MODUL SAINS BANGUNAN

Ernaning Setiyowati
1. CLIMATE
Weather is the set of the atmosphere conditions prevailing at a given place and time.

Climate can be defined as the integration in time of weather conditions, characteristic of a

certain geographical location.

The climate of earth is driven by the energy input from the sun.

For designer there are 2 essential aspects to understand:

1. The apparent movement of the sun (the solar geometry)
2. The energy flows from the sun and how to handle it (exclude it or make use of it)

The earth moves around the sun on a slightly elliptical orbit. At its maximum (aphelion) the
earth-sun distance is 152 million km and at its minimum (perihelion) 147 million km.

The earth axis is not normal to the plane of its orbit, but tilted by 23,5o.
+23,45o on june 22 (northern solstice)
0 on march 21 and Sept 22 (equinox dates)
o
-23,45 on December 22 (southern solstice)

ELEMENTS OF CLIMATES:
1. Temperature (DBT)
Measured in the shade, usually in a ventilated box, 1,2-1,8 m above ground level.

2. Humidity
Which can be expressed as RH or AH, or the WBT or dew-point temperature (DPT) can
be stated.

3. Air movement
i.e. wind, normally measured at 10 m above ground in open country, but higher in built
up areas, to avoid obstruction; both velocity and direction are recorded.

4. Precipitation
The total amount of the rain, hail, snow, or dew, measured in rain gauges and expressed
in mm per unit time (day, month, year).

5. Cloud cover
Based on visual observation, expressed as a fraction of the sky hemisphere covered by
clouds.

6. Sunshine duration
i.e. the period of clear sunshine, measured by a sunshine recorder, shown as hours per
day or month.

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 7. Solar radiation
Measured by pyranometer (solarimeter).
The quatity can be measured in two ways:
a. Irradiance, in W/m2: the instantaneous flux/energy flow density/power density
b. Irradiation, in J/m2 or Wh/m2, an energy quantity integrated over a specified period
of time (hour, day, month, or year)
There are large variations in irradiance amongst different locations on the earth, for
three reason:
a. Angle of incidence: according to the cosine law the irradiance received by a surface
is the normal irradiance times the cosine of the angle of incidence (INC)
b. Atmospheric depletion, a factor varying between 0,2 and 0,7, mainly because at
lower altitude angles the radiation has to travel along a much longer path through
the atmosphere, but also because of variations in cloud cover and atmospheric
pollution.
c. Duration of sunshine, i.e. the length of daylight period (sunrise to sunset) and to a
lesser extent also on local topography
The maximum irradiance at the earth’s surface is around 1000 W/m2 and the annual
total horizontal irradiation varies from about 400 kWh/m2y near the poles to a value in
exess of 2500 kWh/m2y in the sahara desert or northwestern inland Australia.

CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATE:
1. Cold climates, where the main problem is the lack of heat (underheating), or excessive
heat dissipation for all or most of the year.
2. Temperate (moderate) climates, where there is a seasonal variation between
underheating and overheating but neither is very severe.
3. Hot-dry climates, where the main problem is overheating, but the air is dry, so the
evaporative cooling mechanism of the body is not restricted. There is usually a large
diurnal (day-night) temperature variation.
4. Warm-humid climates, where the overheating is not as great as in hot dry areas, but is
aggravated by high humidites, restricting the evaporation potential. The diurnal
temperature variation is small.

CLIMATIC DESIGN
1. Cold Climates
Characteristic Design Objectives Architectural
Guidelines
- Underheating - To minimise any heat - The surface to volume
- Recorded temperature loss ratio is important.
range from -34o to 108o - To reduce cold wind eskimo igloos have the
F effect best surface-to-volume
- Too much sun in ratio
summer and not - Insulation of the
enough in the winter envelope
- Cold winds during a - Air infiltration is not
long winter greater than about 0,5
- Persistent NW-SE wind air changes per hour

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 pattern throughout the - a compact building
year form is desirable
- Short heavy rain in the - U-value is less than
summer 0,5W/m2K
- Long, fine misty rains - Except on the south
or snow in the winter Windows should be
- Average rainfall is small, at least double
about 27” glass/tripple
- Average snowfall is glass/double glass with
about 40,5” low-e-treatment &
partially evacuated
with inert gas fill
- Capacitive insulation
(massive construction)
- Entrances should be
fitted with an air-lock
and should be
protected externally
from cold winds
- Blocking the winds
without blocking the
sun
- The buildings in urban
neighborhood should
be of about the same
height
- Open angle to the
south-southwest, with
steep southern-sloped
roof, to allow glazing to
maximize the use of
sun radiation
- Terrace in the
sheltered zone, raised
above ground to avoid
snow accumulation
- Structures shall be
compact with minimum
exterior surface
- Optimum sun
orientation lies 12o E of
south. The prevailing
wind pattern (NW-SE)
may influence the
orientation of free
standing buildings
- Sun exposed surfaces
in medium colors;
recessed surface can
be of dark absorbent
colors if shade in
summer can be

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 provided
- Exterior surfaces of
smooth non-absorbent
materials are
preferable
- A sloping roof is
desirable to prevent
moisture penetration
and ice-filled gutters
- West wall material with
6 hours time lag
balance internal heat
distribution
- Vapor seal on warm
(interior) side of outer
walls is important
- Avoid exterior
materials that are
absorptive
- Basement should
receive sunlight in
summer or have
artificial
dehumidification to
prevent condensation
resulting from earth
temperatures
- Water and sewer pipes
should be kept out of
exterior walls,
particularly NW and SE
walls

2. Temperate Climates
Characteristic Design Objectives Architectural
Guidelines
- Underheating - To minimise heat loss - U-value is 0,3-0,7
- Overheating and maximise heat W/m2K
- The nighttime gain (winter) - Any large (equator-
temperatures are too - To maximise heat loss facing) windows used
high even in the and minimise heat for winter solar heating
summer gain (summer) may cause summer
- Recorded temperature overheating
is -14o – 102o F - Overhanging eaves or
- The distribution of clear other horizontal
and cloudy days is shading devices may
fairly uniform ensure summer
throughout the year shading but allow
- Wind velocities are winter entry of solar
generally stable radiation
throughout the year, - If overheating occurs in
with 10 mph summer the summer, ventilation

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 and 12 mph winter could be relied on to
average speeds dissipate the unwanted
- Monthly average heat, as air
precipitation are fairly temperatures are
uniform throughout the unlikely to be too high
years; varying from 3,0” - Heavy construction
in November to 4,3” in (capacitive insulation)
August - The time lag of a solar
- Design for snowfall up heated massive wall
to 3’ can be set to equal the
- Yearly average of time difference
relative humidity lies between the maximum
between 56-76%. It is of solar input and the
lower in winter than in time when heating
summer would be welcome
- Wind breaks are
desirable against
winter NW wind
direction
- Tree layouts should not
block prevailing S-SW
summer breezes.
- Evergreen trees are
best for wind
protection, deciduous
for shading purposes
- Lawns near structure
are useful for radiation
absorption
- Shade trees are
preferred on E and W
sides of residences
- Buildings should open
to S-SE and be closed
on westerly sides.
Bedrooms should be
located on easterly
sides, open porch on S-
SE side
- Cross-shaped of free
building formations are
possible, elongation in
E-W axis is preferable
- Sol-air orientation of
17½o E to S secures
balanced heat
distribution
- The orientation of high
buildings should be
correlated with wind
exposure
- Provision for adequate

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 cross ventilation is
necessary. Humidity-
producing areas should
be separated from rest
of building
- Sun penetration is
desirable
- Medium colors are
advantageous, dark
colors only in recessed
places protected from
summer sun, light
colors on roof surfaces
- South exposed glass
areas work well on
seasonal bases
- Protection is needed for
summer radiation
- Opening should be
screened
- Location of openings
should allow cross
ventilation
- Reduced openings on
westerly side is
desirable
- Avoid absoprtive
materials
- Rains and moisture
penetration is mostly
on NW exposures
- Eave and gable
ventilation is needed
- Attic fan is also
effective
- Gutters should be able
to carry 1” of rain off
total roof area in 15
minutes
- Snow and rain pockets
must be avoided
- West wall material with
6 hour time lag
balances internala heat
distribution
- Vapor barrier on warm
side prevents
condensation
- Deciduous trees on
east and west sides, 68o
overhang on south
exposure, protects low

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 structures
- Eggcrate type of
sunshade on E and W,
vertical fins on N side
protects higher
buildings

3. Hot-Dry Climates
Characteristic Design Objectives Architectural
Guidelines
- The daytime - Large thermal mass - Massive walls but also
temperature can be - To maximize shade a roof with high
very high but the and minimize wind thermal capacity
diurnal range is large, - Slow rate of indoor - Building surfaces
often more than 20 K heating during summer should be white. White
- Night temperature may daytime paint has a high
be too cold - Fast rate of indoor emittance
- The outdoor cooling in summer - Roofs exposed to the
environment is often evenings night sky. The radiant
hostile, hot and dusty - Minimizing dust cooling effect can help
- Low humidity penetratioin to dissipate the heat
- High summer daytime - Good ventilation in the stored during the day
temperature summer evening - An inward looking,
- Direct solar radiation is - Higher indoor courtyard type building
as intense as the temperatures relative - The air mass enclosed
radiation reflected from to the outdoors in by the building, by solid
the light-coloured and winter walls or fences is likely
bare land - Heat loss to be cooler than the
- The sky is clear most of - High solar reflectivity environment, heavier,
the year, promoting thus it would settle as
solar heating during the if in a basin
days and long-wave - This air can be
radiant loss during the evaporatively cooled by
night a pond or a water spray
- Horizontal global - The reservoir of cool
radiation can approach air thus created can
1000 W/m2 then be used for fresh
- Air temperatures can air supply to habitable
reach in extreme cases spaces
up to 50oC, although in - With adequate
many hot arid regions vegetation such a
the typical maximum courtyard can become
air temperature is quite a pleasant
about 35-40oC. outdoor living space
- Winds are usually - The traditional
strong courtyard with shading,
- Dust storm trees, and some water
- Sunlight reflection for element can be
the bare, often light - substantially cooler
coloured ground, may than the ambient at the
produce intense glare height of summer
- Prevailing wind axis - Ventilation, beyond the

