A mini project

On
Heart beat Monitor

By

Ahmed Safiullah
Md. Mujeebullah
A.N. Alameen
Sheik Ghouse

ECE
FINAL YEAR
R07-regulation
August 2, 2011
 ABSTRACT

The heart beat monitor consists of biopotential electrodes that are placed on the

patient. Body fluids conduct electrical signals from the surface of the heart to the

electrodes. Measurements are taken as the difference between two electrodes, while a

third electrode is used as a reference. The ECG amplifier circuit then amplifies the signal

and sends the information to a PC (via a data acquisition circuit). The information is then

analyzed and processed by a LabVIEW program. The user-friendly interface allows for

the cardiologist to analyze the patient’s electrocardiogram. The LabVIEW program goes

beyond that of a regular ECG in that it provides information such as heart rate, caloric

expenditure, and minimum and maximum target heart rates for optimal calorie burning.

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………..1

1.1 Overview

1.2 Problem Statement

1.3 Scope of the work

1.4 Circuit Components

2. LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 Objective

2.2 Power Saving

2.3 Assembling the project

3. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION………………………………………………………….4

4. CIRCUIT WORKING

4.1 Brief functional description

5. STRIP BOARD ASSEMBLING..................................................................................11

5.1 Strip Board and Its Types

5.2 Hole Spacing ….…………………………………………………………..11

5.2 Cutting Strip Board Tracks……………………………………………………...13

5.4 Comparison with Other Systems……....

iii
 5.5 Placing Components on Strip Board and Soldering ………………………….13

6. RESULTS AND

DISCUSSION……………………………………………………………………..17

6.1 Testing……………………………………………………………………17

6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages…………………………………………….17

6.3 Chances of further advancement

7. CONCLUSION…………………….…………………………………20

iv
 INTRODUCTION

Many hospitals and health clinics use monitoring devices to ensure patients will receive
the proper care. Electronic medical devices provide a vast array of medical information
while allowing the patient to have a user-friendly interface. The heart rate monitor built
for the ECE 345 Senior Design Project demonstrates this trend in medical technology
towards easier and more effective tools for health care. The project is based on the ECG,
which is a simple monitor that displays the electric signals from the heart.
The heart rate monitor receives its input from physiological signals from the electrical
pulses of the heart. The signals are fed into a system that implements both hardware and
software to displays and amplified and filtered version of the signal while performing real
time calculations to display pertinent information related to heart rate. The hardware for
the system includes three Silver/Silver-Chloride electrodes and a differential biopotential
instrumentation amplifier. The differential amplifier is designed to minimize common
mode gain, which should be within about thirty percent of signal variation. The preamp
and the difference amplifier are designed to provide a dc-coupled stage gain of
approximately 25  1% when cascaded in series. This minimizes the chance of the
amplifiers saturating in the power amplification stage by any offset voltages produced by
the electrodes. The software acquires data from the output of these amplifiers
continuously. LabVIEW then stores the information in buffers, while simultaneously
displaying and processing the signal. When these design considerations are undertaken,
the heart rate monitor is a reliable and marketable product.
The figure 1.1 on the next page shows the block diagram of the system and its major
subsections. The four subsections and their function are discussed in detail below.
The first stage of the system consists of the three Ag/AgCl electrode sensors. These
electrodes produce a voltage related to the electric field produced by the beating of the
heart.
The second stage of the system consists of the amplifier hardware, which takes the
electrocardiogram signal from the electrodes as its input. The signal is amplified and
filtered to provide a meaningful output. The hardware diagram on the next page (figure
1.2) shows the three stages of the amplifier, and a driven right leg circuit. The output
signal from this stage is then sent to the NI-DAQ which in turn sends this analog data to
LabVIEW for data processing.

1
 Input
from
Right
Leg

Bandpass
Pre Output
Input Right Filter
Am to
from Leg and
p PC
Electrod Circuit Power
Amplifier

The fourth and final stage of the system is the software implementation, using the NI-
DAQ board and LabVIEW software. The NI-DAQ sends data from the ECG amplifier to
a PC. The Lab VIEW software is then able to process this data. VIs (virtual instruments)
are graphical programs that are implemented to graph the data, and to process it (to make
calculations for heart rate and caloric expenditure). The front panel of a LabVIEW
program is a GUI that takes user profile inputs and uses this data for calculations.

