Precipitation

- Water that reaches the ground as rainfall or snowfall

- Evaporation from ocean surfaces is the chief source of moisture for
precipitation

- Orographic barriers often exert more influence on climate if a region than

nearness to a moisture source does.

- Single strongest variable driving hydrologic processes

- Formed by water vapor in the atmosphere

- As air cools its ability to ‘hold’ water decreases and some turns to liquid
or ice (snow)
Forms of Precipitation:
1. Drizzle. This is a finest mist with drops just a little
larger than heavy fog, about 0.1 – 0.5 mm (0.004
– 0.02 in).
2. Rain. Rain drops average about 1 mm, but may
range from 0.5 to 5 mm (0.02 – 0.2 in) in
diameter.
3. Ice Pellets. Also called sleet, that occurs when
raindrops freeze as they fall through air where the
temperature is below 0oC (32oF). Ice pellets are
transparent spherical grains of ice, usually with
diameter of less than 5mm (0.2 in).
4. Snow. Snow is precipitation that reaches the
ground in the form of ice crystals. The size of
snowflakes may vary from a few millimeters to
several centimeters.
5. Hail. Hailstones, which may range from 5 to 10 cm
(0.2 – 0.4 in) or more in diameter, are rounded
lumps of ice that fall during thunderstorms.
Types of Precipitation:

1. Cyclonic / Frontal Precipitation – results when the leading edge of a

warm, moist air (warm front) meets a cool and dry air mass (cold
front).

Frontal Precipitation
Convective Precipitation – caused by upward movement of air which is
warmer than its surroundings; this precipitation is generally showery
nature with rapid changes of intensities.

Convective Precipitation
Orographic Precipitation – caused the air masses which strike the mountain barriers
and rise up, causing condensation and precipitation.

Orographic Precipitation
Rainfall Characteristics
The characteristics of rainfall are the amount, the intensity, the duration,
the frequency or return period, and the seasonal distribution .
The amount is of course important to the overall hydrologic cycle and replenishment
of the soil water, and the amount is an accumulation or product of the intensity
times the duration. For example, the amount may be the same for a high intensity
short duration rainfall as it is for a low intensity long duration rainfall

However, the intensity and duration can have a large influence on whether the
rainfall infiltrates or becomes surface runoff. Higher rainfall intensity produces larger
size raindrops which have more impact energy, and thus higher intensity storms can
damage delicate vegetation and bare soil. High intensity storms can literally displace
soil particles, causing soil crusting or starting the soil erosion process. High intensity
storms may also overwhelm the soils ability to infiltrate the rainfall at the same rate,
causing infiltration-excess runoff.
The duration refers to the length of time rainfall occurs. A high intensity rainfall for a
short duration may affect tender seedlings, but it will not likely have much effect on
soil erosion and runoff. Rainfall of longer duration can significantly affect infiltration,
runoff, and soil erosion processes.

The frequency, or more specifically, the return period refers to how often rainfall
occurs at a particular amount or intensity and duration. For example, rainfall return
periods are referred to as 100 year-1 hour rainfall or 100 year-24 hour rainfall to
define the probability that a given amount will fall within a given time period.
- The frequency of occurrence of a storm of given magnitude and duration is important
to establish a measure of risk.

- For a given storm duration, the probability that an event of certain magnitude has of
being equaled or exceeded in any one year is termed the probability of exceedance

- Frequency can be represented by the return period, which is the average number of
years between events of a given magnitude or greater. The return period is related to
the probability of exceedance by

1
Tr 
Prob Exceedance 
Where Tr is the return period and P is the
probability of exceedance.
Frequency characteristics of storms are generally summarized in Intensity-Duration-
Frequency (IDF) Curves.

In general, for the same return period, short storms are more intense than long
storms. Similarly, for a given intensity, longer storms are associated with greater
return periods
In hydrologic design, frequencies are needed to select appropriate rainfall values
that will result in design streamflows.

A storm of a given frequency does not generally produce a peak discharge of the
same frequency. However, these frequencies are commonly assumed to be the
same, especially if models are used to estimate runoff from precipitation.
Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF) Curves

IDF is a plot of precipitation intensity on the y-axis and duration on the x-axis with
return period indicated on each intensity-duration curve.