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 lies in E-W direction small fresh air supply
- Average yearly rainfall from the courtyard is
to about 8” undesirable as the
- Air is dry during all outdoor air is hot and
periods of the year dusty
- The surface area of its
external envelope
should be as small as
possible, to minimize
the heat flow into the
building
- Vegetation is desirable
both as a radiation
absorbent surface and
for its evaporative and
shade giving properties
- Compact ‘patio’ house
type is prefered
- Closed building
arrangements around
green areas are
preferable
- High ceilings are not
necessary
- Outdoor or roof
sleeping possibilities
should be considered
- Windows should be
shielded from direct
radiation, and set high
to protect from ground
radiation
- Openings should be
tight-closing as
protection against high
diurnal heat
- Openings should be
located on S, N, and to
a lesser degree on E
sides
- Walls of daytime living
areas should be of
heat-storing materials,
walls of night use
rooms of materials with
light heat capacity
- E and W walls should
preferably be shaded
- High reflective qualities
are desirable for both
thermal and solar
radiation

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 - Shaded, ventilated roof
is applicable, primarily
over night use rooms
- Water spray or pool on
roof is effective

4. Warm-Humid Climates
Characteristic Design Objectives Architectural
Guidelines
- The temperature - To ensure that the - Evaporation from the
maxima may not be as interior does not skin is restricted and
high as in the hot dry become much warmer evaporative cooling will
climates that the outside (it be neither effective ,
- But the diurnal cannot be any cooler) nor desirable, as it
variation is very small - Undue increase of would increase the
(often less than 5 K) ceiling temperature humidity
- The humidty and - Avoid heat input from a - Indirect evaporative
rainfall are high most low-angle sun, and cooling may be used, as
of the year should be reflected and it does not add
- The roof receives very insulated moisture to the supply
strong radiation - Providing effective air and produces some
- The average natural ventilation, sensible cooling
temperature is about even during rain - The elevated house (to
27-30oC, and the range - To ensure maximum catch the breeze above
of average monthly cross ventilation local obstruction) of
temperature is about - Minimizing solar lightweight
1-3oC. heating of the building construction
- The wind condition - Maximizing the rate of - Adequate ventilation
depend on the distance cooling in the evening removing any excess
from the sea and may - Preventing rain heat input
vary during the year penetration, even - The ceiling
- Average wind velocity during rainstorm temperature may be
of 10 mph comes from - Preventing entry of elevated due to solar
easterly direction both insect while the heat input on the roof
in morning and windows are open for - Using elevated roof
afternoon ventilation surface
- The average rainfall of - Providing spaces for - Having a seperate
about 60” semioutdoor activities ceiling, forming an attic
as integral part of the space
living space - Ensuring adequate
ventilation of the attic
space
- Using a reflective
surface for the
underside of the roof
skin
- Using some resistive
insulation on the ceiling
- Walls facing the east
and west should have
no windows
- The physiological

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 cooling effect of air
movement
- The major openings
should face within 45o
of the prevailing wind
direction
- North and south walls
could have large
openings
- The rooms could be
arranged in one row, to
allow both inlet and
outlet openings for
each room
- Shade trees should be
high branching so that
they do not interfere
with breezes
- Low vegetation must be
kept away from houses
so as not to block air
movement
- Air coming into a
structure from across a
shaded lawn is
desirable
- House types: individual
- Buildings should be
shaded structures
which encourage
cooling air movements
- Shade protection
should be on all sun-
exposed sides, mainly
on roof and E and W
exposures
- Screened areas are
necessary to keep out
insect
- Interior spaces must be
shaded and well
ventilated
- Floor material must be
impervious to moisture
- Daytime living areas
should allow the flow of
E to W winds
- Reflective light colors
in the pastel range are
best, in order to avoid
glare both inside and
outside

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 - Ventilation is needed
85% of the year
- E-W cross ventilation is
essential
- Elements such as
screening, louvres,
jalousies, and grills are
useful to admit air flow
and to protect from sun
- Structure must be
sheltered from sun and
rain, it must be
shielded from sky
radiation and glare
- A ventilated double roof
is desirable. The upper
roof functioning as sun
protection. It must be
watertight, insulated,
and reflect solar rays
- A wide overhang is
necessary for rain
protection and for
reduction of sky glare
- Sunbreakers are
important because of
powerful radiation
mainly on E and W
sides
- Basement is
impractical because of
constant high humidity
- Foundation must be
protected from
moisture, mold, fungus,
termites, and other
gnawing insect and
animals

MICROCLIMATIC CONTROL
Local factor that will influence the site climate may be the following:
1. Topography, slope, orientation, exposure, elevation, hills or valleys at or near the site
2. Ground surface, natural or man-made, its reflectance, permeability, soil temperature,
paved areas or vegetation
3. 3D objects, such as trees, tree-belt, fences, walls and buildings as these may influence
the wind, cast shadows and may subdivide the area into smaller distinguishable climate
zones

Solar radiation is affected by the clarity of the atmosphere: it will be reduced by pollution, smog,
and dust. Slope and orientation of such slope has an effetct on irradiation. Hills, trees and

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buildings around the site also affect the apparent sunrise/sunset times, therefore the length of
day, thus the daily irradiation.

Microclimatic controls can serve two purposes:

1. Control the conditions (sun, wind) in outdoor spaces
2. Assist building performance by ameliorating outdoor conditions adjacent to the building

Such controls may be of two kinds;

1. Vegetation, trees, shrubs, vines, and ground covers
2. Built objects, fences, walls, screens, pergolas, shade structures pavements

ASSIGNMENT
1. Jelaskan bagaimana pergerakan matahari dapat mempengaruhi terjadinya iklim!
2. Jelaskan mengapa iklim panas kering memiliki temperature diurnal yang besar
sedangkan di tropis lembab memiliki temperature diurnal yang kecil?
3. Jelaskan dengan sketsa, desain arsitektur yang sesuai pada setiap kondisi iklim (dingin,
sedang, panas kering, tropis lembab)!

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2. NATURAL VENTILATION
WIND

Windward: arah anging datang (+)

Leeward : arah angin pergi (-)

Wind calculation:
Table 2.1. values of gradient height, zG, power law exponents α, β, and the roughness length z0

Terrain Terrain description Gradient Roughness Mean Gust

category height, length, z0 speed speed
ZG (m) (m) exponent exponent
α β
1 Open sea, ice, tundra, 250 0,001 0,11 0,07
desert
2 Open country with low 300 0,03 0,15 0,09
scrub or scattered trees
3 Suburban areas, small town, 400 0,3 0,25 0,14
well wooded areas
4 Numerous tall building, city 500 3 0,36 0,20
centres, well developed
industrial areas

𝑧𝑧
𝑉𝑉𝑧𝑧 = 𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 ( )𝛼𝛼
𝑧𝑧𝑔𝑔

Vz : kecepatan angin pada lokasi z

Vg : kecepatan angin pada lokasi g (yang diketahui berdasarkan data iklim)
Z : ketinggian lokasi z
Zg : ketinggian di lokasi g tempat data iklim diukur
α: mean speed exponent

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 Figure 1. Profil vertikal rata-rata kecepatan angin dari beberapa terrain

Contoh soal:
Data iklim yang diukur pada kawasan laut menunjukkan angka 5 m/s, di mana pengukuran
dilakukan pada ketinggian 10 m. Berapa kecepatan angin di tengah kota pada ketinggian 10
m?
Jawaban:
Langkah 1. Dicari dahulu kecepatan angin di lokasi open sea pada ketinggian 100% (gradient
height) di mana angka ini nantinya akan sama dengan kecepatan angin di lokasi yang diukur
pada ketinggian 100%.

𝑧𝑧
𝑉𝑉𝑧𝑧 = 𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 ( )𝛼𝛼
𝑧𝑧𝑔𝑔
5 m/s = Vg (10/250)0,11
Vg = 7,14 m/s

Langkah 2. Menghitung kecepatan angin di lokasi yang ditanyakan dengan yang

diketahui adalah kecepatan angin di kondisi tertinggi open sea sama dengan di kondisi
tertinggi lokasi yang ditanya

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 𝑧𝑧
𝑉𝑉𝑧𝑧 = 𝑉𝑉𝑔𝑔 ( )𝛼𝛼
𝑧𝑧𝑔𝑔
Vz = 7,14 m/s (10/500)0,36
Vz = 1,75 m/s

Jadi kecepatan angin pada ketinggian 10 m di tengah kota adalah 1,75 m/s.

Table 2.2.
Summary of wind effects on people based on the Beaufort scale

Beaufort Speed Effects

number (m/s)
Calm, light air 0,1 0-1,5 Calm; no noticable wind
Light breeze 2 1,6-3,3 Wind felt on face
Gentle breeze 3 3,4-5,4 Wind extends light flag
Hair is disturbed
Clothing flaps
Moderate breeze 4 5,5-7,9 Raises dust, dry soil, and loose paper
Hair disarranged
Fresh breeze 5 8,0-10,7 Force of wind felt on body
Drifting snow becomes airborne
Limit of agreeable wind on land
Strong breeze 6 10,8-13,8 Umbrellas used with difficulty
Hair blown straight
Difficult to walk steadily
Wind noise on ears unpleasant
Windborne snow above head height
Near gale 7 13,9-17,1 Inconvenience felt when walking
gale 8 17,2-20,7 Great difficulty with balance in gusts
Strong gale 9 20,8-24,4 People blown over vy gusts

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NATURAL VENTILATION

What is ventilation?
Ventilation is the process by which ‘clean’ air (normally outdoor air) is intentionally
provided to a space and stale air is removed.

Why is ventilation needed?

Ventilation is needed to provide oxygen for metabolism and to dilute metabolic pollutans
(carbon dioxide and odour). It is also used to assist in maintaining good indoor air
quality by deluting and removing other pollutants emitted within a space but should not
be used as a substitute for proper source control of pollutants. Ventilation is
additionally used for cooling and to provide oxygen to combustion appliances. Good
ventilation is a major contributor to the health and comfort of building occupants.

How does ventilation work?

Ventilation is accomplished by introducing ‘clean’ air into a space.
- Mixing ventilation
Mixing is stimulated by natural turbulance in the air and by the design of the air
supply diffusers.
- Displacement ventilation
- Interzonal ventilation
Extract air from ‘wet’ rooms. Fresh ‘make up’ air is then drawn through air inlets
or mechanically supplied to anothe rooms. This induces a flow pattern that
inhibits the cross-contamination of air from ‘polluted’ spaces to ‘clean’ spaces.
- Short circuiting
If a ventilation system is poorly designed, ‘short circuiting’ may occur in which
fresh ventilation air is extracted from the building before it has mixed with or
displaced stale air. This can occur if air diffusers and outlets are positioned too
close to each other, or, in the case of displacement systems, the supply air
temperature is higher than the room air temperature.