2
 2. LITERATURE SURVEY

Objective:
The main objective of our mini project is to design a simple device which can perform
efficiently for domestic purposes. Hence we choose this topic Heart beat Monitor. In this
project we have analyzed the circuit thoroughly and by making some modifications the present
circuit was created. So in this project we have implemented a new circuit in which all the
components are arranged on a strip board which along with the monitor on which the pulse
rate of heartbeat will be displayed. By the circuit we can determine the pulse rate of heart beat
in digital or analog form.
Then we can easily determine the pulse rate and monitor the heartbeat. This circuit provides a
better and cheaper way of finding the pulse rate. If it is provided with a LCD monitor then we
can easily determine the pulse rate. People who don’t have any idea about this field can also
use this circuit without any hazards.
Thus, the usage of Heart beat Monitor in domestic purposes efficiently and determines the
heart beat rate effectively and accurately is the main objective of our mini project.

Power Saving
Even while considering the working aspects of this circuit only a 9V DC supply is required for
the proper working of the whole circuit. The main advantage of this circuit is that it does not
need contact with the live wire, hence it is free from shock or other hazards. With the help of
this circuit we can determine the pulse rate of heart beat. This circuit consumes less power.
The output depends on the quality of the sensor. The expensive sensors consumes more
power.
Therefore there is no question of getting electrical shock or about the power loss occurring in
the circuit. The construction and the maintenance can be carried out very easily. Since there
are neither rotating parts nor do any parts come in contact in it there is hardly any tear and
wear.

3
Assembling the Project
The experiment heart beat monitor is not an ordinary monitor; by some studies we
combined a new circuit which is used to determine the pulse rate of heart beat. So with the
help of our guide we started making knowledge about our circuit. Our next aim was to
purchase the components. We did the same without any delay in the next week itself. We
thoroughly examined all the components. Made a study about them and by testing we assured
that they are in working condition. The components were mounted on the strip board and were
wired up.
For a couple of times the circuit showed wrong results, connection mistakes, and
experiment continued until we got the indented result. As the circuit was found to be working
perfectly it was now safe to fabricate it on a printed circuit board. So we decided to design a
PCB for our circuit. Since we are dealing with the PCB for the first time. We give this job to a
nearby person who is expert in PCB designing. After designing the PCB we started soldering
process. Soldering of the components took a long time as we were soldering for the first time
and we couldn’t afford to make a mistake there. So we soldered slowly and most carefully
trying not to short between components, and after a long time we succeeded in completing it.
The circuit was tested randomly and was found to be error free and accurate. The invisible
broken wire detector was then ready to use. In the next project date we showed our project to
our guide.
After this we submitted our project diary to our guide then the date of project
presentation was decided and we presented our project in front of the faculties of our college.
When the diary was got corrected we submitted the rough copy and then the fair.

4
 3. CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

The mini project circuit is a simple circuit of heart beat monitor. The project gives an easy way to detect
the pulse rate of heart beat. The circuit requires the following list of components in Table 1.

S.NO: COMPONENTS CONFIGURATION

1. Integrated circuit IC- LM386
2. Transistor C549C
3. Variable Resistors (2) 10k, 4k7
4. Resistors R1,R29 – 10, R3 - 1k

R4 - 10k, R5 - 2k2

R6 - 100
5. Capacitors (electrolytic) C1,C2 - 220uF

C3 - 470uF

(Ceramic) C4,C5,C6 – 10uF

C7 - 1Uf, C8,C9 - 104

C10 – 103, C11 - 102

6. Battery 9v
7. Strip Board
8. Piezo Sensor
9. Speaker

FAMILIARIZATION OF IC LM-386

General Description:

The LM386 is a power amplifier designed for use in low voltage consumer applications.
The gain is internally set to 20 to keep external part count low, but the addition of an
external resistor and capacitor between pins 1 and 8 will increase the gain to any value
from 20 to 200.

5
The inputs are ground referenced while the output automatically biases to one-half the
supply voltage. The quiescent power drain is only 24 mille watts when operating from a 6
volt supply, making the LM386 ideal for battery operation.

