Fluid Mechanics

…
BANNARI AMMAN INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY
SATHYAMANGALAM-638 401
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
LABORATORY MANUAL
SUBJECT NAME : FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY
SUBJECT CODE : 15CE407
CREDITS :0 0 2 1
SEMESTER : IV
DEGREE : BE CIVIL ENGINEERING
REGULATION : R2015
YEAR OF RELEASE :2018-19
2
…
BANNARI AMMAN INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY
SATHYAMANGALAM-638 401
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
LAB MANUAL
15CE407
FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY
S4 CIVIL ENGINEERING
Prepared by
Year of Release: 2018-19
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
S. NO. TITILE PAGE

NO.
List of Exercises 1
List of basic safety rules 2
Instructions to students 3
Evaluation strategy 4
Nomenclature 5
1 Determination of Co-efficient of discharge of Orifice meter 7
2 Determination of Co-efficient of discharge of Venturimeter 12
3 Determination of Co-efficient of discharge through orifice 18
4 Determination of Coefficient of discharge of V –Notch. 24

5 Determination of Coefficient of impact jet. 29
6 Determination of friction factor in pipe. 33
7 Study on performance characteristics of centrifugal pump. 38
8 Study on performance characteristics of Reciprocating pump. 44
9 Study on performance characteristics of pelton wheel Turbine. 50
10 Study on performance characteristics of Francis Turbine. 59
11 Study on performance characteristics of Kaplan Turbine. 65
References 71
R 2015:15CE407
FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY
List of the Exercises as per the syllabus
S. No. Name of the Exercises HOURS

Determination of Co-efficient of discharge of Orifice meter 2
1
Determination of Co-efficient of discharge of Venturimeter 2
2
3
Determination of Co-efficient of discharge through orifice 2
4 Determination of Coefficient of discharge of V –Notch. 2
5 Determination of Coefficient of impact jet. 2
6 Determination of friction factor in pipe. 2
7 Study on performance characteristics of centrifugal pump. 4
8 Study on performance characteristics of Reciprocating pump. 4
9 Study on performance characteristics of pelton wheel Turbine. 4
10 Study on performance characteristics of Francis Turbine. 4
11 Study on performance characteristics of Kaplan Turbine. 2
A LIST OF BASIC SAFETY RULES
1. When you handle chemicals wear eye protection (chemical splash goggles or full
face shield).
1
2. When you work with furnaces for heat treatment procedures or other thermally
activated equipment you should use special gloves to protect your hands.
3. Students should wear durable clothing that covers the arms, legs, torso and feet.
(Note: sandals, shorts, tank tops etc. have no place in the lab. Students
inappropriately dressed for lab, at the instructors discretion, be denied access)
4. To protect clothing from chemical damage or other dirt, wear a lab apron or lab
coat. Long hair should be tied back to keep it from coming into contact with lab
chemicals or flames.
5. In case of injury (cut, burn, fire etc.) notify the instructor immediately.
6. In case of a fire or imminently dangerous situation, notify everyone who may be

affected immediately; be sure the lab instructor is also notified.
7. If chemicals splash into someone's eyes act quickly and get them into the eye
wash station, do not wait for the instructor.
8. In case of a serious cut, stop blood flow using direct pressure using a clean towel,
notify the lab instructor immediately.
9. Eating, drinking and smoking are prohibited in the laboratory at all times.
10. Never work in the laboratory without proper supervision by an instructor.
11. Never carry out unauthorized experiments. Come to the laboratory prepared. If
you are unsure about what to do, please ask the instructor.
12. Always remember that HOT metal or ceramic pieces look exactly the same as
COLD pieces are careful what you touch.
13. Know the location and operation of: Fire Alarm Boxes, Exit Doors, and
Telephones.
2
LABARATORY CLASSES - INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS
1. Students must attend the lab classes with ID cards and in the prescribed uniform.
2. Boys-shirts tucked in and wearing closed leather shoes. Girls’ students with cut
shoes, overcoat, and plait incite the coat. Girls’ students should not wear loose
garments.
3. Students must check if the components, instruments and machinery are in working
condition before setting up the experiment.
4. Power supply to the experimental set up/ equipment/ machine must be switched
on only after the faculty checks and gives approval for doing the experiment.
Students must start to the experiment. Students must start doing the experiments
only after getting permissions from the faculty.
5. Any damage to any of the equipment/instrument/machine caused due to
carelessness, the cost will be fully recovered from the individual (or) group of
students.
6. Students may contact the lab in charge immediately for any unexpected incidents
and emergency.
7. The apparatus used for the experiments must be cleaned and returned to the
technicians, safely without any damage.
8. Make sure, while leaving the lab after the stipulated time, that all the power
connections are switched off.
9. Incompletion or repeat of experiments means not getting the correct value of the
required parameters and not getting the correct shape of the characteristics of the
first attempt. It will be marked as “IC” in the red ink in the status column of the
mark allocation table given at the end of every experiment. The students are
expected to repeat the incomplete the experiment before coming to the next lab.
10. Absenteeism due to genuine reasons will be considered for doing the missed
experiments.
11. In case of power failure, extra classes will be arranged for doing those
experiments only and assessment of all other components preparedness; viva voice
etc. will be completed in the regular class itself.
12. The end semester practical internal assessment marks will be based on the
average of all the experiments.
3
EVALUATION STRATEGY
 All students should go through the lab manual for the experiment to be carried out
for that day and come fully prepared to complete the experiment within the
prescribed periods. Student should complete the lab record work within the
prescribed periods.
 Students must be fully aware of the core competencies to be gained by doing
experiment/exercise/programs.
 Students should complete the lab record work within the prescribed periods.
 The following aspects will be assessed during every exercise, in every lab class
and marks will be awarded accordingly:
 Preparation means coming to the lab classes with neatly drawn circuit diagram
/experimental setup /written programs /flowchart, tabular columns, formula, model
graphs etc in the observation notebook and must know the step by step procedure to
conduct the experiment.
 Conducting experiment means making connection, preparing the experimental
setup without any mistakes at the time of reporting to the faculty.
 Observation means taking correct readings in the proper order and tabulating the
readings in the tabular columns.
 Calculation means calculating the required parameters using the approximate
formula and readings.
 Result means correct value of the required parameters and getting the correct
shape of the characteristics at the time of reporting of the faculty.
 Viva voice means answering all the questions given in the manual pertaining to
the experiments.
Full marks will be awarded if the students perform well in each case of
the above component…!
4
NOMENCLATURE OF STANDARD TERMS
Specific weight of water, ω = 9810 N/m3

Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m/s2
Specific gravity of mercury, SHg = 13.6
Specific gravity of water, Sw =1
Density of water, ρw = 1000 kg/m3
Density of air, ρa = 1.2 kg/m3
Density of mercury, ρHg = 13600 kg/m3
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6
DETERMINATION OF CO-EFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF
ORIFICE METER
Exp No: 1
Date :
PRE-REQUISITE QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by calibration?
2. What is meant by coefficient of discharge?
3. What is the use of orifice meter?
4. What is the use of measuring tank?
5. What is discharge? What is its unit?
6. What is mass flow rate? Mention its unit?
7. What is volume flow rate? Write its unit.
8. Why do we use logarithmic graphs?
9. State the equation for theoretical discharge.
10. How will you find out actual discharge?
AIM:
To determine the co-efficient of discharge through orifice meter
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Orifice meter
2. Differential U tube manometer
3. Collecting tank
4. Stop watch
5. Scale
DESCRIPTION:
7
Orifice meter has two sections. First one is of area a 1, and second one of area a2. It has a
small hole on a plate fixed along the diameter of pipe. The mercury level should not fluctuate
because it would come out of manometer.
Figure 1: Orifice Meter
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
An orifice plate is a device used for measuring flow rate, for reducing pressure or for
restricting flow. An orifice plate is a thin plate with a hole in it, which is usually placed in a pipe.
When a fluid (whether liquid or gaseous) passes through the orifice, its pressure builds up slightly
upstream of the orifice. but as the fluid is forced to converge to pass through the hole, the velocity
increases and the fluid pressure decreases.
A little downstream of the orifice the flow reaches its point of maximum convergence, the
vena contracta where the velocity reaches its maximum and the pressure reaches its minimum.
Beyond that, the flow expands, the velocity falls and the pressure increases. By measuring the
difference in fluid pressure across tappings upstream and downstream of the plate, the flow rate
can be obtained from Bernoulli's equation.
The reduction of the cross section of the flowing stream in passing through the orifice
increases the velocity head at the expense of the pressure head, and the reduction in pressure
between the taps is measured by a manometer. Bernoulli's equation provides a basis for correlating
the increase in velocity head with the decrease in pressure head.
PROCEDURE:
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1. The pipe is selected for doing experiments.
2. The motor is switched on; as a result water will flow.
3. According to the flow, the mercury level fluctuates in the U-tube manometer.
4. The reading of h1 and h2 are noted.
5. The time taken for 10 cm rise of water in the collecting tank is noted.
6. The experiment is repeated for various flows in the same pipe.
7. The coefficient of discharge, Cd is calculated.
8. Cd is also calculated from the graph between Qact and h1/2.
FORMULAE:
ACTUAL DISCHARGE:
Q act =Ay/t (m3 / s)
THEORTICAL DISCHARGE:
Q th = a1 x a2 x  (2gh) /(a12 – a22) (m3/s)
Where:
A = Area of collecting tank (m2)
y = Height of collected water in tank = 10 cm
a1 = Area of inlet pipe (m2)
a2 = Area of the throat (m2)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
t = Time taken for h cm rise of water (s)
h = Orifice head in terms of flowing liquid pressure
= (h1 - h2) (s m / s1 - 1)
h1 = Manometric head in first limb
h2 = Manometric head in second limb
sm= Specific gravity of Manometric liquid (i.e.) Liquid mercury Hg = 13.6
s1= Specific gravity of flowing liquid water = 1
CO- EFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE:
Cd = Qact / Qth (no units)
9
Manometric
reading (cm) Time taken for Actual
Theoretical
h cm rise of discharge Co-efficient of
(mm) x 12.6 x 10-2 (m) h=(h1-h2) Manometric head discharge Qth x 10-
water, t Qact x 10-4 4 3 discharge, Cd
(m /sec)
(sec) (m3/sec)
h1 h2
25 65 61 1.575 26 3.84 7.014 0.54
10
0.54
Mean Cd =
OBSERVATIONS:
Area of collection tank = 0.1 m2
Calculation:
Loss in head =12.6 x (H1-H2)
11
=12.6 x 0.125 = 1.575m
Actual discharge, Qact=Ay/t
=0.1 x 0.1 /26 = 3.84 x 10-4 m3/s
Theoretical discharge:
Q th = a1 x a2 x (2gh) /  (a12 – a22)
a1=3.14 x 0.025 2 /4 = 4.90 x 10-4 m2
a2=3.14 x 0.0125 2 /4 =1.22 x 10-4 m2
Qth= 4.90 x 10-4 x 1.22 x 10-4 x  2 x 9.81 x 1.575 /  ( 4.90 x 10-4 )2 – ( 1.22 x 10-4 )2
= 7.0416 x 10-4 (m3 / s)
Coefficient of discharge = Qact / Qth
=3.84 x 10-4 m3/s / 7.0416 x 10-4 = 0.5461
PLOT OF GRAPH
APPLICATIONS OF ORIFICE METER:

1. The concentric orifice plate is used to measure flow rates of pure fluids and has a wide
applicability as it has been standardized.
2. The eccentric and segmental orifice plates are used to measure flow rates of fluids containing
suspended materials such as solids, oil mixed with water and wet steam.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR VIVA -VOCE

1. What is orifice plate?
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2. What do you mean by vena contracta?
3. Define coefficient of discharge.
STIMULATING QUESTIONS
1. If we use orifice meter to calculate the discharge at a point in a pipe, is there any possible to
produce loss?
2. If yes how much percentage of loss will occur?
RESULT:
The co efficient of discharge through orifice meter from experiment is ……… (-)
The co efficient of discharge through orifice meter from graph is ……… (-)
13
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF
VENTURIMETER
Exp No: 2
Date:
PRE REQUISITE QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by calibration?
2. What is meant by coefficient of discharge?
3. What is the use of venturimeter?
4. What is the use of measuring tank?
5. What is discharge? What is its unit?
6. What is mass flow rate? Mention its unit?
7. What is volume flow rate? Write its unit.
8. Why do we use logarithmic graphs?
9. State the equation for theoretical discharge.
10. How will you find out actual discharge?
AIM:
To determine the coefficient of discharge for liquid flowing through venturimeter
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Venturimeter
2. Stop watch
3. Collecting tank
4. Differential U-tube manometer
5. Scale
DESCRIPTION:
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Venturimeter has two sections. One divergent area and the other throat area. The
former is represented as a1 and the later is a 2. As water or any other liquid flows through the
venturimeter, it passes to the throat area the value of discharge is same at a1 and a2.
Figure 2: Venturimeter
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
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Venturi meter worksunder the principle of Bernoulli's equation and Continuity equation. When a
venturimeter is placed in a pipe carrying the fluid whose flow rate is to be measured, a pressure
drop occurs between the entrance and throat of the venturimeter. This pressure drop is measured
using a differential pressure sensor and when calibrated this pressure drop becomes a measure of
flow rate.
PROCEDURE:
1. The pipe is selected for doing experiments
2. The motor is switched on, as a result water will flow
3. According to the flow, the mercury level fluctuates in the U-tube manometer
4. The reading of h1 and h2 are noted
5. The time taken for 10 cm rise of water in the collecting tank is noted
6. The experiment is repeated for various flow in the same pipe
7. The co-efficient of discharge is calculated
FORMULAE:
1. ACTUAL DISCHARGE:
Qact=Ay/t (m3/s)
2. THEORTICAL DISCHARGE:
Qth = a 1 x a 2 x  2 g h / ( a 12 – a 22) (m3 / s)
Where:
A = Area of collecting tank in m2
y = Height of collected water in tank = 10 cm
a1 = Area of inlet pipe in m2
a2 = Area of the throat in m2
g = Specify gravity in m / s2
t = Time taken for h cm rise of water
h = Orifice head in terms of flowing liquid
= (h1 - h2) (sm /s1 - 1)
16
h1 = Manometric head in first limb
h2 = Manometric head in second limb
sm= Specific gravity of Manometric liquid
(i.e.) Liquid mercury Hg = 13.6
s1= Specific gravity of flowing liquid water = 1
Co- efficient of discharge = Qact/Qth (no units)
OBSERVATIONS:
Area of collecting tank = 0.1 m2
17
Actual
Time taken for Theoretical
discharge
y cm rise of discharge Qth x (noCo-efficient
unit) of discharge Cd
Qact x 10-4
water, t (sec) 10-3 (m3/s)
(m3/sec)
12 8.333 9.235 0.90
18
0.90
Mean Cd =
Manometric
reading( mm)
S.No Diameter (mm) x 12.6 x 10-2 h=(h1-h2) Manometric head (m)
h1 h2
1 10 115 110 2.709
19
Calculation:
Loss in head =12.6 x (h1-h2)
=12.6 x 0.215
=2.709m
=0.1 x 0.1 /12
= 5.26 x 10-4 m3/s
Qth = a1 x a2 x  2 g h / (a12 – a22)
a1=3.14 x 0.025 2 /4
= 4.90 x 10-4 m2
a2 =3.14 x 0.0125 2 /4
=1.22 x 10-4 m2
Qth= 4.90 x 10-4 x 1.22 x 10-4 x  2 x 9.81 x 2.709 /  ( 4.90 x 10-4 )2 – ( 1.22 x 10-4 )2
= 6.75 x 10-4 (m3 / s)
Co- efficient of discharge = Qact / Qth

=5.26 x 10-4s/ 6.75 x 10-4
=0.90
PLOT THE GRAPH
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APPLICATIONS
1. Used where high pressure recovery is required.
2. Measuring flow rates of water, gases, suspended solids, slurries and dirty liquids.
3. Measure high flow rates in pipes having diameters in a few meters.

