies.
Cuba had Latin America's highest per capita consumption rates of meat, vegetables, cereals,
automobiles, telephones and radios.[47] In 1958, Cuba was a relatively well-advanced country by
Latin American standards, and in some cases by world standards.[48] Cuba attracted more
immigrants, primarily from Europe, as a percentage of population than the U.S. The United
Nations noted Cuba for its large middle class. On the other hand, Cuba was affected by perhaps
the largest labor union privileges in Latin America, including bans on dismissals and
mechanization. They were obtained in large measure "at the cost of the unemployed and the
peasants", leading to disparities.[49]
Between 1933 and 1958, Cuba extended economic regulations enormously, causing economic
problems.[41][50] Unemployment became a problem as graduates entering the workforce could not
find jobs.[41] The middle class, which was comparable to the United States, became increasingly
dissatisfied with the unemployment. The labor unions supported Batista until the very end.[39][41]
Revolution
Main article: Cuban Revolution

The 18-metre (59 ft) diesel-powered yacht Granma, built in 1942, was used to transport Cuban
revolutionaries from Mexico to Cuba on 2 December 1956.
On 2 December 1956 a party of 82 people on the yacht Granma landed in Cuba. The party, led
by Fidel Castro, had the intention of establishing an armed resistance movement in the Sierra
Maestra. While facing armed resistance from Castro's rebel fighters in the mountains, Fulgencio
Batista's regime was weakened and crippled by a United States arms embargo imposed on 14
March 1958. By late 1958, the rebels broke out of the Sierra Maestra and launched a general
popular insurrection. After the fighters captured Santa Clara, Batista fled from Havana on 1
January 1959 to exile in Portugal. Barquín negotiated the symbolic change of command between
Camilo Cienfuegos, Che Guevara, Raúl Castro, and his brother Fidel Castro after the Supreme
Court decided that the Revolution was the source of law and its representatives should assume
command.
Fidel Castro's forces entered the capital on 8 January 1959. Shortly afterward, a liberal lawyer,
Dr Manuel Urrutia Lleó became president. He was backed by Castro's 26th of July Movement
because they believed his appointment would be welcomed by the United States.[citation needed]
Disagreements within the government culminated in Urrutia's resignation in July 1959. He was
replaced by Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado, who served as president until 1976. Castro became prime
minister in February 1959, succeeding José Miró in that post.
Fidel Castro and members of the East German Politburo in 1972
In its first year, the new revolutionary government expropriated private property with little or no
compensation, nationalized public utilities, tightened controls on the private sector, and closed
down the mafia-controlled gambling industry. The CIA conspired with the Chicago mafia in
1960 and 1961 to assassinate Fidel Castro, according to documents declassified in 2007.[51][52]
Some of these measures were undertaken by Fidel Castro's government in the name of the
program outlined in the Manifesto of the Sierra Maestra.[53] The government nationalized private
property totaling about USD $25 billion,[54] of which American property made up around USD
$1 billion.[54][55]
By the end of 1960, all opposition newspapers in Cuba had been closed down, and all radio and
television stations were in state control.[47] Moderates, teachers, and professors were purged.[47] In
any year, about 20,000 dissenters were imprisoned.[47] Some homosexuals, religious practitioners,
and others were sent to labor camps where they were subject to medical-political "re-education".
[56]
One estimate is that 15,000 to 17,000 people were executed.[57]
The Communist Party strengthened its one-party rule, with Castro as ultimate leader.[47] Fidel's
brother, Raúl Castro, became the army chief.[47] Loyalty to Castro became the primary criterion
for all appointments.[58] In September 1960, the revolutionary government created a system
known as Committees for the Defense of the Revolution (CDR), which provided neighborhood
spying.[47]
In the 1961 New Year's Day parade, the administration exhibited Soviet tanks and other
weapons.[58] Eventually, Cuba built up the second largest armed forces in Latin America, second
only to Brazil.[59] Cuba became a privileged client-state of the Soviet Union.[60]
By 1961, hundreds of thousands of Cubans had left for the United States.[61] The 1961 Bay of
Pigs Invasion (La Batalla de Girón) was an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the Cuban
government by a U.S.-trained force of Cuban exiles with U.S. military support. The plan was
launched in April 1961, less than three months after John F. Kennedy became the U.S. President.
The Cuban armed forces, trained and equipped by Eastern Bloc nations, defeated the exiles in
three days. Cuban-American relations were exacerbated the following year by the Cuban Missile
Crisis, when the Kennedy administration demanded the immediate withdrawal of Soviet missiles
placed in Cuba placed in response to U.S. nuclear missiles in Turkey and the Middle East. The
Soviets and Americans soon came to an agreement. The Soviets would remove Soviet missiles
from Cuba and the Americans would remove missiles from Turkey and the Middle East.
Kennedy also agreed not to invade Cuba in the future. Cuban exiles captured during the Bay of
Pigs Invasion were exchanged for a shipment of supplies from America.[39]
By 1963, Cuba was moving towards a full-fledged Communist system modeled on the USSR.[62]
The U.S. imposed a complete diplomatic and commercial embargo on Cuba and began Operation
Mongoose, a program of covert CIA operations.
In 1965, Castro merged his revolutionary organizations with the Communist Party, of which he
became First Secretary; Blas Roca was named Second Secretary. Roca was succeeded by Raúl
Castro, who, as Defense Minister and Fidel's closest confidant, became and remained the second
most powerful figure in Cuba until his brother's retirement. Raúl's position was strengthened by
the departure of Che Guevara to launch unsuccessful insurrections in the Democratic Republic of
Congo, and then Bolivia, where he was killed in 1967.
During the 1970s, Fidel Castro dispatched tens of thousands troops in support of Soviet-
supported wars in Africa, particularly the MPLA in Angola and Mengistu Haile Mariam in
Ethiopia.[63]
The standard of living in 1970s was "extremely spartan" and discontent was rife.[64] Fidel Castro
admitted the failures of economic policies in a 1970 speech.[64] By the mid-1970s, Castro started
economic reforms.
Cuba was suspended from the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1962 in support of the
U.S. embargo, but in 1975 the OAS lifted all sanctions against Cuba, with approval of 16
countries, including the U.S.[65]
On 3 June 2009, the OAS adopted a resolution to end the 47-year exclusion of Cuba. The
meetings were contentious, with the U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton walking out
at one point. However, in the end, the U.S. delegation agreed with the other members and
approved the resolution. Cuban leaders have repeatedly announced they are not interested in
rejoining the OAS.[66]
Recent affairs
As of 2002, some 1.2 million persons of Cuban background (about 10% of the current population
of Cuba) reside in the U.S.[67][68] Many of them left the island for the United States, often by sea
in small boats and fragile rafts. On 6 April 1980, 10,000 Cubans stormed the Peruvian embassy
in Havana seeking political asylum. The following day, the Cuban government granted
permission for the emigration of Cubans seeking refuge in the Peruvian embassy.[citation needed] On
16 April, 500 Cubans left the Peruvian Embassy for Costa Rica. On 21 April, many of those
Cubans started arriving in Miami via private boats and were halted by[clarification needed] the U.S. State
Department, but the emigration continued, because Castro allowed anyone who desired to leave
the country to do so through the port of Mariel. Over 125,000 Cubans emigrated to the U.S.
before the flow of vessels ended on 15 June.[citation needed]