How much ventilation is needed?

The quantity of ventilation needed depends on the amount and nature of pollutant
present in a space. The minimum acceptable ventilation rate is that which is required to
dilute the dominant pollutant to an acceptable concentration.

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Table 2.3. Typical ventilation rates for carbon dioxide and obdour control

Function of space Ventilation Rate (m3/h fresh air)

Residences
Living room 45
Kitchen 60-90
Bedroom 25
Bathroom 25
School classroom 40 per person
Factories (no smoking) 30 per person
Community halls (heavy smoking) 50 per person

Good ventilation design is essential to ensure the reliable provision of fresh air to
building occupants. In particular, ventilation design should satisfy the following basic
requirements:
- Comply with relevant building regulations and associated standards and codes of
practice
- Satisfy minimum ventilation rates for optimum health and comfort
- Be capable of removing pollutants at source before they disperse into occupied
areas
- Be compatible with the building in which the system is installed
- Provide high rates of ventilation for cooling purposes or for rapidly purging
polluted air from a building
- Incorporate occupant or automatic controls to ensure that the ventilation rate
can be adjusted to meet changing demand
- Be reliable
- Be capable of being cleaned and maintaned
- Comply with smoke and fire control requirements
- Be cost and energy efficient

There are two energy sources that create air pressure differences used to promote
natural ventilation:
1. Pressure differences due to variations in air density with height, created by
differences in air temperature, referred to as the ‘stack effect’
2. Pressure differences due to distribution of wind pressures on buildings

Udara bergerak biasanya mengikuti kontur permukaan lengkung dengan pola yang
dapat diperkirakan. Sudut-sudut tajam (dan/atau permukaan kasar) akan menyebabkan
pemisahan dan pusaran.

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Tata letak yang ditunjukkan dalam denah di kiri dan tengah sangat berguna untuk
membelokkan angin musim dingin dari arah bangunan. Tata letak yang bersilangan di
kanan cocok untuk penyebaran angin musim panas untuk struktur-struktur yang
berdekatan.

Bangunan tinggi dapat membelokkan angin ke arah tanah yang menyebabkan

kecepatan angin yang tinggi di daerah pejalan kaki. Dasar podium yang besar, kanopi
yang lebar, dll dapat digunakan untuk melindungi area pejalan kaki.

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DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR NATURAL VENTILATION

Design Programme

The information needed during the design programme phase in order to define proper
requirements for natural ventilation:
1. The type of building
2. The type of space
3. The schedule of use for each space
4. The climate of the location
5. The quantity of heat to be removed

Site Design

Main Objectives when selecting and designing the site for a building project suitable for
natural ventilation:

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 • The best exploitation of the airflow pattern due to topography and surrounding
buildings, in order to increase the potential ventilation rate within the interior
spaces
• The best compromise between summer and winter comfort condition
• The avoidance of permanent unwanted wind sheltering situations
• The avoidance of disomfort due to outdoor conditions or caused by high wind
velocities
• The avoidance of airflow paths transporting dust and pollutants

If the site is not in urban area, a building should be located in a way that takes
advantage of local gradient winds. In mountain and hill sites, the best location is
generally at the middle of a slope along the contour lines. Similarly, by the sea, a lake or
a large river, a building shoud be positioned fairly close to the shore and with the
longitudinal axis parallel to the line of the coast or the bank in order to make use of day
water and night land breezes.
If a building is designed for an urban site, its location should be at a distance from other
buildings that is greater than the depth of their wake so that they will not shelter it from
summer winds. If this is not possible, the building should be positioned randomly with
regard to the upwind buildings and with its longitudinal axis perpendicular to the
prevalent summer wind direction in order to catch the streamline flow.
In a very dense urban areas, spaces most needing ventilation should be put on the
highest floors where wind flow is stronger and less turbulent than near the ground.

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Landscape

the main functions of vegetation as far as air movement is concerned are: wind
sheltering, wind deflection, funnelling and acceleration of air, air conditioning. It is
recommended that the landscaping be designed to allow for reduced air velocities
without large scale turbulence. When the placement of trees on a site is being designed,
their distance from buildings should be determined in relation to the area of the wake as
well as to the cross-sectional airflow pattern, which is characterized by the proportion
between canopy and stem. Rows of trees and hedges can be placed to direct air towards
or away from a building. Vegetation can create areas of higher wind velocities by
deflecting winds or funnelling air through a narrow passage. Reducing the spacing of
the trees used to funnel air can increase the airflow up to 25% above that of the upwind
velocity.

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22
Building Design

The aspect of building design related to air movement can be grouped according to their
relation to:
1. The form of the building envelope
2. The internal distribution of spaces and functions
3. The dimensions and location of openings
4. The characteristics and dimensions of the exposed thermal mass
5. The interactions with the HVAC system

The wind velocity and pressure fields around a building are greatly affected by the form
of the building envelope and in particular by:
1. The height of the building
2. The roof form

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3. The aspect ratios (the ratios of the height of the building to its length and width)
4. The corrugation of the building envelope (overhangs, wingwalls, and recessed
spaces)

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Opening design

Position and size openings of a building:

• Outlet openings should be equal to or greater in size than inlet openings in order
to avoid excessive air velocities with a limited airflow rate
• For occupant cooling purposes, openings should be placed at occupant height
• For structural cooling requirements, the position of openings should be closer to
the thermal exchange surfaces (wall, ceiling, or floor)
• The vertical position of inlet openings in two-storey dwellings or high spaces
should be lower than the position of outlet openings in order to avoid a conflict
between cross ventilation and the stack effect
• In single-sided ventilation, more than one opening should be provided to a room;
these openings should be placed far apart so that a better use of skewed winds
can be made; wind deflectors can be used to enhance ventilation within the room
• When stack ventilation is used in multistorey buildings, outlet openings should
be located in the leeward side of the building; the height of their position and the
size of the overall opening area should be chosen as a means of controlling the
neutral pressure level and thereby enhancing the ventilation of the spaces.

29
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Openings can be grouped in the following categories:
• Windows, which have multiple integrated functions such as viewing, daylighting,
solar gain control and ventilation; windows are divided into various categories in
relation to:
- The plane of placement
- The position on the building envelope
- The opening system (simple opening, vertical vane opening, horizontal
vane opening)

Simple opening

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Vertical-Vane Openings

33
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Horizontal-Vane Opening

35
• Screens, which function basically as shading devices, but can also be designed
for ventilation purposes, as in traditional Arabic architecture; however, even if
used as shading devices only, screens alter the opening size and the
aerodynamic performance of the windows on which they are installed
- Fixed screen
- Operable screen
The most common types of operable screens are:
Exterior screen:
- Rolling blinds
- Sliding-sash shutter, single or double, with or without slats
- Side-hinged casement shutter, with or without slats
Interior screen:
- Venetian blind
- Vertically operating curtains
- Horizontally operating curtains
- Louvres

36
• Doors, with the basic function of interconnection between spaces and
maintaining the privacy of a room, and with additional functions depending on
the material and location

37
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• Vents and ventilators, functioning only as means to enhance and direct the air
movement
Vents can be divided into various types in relation to their function and position
in a building:
- Attic vents, such as gable louvres, soffit vents, and ridge vents

40
 - Wall-to-floor vents, for night structural cooling of commercial and office
buildings
- Door vents, for interzonal air change

Vegetation

41
Space Dimension

42
Space Division

AIR FLOW CHARACTERISTIC IN HOUSING TYPES

Single family detached house

43
Town house (Row house)

Multistorey Apartment Building

44
ASSIGNMENT:
1. Data iklim di daerah laut menunjukkan kecepatan angin sebesar 15 m/s pada
pengukuran setinggi 10 m. Berapakah kecepatan angin di daerah berikut?
a. Pedesaan pada ketinggian 4 m (NIM ganjil)
b. Tengah kota pada ketinggian 6 m (NIM genap)
2. Gambarkan pola pergerakan udara pada beberapa gambar di bawah ini dan
berikan penjelasan!

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 a. Arah angin:
Dari utara (NIM ganjil), dari barat (NIM genap)

b. Arah angin: dari selatan (NIM ganjil), dari timur (NIM genap)

3. Dari kedua desain bangunan pada gambar di soal nomor 2, berikan kesimpulan,
bentuk bangunan/tata massa yang mana yang lebih baik dalam menghantarkan
udara? Berikan alasannya!
4. Gambarkan aliran angin pada bangunan berikut!
a. Arah angin selatan (NIM ganjil)
b. Arah angin barat (NIM genap)

46
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5. Bagaimana desain bukaan yang tepat pada bangunan di atas (no.4) supaya dapat
mengalirkan udara ke seluruh ruang? Jelaskan dengan sketsa!
6. Berikan sketsa desain apartemen berlantai banyak yang mampu mengalirkan
udara ke seluruh penjuru ruangan. Desain yang dimaksud antara lain: denah
bangunan (susunan ruang) yang terlihat jelas posisi dan lebar bukaan, potongan
bangunan yang terlihat jelas posisi dan lebar bukaan.

48
3. THERMAL
Heat is a form of energy, contained in substances as molecular motion or appearing
as electromagetic radiation in space. Energy is the ability or capacity for doing work
and it is measured in the same units.

Temperature is the symptom of the presence of heat in a substance. The celsius

scale is based on water: its freezing point taken as 0oC and its boiling point as 100oC.
The Kelvin scale starts with the absolute zero, the total absence of heat. Thus 0oC =
273,15oK.

The specific heat concept provides the connection between heat and
temperature. This is the quantity of heat required to elevate the temperature of unit
mass of a substance by one degree, thus it is measured units of J/kg.K

Latent heat of a substance is the amount of heat (energy) absorbed by unit mass
of the substance at change of state (from solid to liquid or liquid to gaseous) without any
change of temperature.

Thermodynamics is the science of the flow of heat and of its relationship to

mechanical work.
The first law: the principle of conservation of energy. Energy cannot be created or
destroyed, but only converted from one form to another.
The second law: heat (energy) transfer can take place spontaniously in one direction
only: from a hotter to a cooler body, or generally from a higher to a lower grade state

Heat Flow
Such heat flow can take place in three form
1. Conduction within a body or bodies in contact, by the spread of molecular movement.
Conduction depends on a property of the material known as conductivity, measured as
the heat flow density in a 1 m thick body, with a one degree temperature difference, in
unit of W/m.K.
Materials with low conductivity are referred to as insulating materials. These have a
fibrous or porous structure and are very sensitive to moisture content. If the pores are
filled with water, the conductivity will increase quite drastically.
Conductivity is a material property, regardless of its shape and size. The corresponding
property of a physical body is the conductance (C) measured between the two surfaces
of the wall. For the single layer it is the conductivity, divided by thickness. It is rarely
used quantity. Transmittance, or U-value includes the surface effects and it is the most
frequently used measure.