1. Mention few discharge measuring devices
2. Draw the venturimeter and mention the parts.
3. Why the divergent cone is longer than convergent cone in venturimeter?
4. Compare the merits and demerits of venturimeter with orifice meter.
5. Why Cd value is high in venturimeter than orifice meter?
6. What is meant by Co efficient of discharge?
1. If we use venturimeter to calculate the discharge at a point in a pipe, is there any possible to
produce loss? If yes how much percentage of loss will occur?
2. Is venturimeter is the best instrument to measure discharge?
RESULT:
The co efficient of discharge through venturimeter from experiment is ……… ()
The co efficient of discharge through venturimeter from graph is ……… (-)
21
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE
THROUGH ORIFICE
Exp No: 3
Date:
1. Describe the principle of manometers and its uses.
2. What is meant by Head?
3. What is the density of water?
4. What is density of mercury?
5. Where are the applications of Notch?
6. What is use of plotting different graphs in this experiment?
7. Is the Coefficient of discharge a constant for all notches?
AIM:
To determine the co-efficient of discharge of orifice
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Orifice Plate of different diameters
2. Hook gauge
3. Collecting tank
4. Stop watch
5. Piezo meter
6. Meter scale
DESCRIPTION:
An opening, in a vessel, through which the liquid flows out is known as orifice. Orifices and
nozzles are typically used to deliberately reduce pressure, restrict flow or to measure flow rate. The
discharge coefficient is a dimensionless number used to characterize the flow and pressure loss
behavior of nozzles and orifices in fluid systems.
22
Figure 3: Flow through an orifice
PROCEDURE:
1. Set the orifice of which the Cc, Cu, Cd are to be determined.
2. Note the initial height of water in the steady flow tank and the height of datum from the bottom
of orifice. These will remain constant for a particular mouthpiece or orifice.
3. By using the stop valve, set a particular flow in tank and tank height of water in tank.
4. Take the reading of discharge on this particular flow.
5. 6. Take three readings using hook gauge for one particular orifice.
7. Using the formula get value of Cd, Cu, and Cc for a particular orifice.
Formulae
Actual Discharge
Where,
A= area of collecting tank in m2
y = Height of water collected in collecting tank in m
t = time for ‘y’ cm of water collection in seconds
23
Theoretical Discharge
Where,
a= area of orifice in m2
a= d2/4, where “d” is the diameter of the orifice (m)
h= Head of water at overhead tank in m
g= Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
Co-efficient of discharge
Co-efficient of Velocity
Where,
x= xo-xi =Horizontal distance point gauge reading in m.
y= yo-yi =Vertical distance point gauge reading in m.
Co-efficient of contraction Cc
Cd = Qact/Qthe (no unit)
24
Head Point gauge reading, Point gauge reading, Vertical,
of Horizontal, x in m y in m Time for ‘n’cm Coefficient
Area of water Horizontal Vertical rise of water Coefficient
Diameter of Coefficient of of
orifice, in over Initial Final distance, distance level in of velocity,
orifice Initial Final discharge, Cd Contraction,
A in m2 head delivery tank, CV
tank, xi xo x= xo-xi Yi Yo Y = Yo- ‘T’ seconds
CC
H in m Yi
OBSERVATIONS:
25
CALCULATION:
Actual Discharge
Theoretical Discharge
Co-efficient of discharge
Co-efficient of Velocity
26
Co-efficient of contraction Cc
=0.810
SAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR VIVA –VOCE

1. Define Orifice?
2. Define Mouth piece?
3. Define vena contracta?
4. Define co efficient of velocity?
1. How velocities are different for different diameter of orifice ?
RESULT:
The co-efficient of discharge of Orifice from experiment is Cd = …… (No unit)
The co-efficient of discharge of Orifice from graph is Cd = …… (No unit)
27
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE OF
GIVEN TRIANGULAR NOTCH
Exp No: 4
Date:
1. Describe the principle of manometers and its uses.
2. What is meant by Head?
3. What is the density of water?
4. What is density of mercury?
5. Where are the applications of Notch?
6. What is use of plotting different graphs in this experiment?
7. Is the Coefficient of discharge a constant for all notches?
AIM:
To determine the co-efficient of discharge of flow through triangular notch
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Notch tank
2. Triangular notch
3. Hook gauge
4. Collecting tank
5. Stop watch
6. Piezo meter
7. Meter scale
DESCRIPTION:
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A triangular notch is also called a V-notch. Notches are commonly used to regulate flow in rivers
and other open channels. They have sharp edges so that the water springs clear of the plate as it
passes through the notch. It is provided in the side walls of a tank, near top edge.
Figure 4: Triangular notch
WORKING PRINCIPLE
Weirs are typically installed in open channels such as streams to determine discharge (flowrate).
The basic principle is that discharge is directly related to the water depth above the crotch (bottom)
of the V; this distance is called head (h). The V-notch design causes small changes in discharge to
have a large change in depth allowing more accurate head measurement than with a rectangular
weir.
PROCEDURE:
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1. The inlet valve is opened and water is allowed to rise up to the level of the triangular
notch
2. The pointer of the manometer gauge is adjusted so that it coincides the water surface
and note down reading
3. The inlet valve is opened so that the water flows over the notch at the same rate
4. The water level is noted by means of point gauge
5. The readings for h is noted
6. The time required for10 cm rise of water level is noted
7. The above procedure is repeated for different discharge.
FORMULAE:
ACTUAL DISCHARGE:
Qact = Ay/t (m³ / sec)
Where,
A = Area of the collecting tank (m²)
y = Rise of water level in collecting tank (m)
t = Time taken for ‘h’ rise of oil in collecting tank (s)
THEORETICAL DISCHARGE:
Qthe= (8 / 15)tan(θ/2) √(2g) h 5/2 (m 3 / s)
Where
h = pressure head (m)
CO-EFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE:
Cd = Qact/Qthe (no unit)
OBSERVATIONS:
Area of collecting tank = 0.25m2
30
(m3 \ s) Co efficient of
discharge Cd (no
Time taken for 10 cm of -3 unit)
(m3\s)Actual discharge Qactx10-3 Theoretical discharge
Qthex10
rise of water, t (s)
10.41 2.40 2.87 0.835
31
Mean =
h = h1 – h2
8.5
Manometric reading
(cm) h2 (cm)
2
(cm) h1
10.5
1
S.No
Calculation:
h = h1-h2
= 10.5-2
= 8.5cm
Actual discharge, Qact=Ah/t
=0.25 x 0.1 /10.41
= 2.4 x 10-3 m3/s
Qthe=(8 / 15) x (tan θ / 2) √ 2 x g x h 5/2
θ=600
Qthe= (8 / 15) x (tan 600 / 2) √ (2 x 9.81 x (8.5 x 10-2)5/2)
= 2.87 x 10-3 m3/s
Co- efficient of discharge = Q act / Qth
=2.4 x 10-3/ 2.87 x 10-3
=0.835
APPLICATIONS:
1. V-notch is generally used to measure flow rate in an open channel flow.
32
2. In real life applications it is used for seepage measurement of dam in foundation, inspection and top galleries
and toe-drains in reservoirs.