Raúl Castro and President Medvedev of Russia

Castro's rule was severely tested in the aftermath of the Soviet collapse (known in Cuba as the
Special Period), with effects such as food shortages.[69][70] The government did not accept
American donations of food, medicines, and cash until 1993.[69] On 5 August 1994, state security
dispersed protesters in a spontaneous protest in Havana.[71]
Cuba has found a new source of aid and support in the People's Republic of China, and new
allies in Hugo Chávez, President of Venezuela and Evo Morales, President of Bolivia, both
major oil and gas exporters. In 2003, the government arrested and imprisoned a large number of
civil activists, a period known as the "Black Spring".[72][73]
On July 31, 2006, Fidel Castro temporarily delegated his major duties to his brother, First Vice
President, Raúl Castro, while Fidel recovered from surgery for an "acute intestinal crisis with
sustained bleeding".[citation needed] On 2 December 2006, Fidel was too ill to attend the 50th
anniversary commemoration of the Granma boat landing, fuelling speculation that he had
stomach cancer,[74] although there was evidence his illness was a digestive problem and not
terminal.[75]
In January 2007, footage was released of Fidel meeting Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez, in
which Castro "appeared frail but stronger than three months ago".[76] In February 2008, Fidel
announced his resignation as President of Cuba,[77] and on 24 February Raúl was elected as the
new President.[78] In his acceptance speech, Raúl promised that some of the restrictions that limit
Cubans' daily lives would be removed.[79] In March 2009, Raúl Castro removed some of Fidel's
officials.[80]
Human rights
Main articles: Human rights in Cuba, Censorship in Cuba, and Cuban dissidents