49
 2. Convection from a solid body to a fluid (liquid or gas) or vice-versa (in a broader sense
it is also used to mean the transport of heat from one surface to another by a moving
fluid, which, strictly speaking, is mass transfer)
The magnitude of convection heat flow depends on:
• Area of contact (A, m2) between the body and the fluid
• The different in temperature (∆ T, in K) between the surface of the body and the
fluid
• A convection coefficient (hc) measured in W/m2K, which depend on the viscocity of
the fluid and its flow velocity as well as on the physical configuration that will
determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent
3. Radiation from a body with a warmer surface to another which is cooler. Therma
radiation is a wavelength band of electromagnetic radiation
Reflectance: is a decimal fraction indicating how much of the incident radiation is
reflected by a surface.
Absorptance: is expressed as a fraction of that of the ‘perfect absorber’, the theoretical
black body, and its value is high for dark surfaces, low for light or shiny metallic
surfaces.
Emittance is also a decimal fraction, a measure of the ability to emit radiation, relative
to the black body, the perfect emitter.

Thermal comfort
The human body continuously produces heat by its metabolic processes. The heat output of an
average body is often taken as 100 W, but it can vary from about 70 W (in sleep)to over 700 W in
heavy work or vigorous activity.

Comfort is defined as the condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment, it requires subjective evaluation.

Factors of comfort
environmental personal Contributing factors
Air temperature Metabolic rate (actiivity) Food and drink
Air movement Clothing Body shape
Humidity State of health Subcutaneous fat
Radiation Acclimisation Age and gender

Insulation means to control the heat flow, for which three different mechanism:
Reflective insulation: where the heat transfer is primarily radiant, such as across a cavity or
through an attic space. A shiny aluminium foil has both a low emittance and a low absorptance,
it is therefore a good reflective insulator. In a hot climate, such a foil insulation under the roof
skin is preferable to resistive insulation. It will reduce downward heat flow, but will allow the
escape of heat at night, thus permitting building to cool down. A resistive insulation would affect
the up and down heat flow almost equally.

50
Resistive insulation: of all common materials, air has the lowest thermal conductivity, as
long as it is still. The purpose of resistive insulation is just to keep the air still, dividing it into
small cell, with the minimum amount of actual material. The most often used insulating material
are expanded or extruded plastic foams, such as polystyrene or polyurethane of fibrous
materials in the form of batts or blankets, such as mineral wool, glass fibres,, or even natural
wool.

Capacitive insulation: material layers of a high thermal capacity (massive construction)

affect not only the magnitude of heat flow, but also its timing. Both reflective and resistive
insulation response to temperature changes instantaneously. Capacitive insulation relies on the
themal capacity of material and their delaying action on the heat flow.

Design Variables
The four design variables that have the greatest influence on thermal performance are: shape,
fabric, fenestration, and ventilation.

Shape
a. Surface to volume ratio: as the heat loss or gain depends on the envelope area, it is
advisable to present the least surface area for a given volume
b. Orientation: in most instances, the N&S walls should be longer than the E&W walls,
depending on the temperature and radiation condition. It can be optimised in term of
solar incidence and wanted or unwanted solar heat gain or heat dissipation

Fabric
a. Shading of wall and roof surfaces can control the solar heat input. The west facing wall
should be shaded to eliminate the late afternoon solar input. If the plan shape is
complex, then the shading of one surface by another wing should be considered.
b. Surface qualities: absorptance/reflectance will strongly influence the solar heat input; if
it is to be reduced, reflective surfaces are preferred. A white and a shinny metal surface
may have the same reflectance, but the white would have an emittance similar to a black
body. Thus if heat dissipation is the aim, a white surface would be preferred.
c. Resistive insulation control the heat flow in both direction; it is very important in very
cold climates or in very hot climates.
d. Reflective insulation: the best effect is achieved if the foil is suspended in the middle of a
cavity, so that both the high reflectance and low emittance are utilised.
e. Capacitive insulation provide a very powerful control of the timing of heat input
especially in climates with a large diurnal temperature swing, as it can store the surplus
heat at one time, for release at another time, when it is needed

Fenestration
a. Size, position, and orientation of windows affect sun penetration, thus solar heat input,
but also affect ventilation, especially where cross ventilation is desirable.
b. Glass: single, double, multiple, and glass quality: special glass (heat absorbing or heat
reflecting glasses) may be used to ameliorate an otherwise bad situation, by reducing
the solar heat input.

51
 c. Closing mechanism: fixed glass, louvres, opening sashes, type of shases used
d. Internal blinds and curtains can slightly reduce the solar heat input, by reducing the
direct radiation, but they become heated and will re-emit that heat, thus causing
convective gains
e. External shading devices are the most positive way of controlling solar heat input. The
effect of such devices on wind and on daylighting and views must be kept in mind
f. Insect screen may be necessity in hot humid climate, but their effect on air flow and on
daylighting must be recognised

Ventilation
a. Air-tight construction to reduce air infiltration is important both in a cold climate and in
a hot climate in air conditioned buildings
b. Beyond the provision of fresh air, ventilation can be relied on to dissipate unwanted heat
c. Physiological cooling can be provided even when To>Ti and for this not the volume flow
but the air velocity is important. This can only be achieved by full cross-ventilation and
it may be the main determinant of not only fenestration and orientation but also of
internal layout.

Thermal behaviour of building

A building can be considered as a thermal system, with a series of heat inputs nd outputs for
the human body:
Qi = internal heat gain
Qc = conduction heat gain or loss
Qs = solar heat gain
Qv = ventilation heat gain or loss
Qe = evaporative heat loss

52
Analisa thermal Comfort
Analisa thermal comfort menggunakan psychrometric chart.

53
Zona nyaman dapat ditentukan pada psychrometric chart dengan cara (Szokolay, 1987):

1. Mencari suhu udara luar rata-rata.

2. Menentukan thermal neutrality (Tn) dengan menggunakan rumus
Tn = 17,6 + (0,31 x Tav)
3. Menentukan Tn di dalam grafik pada kurva RH 50%.
4. Tandai batas bawah suhu nyaman: L=Tn-2, dan batas atas U=Tn+2 pada kurva RH
50%.
5. Menggambar garis SET sebagai batas samping.
Rumus kemiringannya menjadi: 0,025x(L-14) dan 0,025x(U-14)
Dari psychrometric chart AH(L) dan AH(U)
Dua batas samping sebagai pertemuan dengan garis dasar adalah:
L + (AH(L) x kemiringan L) dan U + (AH(U) x kemiringan U)
6. Tandai batas atas AH pada level 12 g/kg dan batas bawah pada level 4 g/kg.

Thermal Calculation
Tujuan dari perhitungan thermal adalah untuk mengetahui atau memperkirakan temperatur di
dalam bangunan dari data iklim yang ada. Hal ini bisa dilakukan pada bangunan yang sudah
terbangun maupun yang masih dalam proses rancang.

Faktor penentu perhitungan termal:

Dimensi bangunan: luas permukaan bangunan, orientasi bangunan
Material Properties: U-value, sgf (solar gain factor), abs (absorption), Rso (Resistance outside)
Data iklim: suhu udara luar rata-rata, kecepatan angin, Gav (global irradiance average)

Menghitung suhu udara rata-rata di dalam ruangan

(𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 + 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄)
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + � �
𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 + 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄

Tiav : suhu udara rata-rata dalam ruangan

Toav: suhu udara rata-rata luar ruangan (data iklim)
Qi = internal heat gain
Qc = conduction heat gain or loss
Qs = solar heat gain
Qv = ventilation heat gain or loss

54
Qs (Solar heat gain)
Qs = jumlah Qs dari seluruh elemen bangunan (dinding, pintu, jendela, atap, yang mendapat
sinar matahari langsung)

𝑄𝑄𝑠𝑠 (𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒) = (𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥 𝑈𝑈)𝑥𝑥 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑥𝑥 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺

𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 (𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡) = 𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺

A : luas permukaan elemen bangunan

U : U-value
Abs : absorption
Rso : Resistance outside
Gav : Global irradiance average
Sgf : solar gain factor

Qi (internal heat gain)

Jumlah panas elemen internal (manusia, lampu, kompor, dll)

𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗ℎ 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤)𝑥𝑥
24 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

Qc (Conduction Heat Gain or Loss)

𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗ℎ (𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥 𝑈𝑈)𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙

Qv (Ventilation Heat Gain or Loss)

𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄 = 0,33 𝑥𝑥 𝑁𝑁 𝑥𝑥 𝑉𝑉

N : jumlah pertukaran udara dalam ruang

V: volume ruang

55
Material Properties

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ASSIGNMENT
1. Berikan contoh heat flow (conduction, convection, radiation) pada bangunan!
2. Gambar thermal comfort
3. Pada setiap jenis insulasi (resistive, reflective, capacitive) cocok untuk jenis iklim yang
mana? Jelaskan!
4. Gambar di bawah adalah gambar bangunan yang memiliki volume yang sama dengan
luas permukaan yang berbeda. Dari kedua gambar di bawah, mana yang area di
dalamnya terasa lebih panas? Lalu berikan orientasi yang tepat supaya bangunan tidak
terlalu panas!

5. Di antara internal blinds dan external shading device, lebih efektif mana dalam
mengurangi panas? Jelaskan!
6. Berapa perkiraan suhu dalam ruang rata-rata (Tiav) pada ruangan di bawah ini?

65
7. Apakah nilai Tiav di atas masuk ke dalam zona comfort? Tunjukkan pada psychrometric
chart di bawah ini!

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67
4. SUNLIGHT & DAYLIGHT
Light outdoors can arrive directly from the sun, which is referred to as sunlight, or can be
diffused by the atmosphere, e.g. by clouds. The term daylight, in a loose sense is often used for
both, but in technical language, it means only the diffused light.

For design purposes, daylight sources can be characterized as direct (direct sunlight and
diffuse skylight) and indirect (light from reflective or translucent diffusers that were originally
iluminated by primary or other secondary sources).