3. What is meant by notch?
4. Differentiate V Notch with trapezoidal one.
5. Differentiate actual discharge with theoretical?
How notches are differing from the orifice and venturimeter?
RESULT:
The co-efficient of discharge of triangular notch is Cd = …… (No unit)
33
DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF IMPACT OF JET
Exp No: 5
Date:
1. What is meant by jet?
2. What are the uses of curved buckets?
AIM:
To find the co-efficient of impact (Ci) for flat and hemi spherical plates
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Hemispherical plates
2. Set of weights
3. Stop watch
4. Scale
DESCRIPTION:
Momentum equation is based on Newton second law of motion which states that the algebraic sum
of external force applied to central volume of fluid in any distance. The external forces included
the component of weights of the fluid and of forces exerted externally open the boundary surface
of the control volume. If a vertical water jet moving with velocity ‘V’ is made to strike a target
which is free to move in vertical direction then the force will be exerted on the target by the impact
of jet. According to momentum equation this force (which is also equal to the force required to
bring back the target in its original position) must be equal to the rate of change of momentum of
the jet flow in the direction.
34
Figure 5: Impact of jet on plate
PROCEDURE:
1. The lever is kept horizontal by adjusting counter weight on the left hand side
weight.
2. The plate is fixed opposite to the jet.
3. A weight of 100gm is placed on the right hand side pan.
4. Water is jet is allowed to strike plate and discharge is so adjusted that the lever retains
equilibrium position.
5. The pressure gauge reading is noted and time taken for H cm rise in the collecting tank
is also noted.
6. The weight on the right hand side pan is increased and procedure is repeated for
different weights.
GRAPH:
Qact Vs. Ci for different plates
35
FORMULAE:
Let ρ be the mass density, Q is the discharge through nozzle, V is the velocity at exists of nozzle and
‘a’ is area of nozzle.
Force required to bring back the target in its original position, F= ρQ2/a
OBSERVATIONS:
Diameter of nozzle, d = (m)
Mass density of water, ρ = (kg/m3)
Area of collecting tank, A = (m2)
Area of nozzle = Cross sectional area of pipe, a = (m2)
When jet is not running, position of upper disc = (m)
CALCULATION:
Area of nozzle =
Depth of water collected in tank =
Actual discharge =
Balancing weight, W =
Force, F = Wx9.81/1000 = N
Practical Force (For Horizontal Flat Vane), F ' = 2ρQ2/a
C i = Fact /Fth
36
1. What is an expression for impact of jet on fixed flat plate?
2. What is an expression for impact of jet on moveable flat plate?
How the casing will change the energy from one state to other state?
RESULT:
Thus the force required to maintain the flat plate in datum level =……………………N
37
DETERMINATION OF FRICTION FACTOR FOR A GIVEN SET
OF PIPES
Exp No: 6
Date:
1. What is the cause of friction?
2. What is meant by viscosity?
3. Derive the equation for theoretical velocity of the freely falling fluid.
4. What is the unit of density?
5. What is the difference between kinematic and dynamic viscosity?
6. What is the effect of Darcy’s and Chezy’s constant on friction.
AIM:
To find the friction ‘f’ for the given pipe
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. A pipe provided with inlet and outlet and pressure tapping
2. Differential u-tube manometer
3. Collecting tank with piezometer
4. Stopwatch
5. Scale
DESCRIPTION:
When liquid flows through a pipeline it is subjected to frictional resistance. The frictional
resistance depends upon the roughness of the pipe. More the roughness of the pipe will be more
the frictional resistance. The loss of head between selected lengths of the pipe is observed.
38
Figure 6: Pipe friction apparatus
FRICTION PRINCIPLE:
In fluid flow, friction loss (or skin friction) is the loss of pressure or “head” that occurs in pipe
or duct flow due to the effect of the fluid's viscosity near the surface of the pipe or duct
1. The friction loss In a uniform, straight sections of pipe, known as "major loss", is
caused by the effects of viscosity, the movement of fluid molecules against each other
or against the (possibly rough) wall of the pipe. Here, it is greatly affected by whether
the flow is laminar (Re < 2000) or turbulent (Re > 4000): In laminar flow, losses
are proportional to fluid velocity, V; that velocity varies smoothly between the bulk of
the fluid and the pipe surface, where it is zero. The roughness of the pipe surface
influences neither the fluid flow nor the friction loss.
2. In turbulent flow, losses are proportional to the square of the fluid velocity, V2; here, a
layer of chaotic eddies and vortices near the pipe surface, called the viscous sub-layer,
forms the transition to the bulk flow. In this domain, the effects of the roughness of the
pipe surface must be considered. It is useful to characterize that roughness as the ratio
of the roughness height ε to the pipe diameter D, the "relative roughness". Three sub-
domains pertain to turbulent flow:
3. In the smooth pipe domain, friction loss is relatively insensitive to roughness.
39
4. In the rough pipe domain, friction loss is dominated by the relative roughness and is
insensitive to Reynolds number.
5. In the transition domain, friction loss is sensitive to both.
6. For Reynolds numbers 2000 < Re < 4000, the flow is unstable, varying with time as
vortices within the flow form and vanish randomly.
PROCEDURE:
1. The outer dimensions of the pipe line (diameter and length) and the internal dimensions
of the collecting tank are measured.
2. Keeping the outlet valve closed and the inlet valve opened
3. The outlet valve is slightly opened and the manometer head on the limbs h 1 and h2 are
noted
4. The above procedure is repeated by gradually increasing the flow rate and then the
corresponding readings are noted.
5. Plot a graph of log v against log hf to find the value of the Darcy’s friction factor f.
FORMULAE:
FRICTION FACTOR:
f = 2gdhf/(lv2) (no unit)
Where,
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m / sec2)
d = Diameter of the pipe (m)
l = Length of the pipe (m)
v = Velocity of liquid following in the pipe (m / s)
hf = Loss of head due to friction (m)
= h1-h2
h1 = Manometric head in the first limbs
h2 = Manometric head in the second limbs
ACTUAL DISCHARGE:
40
Q=Axy/t (m3 / sec)
Where
A = Area of the collecting tank (m2)
y = Rise of water for 5 cm (m)
t = Time taken for 5 cm rise (s)
VELOCITY:
V = Q / a (m / sec)
Where
Q = Actual discharge (m3/ sec)
A = Area of the pipe (m2)
OBSERVATIONS:
41
Time for 5cm rise of -4
t (s) (m3/s) Qact x 10
Actual discharge (m/s) v Velocity f x 10-2 Friction
(-) factor
water,
76 1.315 1.675 0.0071
42
M
ean f =
hf (m) = 12.6 x (h1 –
4.5
Manometer readings(cm)
h2)
h1 (m) h2 (m)
8.5
12.5
10
pipe mm
Dia of
1
S.no
Calculation:
=0.1 x 0.1 /76
= 1.315 x 10-4 m3/s
Loss in head =12.6 x (h1-h2)
=12.6 x 0.045
=0.612m
a = 3.14 x 0.012 /4
=7.85 x 10-5 m2
Velocity, v = Qact/ a
v =1.315 10 -4/7.85 X 10-5
=1.675 m/s
Friction factor =hf2gd/4lv2
=0.612 x 2 x 9.81 x 0.01/4 x 1.5 x 1.6752
43
=0.0071