Trinidad, Cuba, a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1988

The Cuban government has been accused of numerous human rights abuses including torture,
arbitrary imprisonment, unfair trials, and extrajudicial executions (also known as "El Paredón").
[81]
The Human Rights Watch alleges that the government "represses nearly all forms of political
dissent" and that "Cubans are systematically denied basic rights to free expression, association,
assembly, privacy, movement, and due process of law".[82]
Cuba was the second biggest prison in the world for journalists in 2008, second only to the
People's Republic of China, according to the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ), an
international NGO.[83] As a result of ownership bans, computer ownership rates are among the
world's lowest.[84] The right to use the Internet is granted only to selected people and they are
monitored.[84][85] Connecting to the Internet illegally can lead to a five-year prison sentence.
Cuban dissidents face arrest and imprisonment. In the 1990s, Human Rights Watch reported that
Cuba's extensive prison system, one of the largest in Latin America, consists of some 40
maximum-security prisons, 30 minimum-security prisons, and over 200 work camps.[86]
According to Human Rights Watch, political prisoners, along with the rest of Cuba's prison
population, are confined to jails with substandard and unhealthy conditions.[86]
Citizens cannot leave or return to Cuba without first obtaining official permission.[82]
Economy
Main articles: Economy of Cuba, Tourism in Cuba, Rationing in Cuba, and Sociolismo