Features:

 Battery operation

 Minimum external parts

 Wide supply voltage range: 4V–12V or 5V–18V

6
  Low quiescent current drain: 4mA

 Voltage gains from 20 to 200

 Ground referenced input

 Self-centering output quiescent voltage

 Low distortion: 0.2% (AV = 20, VS = 6V, RL = 8, PO =

125mW, f = 1 kHz)

 Available in 8 pin MSOP package

Applications:

 AM-FM radio amplifiers

 Portable tape player amplifiers

 Intercoms

 TV sound systems

 Line drivers

 Ultrasonic drivers

 Small servo drivers

 Power converters

7
 Pin diagram of LM386

Absolute Maximum Ratings:

Absolute Maximum Ratings indicate limits beyond which damage to the device may
occur. Operating Ratings indicate conditions, for which the device is functional, but do
not guarantee specific performance limits.

Supply Voltage
(LM386N-1, -3, LM386M-1) 15V

Supply Voltage (LM386N-4) 22V

Package Dissipation (Note 3)

(LM386N) 1.25W

(LM386M) 0.73W

(LM386MM-1) 0.595W

Input Voltage ±0.4V

Storage Temperature −65°C to +150°C

Operating Temperature 0°C to +70°C

Junction Temperature +150°C

Soldering Information
Dual-In-Line Package
Soldering (10 sec) +260°C

Small Outline Package

(SOIC and MSOP)
Vapor Phase (60 sec) +215°C
8
Infrared (15 sec) +220°C

See AN-450 “Surface Mounting Methods and Their Effect on Product Reliability” for
other methods of soldering surface mount devices.

Thermal Resistance

JC (DIP) 37°C/W

JA (DIP) 107°C/W

JC (SO Package) 35°C/W

JA (SO Package) 172°C/W

JA (MSOP) 210°C/W

JC (MSOP) 56°C.

Electrical Characteristics:

Electrical Characteristics state DC and AC electrical specifications under particular test

conditions which guarantee specific performance limits. This assumes that the device is
within the Operating Ratings. Specifications are not guaranteed for parameters where no
limit is given, however, the typical value is a good indication of device performance.

Parameter Conditions Min Type Max Units

Operating Supply Voltage (VS) 4 12 v

LM386N-1, -3, LM386M-1,
LM386MM-1 4 12 V 5 18 v
LM386N-4
Quiescent Current (IQ) VS = 6V, VIN = 0 4 8 mA

Output Power (POUT)

LM386N-1, LM386M- VS = 6V, RL = 8, THD = 10% 250 325 mW
9
1,LM386MM-1 VS = 9V, RL = 8, THD = 10% 500 700 mW

LM386N-3 VS = 16V, RL = 32, THD = 700 1000 mW

10%
LM386N-4

Voltage Gain (AV) VS = 6V, f = 1 kHz 26 dB

10 μF from Pin 1 to 8 46 dB
Bandwidth (BW) VS = 6V, Pins 1 and 8 Open 300 kHz

Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) VS = 6V, RL = 8, POUT = 125 0.2 %

mW
f = 1 kHz, Pins 1 and 8 Open

Power Supply Rejection Ratio VS = 6V, f = 1 kHz, CBYPASS 50 dB

= 10 μF
(PSRR) Pins 1 and 8 Open, Referred to
Output

Input Resistance (RIN) VS = 6V, Pins 2 and 3 Open 50 kOhm

Input Bias Current (IBIAS)

Application Hints
Gain Control

To make the LM386 a more versatile amplifier, two pins (1 and 8) are provided for gain
control. With pins 1 and 8 open the 1.35 k resistor sets the gain at 20 (26 dB). If a
capacitor is put from pin 1 to 8, bypassing the 1.35 k resistor, the gain will go up to 200
(46 dB). If a resistor is placed in series with the capacitor, the gain can be set to any value
from 20 to 200. Gain control can also be done by capacitive coupling a resistor (or FET)
from pin 1 to ground.
Additional external components can be placed in parallel with the internal feedback
resistors to tailor the gain and frequency response for individual applications. For
example, we can compensate poor speaker bass response by frequency shaping the
feedback path. This is done with a series RC from pin 1 to 5 (paralleling the internal 15 k
resistor). For 6 dB effective bass boost: R. 15 k, the lowest value for good stable
operation is R = 10 k if pin 8 is open. If pins 1 and 8 are bypassed then R as low as 2 k
10
can be used. This restriction is because the amplifier is only compensated for closed-loop
gains greater than 9.