1. Write down Hagen Poiseuille equation.
2. Write down Darcy – Weisbach equation.
3. What is the difference between friction factor and coefficient of friction?
4. What do you mean by major energy loss?
5. List down the type of minor energy losses.
1. Which formula is most efficient to calculate the major loss in pipes?
2. How major loss will differ from minor losses?
RESULT:
The frictional factor ‘f ‘for given pipe from experiments = ……. x 10-2 (no unit)
The friction factor for given pipe by graphical method = …… x 10-2 (no unit )
44
STUDY ON PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
Exp No: 7
Date:
1. Working principle of centrifugal pump
2. Difference between reciprocating pump and submersible pump.
3. What is the use of characteristic curves of pump?
4. What is meant by operating point?
5. Describe the effect of discharge on efficiency of the pump.
AIM:
To study the performance characteristics of a centrifugal pump and to determine the
maximum efficiency
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Centrifugal pump setup
2. Meter scale
3. Stop watch
DESCRIPTION:
The operation of filling water in the suction pipe casing and a portion delivery pipe for the removal
of air before starting is called priming. After priming the impeller is rotated by a prime mover. The
rotating vane gives a centrifugal head to the pump. When the pump attains a constant speed, the
delivery valve is gradually opened. The water flows in a radially outward direction. Then, it leaves
the vanes at the outer circumference with a high velocity and pressure. Now kinetic energy is
gradually converted in to pressure energy. The high-pressure water is through the delivery pipe to
the required height.
45
Figure 7: Centrifugal pump test apparatus
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
46
The working force for a centrifugal pump is the centrifugal force. The main parts of a
centrifugal pump include the impeller (rotating member), casing, suction and discharge pipe. Fluid
enters at the eye of the impeller as the vanes start rotating due to the lower pressure created there.
The sucked fluid strikes the blades of the impeller. The rotation of the impeller exerts a centrifugal
force on the fluid due to which the fluid is thrown outward. Due to this kinetic energy is imparted
to the fluid. Thus the rotational energy imparted on the fluid, increases the velocity of the fluid.
Higher the radius of the impeller, higher would be the velocity head developed. The
velocity head created is converted to pressure head as the fluid travels across the casing. In order to
do this conversion, casing is usually of volute, vortex or equipped with guide vanes. In the volute
casing, the cross-sectional area of the casing increases as the fluid takes its path. Thus causing the
velocity to decrease thereby increases the pressure of the fluid (in accordance with Bernoulli’s
principle).
PROCEDURE:
1. Prime the pump. For that, close the delivery valve and switch on the unit
2. Open the delivery valve and maintain the required delivery head
3. Note down the reading and note the corresponding suction head reading
4. Close the drain valve and note down the time taken for 10 cm rise of water level in
collecting tank
5. Measure the area of collecting tank
6. For different delivery tubes, repeat the experiment
7. For every set reading note down the time taken for 5 revolutions of energy meter disc.
GRAPHS:
1. Actual discharge Vs Total head
47
2. Actual discharge Vs Efficiency
3. Actual discharge Vs Input power
4. Actual discharge Vs Output power
PLOT THE GRAPH
FORMULAE:
ACTUAL DISCHARGE:
Q act =A x y / t (m3 / s)
Where:
y = 10 cm rise of water level in the collecting tank
t = Time taken for 10 cm rise of water level in collecting tank.
TOTAL HEAD:
H = 10(P + PV/760) (m)
Where:
P = Pressure in kgf/cm2
48
PV = Vacuum Pressure in mm of Hg
ELECTRIC POWER INPUT:
Pi= (3600 ´ N ´ 1000) / (E ´ T) (W)
Where,
N = Number of revolutions of energy meter disc
E = Energy meter constant (rev / kWh)
T = time taken for ‘N’ revolutions (s)
OUTPUT POWER:
Po = ρ x g x Q x H (watts)
Where,
ρ = Density of water (kg / m³)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/ s2)
H = Total head of water (m)
EFFICIENCY:
ho = (Output power Po / input power Pi) ´ 100 %
OBSERVATIONS:
49
-3
(m3\s) 10
Discharge (Qact) x Actual Electric Input
Power, Pi (W) Power, Po (W) Output
h %
3.541 5647.058 598.730 10.30
50
Vacuum Energy meter Height of
Time taken
S.NoPressure, P (Kg/cm2) Delivery head, PV Time Taken Water Head H (m) Total
(s)
(mm) For 5 rev (cm)
Calculation:
ACTUAL DISCHARGE:
1. 1.5 170 42.50 10 7.06 17.236
Q act =A x y / t (m3 / s)
51
= 0.25 x 10 / 100 x 7.06
= 3.541 x 10-3 m3/s
TOTAL HEAD:
H = 10(P + PV/760) (m)
= 10 (1.5 + 170/760)
= 17.236 m
ELECTRIC POWER INPUT:
Pi = (3600 ´ N ´ 1000) / (E ´ T) (W)
= (3600 x 5 x 1000) / (1500 x 42.50)
= 5647.058 W
OUTPUT POWER:
Po = ρ x g x Q x H (W)
= 1000 x 9.81 x 3.541 x 10-3 x 17.236
= 598.730 W
EFFICIENCY:
ho = (Output power Po/ input power Pi) ´ 100 %
= (598.730/5647.058) x 100%
= 10.60%
APPLICATIONS
Supplying water, boosting pressure, pumping water for domestic requirements, assisting fire
protection systems, hot water circulation, sewage drainage and regulating boiler water are among
the most common applications. Outlined below are some of the major sectors that make use of
these pumps.
 Oil & Energy - pumping crude oil, slurry, mud; used by refineries, power generation plants
 Industrial & Fire Protection Industry - Heating and ventilation, boiler feed applications, air
conditioning, pressure boosting, fire protection sprinkler systems.
 Waste Management, Agriculture & Manufacturing - Wastewater processing plants,
municipal industry, drainage, gas processing, irrigation, and flood protection.
 Pharmaceutical, Chemical & Food Industries - paints, hydrocarbons, petrochemical,
cellulose, sugar refining, food and beverage production.
52
 Various industries (Manufacturing, Industrial, Chemicals, Pharmaceutical, Food
Production, Aerospace etc.) - for the purposes of cryogenics and refrigerants

1. Give examples for Positive displacement pump.
2. Mention the parts of centrifugal pump.
3. Mention the type of casing used in centrifugal pump.
4. Why the foot valve is fitted with strainer?
5. Differentiate between volute casing and vortex casing.
6. What is the function of volute casing?
7. What is the function of guide vanes?
8. What is the function of impeller?
9. Mention the types of impeller used.
10. Define specific speed of pump.
11. Mention the type of characteristic curves for pump
12. How performance characteristic curves are drawn for pump.
1. Why the vanes are curved radially backward?
2. Why the foot valve is a non-return type valve?
RESULT:
Thus the performance characteristics of centrifugal pump was studied and the
maximum efficiency was found to be _____________
53
RECIPROCATING PUMP
Exp No: 8
Date:
1. Working principle of reciprocating pump
2. Difference between submersible pump and reciprocating pump.
3. Discuss different losses in pumps
4. Classification of pumps
5. Define slip.
6. What is the function of air vessel?
AIM:
To study the performance characteristics of a reciprocating pump and to determine the
maximum efficiency
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Reciprocating pump
2. Meter scale
3. Stop watch
DESCRIPTION:
A reciprocating pump is a class of positive-displacement pumps which includes the piston pump,
plunger pump and diaphragm pump. Single-acting reciprocating pump consists of a piston of
which only one side engages the fluid being displaced. A pump is usually designed for one speed,
flow rate and head, but in actual practice the operation may be at some other condition of head or
flow rate, and for the changed conditions the behavior of the pump may be quite different. In order
to predict the behavior and performance of a pump under varying conditions, pump tests are
54
performed, and the results of the tests are plotted. The curves thus obtained are known as the
‘characteristics curves’ of the pump.
Figure 8: Reciprocating pump
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
Reciprocating pump operates on the principle of pushing of liquid by a piston that executes a
reciprocating motion in a closed fitting cylinder. Operation of reciprocating motion is done by the
power source (i.e. electric motor or i.c engine, etc). Power source gives rotary motion to crank;
with the help of connecting rod we translate reciprocating motion to piston in the cylinder (i.e.
intermediate link between connecting rod and piston). When crank moves from inner dead centre
to outer dead centre vacuum will create in the cylinder. When piston moves outer dead centre to
inner dead centre and piston force the water at outlet or delivery value.
PROCEDURE:
55
1. Close the delivery valve and switch on the unit
2. Open the delivery valve and maintain the required delivery head
3. Note down the reading and note the corresponding suction head reading
4. Close the drain valve and note down the time taken for 10 cm rise of water level in
collecting tank
5. Measure the area of collecting tank
6. For different delivery tubes, repeat the experiment
7. For every set reading note down the time taken for 5 revolutions of energy meter disc.
GRAPHS:
1. Actual discharge Vs Total head