Rainfall Intensity - is the amount of rainfall for a given rainfall event recorded at a
station divided by the time of record, counted from the beginning of the event.

Return Period - is the time interval after which a storm of given magnitude is likely to
recur. This is determined by analysing past rainfalls from several events recorded at a
station.
 Intensity-Duration-Frequency
IDF-Curves
Intensity in inches/hour

Time in minutes
The seasonal distribution of rainfall refers to the time of year when various rainfall
amounts occur. The seasonal distribution determines when surface runoff or deep
percolation are most likely to occur or if irrigation is needed. Since the seasonal
distribution of rainfall varies in different parts of the country, practices used or
recommended in one part of the country may not necessarily be appropriate in
another.

• A hyetograph is also used to describe the variation of the storm with time.
• The time distribution of the storm affects the shape of the direct runoff
hydrograph.
• Early, Center, Late peaking precipitation
 Rainfall Hyetograph
Rainfall Intensity in in/hour

Time in hours
Spatial Distribution
• A localized storm would likely produce smaller peaks and a shorter
hydrograph than if the same storm covered the whole watershed.
• A storm moving away from the outlet will produce an earlier and
smaller peak than if the storm moves towards the outlet.
• Storm location, aerial extent, and storm movement are usually
determined by the origin of the storm.

• For instance, cold fronts produce localized fast-moving storms. Warm

fronts give origin to slow-moving widespread precipitation.
Spatial Distribution

• A storm taking place far from the outlet would produce longer
hydrographs and lower peaks than if the same storm occurred near
the outlet.
• In most circumstances, it is assumed that rainfall is uniform over the
entire watershed for the duration of the time increment.
 Precipitation Measurement
Liquid precipitation is traditionally measured using various types of rain gages such as the
non-recording cylindrical container type or the recording weighing type, float type and tipping-
bucket type. All of the above gages measure precipitation at a point. Another method of
measuring precipitation is through the use of radar.

World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Tipping Bucket Raingauge

suggests the number of rain gauges:

Ideal Acceptable
For Flat Regions of temperate, 1 Station for 600 1 Station for 900
Mediterranean and tropical zones – 900 km2 – 3000 km2

For Mountainous Regions of 1 Station for 100 1 Station for 250

temperate, Mediterranean and – 250 km2 – 1000 km2
tropical zones

Manual Raingauge
Selection of RAINFALL Gauging Station Location

1. Site is safe and accessible for installation and operation.

2. An area upstream of proposed intake and within river catchment.

3. Objects should not be closer to the gauge than a distance twice their height above the
raingauge orifice.

4. Sites on slope or on the roof of a building should be avoided.

5. Best sites are often found in cleanings within forest or orchards, among trees, in scrub or
shrub forests, or where other objects act as an effective wind-break for winds from all
directions.

6. The surface surrounding the precipitation gauge can be covered with short grass, gravel or
shingle, but hard, flat surfaces, such as concrete, should be avoided to prevent excessive in
splashing.
Precipitation Patterns in Space and Time:

1. Geographic Range of Precipitation

Rainfall tends to be heaviest near the equator and to diminish as the air
flows toward higher latitudes. The geographical distribution of precipitation
depends on orographic factors as well as how far an air mass has moved away from
its source.

2. Seasonal Variations in Precipitation

Precipitation varies with the sun’s position. Many parts of the world have
one definite rainy season, which may occur in summer or in winter depending on
the general circulation.
Source:http://kidlat.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/c
ab/climate.htm
Precipitation Patterns in Space and Time:
3. Long Term Variations in Precipitation
Precipitation have a predictable pattern of fluctuation around its long term
average value or mean.
Variation of Rainfall
Rainfall may vary from a given point to the other.

Average Rainfall Depth (ARD) – is the mean depth of rainfall for

a particular basin. For any given time duration, the average
depth of rainfall falling over the basin can be computed using
three methods:

1. Arithmetic Mean – taken as the average of all rainfall

depths.

Time (hrs) Total

1st 2nd 3rd 4th
15  12  8  5
 10.0 mm
Rainfall
A 15 10 3 2 30
4 (mm)
B 12 15 8 5 40
C 8 10 6 4 28
D 5 8 2 2 17
2. The Thiessen Polygon Method

This method is proposed by Theissen in

1911, considers the representative area of each rain
gauge.