INPUT BIASING

The schematic shows that both inputs are biased to ground with a 50 kΩ resistor. The
base current of the input transistors is about 250 nA, so the inputs are at about 12.5 mV
when left open. If the dc source resistance driving the LM386 is higher than 250 kΩ it
will contribute very little additional offset (about 2.5 mV at the input, 50 mV at the
output). If the dc source resistance is less than 10 k, then shorting the unused input to
ground will keep the offset low (about 2.5 mV at the input, 50 mV at the output). For dc
source resistances between these values we can eliminate excess offset by putting a
resistor from the unused input to ground, equal in value to the dc source resistance. Of
course all offset problems are eliminated if the input is capacitive coupled. When using
the LM386 with higher gains (bypassing the 1.35 k resistor between pins 1 and 8) it is
necessary to bypass the unused input, preventing degradation of gain and possible
instabilities. This is done with a 0.1 μF capacitor or a short to ground depending on the dc
source resistance on the driven input.

TRANSISTOR C549C:

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals. It is

composed of a semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an
external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals
changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled
(output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can
amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are
found embedded in integrated circuits.

11
The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is
ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its release in the early 1950s the
transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and
cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, among other things.

100Y No.
63318
Manufacturer No.BC549C
Manufacturer NXP
31. BC~Series
Category
Transistors
Parameter Explanation
Marking C549C
( examine the original Pol NPN
picture ) Ic(max) 100mA
Pt(Pd) 500mW

12
 Vceo(max) 30V
hfe(min.-
420-800
max.)
Pins/Package 3P/TO-92
NPN general
Description
purpose transistor

NPN

NPN is one of the two types of bipolar transistors, consisting of a layer of P-doped
semiconductor (the "base") between two N-doped layers. A small current entering the
base is amplified to produce a large collector and emitter current. That is, an NPN
transistor is "on" when its base is pulled high relative to the emitter.

Most of the NPN current is carried by electrons, moving from emitter to collector as
minority carriers in the P-type base region. Most bipolar transistors used today are NPN,
because electron mobility is higher than whole mobility in semiconductors, allowing
greater currents and faster operation.

A mnemonic device for the remembering the symbol for an NPN transistor is not
pointing in, based on the arrows in the symbol and the letters in the name. That is, the
NPN transistor is the BJT transistor that is "not pointing in".

13
Active-mode NPN transistors in circuits

Structure and use of NPN transistor. Arrow according to schematic.

The diagram opposite is a schematic representation of an NPN transistor connected to
two voltage sources. To make the transistor conduct appreciable current (on the order of 1
mA) from C to E, VBE must be above a minimum value sometimes referred to as the cut-
in voltage. The cut-in voltage is usually about 600 mV for silicon BJTs at room
temperature but can be different depending on the type of transistor and its biasing. This
applied voltage causes the lower P-N junction to 'turn-on' allowing a flow of electrons

from the emitter into the base. In active mode, the electric field existing between base and
collector (caused by VCE) will cause the majority of these electrons to cross the upper P-N
junction into the collector to form the collector current IC. The remainder of the electrons
recombine with holes, the majority carriers in the base, making a current through the base
connection to form the base current, IB. As shown in the diagram, the emitter current, IE,
is the total transistor current, which is the sum of the other terminal currents (i.e.,
).

In the diagram, the arrows representing current point in the direction of conventional
current – the flow of electrons is in the opposite direction of the arrows because electrons
carry negative electric charge. In active mode, the ratio of the collector current to the base
current is called the DC current gain. This gain is usually 100 or more, but robust circuit
designs do not depend on the exact value (for example see op-amp). The value of this
gain for DC signals is referred to as hFE, and the value of this gain for AC signals is
14
referred to as hfe. However, when there is no particular frequency range of interest, the
symbol β is used[citation needed].
It should also be noted that the emitter current is related to VBE exponentially. At room
temperature, an increase in VBE by approximately 60 mV increases the emitter current by
a factor of 10. Because the base current is approximately proportional to the collector and
emitter currents, they vary in the same way.