2. Actual discharge Vs Efficiency
3. Actual discharge Vs Input power
4. Actual discharge Vs Output power
FORMULAE:
ACTUAL DISCHARGE:
Q act = Ay /t (m3/s)
Where:
56
y = 10 cm rise of water level in the collecting tank (m)
t = Time taken for 10 cm rise of water level in collecting tank (s)
TOTAL HEAD:
H = Hd + Hs + Z
Where:
Hd = Discharge head; Hd = Pd x 10 (m)
Hs = Suction head; Hs = Ps x 0.0136 (m)
Z = Datum head (m)
Pd = Pressure gauge reading (kg / cm2)
Ps = Suction pressure gauge reading (mm of Hg)
INPUT POWER:
Pi = (3600 ´ N) / (E ´ T) (kW)
Where,
N = Number of revolutions of energy meter disc
E = Energy meter constant (rev / kWhr)
T = time taken for ‘N’ revolutions (s)
OUTPUT POWER:
Po = ρ x g x Q x H / 1000 (kW)
Where,
ρ = Density of water (kg / m³)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/ s2)
H = Total head of water (m)
Q = Discharge (m3 / sec)
EFFICIENCY:
ho = (Output power Po / input power Pi) ´ 100 %
OBSERVATIONS:
57
Datum Time taken for 10 Actual Time taken for N Output
Total head, Input power
head, Z cm of rise of water discharge rev of energy power, Po % h
H (m) Pi (kW)
(m) in tank, t (s) Qact (m³/s) meter disc, t (s) (kW)
0 10 4.78 20.66 3.91 32.59 0.345 0.01837 24.87
58
Mean =
CALCULATION:
Total Head
H=10(P+PV/760)
=10(0.8+60/760)
=8.7894 m
Discharge:
Q = Ay/ 100*t
= 3.948 *10-4 m3 /s
Hp Pump
= WQH / 1000
= 9810 * 0.0003948 * 8.789 / 1000
= 0.0340
Ƞ = 0.8340 / 0.38297
= 8.87%
APPLICATIONS
 It is used at a place where low discharge rate is required with high pressure. It is mostly
used to deliver water at large heights such as in deep well.
 It is used for inflation of tyres of bicycles.
 In oil and gas industries.
 petrochemical and refinery industries.
 As a feed water pump in boiler because high pressure water is required.
 Hilly areas and also in agriculture .

1. Mention the parts of reciprocating pump.
2. What is the function of air vessel?
3. What is slip of reciprocating pump?
4. What is the condition for occurrence of negative slip?
59
5. What does indicator diagram indicates?
6. What is the difference between actual and ideal indicator diagram?
1. If negative slip is occur in a pump what happened in the efficiency of the pump?
RESULT:
The performance characteristic of the reciprocating pump is studied and the efficiency is
calculated …………… %
60
PELTON WHEEL TURBINE
Exp No: 9
Date:
1. Classify turbines based on the working, based on head and based on flow.
2. What are the uses of characteristic curves?
3. Explain the working of Pelton wheel.
4. Why Pelton wheel is called an impulse turbine?
5. What is specific speed?
AIM:
To conduct load test on pelton wheel turbine and to study the characteristics of pelton wheel
turbine
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Pressure gauge
2. Stopwatch
3. Dead weight
DESCRIPTION:
Pelton wheel turbine is an impulse turbine, which is used to act on high loads and for
generating electricity. All the available heads are classified into kinetic energy by means of spear
and nozzle arrangement. Position of the jet strikes the knife-edge of the buckets with least relative
resistances and shocks. While passing along the buckets the velocity of the water is reduced and
hence an impulse force is supplied to the cups which in turn are moved and hence shaft is rotated.
61
Figure 9: Pelton Wheel Turbine
Specifications
 Supply Pump/Motor Capacity: 7HP, 3Ph, 440V, 50Hz, AC .
 Turbine
 Mean Dia. : 250mm
 No. of Buckets : 20
 Diameter of Jet : 18mm
 Runaway Speed : 1800 RPM
 Turbine Head : 80 - 90 m (min to max.)
 Loading :Brake Drum
 Brake Drum Radius : 0.15 m
 Coefficient Of Discharge : Cd = 0.92
WORKING PRINCIPLE
When a high speed water jet injected through a nozzle hits buckets of Pelton wheel; it induces
an impulsive force. This force makes the turbine rotate. The rotating shaft runs a generator and
produces electricity.
PROCEDURE:
1. The Pelton wheel turbine is started.
2. All the weight in the hanger is removed.
62
3. The pressure gauge reading is noted down and it is to be maintained constant for
different loads.
4. The manometer and venturimeter readings are noted down.
5. The spring balance reading and speed of the turbine are also noted down.
6. Load the turbine by putting a weight of 5Kg load on the hanger
7. All the corresponding readings are noted down.
8. The experiment is repeated for different loads and the readings are tabulated.
GRAPHS:
The following graphs are drawn.
1. Discharge Vs HP
2. Discharge Vs Brake power
3. Discharge Vs Turbine Efficiency
FORMULAE:
Formulae
Head on Turbine in meters of water,
Where, PI is the venturi inlet pressure gauge reading in Kg /cm 2
Flow Rate of Water through the Turbine ‘Q’
Where,
A1 = Area of Intel section of venturi in m2
A2 = Area of Throat section of venturi in m2
D1 = Inlet diameter = 0.049 m
A1 = Area of inlet section = 1.886 x 10-3 m2
D2 = Throat diameter = 0.0245 m
A2 = Area of inlet section = 4.71 x 10-4 m2
Hv = 10x(PI – PT)
It is the difference in pressure between inlet pressure gauge (P I) and venture throat pressure
gauge (PT)
63
Hydraulic Power input to the turbine
Where, W = Specific Weight of the water = 9810 N/m 3, Q = Discharge in m3/sec and H = Head on
turbine in m of water.
Break power of the turbine
Where, N = speed in RPM, F1& F2 = Load in Kgf and r = 0.15 m radius of brake drum.
Turbine Efficiency
Graphs
For Constant Head Method
 Unit Speed Vs Unit Discharge
For Constant Speed Method
 Discharge Vs Efficiency
 Discharge Vs BP
 Efficiency Vs % Full load
64
OBSERVATIONS:
Venturi Pressure
Spring Venturi meter Difference
Balanc Spring meter Pressure in Power
Valve e Balance Pressure (Throat), Venturime Discharge Output, Hydraulic
Openin Readin Reading. Speed in (Inlet), PI in PT in ter, h in Head H Q in BPshaf in Power, Phyd
g g F1 F2 RPM Kg/cm2 Kg/cm2 Kg/cm2 in m m3/sec KW in kW Efficiency
0 0 1200 2 1.4 0.60 20.00 4.66E-03 0.00 0.92 0
2 1.1 1200 2.4 1.6 0.80 24.00 5.39E-03 0.17 1.27 13
Full 4 2.2 1200 2.8 2 0.80 28.00 5.39E-03 0.33 1.48 22
Open 6 3.2 1200 3 2.2 0.80 30.00 5.39E-03 0.52 1.59 33
8 4.1 1200 3.2 2.3 0.90 32.00 5.71E-03 0.72 1.79 40
10 4.9 1200 3.3 2.4 0.90 33.00 5.71E-03 0.94 1.85 51
65
CALCULATIONS:
Head on Turbine in meters of water ‘H’
Flow Rate of Water through the Turbine ‘Q’
Hydraulic input to the turbine,
Break power of the turbine
66
Turbine Efficiency
Graphs
67
APPLICATIONS
Pelton turbine is used in the hydroelectric power plant where the water available at high head i.e.
150 m to 2000 m or even more. In hydroelectric power plant it is used to drive the generator
attached to it and the generator generates the mechanical energy of the turbine into electrical
energy.