These area are found out using a method consisting

of the following three steps:

1. Joining the rain gauge station locations by

drawing straight lines to form triangle.

2. Bisecting the edges of the triangles to form the

For example, the weighted average
so called “Thiessen Polygons”.
rainfall over the catchment is
determined as,
3. Calculate the area enclosed around each rain
gauge station to find the area of influence
corresponding to the rain gauge. (55x15)  (70x12)  (80x8)  (35x5)
 10.33mm
(55  70  80  35)
 2. The Isohyetal Method

This is considered as one of the most accurate method.

The method requires the plotting of isohyets as shown in
the figure and calculating the areas enclosed either
between the isohyets or between an isohyet and the
catchment boundary.

The areas II and III fall between two isohyets each.

Hence, these areas may be thought of as corresponding
to the following rainfall depths:
Area
Area II : Corresponds to (10 + 15)/2 = 12.5 mm rainfall Area I 40 km2
depth Area II 80 km2
Area III : Corresponds to (5 + 10)/2 = 7.5 mm rainfall
Area III 70 km2
depth
Area IV 50 km2
(40x15)  (80x12.5)  (70x7.5)  (50x5) Total 240 km2
 9.896 mm
240
 Isohyetal method
• Steps
• Construct isohyets (rainfall contours)
• Compute area between each pair of
adjacent isohyets (Ai) P1
• Compute average precipitation for
each pair of adjacent isohyets (pi)
• Compute areal average using the P2
following formula

P3
1 N
PP  A p  Ai Pi
M

 A i 1
i 1
i i

5  5  18 15  12  25  12  35
P  21.6 mm
47
Probability and Statistics

The concept of probability is paramount in the field of hydrology. The following are techniques of
probability and statistics used to analyze random events.

1. The probability of obtaining either outcome A or B, with A and independent and mutually
exclusive, is the sum of the probability of obtaining each, thus
P( AorB)  P( A)  P ( B)
Where:
P(A or B) = probability of obtaining either A or B
P(A) = probability of obtaining A
P(B) = probability of obtaining B
Typical Rainfall Intensity Duration Frequency (IDF) Curve Return Rainfall Intensity (mm/hr)
Period
1 2 3 6 12 24
2 62.67 38.83 28.01 15.11 7.77 3.88
Davao City – Sasa Rainfall 5
79.50 49.26 35.53 19.17 9.85 4.93
Station
20 101.34 62.79 45.29 24.43 12.56 6.28
50 115.17 71.37 51.47 27.77 14.27 7.14
Years of Record: 1952 - 2011
100 125.54 77.79 56.11 30.27 15.56 7.78
200
135.876 84.195 60.724 32.763 16.840 8.422
1000
159.809 99.025 71.419 38.534 19.806 9.905

Rainfall Intensity Duration Frequency (RDIF) Curves

200
Rainfall Intensity (mm)

150 2 year

5 year

100 20 year

50 year

50 100 year

200 year

0 1000 year

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Time (Hours)
Analysis for Anomalous Rainfall Record

Rainfall recorded at various rain gauges within a catchment should be monitored regularly for any
anomalies.

These two major types of anomalies in rainfall are categorized as:

1. Missing rainfall record 2. Inconsistency in rainfall record

To approximate the missing record, To determine the possible
inconsistencies, use double mass
1  N4 N4 N4  curve.
P4   P1  P2  P3 
3  N1 N2 N3 
P4 = precipitation at the missing
location
N1, N2, N3 and N4 = normal annual precipitation
of the four stations
P1, P2 and P3 = rainfalls recorded at the three
stations 1, 2 and 3 respectively.
Example:
Find out the missing storm precipitation of station 'C' given in the following table:
Double Mass Curve
- tests the consistency of the record at a station
by comparing its accumulated annual precipitation with
the concurrent accumulated values of mean precipitation
for a group of surrounding stations.
-used to check the consistency of a rain gauge
record:
- compute cumulative rainfall amounts for suspect
gauge and check gauges Cumulative rainfall at other
gauges
- plot cumulative rainfall amounts against each
other (divergence from a straight line indicates error)
- multiplying erroneous data after change by a
correction factor k where
end
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Example:
X and Y are two neighboring rainfall stations. Station X has complete records and
station Y has some missing values. Find the linear correlation equation between the
two series as mentioned in columns 2 and 3 of the following table (8) and then
check the correlation by computing both the correlation and regression coefficients,
showing the correlation line on an X-Y diagram? Using the derived equation, find the
missing data of Y if the observed data at X for the same years are (110, 170 and 166
mm).