Tobacco plantation, Pinar del Río

The Cuban state adheres to socialist principles in organizing its largely state-controlled planned
economy. Most of the means of production are owned and run by the government and most of
the labor force is employed by the state. Recent years have seen a trend towards more private
sector employment. By 2006, public sector employment was 78% and private sector 22%,
compared to 91.8% to 8.2% in 1981.[87] Capital investment is restricted and requires approval by
the government. The Cuban government sets most prices and rations goods. Any firm wishing to
hire a Cuban must pay the Cuban government, which in turn will pay the employee in Cuban
pesos.[88] Cubans can not change jobs without government permission.[41] The average wage at
the end of 2005 was 334 regular pesos per month ($16.70 per month) and the average pension
was $9 per month.[89]
Cuba relied heavily on trade with the Soviet Union. From the late 1980s, Soviet subsidies for
Cuban goods started to dry up. Before the collapse of the Soviet Union, Cuba depended on
Moscow for substantial aid and sheltered markets for its exports. The removal of these subsidies
sent the Cuban economy into a rapid depression known in Cuba as the Special Period. In 1992
the United States tightened the trade embargo, hoping to see democratization of the sort that took
place in Eastern Europe.
Like some other Communist and post-Communist states following the collapse of the Soviet
Union, Cuba took limited free market-oriented measures to alleviate severe shortages of food,
consumer goods, and services. These steps included allowing some self-employment in certain
retail and light manufacturing sectors, the legalization of the use of the US dollar in business, and
the encouragement of tourism. Cuba has developed a unique urban farm system (the
organopónicos) to compensate for the end of food imports from the Soviet Union. In recent
years, Cuba has rolled back some of the market oriented measures undertaken in the 1990s. In
2004 Cuban officials publicly backed the Euro as a "global counter-balance to the US dollar",
and eliminated U.S. currency from circulation in its stores and businesses.[citation needed]
Tourism was initially restricted to enclave resorts where tourists would be segregated from
Cuban society, referred to as "enclave tourism" and "tourism apartheid".[90] Contacts between
foreign visitors and ordinary Cubans were de facto illegal until 1997.[91][92] In 1996 tourism
surpassed the sugar industry as the largest source of hard currency for Cuba. Cuba has tripled its
market share of Caribbean tourism in the last decade; as a result of significant investment in
tourism infrastructure, this growth rate is predicted to continue.[93] 1.9 million tourists visited
Cuba in 2003, predominantly from Canada and the European Union, generating revenue of $2.1
billion.[94] The rapid growth of tourism during the Special Period had widespread social and
economic repercussions in Cuba, and led to speculation about the emergence of a two-tier
economy.[95] The Medical tourism sector caters to thousands of European, Latin American,
Canadian, and American consumers every year.
The communist agricultural production system was ridiculed by Raúl Castro in 2008.[96] Cuba
now imports up to 80% of its food.[96] Before 1959, Cuba boasted as many cattle as people.
For some time, Cuba has been experiencing a housing shortage because of the state's failure to
keep pace with increasing demand.[97] The government instituted food rationing policies in 1962,
which were exacerbated following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the tightening of the U.S.
embargo. Studies have shown that, as late as 2001, the average Cuban's standard of living was
lower than before the downturn of the post-Soviet period. Paramount issues have been state
salaries failing to meet personal needs under the state rationing system, chronically plagued with
shortages. The variety and quantity of available rationed goods declined.
Under Venezuela's Mission Barrio Adentro, Hugo Chávez has supplied Cuba with up to
80,000 barrels (13,000 m3) of oil per day in exchange for 30,000 doctors and teachers.
In 2005 Cuba had exports of $2.4 billion, ranking 114 of 226 world countries, and imports of
$6.9 billion, ranking 87 of 226 countries.[98] Its major export partners are China 27.5%, Canada
26.9%, Netherlands 11.1%, Spain 4.7% (2007).[8] Cuba's major exports are sugar, nickel,
tobacco, fish, medical products, citrus, and coffee;[8] imports include food, fuel, clothing, and
machinery. Cuba presently holds debt in an amount estimated to be $13 billion,[99] approximately
38% of GDP.[100] According to the Heritage Foundation, Cuba is dependent on credit accounts
that rotate from country to country.[101] Cuba's prior 35% supply of the world's export market for
sugar has declined to 10% due to a variety of factors, including a global sugar commodity price
drop that made Cuba less competitive on world markets.[102] At one time, Cuba was the world's
most important sugar producer and exporter. As a result of diversification, underinvestment, and
natural disasters, Cuba's sugar production has seen a drastic decline. In 2002 more than half of
Cuba's sugar mills were shut down. Cuba holds 6.4% of the global market for nickel,[103] which
constitutes about 25% of total Cuban exports.[104] Recently, large reserves of oil have been found
in the North Cuba Basin.[105]
In 2010, Cubans were allowed to build their own houses. According to Raul Castro, they will be
able to improve their houses with this new permission, but the government will not endorse these
new houses or improvements.[106]
Government and politics
Main articles: Politics of Cuba, Provinces of Cuba, and Municipalities of Cuba
Revolution Square: José Martí Monument designed by Enrique Luis Varela, sculpted by Juan
José Sicre, and finished in 1958.[107]
The Constitution of 1976, which defined Cuba as a socialist republic, was replaced by the
Constitution of 1992, which is guided by the ideas of José Martí, Marx, Engels and Lenin.[4] The
constitution describes the Communist Party of Cuba as the "leading force of society and of the
state".[4] The first secretary of the Communist Party is concurrently President of the Council of
State (President of Cuba) and President of the Council of Ministers (sometimes referred to as
Prime Minister of Cuba).[108] Members of both councils are elected by the National Assembly of
People's Power.[4] The President of Cuba, who is also elected by the Assembly, serves for five
years and there is no limit to the number of terms of office.[4]
The Supreme Court of Cuba serves as the nation's highest judicial branch of government. It is
also the court of last resort for all appeals against the decisions of provincial courts.
Cuba's national legislature, the National Assembly of People's Power (Asamblea Nacional de
Poder Popular), is the supreme organ of power; 609 members serve five-year terms.[4] The
assembly meets twice a year; between sessions legislative power is held by the 31 member
Council of Ministers. Candidates for the Assembly are approved by public referendum. All
Cuban citizens over 16 who have not been convicted of a criminal offense can vote. Article 131
of the Constitution states that voting shall be "through free, equal and secret vote".[4] Article 136
states: "In order for deputies or delegates to be considered elected they must get more than half
the number of valid votes cast in the electoral districts".[4] Votes are cast by secret ballot and
counted in public view. Nominees are chosen at local gatherings from multiple candidates before
gaining approval from election committees. In the subsequent election, there is only one
candidate for each seat, who must gain a majority to be elected.
No political party is permitted to nominate candidates or campaign on the island, though the
Communist Party of Cuba has held five party congress meetings since 1975. In 1997 the party
claimed 780,000 members, and representatives generally constitute at least half of the Councils
of state and the National Assembly. The remaining positions are filled by candidates nominally
without party affiliation. Other political parties campaign and raise finances internationally,
while activity within Cuba by opposition groups is minimal and illegal.
The country is subdivided into 14 provinces and one special municipality (Isla de la Juventud).
These were formerly part of six larger historical provinces: Pinar del Río, Habana, Matanzas, Las
Villas, Camagüey and Oriente. The present subdivisions closely resemble those of the Spanish
military provinces during the Cuban Wars of Independence, when the most troublesome areas
were subdivided. The provinces are divided into municipalities.
1. Pinar del 9. Ciego de
Río Ávila
2. Havana 10. Camagüey
Province 11. Las Tunas
3. Havana 12. Granma
City 13. Holguín
4. Matanzas 14. Santiago de
5. Cienfuegos Cuba
6. Villa Clara 15. Guantánamo
7. Sancti 16. Isla de la
Spíritus Juventud
Military
Main article: Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces

Cuban MiG-29UB
Cuba devoted nine to 13 percent of its GDP to military expenditures.[109] Castro built up the
second largest armed forces in Latin America; only Brazil's were larger.[59] From 1975 until the
late 1980s, Soviet military assistance enabled Cuba to upgrade its military capabilities. Since the
loss of Soviet subsidies Cuba has scaled down the numbers of military personnel, from 235,000
in 1994 to about 60,000 in 2003.[110] Cuba is secretive about its military spending.[109]
The military is considered by some to be the most powerful, influential, and competent official
institution in Cuba.[neutrality is disputed][111]
Foreign relations
Main article: Foreign relations of Cuba
From its inception, the Cuban Revolution defined itself as internationalist, joining Comecon in
1972. Cuba was a major contributor to Soviet-supported wars in Africa, Central America and
Asia. In Africa, the largest war was in Angola, where Cuba sent tens of thousands of troops.
Cuba was a friend of the Ethiopian leader Mengistu Haile Mariam.[112] In Africa, Cuba supported
17 leftist governments. In some countries it suffered setbacks, such as in eastern Zaire, but in
others Cuba had significant success. Major engagements took place in Algeria, Zaire, Yemen,[113]
Ethiopia, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique.
The Cuban government's military involvement in Latin America—mostly with the aim of
overthrowing U.S. backed right wing regimes, many of them dictatorial—has been extensive.
One of the earliest interventions was the Marxist militia led by Che Guevara in Bolivia in 1967,
though a modicum of funds and troops were sent. Lesser known actions include the 1959
missions to the Dominican Republic[114] and Panama.[citation needed] In the former, the Cuban
government provided military assistance to a group of Dominican exiles with the intention of
overthrowing the tyrannical dictator Rafael Trujillo. Although the expedition failed and most of
its members were murdered by the government, today they are recognized as heroes and a
prominent monument was erected in their memory in Santo Domingo by the Dominican
government. The Museo Memorial de la Resistencia Dominicana ("Memorial Museum of the
Dominican Resistance,") where the heroes of 1959 feature prominently, is being built by the
Dominican Government.[115] The socialist government in Nicaragua was openly supported by
Cuba and can be considered its greatest success in Latin America.[citation needed] Cuba is a founding
member of the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas. More than 30,000 Cuban doctors currently
work abroad, in countries such as Venezuela and Zimbabwe.[116] The membership of Cuba in the
United Nations Human Rights Council has received criticism.[117]
The European Union in 2003 accused the Cuban government of "continuing flagrant violation of
human rights and fundamental freedoms".[118] In 2008, the EU and Cuba agreed to resume full
relations and cooperation activities.[119] The United States continues an embargo against Cuba "so
long as it continues to refuse to move toward democratization and greater respect for human
rights".[120] United States President Barack Obama stated on April 17, 2009 in Trinidad and
Tobago that "the United States seeks a new beginning with Cuba",[121] and reversed the Bush
Administration's prohibition on travel and remittances by Cuban-Americans from the United
States to Cuba.[122]
Geography
Main article: Geography of Cuba

Alejandro de Humboldt National Park in eastern Cuba

Cuba is an archipelago of islands located in the northern Caribbean Sea at the confluence with
the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. The United States lies to the north-west, the
Bahamas to the north, Haiti to the east, Jamaica and the Cayman Islands to the south, and
Mexico to the west. Cuba is the principal island, surrounded by four smaller groups of islands:
the Colorados Archipelago on the northwestern coast, the Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago on the
north-central Atlantic coast, the Jardines de la Reina on the south-central coast and the Canarreos
Archipelago on the southwestern coast.
The main island is 1,199 km (745 mi) long, constituting most of the nation's land area
(105,006 km2 (40,543 sq mi)) and is the 16th-largest island in the world by land area. The main
island consists mostly of flat to rolling plains apart from the Sierra Maestra mountains in the
southeast, whose highest point is Pico Turquino (1,975 m (6,480 ft)). The second-largest island is
Isla de la Juventud (Isle of Youth) in the Canarreos archipelago, with an area of 3,056 km2
(1,180 sq mi). Cuba has a total land area of 110,860 km2 (42,803 sq mi).
Climate
Main article: Climate of Cuba