RESISTORS:
A linear resistor is a two-terminal, linear, passive electronic component that implements
electrical resistance as a circuit element. The current flowing through a resistor is in a
direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's terminals. Thus, the ratio of the voltage
applied across resistor's terminals to the intensity of current flowing through the resistor is
called resistance. This relation is represented with a well-known Ohm's law:

Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and

electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in most electronic
equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various
compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such
as nickel-chrome). Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly
analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.
The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial
resistors are manufactured over a range of more than 9 orders of magnitude. When
specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance
may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen resistor, according to its
specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may also be of concern
in some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as having a maximum
power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that resistor in a
particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications. Resistors
with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high
voltage circuit, attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage of
the resistor.

15
Practical resistors include a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these
specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise amplifier or
pre-amp the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance,
excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in
manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular
family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology.[1] A family of discrete
resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and
position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of
circuits using them.
Units
The ohm (symbol: Ω) is the SI unit of electrical resistance, named after Georg Simon Ohm.
An ohm is equivalent to a volt per ampere. Since resistors are specified and manufactured
over a very large range of values, the derived units of milliohm (1 mΩ = 10−3 Ω), kilohm (1
kΩ = 103 Ω), and megohm (1 MΩ = 106 Ω) are also in common usage.
The reciprocal of resistance R is called conductance G = 1/R and is measured in Siemens
(SI unit), sometimes referred to as a mho. Hence, Siemens is the reciprocal of an ohm: S =
Ω − 1. Although the concept of conductance is often used in circuit analysis, practical
resistors are always specified in terms of their resistance (ohms) rather than conductance.

Theory of operation
Ohm's law

Ohm's law
The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified by Ohm's law:

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the current (I),
where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).
Equivalently, Ohm's law can be stated:

This formulation states that the current (I) is proportional to the voltage (V) and inversely
proportional to the resistance (R). This is directly used in practical computations. For
example, if a 300 ohm resistor is attached across the terminals of a 12 volt battery, then a
current of 12 / 300 = 0.04 amperes (or 40 milliamperes) occurs across that resistor.

16
Series and parallel resistors

In a series configuration, the current through all of the resistors is the same, but the voltage
across each resistor will be in proportion to its resistance. The potential difference (voltage)
seen across the network is the sum of those voltages, thus the total resistance can be found as
the sum of those resistances:

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in series, each of the same
resistance R, is given by NR.
Resistors in a parallel configuration are each subject to the same potential difference
(voltage), however the currents through them add. The conductances of the resistors then add
to determine the conductance of the network. Thus the equivalent resistance (Req) of the
network can be computed:

The parallel equivalent resistance can be represented in equations by two vertical lines "||"
(as in geometry) as a simplified notation. For the case of two resistors in parallel, this can be
calculated using:

As a special case, the resistance of N resistors connected in parallel, each of the same
resistance R, is given by R/N.
A resistor network that is a combination of parallel and series connections can be broken up
into smaller parts that are either one or the other. For instance,

17
However, some complex networks of resistors cannot be resolved in this manner, requiring
more sophisticated circuit analysis. For instance, consider a cube, each edge of which has
been replaced by a resistor. What then is the resistance that would be measured between two
opposite vertices? In the case of 12 equivalent resistors, it can be shown that the corner-to-
corner resistance is 5⁄6 of the individual resistance. More generally, the Y-Δ transform, or
matrix methods can be used to solve such a problem.[2][3]
One practical application of these relationships is that a non-standard value of resistance can
generally be synthesized by connecting a number of standard values in series and/or parallel.
This can also be used to obtain a resistance with a higher power rating than that of the
individual resistors used. In the special case of N identical resistors all connected in series or
all connected in parallel, the power rating of the individual resistors is thereby multiplied by
N.

VARIABLE RESISTORS:

18
 Construction:

Variable resistors consist of a resistance track

with connections at both ends and a wiper
which moves along the track as you turn the
spindle. The track may be made from carbon,
cermet (ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of
wire (for low resistances). The track is usually
rotary but straight track versions, usually called Standard Variable Resistor
sliders, are also available. Photograph © Rapid Electronics
Variable resistors may be used as a rheostat with two connections (the wiper and
just one end of the track) or as a potentiometer with all three connections in use.
Miniature versions called presets are made for setting up circuits which will not
require further adjustment.
Variable resistors are often called potentiometers in books and catalogues.
They are specified by their maximum resistance, linear or logarithmic track, and
their physical size. The standard spindle diameter is 6mm.
The resistance and type of track are marked on the body:
4K7 LIN means 4.7 k linear track.
1M LOG means 1 M logarithmic track.
Some variable resistors are designed to be mounted directly on the circuit board,
but most are for mounting through a hole drilled in the case containing the circuit
with stranded wire connecting their terminals to the circuit board.
PRESETS
These are miniature versions of the standard variable
resistor. They are designed to be mounted directly onto
the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is
built. For example to set the frequency of an alarm tone or Preset Symbol