Annual precipitation amounts as recorded by stations X and Y.

Computations of the Components to be Used
in the Least Squares Method
Computation of the slope of the line:
Computation of the intercept
of the line:
Computation of the correlation coefficient of
the line:
Runoff and Streamflow
Selection of STREAMFLOW Gauging Station Location

1. A General course of stream is straight for about 10 times the stream width.

2. Total flow is confined to one channel at all stages and no flow bypasses the site as subsurface flow.

3. Stream bed is not subject to scour and fill and is relatively free of aquatic vegetation.

4. Banks are permanent, high enough to contain floods, and are free of brush.

5. Unchanging natural controls are present in the form of a bedrock outcrop or other stable riffle.

6. A pool is present upstream from the control at extremely low stages to ensure a recording of stage
at extremely low flow, and to avoid high velocities at the stream ward end during periods of high
flow.

7. Sensitivity of control should be such that any significant change in discharge shall result in a
measurable change in stage.
Selection of STREAMFLOW Gauging Station Location

8. Gauge site is far enough upstream from the confluence with another stream or from tidal effect

10.A satisfactory reach for measuring discharge at all stages is available within reasonable proximity of
the gauge site. It is not necessary for flow and high flows to be measured at the same stream cross
section.

11.Site is safe and readily accessible for ease in installation and operation of the gauging station.

12.Good conditions for discharge measurements at all stages.

13.Instruments, shelter and housing above all flood levels.

14.Two reference point must be set located sections Upstream and Downstream of the gauged cross
section for large flow events. A number of these flood peak water surface profiles should be
recorded to ensure that the variation in water surface profile is understood across the full range of
observed flows.
 Streamflow Gauging Instruments
1. Staff gauge is a graduated scale
anchored in the water and read by
observing the level of the water
surface in contact with it.
2. Current meter is suspended in the water using a
cable with sounding weight or wading rod and
will accurately measure streamflow velocities
from 0.1 to 25 feet per second (0.025 to 7.6
meters per second).
 Streamflow Gauging Instruments
3. Smart PT2X water level sensor is a
submersible pressure/temperature
sensor and data logger combined in
one small diameter unit.
4. Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) is a more
sophisticated streamflow gauging instrument and
more suited for big-deep rivers. This instrument is
used to measure how fast water is moving across
an entire water column.
Streamflow Gauging Procedures

A. Using Current Meter

1. Fill out the appropriate Streamflow Gauging Form.

2. The line of flow measurement should be perpendicular

to the river flow. Put a marker (ex. rope or string) across
the river marked at every desired interval.

3. Do not let the marker get weighed down by the current.

4. Measure the depth of water at every point of flow

measurement, from the river bed to water surface using
the wading rod. In measuring the depth of water, put on
a base that the rod will not penetrate sandy bottoms.
Streamflow Gauging Procedures

A. Using Current Meter (continuation)

5. When the depth is below 0.50 meters (50cm), place the bucket wheel at the proper operating depth
which is 40% of the total depth from the river bed. If the depth is at 0.50 meters or more, place the
wheel at 20% and 80 % of the total depth. Let the bucket wheel get stable or used to the current and
then begin the measurement.

6. Using the current meter, the velocity of the river at a minimum of 40 seconds will be measured.
Streamflow Gauging Procedures

B. Using Floatation

1. Estimate the cross sectional area (A) of the stream by using a steel tape to measure both the stream width and a
few depth measurements.

2. Measure a stream reach of adequate length (L) to allow a travel time of over 20 seconds for the float. Mark the
starting and finishing points of this reach with a stake or a string across the stream.

3. Choose a float that is only slightly buoyant to reduce wind effects. An orange, chunk of ice, half-filled fishing float
or a waterlogged stick are good options.

4. Place the float upstream of the defined starting point of the reach, so that the float is travelling at the velocity of
the stream by the time it reaches the starting marker.