Beach on Cayo Largo del Sur in the Canarreos archipelago

The local climate is tropical, moderated by northeasterly trade winds that blow year-round. In
general (with local variations), there is a drier season from November to April, and a rainier
season from May to October. The average temperature is 21 °C (69.8 °F) in January and 27 °C
(80.6 °F) in July. The warm temperatures of the Caribbean Sea and the fact that Cuba sits across
the entrance to the Gulf of Mexico combine to make the country prone to frequent hurricanes.
These are most common in September and October.
Resources
The most important mineral resource is nickel, of which Cuba has the world's second largest
reserves (after Russia).[123] Sherritt International of Canada operates a large nickel mining facility
in Moa. Cuba is the world's fifth-largest producer of refined cobalt, a byproduct of nickel mining
operations.[123] Recent oil
exploration has revealed Official 1899–2002 Cuba Census [3][125][126]
that the North Cuba Basin
could produce Race % 1899 1907 1919 1931 1943 1953 1981 2002
approximately 4.6 billion
barrels (730,000,000 m3) to White 66.9 69.7 72.2 72.1 74.3 72.8 66.0 65.05
9.3 billion barrels Black 14.9 13.4 11.2 11.0 9.7 12.4 12.0 10.08
(1.48×109 m3) of oil. In
2006, Cuba started to test- Mulatto 17.2 16.3 16.0 16.2 15.6 14.5 21.9 24.86
drill these locations for
possible exploitation.[124] Asian 1.0 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.1  ?
Demographics
Main articles: Demographics of Cuba, Religion in Cuba, and Spanish immigration to Cuba
Immigration to Cuba
Between 1882 and 1898, a total of 508,455 people left Spain, and more than 750,000 Spanish
immigrants left for Cuba between 1899 and 1923, with many returning back to Spain.[127]
Current demographics
According to the census of 2002, the population was 11,177,743,[3] including 5,597,233 men and
5,580,510 women. The racial make-up was 7,271,926 whites, 1,126,894 blacks and 2,778,923
mulattoes (or mestizos).[128] The population of Cuba has very complex origins and intermarriage
between diverse groups is general. There is disagreement about racial statistics. The Institute for
Cuban and Cuban-American Studies at the University of Miami says that 62% is black,[129]
whereas statistics from the Cuban census state that 65.05% of the population was white in 2002.
The Minority Rights Group International says that "An objective assessment of the situation of
Afro-Cubans remains problematic due to scant records and a paucity of systematic studies both
pre- and post-revolution. Estimates of the percentage of people of African descent in the Cuban
population vary enormously, ranging from 33.9 per cent to 62 per cent".[130]