19
the sensitivity of a light-sensitive circuit. A small screwdriver or similar tool is
required to adjust presets.
Presets are much cheaper than standard variable resistors so they are
sometimes used in projects where a standard variable resistor would normally be
used.
Multiturn presets are used where very precise adjustments must be made. The
screw must be turned many times (10+) to move the slider from one end of the
track to the other, giving very fine control.

CAPACITOR:

A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive electrical component used to

store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all
contain at least two conductors separated by a non-conductor. Capacitors used as parts of
electrical systems, for example, consist of metal foils separated by a layer of insulating
film.
A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated
by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the
conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to
collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the
electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value,
capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor
to the potential difference between them.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power
supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many
other purposes.
20
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor; hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early
means of construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount
of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown
voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Networks

For capacitors in parallel

Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same applied voltage. Their
capacitances add up. Charge is apportioned among them by size. Using the schematic
diagram to visualize parallel plates, it is apparent that each capacitor contributes to the
total surface area.

For capacitors in series

Several capacitors in series.

Connected in series, the schematic diagram reveals that the separation distance, not the
plate area, adds up. The capacitors each store instantaneous charge build-up equal to that
of every other capacitor in the series. The total voltage difference from end to end is
apportioned to each capacitor according to the inverse of its capacitance. The entire series
acts as a capacitor smaller than any of its components.

Capacitors are combined in series to achieve a higher working voltage, for example for
smoothing a high voltage power supply. The voltage ratings, which are based on plate
separation, add up, if capacitance and leakage currents for each capacitor are identical. In
such an application, on occasion series strings are connected in parallel, forming a matrix.
The goal is to maximize the energy storage of the network without overloading any
capacitor.

Non-ideal behavior
Capacitors deviate from the ideal capacitor equation in a number of ways. Some of these,
such as leakage current and parasitic effects are linear, or can be assumed to be linear, and
can be dealt with by adding virtual components to the equivalent circuit of the capacitor.
The usual methods of network analysis can then be applied. In other cases, such as with
breakdown voltage, the effect is non-linear and normal (i.e., linear) network analysis
cannot be used, the effect must be dealt with separately. There is yet another group,
21
which may be linear but invalidate the assumption in the analysis that capacitance is a
constant. Such an example is temperature dependence.

Types of capacitor
Practical capacitors are available commercially in many different forms. The type of
internal dielectric, the structure of the plates and the device packaging all strongly affect
the characteristics of the capacitor, and its applications.
Values available range from very low (picofarad range; while arbitrarily low values are in
principle possible, stray (parasitic) capacitance in any circuit is the limiting factor) to
about 5 kF supercapacitors.
Above approximately 1 microfarad electrolytic capacitors are usually used because of
their small size and low cost compared with other technologies, unless their relatively
poor stability, life and polarised nature make them unsuitable. Very high capacity
supercapacitors use a porous carbon-based electrode material.
Dielectric materials

Capacitor materials. From left: multilayer ceramic, ceramic disc, multilayer polyester
film, tubular ceramic, polystyrene, metalized polyester film, aluminum electrolytic.
Major scale divisions are in centimetres.
Most types of capacitor include a dielectric spacer, which increases their capacitance.
These dielectrics are most often insulators. However, low capacitance devices are
available with a vacuum between their plates, which allows extremely high voltage
operation and low losses. Variable capacitors with their plates open to the atmosphere
were commonly used in radio tuning circuits. Later designs use polymer foil dielectric
between the moving and stationary plates, with no significant air space between them.
In order to maximise the charge that a capacitor can hold, the dielectric material needs to
have as high a permittivity as possible, while also having as high a breakdown voltage as
possible.
Several solid dielectrics are available, including paper, plastic, glass, mica and ceramic
materials. Paper was used extensively in older devices and offers relatively high voltage
22
performance. However, it is susceptible to water absorption, and has been largely
replaced by plastic film capacitors. Plastics offer better stability and aging performance.