5. Measure the time that the float takes to travel between the upstream and downstream markers using a
stopwatch.

6. An average time (t) is obtained by taking multiple readings.

7. Use a correction factor (k) to account for surface velocity being faster than the average stream velocity.
Streamflow Gauging Procedures

B. Using Floatation
Rating Curve

After the entire gauging process has completed, a rating curve will be developed.

The Rating Curve is a graphical representation of the relationship between the stage height and the discharge
(flow) for a given point on a stream or gauging stations.

This curve is thus utilized to convert stage height readings to flow discharges.
Flow Duration Curve

The flow-duration curve is a cumulative frequency curve that shows the percent of time during which
specified discharges were equaled or exceeded in a given period. (Searcy, J.)

Flow Duration Curve

350.00

300.00

250.00
Discharge m3/sec

200.00

150.00

100.00

50.00

-
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
% of Time Indicated that Discharge is Exceeded or Equalled

Ilog River, Negros Oriental Flow Duration Curve

Example
hydrograph
Overflow and Interflow

Interception – a phenomenon when rainfall is

intercepted by vegetation before it reaches the
ground.

Depression or storage - flow as a thin sheet of

water across the land surface

Overland flow - the amount of rainfall in excess of

the infiltrated quantity flows over the ground
surface following the land slope

Water Table - free surface of a fully saturated region

with water (the ground water reserve)

Interflow - Part of the water in the unsaturated zone of the soil (also called the vadose zone)
moves in a lateral direction.
 Runoff is water that flows across the land surface after a
storm event.

The geographical area that contributes to the flow of a

river is called a watershed (basin).

The river basins of Davao City are the following:

Tuganay River

Lasang River River Basin Drainage Area, km2

Davao River Watershed

1. Davao River 1757.76

2. Talomo River 215.78
3. Lasang River 453.9
Bunawan River 4. Lipadas River 167.96
5. Sibulan River 282.13
Talomo Watershed Matina River
6. Matina River 78.79
7. Tuganay River 757.47
Lipadas Watershed

8. Bunawan River 252.13

Sibulan River
TOTAL 3965.92
Source: pceemdavao.weebly.com
Hydrograph and Hyetograph

Hydrograph is the plot of the stream flow at a particular location as a function of time.

Hyetograph is the graphical plot of the rainfall plotted against time.

 Factors affecting runoff:
1. Climate
• Climate determines not only the ultimate water supply through precipitation, but also the extent
to which that precipitation is return to the atmosphere before it can participate in stream flow.
• Where a lot of precipitation occurs, obviously a lot of runoff is also apt to occur.
 2. Physical Characteristics of the Drainage Basin

a. Shape of the Catchment

A catchment with the narrow end towards the A catchment shaped with its narrow end towards the
upstream and the broader end nearer the catchment outlet has a hydrograph that is slow rising and with a
outlet shall have a hydrograph that is fast rising and somewhat lower peak.
has a rather concentrated high peak.
b. Elevation and orientation of the basin
• The main effect of elevation are related to temperature. At higher elevations, cooler
temperature result in less water loss by evapotranspiration.
• Basin orientation in relation to the prevailing storm tracks may also have a pronounced effect
on runoff.

c. Slope and Topography

• Larger slopes generate more velocity than smaller slopes and hence can dispose off runoff
faster.

d. Vegetation and Soil Type

• The existence of a vegetation cover retards overland flow, giving the water more time to
infiltrate the soil. This can make substantial difference in the rate at which stream levels rise
during the storm.
• Soil type influences vegetative cover just as vegetation tends to modify soil to increase its
infiltration capacity and permeability.
e. Geology
• Geologic factors also largely determine the storage time during which water is held between
precipitation and eventual runoff as stream flow.

f. Land Use: Human Alterations of the Environment

• Invention of the city caused local problems in drainage and flooding where people occupied
areas on river floodplains.
• Modern farming methods have sometimes accelerated erosion of bare soil and have resulted
in minor changes in natural drainage nets.
End of topic
 B
F
D
A
II
I III IV VII
VI H
V

C E
G VIII
500
 A
C
I

II
III
IV E
B
V
VI
D

9.8 mm Isohyet
 E
VII
C VI
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