The Cathedral of Saint Christopher in Havana

Immigration and emigration have played a prominent part in the demographic profile of Cuba
during the 20th century. During the 18th, 19th, and the early part of the 20th century large waves
of Canarian, Catalan, Andalusian, Galician, and other Spanish people immigrated to Cuba.
Between 1900 and 1930 close to a million Spaniards arrived from Spain. Other foreign
immigrants include: French,[131] Portuguese, Italian, Russian, Dutch, Greek, British, Irish, and
other ethnic groups, including a small number of descendants of U.S. citizens who arrived in
Cuba in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
Cuba has a sizable number of Asian people who comprise 1% of the population. They are
primarily of Chinese descent (see Chinese Cubans), followed by Japanese, Filipino, Koreans and
Vietnamese people. They are descendants of farm laborers brought to the island by Spanish and
American contractors during the 19th and early 20th century.[citation needed] Afro-Cubans are
descended primarily from the Kongo people.[citation needed], as well as several thousand North
African refugees, most notably the Sahrawi Arabs of Western Sahara under Moroccan
occupation since 1976.[132]
Cuba's birth rate (9.88 births per thousand population in 2006)[133] is one of the lowest in the
Western Hemisphere. Its overall population has increased continuously from around 7 million in
1961 to over 11 million now, but the increase has stopped in the last few decades, and a decrease
began in 2006, with a fertility rate of 1.43 children per woman.[134] This drop in fertility is among
the largest in the Western Hemisphere.[135] Cuba has unrestricted access to legal abortion and an
abortion rate of 58.6 per 1000 pregnancies in 1996, compared to an average of 35 in the
Caribbean, 27 in Latin America overall, and 48 in Europe. Contraceptive use is estimated at 79%
(in the upper third of countries in the Western Hemisphere).[136]
Cuba is officially a secular state. After having long maintained that churches were fronts for
subversive political activity, the government reversed course in 1992, amending the constitution
to characterize the state as secular instead of atheist.[citation needed] It has many faiths representing the
widely varying culture. Roman Catholicism was the largest religion; it was brought to the island
by the Spanish and remains the dominant faith,[101] with 11 dioceses, 56 orders of nuns, and 24
orders of priests. In January 1998,
Official Cuban migration to the U.S. [125][126]
Pope John Paul II paid a historic
visit to the island, invited by the Year of
Cuban government and Catholic White Black Other Asian Number
Immigration
Church. The religious landscape of
Cuba is also strongly marked by 1959–64 93.3 1.2 5.3 0.2 144,732
syncretisms of various kinds.
Catholicism is often practiced in 1965–74 87.7 2.0 9.1 0.2 247,726
tandem with Santería, a mixture of
1975–79 82.6 4.0 13.3 0.1 29,508
Catholicism and other, mainly
African, faiths that include a 1980 80.9 5.3 13.7 0.1 94,095
number of cults. La Virgen de la
Caridad del Cobre (the Virgin of 1981–89 85.7 3.1 10.9 0.3 77,835
Cobre) is the Catholic patroness of
Cuba, and a symbol of Cuban 1990–93 84.7 3.2 11.9 0.2 60,244
culture. In Santería, she has been
syncretized with the goddess 1994–2000 85.8 3.7 10.4 0.7 174,437
Oshun. Total 87.2 2.9 10.7 0.2 828,577
Three hundred thousand Cubans
belong to the island's 54 Protestant denominations. Pentecostalism has grown rapidly in recent
years, and the Assemblies of God alone claims a membership of over 100,000 people. Cuba has
small communities of Jews, Muslims and members of the Bahá'í Faith.[137] Most Jewish Cubans
are descendants of Polish and Russian Ashkenazi Jews who fled pogroms at the beginning of the
20th century. There is a sizeable number of Sephardic Jews in Cuba who trace their origin to
Turkey. Most of these Sephardic Jews live in the provinces, although they maintain a synagogue
in Havana.
Cuban migration
In the last half-century, several hundred thousand Cubans of all social classes have emigrated to
the United States,[138] Spain, the United Kingdom, Canada, Mexico, and other countries. On 9
September 1994, the U.S. and Cuban governments agreed that the U.S. would grant at least
20,000 visas annually in exchange for Cuba's pledge to prevent further unlawful departures on
boats.[139]
Education
Main article: Education in Cuba

University of Havana, founded in 1728

The University of Havana was founded in 1728 and there are a number of other well-established
colleges and universities. In 1957, just before Castro came to power, the literacy rate was fourth
in the region at almost 80% according to the United Nations, higher than in Spain.[48][140] Castro
created an entirely state-operated system and banned private institutions. School attendance is
compulsory from ages six to the end of basic secondary education (normally at age 15), and all
students, regardless of age or gender, wear school uniforms with the color denoting grade level.
Primary education lasts for six years, secondary education is divided into basic and pre-
university education.[141]
Higher education is provided by universities, higher institutes, higher pedagogical institutes, and
higher polytechnic institutes. The Cuban Ministry of Higher Education operates a scheme of
distance education which provides regular afternoon and evening courses in rural areas for
agricultural workers. Education has a strong political and ideological emphasis, and students
progressing to higher education are expected to have a commitment to the goals of Cuba.[141]
Cuba has provided state subsidized education to a limited number of foreign nationals at the
Latin American School of Medicine.[142][143] Internet access is limited.[144] The sale of computer
equipment is strictly regulated. Internet access is controlled, and e-mail is closely monitored.[85]
Strong ideological content is present. Educational and cultural policy is based on Marxist
ideology. A file is kept on children's "revolutionary integration" and it accompanies the child for
life.[145] A person's university options depend on how well the person is integrated to Marxist
ideology;[145] permission must be obtained from the "Committee for the Defense of the
Revolution".[146] "The Code for Children, Youth and Family" states that a parent who teaches
ideas contrary to communism can be sentenced to three years in prison.[145]
Health
Main article: Healthcare in Cuba
Historically, Cuba has ranked high in numbers of medical personnel and has made significant
contributions to world health since the 19th century.[48] Today, Cuba has universal free health
care and although shortages of medical supplies persist, there is no shortage of medical
personnel.[147] Primary care is available throughout the island and infant and maternal mortality
rates compare favorably with those in developed nations.[147]
Post-Revolution Cuba initially experienced an overall worsening in terms of disease and infant
mortality rates in the 1960s when half its 6,000 doctors left the country.[148] Recovery occurred by
the 1980s.[39] The Communist government asserted that universal health care was to become a
priority of state planning and progress was made in rural areas.[149] Like the rest of the Cuban
economy, Cuban medical care suffered from severe material shortages following the end of
Soviet subsidies in 1991, followed by a tightening of the U.S. embargo in 1992.[150]
Challenges include low pay of doctors (only $15 a month[151]), poor facilities, poor provision of
equipment, and frequent absence of essential drugs.[152] Cuba has the highest doctor-to-population
ratio in the world and has sent thousands of doctors to more than 40 countries around the world.
[153]