Sky condition

The available light is determined by sky condition. A fully overcast sky acts as a diffuse light
source, i.e. the whole sky hemisphere is a source of light.
The illuminance produced by an overcast sky strongly depends on the solar altitude angle (ALT)
behind the clouds. In the absence of measured data, it can be estimated as

E ≈ 200 x ALT

Under clear sky conditions, direct sunlight can give an illuminance of 100 klx (1 kilo-lx = 1000
lx), but if the sunlight itself is excluded, the sky luminance is taken as uniform.
In many climates, intermediate sky conditions occur most of the time. The average illuminance
produced by such a sky (excluding direct sunlight) can be estimated as

E ≈ 500 x ALT

68
69
Luminance distribution

Glare occuring in daylighting can be reduced by the following measures:

1. Reduce luminance of the view by using low-transmittance glass at least for critical
(upper) parts of the window, or by the use of blinds and curtains
2. Increase the luminance of areas near the high luminance view, e.g. by having windows
in other walls to iluminate the surfaces adjacent to the window considered or by using
supplementary top lighting
3. Increase the luminance of the window’s surrounds by using light colour surfaces and
contrast grading, i.e. having high reflectance surfaces next to the window, reducing
away from the window. With very large windows, this measure will not work
4. Use external protective devices (similar to shading devices) to block out the view of the
brightest problem area, most often the sky

In daylighting design, for the positioning and sizing of apertures, there are three main issues to
be considered:
• To satisfy the visual task (provide enough daylight)
• To create the desired ‘mood’ and provide visual focus
• To integrate daylighting with the architecture

Vision

Light is perceived by the eye. Its diagramatic section can be compared to a camera:
• Aperture, controlled by a light meter: the pupil, the size of which is varied by the iris
(and controlled by the retina) is the eye’s main adaptation mechanism
• Focusing, controlled by a coupled range-finder: changing the shape of the lens by the
ciliary muscles, thus varying its focal length, which is the accommodation mechanism
• The adaptability of the retina can only be likened to using films of different ‘speed’ or
ISO rating

Photometry

The four measurable photometriic quantities are:

1. I, the luminous intensity of a source, measured in units of candela (cd), is defined as the
intensity of a black body of 1/60 cm2, when heated to the melting point temperature of
platinum.
2. ɸ (phi), the luminous flux (or flow of light), is measured by unit lumen (lm)
3. E, or illuminance is a measure of the illumination of a surface, the unit is lux (lx)
4. L, or luminance, is a measure of brightness of a surface, when looked at a given
direction. Its unit is cd/m2, which is unit intensity of a source of unit area

Lighting Requirements

The suitability of lighting is a qualitative requirement and has at least four component factors:
1. Colour appearance and colour rendering

70
 2. Colour appearance of an environment is associated with mood and the expected
‘atmosphere’. These are psychological and aesthetic effects.
3. Directionality of light must suit the functional as well as the psychological requirements
of a visual task
4. Glare should be avoided

Glare

Glare can be caused by a saturation effect or by excessive contrast. We can distinguish

discomfort glare and disability glare, depending on the magnitude of the effect.

Saturation glare can be caused when the average luminance of the field of vision is in excess of
25.000 cd/m2. This can be happen on a white sandy beach with full sunshine or by looking
directly into a bright light source. Some sources distinguish ‘direct glare’ caused by a light
source itself and ‘indirect glare’ caused by reflective illuminated surfaces.

Glare is caused by contrast, and if the luminance ratio (Lmax/Lmin) within a visual field is
greater than about 15, visual efficiency will be reduced and discomfort may be experienced.

Glare can be categorized on the basis of its effect on the observer as:
1. Disability glare, result from areas in the field of viewof such brilliance that they cause a
scattering of light within optical matterof the eye. Causing a veiling effect. This veiling
effect reduces visual contrast to such a degree that seeing is reduced. Example: driving
at night
2. Discomfort glare, is glare that produces discomfort, but does not necessarily interfere
with visibility or visual performance. It may result from bright sources within the field of
view that are not inherently distressing, but are seen in much darker surroundings. The
most widely used measure of discomfort glare in daylighting is the glare index. While
the calculation of the glare index is complex, the important variables are:
• The luminance of the sky as seen through the window (the larger the window,
the higher the index)
• The apparent size of the visible area of sky (the larger the area, the higher the
index)
• The position of the visible sky within the field of view (the closer to the center of
vision, the higher the index)
• The average luminance of the room excluding the visible sky (the darker the
room, the higher the index)

Glare can also be categorized on the basis of the path of the light. Direct glare is caused by
sources directly visible within the field of view. Reflected glare is glare from a glossy surface
that reflects an image of the light source.

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Pencahayaan dari Atap (Top Lighting)
Top lighting beroperasi seperti pencahayaan lampu listrik yang memancarkan cahaya secara
langsung dengan arah cahaya ke bawah. Berikut adalah beberapa prototipe klasik dari top
lighting:
• Skylight, atau kaca horizontal, memungkinkan masuknya cahaya matahari langsung
dengan pancaran cahaya langit melalui bukaan
• Single clerestory, menghasilkan pencahayaan matahari langsung dan tidak langsung
melalui jendela clerestory vertikal
• Sawtooth single clerestory, menghasilkan pencahayaan matahari langsung dan tidak
langsung, namun dengan memantulkan cahaya dengan persentasi tinggi pada plafon
miring di sebelahnya sehingga meningkatkan cahaya yang jatuh ke arah bawah dan
meminimalkan jumlah cahaya matahari langsung
• Monitor atau double clerestory, memungkinkan cahaya matahari yang banyak, terutama
pada bangunan di mana orientasi matahari atau cuaca tidak memungkinkan dibuatnya
langit-langit miring atau desain khusus lainnya

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Pencahayaan dari Dinding (Side lighting)

Total flux Method

The building (or a room in the building) is considered as a closed box, with an aperture (a
window) that will admit a light flux. The illuminance on the plane of the window (Ew) must be
known. If this is multiplied by the window area (A), the total flux entering the room is obtained.

ɸt = Ew x A (lm)

this will however be reduced by three factor (D.2.2.):

1. M, the maintenance factor, which allows for dirt or other deterioration of the glazing in
use
2. G, or glass factor, allowing for the type of glazing, other than clear glass
3. B, ‘bars’ or framing factor, allowing for obstruction due to solid elements of the frame
and sashes, that would reduce the effective area

Thus, the effective flux entering will be

ɸe = ɸt x M x G x B (lm)

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if this flux were to be uniformly distributed over the floor area, the illuminance would be

Eav = ɸe /A (where A is the floor area)

Which is not the case, but it can be taken as the average illuminance. The actual illuminance at
any particular point in the room (on the work plane) will depend on the utilization factor (UF) at
that point. This is determined by

1. Geometrical proportion of the room, expressed by the room index: RI

𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥 𝑊𝑊 ℎ𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠/2
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = =
(𝐿𝐿 + 𝑊𝑊) 𝑥𝑥 𝐻𝐻 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 /2

Where L,W, and H are length, width, and height of the room

2. Reflectance of ceiling and wall surfaces

3. Type of fenestration
4. Position of the point relative to the window (s)

Daylight Factor

It has been observed that although overcast sky illuminance may vary between quite wide limits,
the ratio between illuminance at a point indoors to that outdoors remains constant. This ratio is
the DF expressed as a percentage.

𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 𝑥𝑥 100 (%)
𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
Daylight can reach a point of the work plane by three routes, thus three component of DF are
distinguished:
1. SC, the sky component: light from a patch of sky visible from the point considered
2. ERC, the externally reflected component: light reflected by outdoor objects, e.g. other
buildings
3. IRC, the internally reflected component: any light entering the window, but not reaching
the work plane directly, only after reflection(s) by internal surfaces, notably the ceiling

Thus, DF = SC + ERC + IRC

74
SC & ERC

Pada potongan

Pada denah

The sky component will be: the result from protractor 1 x the result from protactor 2

75
IRC
The IRC can be determined by using the nomogram:
1. Find the ratio of window area to total surface area of the room (ceiling + floor + walls,
including the window) and locate this value on scale A
2. Find the average reflectance of room surface, which should be the area-weighted
average. First find the ratio of wall area (including the window) to the total surface area
(as in 1 above) and locate this value in the first column. The average reflectance is then
read in the column headed by the wall reflectance. Locate this on scale B
3. Lay a straight-edge across these two points and it will give the IRC on scale C
4. If there is an obstruction outside the window, determine the altitude angle of its top edge
and locate this on scale D
5. A straight-edge laid across this point (D) and the point on C previously determined will
give the IRC on scale E

76
A correction factor should be applied to this IRC for the deterioration of internal decoration (D-
factor), which depends on location and room usage.

77
Nilai Keseragaman Iluminan

Contoh Soal:
Lokasi A

B A D

Nilai E
Titik (lux)

A 1456.93

B 2370.54

C 1357.44

D 891.81 Tabel 4. Nilai Iluminasi Pada Titik-titik ukur di lokasi A

E 1300.42

Lokasi A adalah lokasi yang dekat dengan tangga dan sumber cahaya utama. Meja
diletakkan di titik A di mana nilai iluminasinya adalah sebesar 1456.93 lux. Nilai ini sudah
berada di atas nilai standart, yaitu 200 lux. Untuk titik-titik di sekitarnya yaitu titik B,C,D, dan E,
semuanya juga memiliki nilai di atas standart. Sehingga bisa dikatakan lokasi A memiliki nilai
iluminasi yang baik.

Keseragaman
Titik E min E max
Iluminan

A-B 1456.93 2370.54 0.614598362

A-C 1357.44 1456.93 0.931712574

Tabel 5. Nilai keseragaman iluminan
A-D 891.81 1456.93 0.612115888 pada lokasi A

A-E 1300.42 1456.93 0.892575484

E min 1456.93
=
E av 1007.31 = 1.446357

78
 Persyaratan nilai keseragaman iluminan adalah Emin/Emax > 0,7. Dari tabel 5 bisa
dilihat bahwa 50% dari titik-titik tersebut memiliki nilai di atas 0,7, dan 50% yang lain di bawah
0,7. Untuk nilai Emin/Eav memiliki persyaratan >0,8. Nilai Emin/Eav di titik A memenuhi
persyaratan ini. Dari kedua nilai ini bisa dilihat bahwa nilai keseragaman iluminan di lokasi A
adalah baik.