68
1. Define turbine
2. What are the classifications of turbine?
3. Define impulse turbine.
4. Define reaction turbine.
5. Differentiate between impulse and reaction turbine.
6. What is the function of draft tube?
7. Define specific speed of turbine.
8. What are the main parameters in designing a Pelton wheel turbine?
1. What is the function of surge tank fixed to penstock in Pelton turbine?
2. Why normally backward curved vanes are used in impeller?
RESULT:
Thus the performance characteristics of the Pelton Wheel Turbine are done and the
maximum efficiency of the turbine is ……….
69
STUDY ON PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF FRANCIS
TURBINE
Exp No: 10
Date:
1. Why reaction turbines are called so?
3. Explain the working of francis turbine.
4. Give expression for water Power.
5. Give expression for shaft power.
AIM:
To conduct load test on francis turbine and to study the characteristics of francis turbine.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Francis Turbine
2. Mechanical Gauge
3. Pressure Gauge
4. Vacuum Gauge
5. Tachometer
SPECIFICATIONS
 Supply Pump / Motor Capacity : 10HP, 3Ph, 440V, 50Hz, AC.
 Electrical Supply : 3 Ph, 440V, AC, 32A, with Neutral &
Earth.
 Loading : Break drums assembly with Rope.
 Turbine
 150 mm diameter of impeller.
 Guide vane angles adjustable from maximum to minimum.
70
 Run-away speed- 1900 rpm (approx.)
 Maximum flow of water- 1200 LPM (approx.)
 Maximum head – 14 m (approx.)
 Provisions
 Flow rate by Venturimeter, Cd = 0.96
 Two gauges to measure head on Venturimeter.
 Head on turbine by pressure gauge of range: 0-2 and Kg/cm2
 Vacuum gauge: 760 mm of Hg.
 Mechanical load applied by rope coupled with break drum
 Supply water control by butterfly valve.
DESCRIPTION:
Modern Francis turbine in an inward mixed flow reaction turbine it is a medium head turbine.
Hence it required medium quantity of water. The water under pressure from the penstock enters the
squirrel casing. The casing completely surrounds the series of fixed vanes. The guides’ vanes direct
the water on to the runner. The water enters the runner of the turbine in the dial direction at outlet
and leaves in the axial direction at the inlet of the runner. Thus it is a mixed flow turbine.
Figure 10: Francis Turbine
WORKING PRINCIPLE
71
Francis Turbine is a combination of both impulse and reaction turbine, where the blades
rotate using both reaction and impulse force of water flowing through them producing electricity
more efficiently.
Francis turbine blades are designed in such a way that one portion of the blade design
creates the pressure difference between the opposite faces of the blade when water flows through
it, and the remaining portion’s blade design use the impulse force of water hitting it and this
combined action of pressure difference and impulse force generates enough power to get turbine
moving at a required speed. Thus there would be a decrease in both kinetic energy and potential
energy of water at exit, then what it has when it enters the turbine.It is a clever design which uses
both the reaction and impulse force to generate power output better than individual impulse
turbine or reaction turbines could produce at same water head conditions.
The main reason of higher efficiency of Francis turbine lies in the design of blades, these
blades rotate using both reaction and impulse force of water flowing through them. Due the use of
this type of turbines the main problem faced due to the water head availability is eliminated as the
turbine uses both the kinetic and potential energy to produce power. For this, it is also known as
Mixed Flow turbine.
PROCEDURE:
1. The Francis turbine is started
2. All the weights in the hanger are removed
3. The pressure gauge reading is noted down and this is to be maintained constant for different
loads
4. Pressure gauge reading is noted down
5. The venturimeter reading and speed of turbine using tachometer are noted down
6. The experiment is repeated for different loads on the brake drum and the reading is tabulated.
GRAPHS:
The following graphs are drawn
1. Discharge (vs.) Head
2. Discharge (vs.) efficiency
72
FORMULAE:
Discharge Rate, Q
Through Venturimeter
Where,
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
A1 = Inlet area of Venturimeter (100mm diameter) = 7.85 ´10-3 m2
A2 = Throat area of Venturimeter (50mm diameter) = 1.96 ´10-3 m2
g = 9.81 m/s2
Hv = Head on Venturimeter, m
=10h
PI = Pressure at Venturi inlet,

PT = Pressure at venturi throat.
Head on the Turbine, H
Where,
P = Pressure on the turbine = P1
PV = Vacuum at the turbine
Hydraulic input to the turbine in W
Where,
W = 9810 N/m3
Q = Flow rate of water in m3/sec
H = Head on turbine in m
Electrical Power as indicated by Energy Meter
73
Where,
n= Number of blinks of energy meter disc.
t= is the time taken by the Energy meter for n blinks, in seconds.
0.7 = Transmission Efficiency.
Turbine Efficiency
Graphs
For constant speed characteristics
 Turbine efficiency Vs Percentage of full load.
 Efficiency Vs discharge.
 BPSHAFT Vs discharge.
74
OBSERVATIONS:
Output power readings Turbine Head Efficiency

Venturi meter
in %
Time No. Voltme Amm Readings
taken of ter eter Speed Head on Hydraulic
for 5 bul reading readi Suction Total Output
of the Venturi Discharg Power
blinks bs (V) ng Pressure Pressure Pressure, Turbine Power,
Vane Position Turbin meter, e In ‘Q’ in Input,
on ON (A) on Inlet on ‘Pv’ in Head BPELEC in
e HV in m m3/s PHYD in
energ side, ‘PI’ Throat, mm of ‘H’ in watts
of water Watts.
y in ‘PT’ in Hg. m
meter Kg/cm2 Kg/cm2
(s)
75
CALCULATIONS:
APPLICATIONS OF FRANCIS TURBINE
1. Francis turbine is the most widely used turbine in hydro-power plants to generate electricity.
2. Mixed flow turbine is also used in irrigation water pumping sets to pump water from ground for irrigation.
3. It is efficient over a wide range of water head and flow rate.
4. It is most efficient hydro-turbine .

1. What is the difference between Francis turbine and Modern Francis turbine?
2. What is mixed flow reaction turbine? Give an example.
3. How turbines are classified based on head. Give example.
4. How turbines are classified based on flow. Give example
5. How turbines are classified based on working principle. Give example.
6. What does velocity triangle indicates?
1. Why draft tube is not required in impulse turbine?
2. Why normally backward curved vanes are used in impeller?
RESULT:
Thus the performance characteristics of the Francis wheel turbine are done and the
maximum efficiency of the turbine is …………. %
76
STUDY ON PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF KAPLAN
TURBINE
Exp No: 11
Date:
3. Explain the working of Kaplan turbine.
AIM:
To conduct load test on Kaplan turbine and to study the performance characteristics of
Kaplan turbine
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Kaplan Turbine
2. Tachometer
3. Pressure Gauge
4. Vacuum Gauge
Specifications
 Supply Pump/Motor Capacity: 10 hp 3 ph., 440V, 50Hz, AC.
 Electric Supply : 3 ph., 440V, AC, 30A, with Neutral& Earth.
 Pressure Gauge range : 0 – 7Kg/cm2
 Vacuum gauge : 0-760mm of Hg.
 Loading : A.C Alternator connected with electrical switches
 Turbine
 150mm dia. Propeller with four blades
 Propeller blade angles adjustable from maximum to minimum
77
 Run-away speed = 2000 RPM (Approx.)
 Max. Head – 12 m. (approx.).
 Provisions
 Flow rate by Venturimeter, Cd=0.91
 Head on turbine by pressure
 Electrical load changed by Alternator assembly connected to electrical
switches
 Electrical load measurement by energy meter
 Propeller speed by digital RPM indicator.
 Supply water control by gate valve.
DESCRIPTION:
The Kaplan turbine is a propeller-type water turbine which has adjustable blades. The head ranges
from 10–70 m and the output ranges from 5 to 200 MW. Runner diameters are between 2 and 11
m. Turbines rotate at a constant rate, which varies from facility to facility. That rate ranges from as
low as 69.2 rpm to 429 rpm.
Figure 11: Kaplan Turbine
WORKING PRINCIPLE
78
Kaplan Turbine works on the principle of axial flow reaction with adjustable blades. . In
axial flow turbines, the water flows through the runner along the direction parallel to the axis of
rotation of the runner. The water at the inlet of the turbine possesses both kinetic energy as well as
pressure energy for effective rotation the blades in a hydro-power station.
Since it is a reaction turbine, so the reaction force of leaving water is used to turn the
runner of the Kaplan turbine, As the water flows through the twisted blades a lift force is generated
in the opposite direction of the leaving water and that lift force causes the blades to rotate.
PROCEDURE:
1. Keep the guide vane at 2/8 opening
2. Keep the runner vane at 3/8 opening
3. Prime the pump and close the gate valve
4. Start the pump
5. Open the gate valve slowly
6. Note down the pressure gauge reading G.
7. Note down the vacuum gauge reading V.
8. Vent the gauges of venturimeter
9. Note down the readings of pressure gauge (G1) and vacuum gauge (V1)
10. Measure the speed of the turbine by tachometer.
11. Load the turbine by placing dead weight and take all readings.
79
12. Experiment can be repeated for different guide and runner vane openings
FORMULAE:
Discharge Rate, Q
Through Venturimeter
Where,
Cd = Coefficient of discharge
A1 = Inlet area of Venturimeter (100mm diameter) = 7.85 ´10-3 m2
A2 = Throat area of Venturimeter (50mm diameter) = 1.96 ´10-3 m2
g = 9.81 m/s2
Hv = Head on Venturimeter, m
=10h
PI = Pressure at Venturi inlet,