According to the UN, the life expectancy in Cuba is 78.3 years (76.2 for males and 80.4 for
females). This ranks Cuba 37th in the world and 3rd in the Americas, behind only Canada and
Chile, and just ahead of the United States. Infant mortality in Cuba declined from 32 infant
deaths per 1,000 live births in 1957, to 10 in 1990–95.[154] Infant mortality in 2000–2005 was 6.1
per 1,000 live births (compared to 6.8 in the United States).
The high quality public healtcare offered to citizens is regarded as the "greatest triumph" of
Cuba's socialist system.[155]
Culture
Main articles: Culture of Cuba and Sport in Cuba
Cuban culture is influenced by its melting pot of cultures, primarily those of Spain and Africa.
Sport is Cuba's national passion. Due to historical associations with the United States, many
Cubans participate in sports which are popular in North America, rather than sports traditionally
promoted in other Spanish-speaking nations. Baseball is by far the most popular; other sports and
pastimes include basketball, volleyball, cricket, and athletics. Cuba is a dominant force in
amateur boxing, consistently achieving high medal tallies in major international competitions.
Music
Main article: Music of Cuba

A local musical house, Casa de la Trova in Santiago de Cuba

Cuban music is very rich and is the most commonly known expression of culture. The central
form of this music is Son, which has been the basis of many other musical styles like salsa,
rumba and mambo and an upbeat derivation of the rumba, the cha-cha-cha. Rumba music
originated in early Afro-Cuban culture. The Tres was also invented in Cuba, but other traditional
Cuban instruments are of African and/or Taíno origin such as the maracas, güiro, marimba and
various wooden drums including the mayohuacan. Popular Cuban music of all styles has been
enjoyed and praised widely across the world. Cuban classical music, which includes music with
strong African and European influences, and features symphonic works as well as music for
soloists, has received international acclaim thanks to composers like Ernesto Lecuona. Havana
was the heart of the rap scene in Cuba when it began in the 1990s. During that time, reggaetón
was growing in popularity. Dance in Cuba has taken a major boost over the 1990s.
Cuisine
Main article: Cuban cuisine

A traditional meal of ropa vieja (shredded flank steak in a tomato sauce base), black beans,
yellow rice, plantains and fried yuca with beer
Cuban cuisine is a fusion of Spanish and Caribbean cuisines. Cuban recipes share spices and
techniques with Spanish cooking, with some Caribbean influence in spice and flavor. Food
rationing, which has been the norm in Cuba for the last four decades, restricts the common
availability of these dishes.[156] The traditional Cuban meal is not served in courses; all food items
are served at the same time. The typical meal could consist of plantains, black beans and rice,
ropa vieja (shredded beef), Cuban bread, pork with onions, and tropical fruits. Black beans and
rice, referred to as Platillo Moros y Cristianos (or moros for short), and plantains are staples of
the Cuban diet. Many of the meat dishes are cooked slowly with light sauces. Garlic, cumin,
oregano, and bay leaves are the dominant spices.
Literature
Main article: Cuban literature
Cuba has produced more than its fair share of literature. Cuban literature began to find its voice
in the early 19th century. Dominant themes of independence and freedom were exemplified by
José Martí, who led the Modernist movement in Cuban literature. Writers such as Nicolás
Guillén and Jose Z. Tallet focused on literature as social protest. The poetry and novels of Dulce
María Loynaz and José Lezama Lima have been influential. Romanticist Miguel Barnet, who
wrote Everyone Dreamed of Cuba, reflects a more melancholy Cuba.[157] Writers such as
Reinaldo Arenas, Guillermo Cabrera Infante, and more recently Daína Chaviano, Pedro Juan
Gutiérrez, Zoé Valdés, Guillermo Rosales and Leonardo Padura have earned international
recognition in the post-revolutionary era, though many of these writers have felt compelled to
continue their work in exile due to ideological control of media by the Cuban authorities.