ASSIGNMENT
1. Jelaskan apa perbedaan daylight & sunlight! Yang harus dimasukkan ke dalam
bangunan adalah sunlight atau daylight? Jelaskan!
2. Sebuah jendela memiliki ukuran 1 x 2 m. Desainlah sebuah shading device yang mampu
memotong sinar matahari tidak nyaman sepanjang tahun! Adapun posisi jendela adalah
sebagai berikut:
a. barat
b. timur
c. utara
d. selatan
3. Hitunglah nilai keseragaman iluminan dari ruang kelas Anda sekarang! Apakah ada
kemungkinan terjadi silau pada ruang kelas tersebut?

79
5. ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING
Luminaire Lampu
Sebuah luminair lampu meliputi rumah lampu dan alat listrik lain yang
mendukungnya. Perlengkapan lampu permanen (fixtures) adalah luminair yang
terpasang pada bangunan secara tetap.

Luminair lampu dikelompokkan oleh cara pendistribusian cahaya lampunya, yaitu:

• Luminair langsung memancarkan cahaya ke arah bawah. Jenis ini meliputi
sebagian besar jenis luminair tersembunyi, termasuk downlight dan troffer
• Luminair tidak langsung memancarkan cahaya ke atas, memantulkan
cahaya dari langit-langit ke ruangan. Jenis ini meliputi banyak perlengkapan
lampu gantung, sconce, dan beberapa model lampu portable
• Luminair pancar memancarkan cahaya ke segala arah dengan intensitas
cahaya yang sama. Jenis ini meliputi sebagian besar dari jenis lampu
terbuka, lampu bulat, chandelier, dan beberapa model lampu meja dan
lampu berdiri
• Luminair langsung/tidak langsung memancarkan cahaya ke arah atas dan
ke bawah tetapi tidak ke samping. Jenis ini meliputi banyak jenis
perlengkapan lampu gantung dan beberapa model lampu meja dan lampu
berdiri. Perhatikan bahwa luminair
• Luminair asimetris biasanya didesain untuk aplikasi khusus. Pencahayaan
asimetris arah atas adalah perlengkapan lampu yang mendistribusikan
cahaya tidak langsung lebih kuat ke satu arah, misalnya menjauh dari
dinding. Wallwasher adalah bentuk dari perlengkapan lampu dengan
distribusi pencahayaan yang lebih kuat ke satu sisi untuk menerangi dinding
• Perlengkapan lampu yang dapat disetel adalah perlengkapan lampu
dengan pencahayaan langsung yang dapat diubah-ubah arah cahayanya.
Perlengkapan ini meliputi lampu track, lampu banjir, dan lampu sorot.

Pertimbangan memilih jenis luminair dasar:

• Luminair langsung cenderung lebih efisien karena mendistribusikan cahaya
secara langsung ke area kerja. Pada umumnya dapat menciptakan langit-
langit yang gelap dan dinding yang lebih tinggi secara dramatis tetapi juga
tidak nyaman karena terlalu kontras. Pencahayaan langsung biasanya
digunakan pada lobi bangunan, kantor eksekutif, restoran, dan ruang-ruang
lain di mana perancang ingin memberikan kesan yang dramatis. Ruang-
ruang dramatis bisa melelahkan, sehingga, pencahayaan langsung biasanya
tidak dianjurkan untuk digunakan pada ruang kerja.
• Luminair tidak langsung cenderung menciptakan ruang yang nyaman,
bercahaya lembut, dan tidak terlalu kontras yang secara psikologis memberi
kesan luas. Pencahayaan tidak langsung biasanya lebih sering digunakan

80
 untuk ruang-ruang di mana orang menghabiskan banyak waktu untuk
bekerja.
• Luminair menyebar cenderung menciptakan pencahayaan umum yang luas
dan seringkali dianggap silau karena kurang tertutup. Kebanyakan
chandelier dan sconce adalah luminair yang mendistribusikan cahaya
secara menyebar, dan umumnya dipilih sebagai ornamen atau aplikasi
hiasan
• Luminair langsung atau tidak langsung seringkali adalah perpaduan yang
baik antara keefisienan dari pencahayaan langsung dan kenyamanan dari
pencahayaan tidak langsung.
• Luminair asimetris dipilih untuk pencahayaan khusus dari sebuah benda atau
bidang

GAYA LUMINAIR

Downlight
Downlight sering disebut tabung atau top hat. Termasuk jenis luminair langsung,
biasanya berbentuk bulat dan tersembunyi di plafon. Prinsip pemakaiannya adalah
untuk pencahayaan umum. Downlight dapat dipasangi lampu pijar, lampu halogen,
lampu pijar bertegangan rendah, lampu fluorescent ringkas, atau lampu HID.
Downlight terdiri dari 2 bagian:
• Tabung yang berada di plafon
• Trim yang dipasang di bawah plafon
Jenis-jenis tabung:
• Luminair yang terlindungi secara termal/thermally protected biasa digunakan
pada sebagian besar aplikasi pencahayaan pada area komersil yang
memiliki plafon gantung tanpa adanya sekat di sekitar area yang akan
diterangi
• Aplikasi plafon bersekat/insulated ceiling (IC) dipakai bila luminair dirancang
menempel dengan sekat tabung IC secara khusus digunakan di perumahan,
terutama plafon dengan loteng di atasnya
• Luminair untuk tempat yang lembab dapat dipasang pada tempat-tempat
yang lembab namun tidak terkena siraman air atau hujan
• Perlengkapan lampu permanen untuk tempat basah dapat dipasang pada
tempat yang langsung terkena siraman atau hujan
• Perlengkapan lampu darurat dilengkapi dengan daya listrik cadangan
sehingga dapat menghasilkan cahaya paling sedikit 90 menit selama daya
listrik padam

81
Troffer
Troffer banyak digunakan di perkantoran, toko, sekolah, fasilitas institusional, dan
komersial lainnya untuk penerangan umum pada area kerja dan penjualan.
• Troffer berlensa menggunakan lensa plastik untuk memantulkan cahaya dan
mendistribusikannya ke daerah yang diinginkan. Lensa berfungsi untuk
menghilangkan dan meminimalkan pendaran cahaya yang menyilaukan.
Lensa troffer dapat dilengkapi dengan lapisan pemantul internal berkualitas
tinggi untuk memperoleh efisiensi energi yang tinggi
• Troffer parabola menggunakan kisi-kisi plastik atau aluminium berbentuk
parabola untuk melindungi lampu agar memberikan pandangan yang
nyaman
• Troffer tersembunyi dan tidak langsung adalah luminair terbuka, dan cahaya
dari lampu flourescent dipantul oleh bagian dalam kotak troffer

Kebanyakan troffer tersembunyi dan didesain untuk dipasang dalam panel plafon
akustik, di mana perlengkapan lampu permanen ini memiliki ukuran yang sama
dengan panel plafon.

82
PERLENGKAPAN LAMPU PERMANEN ARSITEKTURAL

Wallwasher
Wallwashing adalah pencahayaan yang menerangi dinding secara merata.
Wallwashing cenderung untuk disembunyikan di dalam dinding. Wallwasher
tersedia dalam beberapa jenis:
• Eyelid wallwasher, merupakan downlight dengan pelindung berbentuk
seperti kelopak mata yang mengarahkan cahaya ke satu sisi dari sebuah
ruangan
• Wallwasher tersembunyi hampir sama dengan downlight namun
menggunakan lensa bersudut untuk mengarahkan cahaya ke satu sisi
dinding

83
 • Wallwasher berlensa di permukaan dan semi tersembunyi serta wallwasher
terbuka mengarahkan cahaya ke dinding di dekatnya dan biasanya bekerja
paling baik
• Downlight wallwasher didesain lebih untuk pencahayaan ruangan daripada
untuk menerangi dinding, dan tidak cukup baik untuk tujuan pencahayaan
pameran

Wall Grazing Fixture

Wall grazing fixture, kadang disebut wall slot, digunakan untuk menerangi dinding
pada lobi, koridor, dan area penting. Sangat baik untuk menerangi permukaan
yang bertekstur dan permukaan yang berlapis.

84
Perlengkapan lampu sorot permanen
Perlengkapan lampu sorot permanen memungkinkan cahaya untuk fokus pada
permukaan bangunan dan benda seni
• Lampu sorot tersembunyi tampil sebagai downlight namun secara internal
memungkinkan rotasi dan elevasi dari cahaya yang dipancarkannya
• Lampu sorot berbentuk bola mata dan dapat ditarik ke bawah seperti
downlight, namun penampilannya dapat diubah-ubah
• Sistem pencahayaan lampu track didesain untuk menyorot pameran benda
seni dan produk retail

Lampu cove
Cove memungkinkan pencahayaan ke arah atas dari ceruk dinding atau elemen
arsitektur lainnya secara lebih efisien daripada lampu yang berbentuk memanjang,
dan dapat memberikan pencahayaan tanpa adanya bayangan rumah lampu.

85
Lampu kerja
Perlengkapan lampu secara khusus didesain untuk menerangi area meja kerja
sedangkan cahaya pantul diminimalkan.

Pencahayaan Dekoratif
• Chandelier adalah perlengkapan lampu hias yang biasanya terdiri dari
banyak lampu pijar kecil yang menyerupai efek cahaya dari nyala lilin.
Chandelier digantung dan biasa digunakan untuk penerangan di ruang
makan, foyer, dan ruang formal lainya
• Lampu gantung juga merupakan lampu permanen dekoratif yang digantung
di plafon. Kebanyakan perlengkapan lampu gantung menggunakan lampu
pijar, walaupun variasi perlengkapan lampu gantung juga tersedia dengan
menggunakan lampu HID dan lampu fluorescent
• Luminair lampu gantung pendek serupa dengan lampu gantung biasa tetapi
terpasang lebih dekat ke plafon yang memungkinkan penggunaan pada
kebanyakan ruang dengan ketinggian plafon konvensional
• Sconce adalah luminair hias atau dekoratif yang dipasang pada dinding.
Seringkali, sconce dipasangkan dengan chandelier, di waktu lain sconce
menjadi satu-satunya elemen pencahayaan dekoratif.
• Torchier adalah lampu berdiri didesain secara khusus untuk memancarkan
cahaya ke arah atas. Kebanyakan trochier menggunakan lampu pijar atau
lampu halogen
• Lentera adalah luminair ruang luar yang dipasang pada plafon, dinding,
papan, atau tiang

86
LAMPU STANDAR UNTUK TEMPAT INDUSTRI

Troffer dengan pola 12 lensa akrilik

Troffer dengan kotak besar kisi parabola

Luminair fluorescent tertutup

Luminair fluorescent panjang

Luminair lampu fluorescent industri

Luminair lampu HID downlight industri

87
Luminair fluorescent downlight industri
ringkas

Luminair fluorescent gantung cahaya

tidak langsung

Luminair fluorescent gantung cahaya

langsung-tidak langsung

Troffer tertutup cahaya tidak langsung

Downlight bidang dan tersembunyi

88
Luminair downlight yang dapat disetel

Sconce dinding

Lampu gantung (pendant)

Lampu plafon bentuk drum

Lampu meja dan lampu berdiri

Lampu yang dipasang dalam lemari

89
Lampu rias (vanity)

Lampu tanda pintu keluar

Gambar Rencana Pencahayaan

90
91
DESAIN LAYER PENCAHAYAAN

92
93
Layer Pencahayaan
Pencahayaan ambient tidak
Ambient menerangi area
kerja yang spesifik.