PT = Pressure at venturi throat.
Head on the Turbine, H
Where,
P = Pressure on the turbine = P1
PV = Vacuum at the turbine
Hydraulic input to the turbine in W
Where,
W = 9810 N/m3
Q = Flow rate of water in m3/sec
H = Head on turbine in m
80
Electrical Power as indicated by Energy Meter
Where,
n= Number of blinks of energy meter disc.
t= is the time taken by the Energy meter for n blinks, in seconds.
0.8 = Transmission Efficiency.
Turbine Efficiency
Graphs
For constant speed characteristics
 Turbine Efficiency Vs Percentage of full load.
 Efficiency Vs Discharge.
81
OBSERVATIONS:
Output power readings Venturi meter Turbine Head

Time No. Voltmete Ammete Readings
taken of r reading r reading Head on Hydraulic
Speed Suction Total Output
Vane for 5 bulb (V) (A) Pressure Pressure Venturi Discharg Power
of the Pressure, Turbine Power,
Positio blinks s ON on Inlet on meter, e In ‘Q’ in Input,
Turbin ‘Pv’ in Head BPELEC in
n on side, ‘PI’ Throat, HV in m m3/s PHYD in
e mm of ‘H’ in watts
energy in ‘PT’ in of water Watts.
Hg. m
meter Kg/cm2 Kg/cm2
(s)
82
APPLICATIONS
 This turbine is used in power generation (mostly electricity) where water is available at low head and at higher
flow rates.

1. Explain the working of Kaplan turbine?
2. What is specific speed?
3. Define a) Volumetric efficiency b) Mechanical efficiency c) Overall efficiency.
6. Differentiate between power and work.
2. Why Pelton wheel is called an impulse turbine?
RESULT:
Thus the performance characteristics of the Kaplan turbine are done and the maximum
efficiency of the turbine is …………. %
83
References:
http://www.cittumkur.org/manuals/mech/FM_lab.pdf
http://geeta.edu.in/Mechanical_Data/labmanual/Fluid%20Mechanics%20lab%20manual.pdf
http://www.mlrinstitutions.ac.in/sites/default/files/lab1/1852357f864b839b9af9270983c07b2a-
FMHM-LAB.pdf
http://jnec.org/Lab-manuals/CIVIL/fluid%20Mechanics%20I%20I.pdf
https://www.google.co.in/url?
sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=6&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=0ahUKEwjyhsr9vOnYAhVL
p48KHeLyAWgQFghGMAU&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.qu.edu.qa%2Fengineering%2Fcivil
%2FLabManuals
%2FFluid_Mechanics_Lab_Manual.pdf&usg=AOvVaw1UOFHaiVVMchfwp6j9RixF
http://mech.gecgudlavalleru.ac.in/pdf/manuals/FLUID%20MECHANICS%20AND
%20HYDRAULICS%20MACHINES%20LAB.pdf
http://www.rpsinstitutions.org/downloads/lab%20manual/fluid%20mechanics.pdf
https://www.ghrce.raisoni.net/download/lab_civil/FM_I_Lab_Manual.pdf
http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/mymousa/files/Fluid-Mechanics-and-Hydraulics-Lab-Manual-2015-.pdf
http://www.public.asu.edu/~lwmays/classes/cee341/manual.pdf
http://files.kluceb.webnode.in/200000041-72634735b1/fm%20manual.pdf
https://cphbooks.in/pdf/Flued_Mechanics_Machinery.pdf
http://mech.pcampus.edu.np/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Fluid-Mechanics-LAB-OK.pdf
http://www.uomisan.edu.iq/eng/ar/admin/pdf/13906936859.pdf
http://web.cecs.pdx.edu/~gerry/class/EAS361/lab/pdf/EAS361_LabManual_Fall2004_r3.pdf
84

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BANNARI AMMAN INSTITUTE OF

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SUBJECT NAME : FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY

SUBJECT CODE : 15CE407

DEGREE : BE CIVIL ENGINEERING

YEAR OF RELEASE :2018-19

BANNARI AMMAN INSTITUTE OF

FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY

Year of Release: 2018-19

S. NO. TITILE PAGE

2 Determination of Co-efficient of discharge of Venturimeter 12

3 Determination of Co-efficient of discharge through orifice 18

4 Determination of Coefficient of discharge of V –Notch. 24

FLUID MECHANICS LABORATORY

List of the Exercises as per the syllabus

S. No. Name of the Exercises HOURS

4 Determination of Coefficient of discharge of V –Notch. 2

5 Determination of Coefficient of impact jet. 2

6 Determination of friction factor in pipe. 2

7 Study on performance characteristics of centrifugal pump. 4

8 Study on performance characteristics of Reciprocating pump. 4

9 Study on performance characteristics of pelton wheel Turbine. 4

10 Study on performance characteristics of Francis Turbine. 4

11 Study on performance characteristics of Kaplan Turbine. 2

A LIST OF BASIC SAFETY RULES

6. In case of a fire or imminently dangerous situation, notify everyone who may be

10. Never work in the laboratory without proper supervision by an instructor.

Specific weight of water, ω = 9810 N/m3

Figure 1: Orifice Meter

25 65 61 1.575 26 3.84 7.014 0.54

APPLICATIONS OF ORIFICE METER:

SAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR VIVA -VOCE

12 8.333 9.235 0.90

1 10 115 110 2.709

Co- efficient of discharge = Qact / Qth

PLOT THE GRAPH

SAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR VIVA -VOCE

Cd = Qact/Qthe (no unit)

SAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR VIVA –VOCE

Figure 4: Triangular notch

10.41 2.40 2.87 0.835

SAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR VIVA –VOCE

76 1.315 1.675 0.0071

SAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR VIVA -VOCE

PLOT THE GRAPH

3.541 5647.058 598.730 10.30

SAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR VIVA -VOCE

Figure 8: Reciprocating pump

1. Actual discharge Vs Total head

0 10 4.78 20.66 3.91 32.59 0.345 0.01837 24.87

SAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR VIVA –VOCE

Head on Turbine in meters of water,

Where, PI is the venturi inlet pressure gauge reading in Kg /cm 2

Flow Rate of Water through the Turbine ‘Q’

Flow Rate of Water through the Turbine ‘Q’

Hydraulic input to the turbine,

Break power of the turbine

SAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR VIVA –VOCE

Figure 10: Francis Turbine

PI = Pressure at Venturi inlet,

Head on the Turbine, H

Hydraulic input to the turbine in W

Electrical Power as indicated by Energy Meter