Layer Di antara banyak

Pencahayaan kegiatan visual
pada Area Kerja dalam sebuah
ruang, banyak
kegiatan di atas
meja kerja,
biasanya diberikan
pencahayaan
pada area kerja di
lokasi di mana
pekerjaan
dilakukan
Layer lampu Sorot Merupakan
pencahayaan
estetika yang
biasanya hanya
digunakan pada
proyek yang
membutuhkan
gaya dan
penampilan.
Tujuannya untuk
menerangi fitur
dan benda
pameran seperti
benda seni

94
The Lumen Method

The lumen method (or total flux method) of general lighting design is applicable
where a regular array of luminaires produces a uniform lighting over the work plane.

The total lumen output of lamps is calculated for a given system, which is referred to
as the installed flux (ɸi) and the flux received on the work plane will be:

ɸr = ɸi x UF x MF

ɸr
then the illuminance is 𝐸𝐸 =
𝐴𝐴

where MF is the maintenance factor, to allow for the deterioration of the lamp,
luminaire and room surface. In the absence of more accurate data, this is taken as
0,8. UF is utilisation factor and the method hinges on finding the appropriate UF
value.

The magnitude of UF depends on the following factors:

1. Properties of the luminaire: an enclose luminaire or one with less than perfect
internal reflectance will have a value much lower than an exposed lamp
2. The downward light output ratio (DLOR) of the luminaire. Light emitted
upwards will reach the work plane only after reflection(s) from room surfaces
and some of it is absorbed in these surfaces. A larger DLOR normally means a
higher UF
3. Reflectance of room surfaces, which is more important if the DLOR is smaller,
influence the lighting even with high DLOR values
4. Geometrical proportions of the room, as expressed by the room index, the
ratio of horizontal areas: L x W x 2 and vertical areas (L+W) x 2 x Hm, where Hm
is the mounting height, from the work plane to the luminaire (the multiplier 2
cancels out)

𝐿𝐿 𝑥𝑥 𝑊𝑊
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
(𝐿𝐿 + 𝑊𝑊)𝑥𝑥 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻

5. Direct ratio: How much of the downward emitted light reaches the work
plane directly. This has a low value with a narrow and high room (small room
index), but a high value for a wide room (large RI) and downlighter type
luminaires

If an installation is to be designed, the above equations are inverted:

• If an illuminance E is required, this is multiplied by the work plane area to get
the flux to be received, ɸr

95
• The type of luminaire is selected and the UF is found
• The MF is taken as 0,8 (higher in very clean spaces, lower in dusty or dirty
situations, or in the absence of regular cleaning)
• Thus the flux to be installed will be
ɸ𝑟𝑟
ɸ𝑖𝑖 =
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑥𝑥 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

Combining this steps, we have a single expression:

𝐸𝐸 𝑥𝑥 𝐴𝐴
ɸ𝑖𝑖 =
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑥𝑥 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

Then we have to work back, divide the ɸi by the output of one lamp to get
the number of lamps required, decide wether single or double lamp luminaire
would be used, devise a luminaire layout (a ceiling plan) and check the
spacing limits.

96
97
98
99
Example

A general office space is 12 m x 9 m and 2,7 m high. The illuminance required is 400
lux. Reflectance are: ceiling 0,7, walls 0,5. If the work plane is at 0,8 m and ceiling-
mounted luminaires are to be used, then Hm = 2,7-0,8 = 1,9 m. Therefore, the room
index will be:
12 𝑥𝑥 9
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = = 2,7
(12 + 9) 𝑥𝑥 1,9

We select an enclosed plastic diffuser type luminaire, which has a DLOR of 0,5. We
locate the coloumn headed ρ ceiling 0,7 and within this the subheading for ρ walls
0,5. There are lines for RI 2,5 and 3, so we make a note of both UF values of 0,55 and
0,58 and interpolate:

0,58 − 0,55
𝑥𝑥 0,2 = 0,012
3 − 2,5
Which is to be added to the lower value. Thus,

UF = 0,56

The flux to be installed is:

400 𝑥𝑥 12 𝑥𝑥 9
ɸ𝑖𝑖 = = 96429 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
0,56 𝑥𝑥 0,8

For uniformity, the spacing limit is 1,5 x 1,9 = 2,85 m

1200 mm fluorescent lamps are available from 1120 to 2800 lm output and select a
medium quality for good colour rendering: the Kolor-rite lamp with a flux output of
1800 lm. Of these, we may need 96429/1800 = 54 lamps. We can have twin-tube
luminaires, so we need 27 of these. We may have 7 rows of 4 luminaires, so the
spacing may be 1,7 m in the 12 m length (0,9 m from the walls) and in the 9m width,
the spacing would become 2,25 m (giving just over 1 m between ends of luminaires).
Both are well within the 2,85 m limit.

ASSIGNMENT

1. Berikan analisa layer pencahayaan pada gambar interior berikut ini!

100
2. Desainlah sebuah pencahayaan dari ruang-ruang berikut ini! Berikan gambar
kerja dan gambar arsitekturalnya!
a. Gedung konser
b. Galeri/museum
c. Lobi hotel

3. Berapa jumlah lampu yang dibutuhkan pada sebuah ruang studio gambar
berukuran 10 x 10 m dengan ketinggian plafon 4 m?

101
6. ROOM ACOUSTIC
ISTILAH-ISTILAH BUNYI

Bunyi terjadi karena adanya benda yang bergetar yang menimbulkan gesekan
dengan zat di sekitarnya. Gelombang bunyi dapat diukur dalam satuan panjang
gelombang, frekuensi, dan kecepatan rambat.

Panjang gelombang dinotasikan sebagai lambda (λ) adalah jarak antara 2 titik
pada posisi yang sama yang saling berurutan. Panjang gelombang diukur dalam
satuan meter dan merupakan elemen yang menunjukkan kekuatan bunyi. Semakin
panjang gelombangnya semakin kuat pula bunyi tersebut.

Frekuensi adalah jumlah atau banyaknya getaran yang terjadi dalam setiap detik.
Frekuensi dihitung dalam satuan Hertz (Hz). Jumlah getaran yang terjadi setiap detik
tersebut sangat tergantung pada setiap jenis obyek yang bergetar. Setiap benda
akan memiliki frekuensi tersendiri yang berbeda dengan jenis benda lain. Frekuensi
yang dapat didengar manusia adalah 20 Hz – 20.000 Hz. Bunyi di bawah 20 Hz
disebut infrasonik, bunyi di atas 20.000 Hz disebut ultrasonik.

Kecepatan rambat (v) bunyi adalah jarak yang mampu ditempuh oleh gelombang
bunyi pada arah tertentuu dalam waktu satu detik, satuannya adalah m/dt.
Banyaknya getaran tiap detik menunjukkan total panjang yang berpindah dalam
satu detik.

V=fxλ

v = kecepatan rambat (m/dt)

f = frekuensi (Hz)
λ = panjang gelombang (m)

kecepatan rambat bunyi di udara = 340 m/dt

amplitudo menunjukkan keras dan lemahnya bunyi.

Resonansi adalah peristiwa ikut bergetarnya obyek yang berada pada jarak
tertentu dari sebuah obyek sumber bunyi yang bergetar, karena obyek yang
bergetar tersebut memiliki kesamaan atau kemiripan frekuensi dengan obyek
sumber bunyi yang bergetar.

Kekuatan bunyi dapat diukur melalui tingkat bunyi (sound levels). Pengukuran
kekuatan bunyi adalah dengan satuan decibell (dB). Tingkat kekuatan atau
kekerasan bunyi diukur dengan alat yang disebut Sound Level Meter (SLM).

102
Ketika sebuah obyek sumber bunyi bergetar dan tidak ada obyek lain yang
menghalanginya, gelombang bunyi tersebut akan merambat ke segala arah,
menempuh jarak tertentu, melemah, dan kemudian menghilang.

AKUSTIKA DALAM RUANGAN

Gelombang bunyi memiliki sifat yang hampir sama dengan cahaya, yaitu
memantul dengan posisi sudut datang sama dengan sudut pantul bila mengenai
obyek yang licin dan sempurna dan memiliki luasan yang melebihi dimensi
gelombang bunyi yang datang, memantul ke arah tidak beraturan bila mengenai
obyek dengan permukaan tidak teratur, serta terserap dan diteruskan atau
ditransmisikan saat mengenai obyek yang terbuat dari material tertentu. Ketika
mengenai obyek yang memiliki retak atau celah, gelombang cahaya maupun
bunyi akan berusaha menerobosnya. Pada bunyi, keberadaan celah, lubang, atau
retak kecil pada obyek penghalang justru dapat menyebabkan terjadinya duplikasi
sumber.

Refleksi

Refleksi atau pemantulan bunyi oleh suatu obyek penghalang atau bidang batas
disebabkan oleh karakteristik penghalang yang memungkinkan terjadinya
pemantulan.

Pemantulan yang umumnya terjadi dapat digambarkan sebagai:

• Near field, yaitu area yang terjadi di dekat sumber bunyi, yang jaraknya
diukur sekitar satu panjang gelombang dari frekuensi tersebut.

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 • Reverberant field, yaitu area yang terjadi di dekat bidang batas,
berseberangan dengan sumber bunyi.
• Free field, yaitu area yang berada di antara near dan reverberant field.

Absorpsi
Sesuai dengan karakteristik materialnya, sebuah bidang batas selain dapat
memantulkan kembali gelombang bunyi yang datang, juga dapat menyerap bunyi.
Tingkat penyerapan suatu material ditentukan oleh koefisien absorpsi. Koefisien
absorpsi adalah angka yang menunjukkan jumlah/proporsi dari keseluruhan energi
bunyi yang datang yang mampu diserap oleh material tersebut. Nilai maksimum α

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adalah 1 untuk permukaan yang menyerap sempurna, dan 0 untuk permukaan
yang memantulkan sempurna.

Jenis absorber yang sering dijumpai:

1. Material berpori (soft board, selimut akustik, acoustic tiles)
2. Panel penyerap
3. Rongga penyerap

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Reverberation
Bila sumber bunyi dihentikan secara tiba-tiba, bunyi tidak serta merta ikut berhenti.
Terjadi perpanjangan bunyi yang disebut reverberation (dengung). Pengukuran
tingkat reverberation dalam sebuah ruang menggunakan waktu dengung
(reverberation time). Waktu dengung adalah waktu yang dibutuhkan oleh suatu
sumber bunyi yang dihentikan seketika untuk turun intensitasnya sebanyak 60 dB
dari intensitas awal. Waktu dengung sebuah ruangan bergantung pada: volume
ruangan, luas permukaan bidang pembentuk ruangan, tingkat penyerapan
permukaan bidang, dan frekuensi bunyi yang muncul dalam ruangan. Melalui
waktu dengung, kualitas akustik sebuah ruangan dapat ditentukan.

0,16 𝑉𝑉
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 =
𝐴𝐴 + 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥

A = (S1 x α1) + (S2 x α2) + ...

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A : Penyerapan ruang total
V : Volume
X ; koefisien penyerapan udara = 0,3
S: luas material
α: koefisien penyerapan material

Difraksi
Difraksi adalah peristiwa menerusnya atau membeloknya perambatan gelombang
bunyi akibat ketidakmampuan penghalang berdimensi kecil untuk menahannya.

Refraksi
Refraksi adalah membeloknya gelombang bunyi karena melewati atau memasuki
medium perambatan yang memiliki kerapatan molekul yang berbeda.

Difusi
Difusi adalah gejala terjadinya pemantulan yang menyebar, karena gelombang
bunyi menerpa permukaan yang tidak merata.

Transmisi bunyi
Pada kondisi tertentu, kemungkinan besar elemen bidang batas ruangan mampu
meneruskan atau mentransmisikan bunyi yang muncul dari sebuah ruangan ke
ruangan lain di sebelahnya.

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CACAT AKUSTIK

Gema (echo)
Bila bunyi dipantulkan oleh suatu permukaan batas dalam jumlah yang cukup dan
tertunda cukup lama untuk dapat diterima sebagai bunyi yang berbeda dari bunyi
yang merambat langsung dari sumber ke pendengar. Gema terjadi jika selang
minimum sebesar 1/25 sekon untuk pembicaraan terjadi antara penerimaan bunyi
langsung dan bunyi pantul yang berasal dari sumber yang sama. Selang waktu kritis
yang ditetapkan di atas sesuai dengan beda jejak minimum antara bunyi langsung
dan bunyi pantul sebesar 14 meter untuk pidato. Sebuah dinding belakang yang
berhadapan dengan sumber bunyi dan memantulkan bunyi, merupakan
penyebab gema yang potensial, kecuali bila dinding tersebut diatur secara akustik.

Long Delayed reflection

Pemantulan yang berkepanjangan (Long Delayed Reflection). Ini adalah cacat

yang sejenis dengan gema, tetapi penundaan waktu antara penerimaan bunyi
langsung dan bunyi pantul agak lebih singkat

Gaung

Gaung terdiri dari gema-gema kecil yang berturutan dengan cepat dan dapat
dicatat serta diamati bila ledakan bunyi singkat dilakukan di antara permukaan-
permukaan pemantul bunyi yang sejajar, walaupun kedua pasangan dinding lain
yang berhadapan tidak sejajar, menyerap, atau merupakan permukaan-
permukaan difus. Gaung juga dapat terjadi antara permukaan-permukaan
pemantul bunyi yang tidak sejajar, bila sumber bunyi diletakkan di antara
permukaan-permukaan ini.

Pemusatan Bunyi

kadang disebut sebagai ‘hotspot’, disebabkan oleh pemantulan bunyi pada

permukaan-permukaan cekung. Intensitas bunyi di titik panas sangat tinggi dan
selalu terjadi dengan kerugian pada daerah lain, atau ‘dead spots’, di mana
kondisi mendengar adalah buruk. Adanya hotspot dan deadspot menyebabkan
adanya distribusi energi bunyi yang tak merata dalam ruang.

Couple Space

Bila suatu auditorium dihubungkan dengan ruang di sampingnya yang dengung

lewat sarana pintu keluar masuk yang terbuka, maka kedua ruang itu membentuk
ruang gandeng. Selama rongga udara itu saling berhubungan, maka masuknya
bunyi dengung dari ruang tetangga ke dalam auditorium akan terasa.

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Distorsi

Distorsi adalah perubahan kualitas bunyi yang tidak dikehendaki, dan terjadi karena
ketidakseimbangan atau penyerapan bunyi yang sangat banyak oleh permukaan-
permukaan batas pada frekuensi yang berbeda-beda.

Resonansi Ruang

Resonansi ruang, atau disebut dengan kolorasi terjadi bila bunyi tertentu dalam pita
frekuensi yang sempit mempunyai kecenderungan berbunyi lebih keras
dibandingkan dengan frekuensi lain.

Bayangan Bunyi

Gejalanya dapat diamati di bawah balkon yang menonjol terlalu jauh ke dalam
ruang udara suatu auditorium.

Whispering Gallery

Frekuensi bunyi yang tinggi mempunyai kecenderungan untuk merangkak

sepanjang permukaan-permukaan cekung yang besar, seperti kubah setengah
bola

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AKUSTIK PADA BANGUNAN

Auditorium

Berdasarkan jenis aktivitas, auditorium dibedakan jenisnya menjadi 3:

• Auditorium untuk pertemuan (speech)
• Auditorium untuk pertunjukan seni (music)
• Auditorium multiifungsi (speech & music)

Persyaratan akustik:
1. Harus ada kekerasan yang cukup dalam tiap bagian ruang
2. Energi bunyi harus didistribusi secara merata dalam ruang
3. Ruang harus bebas dari cacat akustik
4. Bising dan getaran harus dihindari
5. Jejak gelombang bunyi langsung harus sependek mungkin, agar mengurangi
hilangnya energi bunyi di udara
6. Bunyi pembicaraan yang tak diperkuat, yang merambat secara langsung
dari sumber ke pendengar hampir tak dapat dimengerti di atas jarak 9-12 m
7. Tempat duduk harus diatur sedemikian rupa hingga berada dalam sudut
sekitar 140 derajat dari posisi pembicara
8. RT harus sedekat mungkin dengan kondisi ideal di seluruh jangkauan frekuensi
9. Pengendalian bising

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111
Studio

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7. NOISE
Background noise (bising latar belakang) adalah bunyi di sekitar kita yang muncul
secara tetap dan stabil pada tingkat tertentu. Bising latar belakang yang nyaman
berada pada tingkat kekerasan tidak lebih dari 40 dB.

Noise adalah bunyi yang muncul secara tidak tetap atau seketika dengan tingkat
kekerasan melebihi noise latar belakang pada daerah tersebut.

Ambient noise adalah tingkat kebisingan di sekitar kita, yang merupakan gabungan
antara noise latar belakang dan noise.

Kebisingan masuk ke bangunan dipengaruhi 3 faktor:

1. Sumber kebisingan, yang meliputi: jarak sumber kebisingan dari bangunan,
tingkat kebisingan sumber, frekuensi, durasi munculnya kebisingan, dan
waktu munculnya kebisingan
2. Medium yang dilalui kebisingan, yang meliputi: kondisi udara, jarak tempuh
gelombang bunyi kebisingan, dan ada tidaknya obyek dalam medium
3. Bangunan sebagai penerima, yang meliputi: tingkat kerapatan elemen
bangunan secara keseluruhan (berupa dinding, lantai, plafon, dan atap)
serta kemungkinan ruang-ruang yang menderita kebisingan serta yang
dapat dilindungi dari kebisingan

Kebisingan yang diderita oleh bangunan dapat berasal dari:

• Luar lahan bangunan, misalnya dari jalan atau dari titik lain di luar lahan
seperti lahan atau bangunan sekolah
• Dalam lahan tetapi di luar bangunan, misalnya area parkir bangunan
• Dalam bangunan sendiri
• Dalam ruangan sendiri

Jenis perambatan kebisingan dapat dibedakan menurut medium yang dilalui

gelombang bunyi, yaitu:
1. Airborne sound, adalah perambatan gelombang bunyi melalui medium
udara
2. Structurebone sound, adalah proses perambatan gelombang bunyi melalui
benda padat

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114
Cara yang paling tepat untuk menanggulangi penyebaran kebisingan adalah
dengan cara insulasi. Prinsip ini merupakan penggabungan dari refleksi, absorpsi,
dan peredaman getaran yang mengikuti kebisingan. obyek yang akan bertugas
sebagai insulator harus memenuhi persyaratan sebagai berikut:
• Berat
• Keutuhan material
• Elastisitas
• Prinsip isolasi

Ketika sebuah obyek dipasang untuk menjadi insulator, maka untuk mengukur
tingkat kemampuannya sebagai insulator, dipakai kriteria yang disebut Sound
Reduction Index (SRI). Selain itu, kemampuan insulasi suatu material juga diukur
dalam sistem Sound Transmission Class (STC). STC suatu material adalah
kemampuan material dalam meredam bunyi (sound proof) ketika digunakan
sebagai konstruksi. Selain itu, material juga memiliki nilai Transmission Loss (TL) yang
diukur dalam satuan dB, yaitu kemampuan material/konstruksi untuk mengurangi
terjadinya transmisi atau merambatnya gelombang bunyi ke balik
material/konstruksi karena diserap oleh material/konstruksi tersebut.
A
NR = TL + 10 log
S
NR = noise reduction (dB)
TL = transmission loss
A = total penyerapan ruang
S = luas bidang batas kedua ruangan

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j

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ASSIGNMENT

1. Hitunglah nilai reverberation time (RT) pada ruang kelas Anda saat ini!
Apakah nilainya sudah sesuai dengan standar RT yang diperlukan? Kalau
tidak sesuai, apa yang harus dilakukan? Menambah/mengurangi bidang
pantul/serap?
2. Hitunglah nilai noise reduction (NR) pada ruang kelas Anda saat ini, dari
bidang dinding yang berbatasan dengan jalan raya, dan bidang dinding
yang berbatasan dengan koridor! Apabila bunyi dari jalan raya adalah 80 dB,
dan bunyi dari koridor adalah 40 dB, berapakah bunyi bising yang terdengar
dari dalam ruang kelas?

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