Ceramic capacitors are generally small, cheap and useful for high frequency applications,
although their capacitance varies strongly with voltage and they age poorly. They are
broadly categorized as class 1 dielectrics, which have predictable variation of capacitance
with temperature or class 2 dielectrics, which can operate at higher voltage. Glass and
mica capacitors are extremely reliable, stable and tolerant to high temperatures and
voltages, but are too expensive for most mainstream applications. Electrolytic capacitors
and supercapacitors are used to store small and larger amounts of energy, respectively,
ceramic capacitors are often used in resonators, and parasitic capacitance occurs in
circuits wherever the simple conductor-insulator-conductor structure is formed
unintentionally by the configuration of the circuit layout.
Electrolytic capacitors use an aluminum or tantalum plate with an oxide dielectric layer.
The second electrode is a liquid electrolyte, connected to the circuit by another foil plate.
Electrolytic capacitors offer very high capacitance but suffer from poor tolerances, high
instability, gradual loss of capacitance especially when subjected to heat, and high
leakage current. Poor quality capacitors may leak electrolyte, which is harmful to printed
circuit boards. The conductivity of the electrolyte drops at low temperatures, which
increases equivalent series resistance. While widely used for power-supply conditioning,
poor high-frequency characteristics make them unsuitable for many applications.
Electrolytic capacitors will self-degrade if unused for a period (around a year), and when
full power is applied may short circuit, permanently damaging the capacitor and usually
blowing a fuse or causing arcing in rectifier tubes. They can be restored before use (and
damage) by gradually applying the operating voltage, often done on antique vacuum tube
equipment over a period of 30 minutes by using a variable transformer to supply AC
power. Unfortunately, the use of this technique may be less satisfactory for some solid
state equipment, which may be damaged by operation below its normal power range,
requiring that the power supply first be isolated from the consuming circuits. Such
remedies may not be applicable to modern high-frequency power supplies as these
produce full output voltage even with reduced input.
Tantalum capacitors offer better frequency and temperature characteristics than
aluminum, but higher dielectric absorption and leakage.[21] OS-CON (or OC-CON)
capacitors are a polymerized organic semiconductor solid-electrolyte type that offer
longer life at higher cost than standard electrolytic capacitors.
Several other types of capacitor are available for specialist applications. Supercapacitors
store large amounts of energy. Supercapacitors made from carbon aerogel, carbon
nanotubes, or highly porous electrode materials, offer extremely high capacitance (up to 5
kF as of 2010) and can be used in some applications instead of rechargeable batteries.

23
Alternating current capacitors are specifically designed to work on line (mains) voltage
AC power circuits.

They are commonly used in electric motor circuits and are often designed to handle large
currents, so they tend to be physically large. They are usually ruggedly packaged, often in
metal cases that can be easily grounded/earthed. They also are designed with direct
current breakdown voltages of at least five times the maximum AC voltage.
ELECTROLYTIC CAPCITOR

An electrolytic capacitor is a type of capacitor that uses an electrolyte, an ionic

conducting liquid, as one of its plates, to achieve a larger capacitance per unit volume
than other types. They are often referred to in electronics usage simply as
"electrolytics"[citation needed]. They are used in relatively high-current and low-frequency
electrical circuits, particularly in power supply filters, where they store charge needed to
moderate output voltage and current fluctuations in rectifier output. They are also widely
used as coupling capacitors in circuits where AC should be conducted but DC should not.
There are two types of electrolytics; aluminum and tantalum.
Electrolytic capacitors are capable of providing the highest capacitance values of any
type of capacitor[citation needed] but they have drawbacks which limit their use. The standard
design requires that the applied voltage must be polarized; one specified terminal must
always have positive potential with respect to the other. Therefore they cannot be used
with AC signals without a DC polarizing bias. However there are special non-polarized
electrolytic capacitors for AC use which do not require a DC bias. Electrolytic capacitors
also have relatively low breakdown voltage, higher leakage current and inductance,
poorer tolerances and temperature range, and shorter lifetimes compared to other types of
capacitors.

24
Construction
Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are constructed from two conducting aluminum foils,
one of which is coated with an insulating oxide layer, and a paper spacer soaked in
electrolyte. The foil insulated by the oxide layer is the anode while the liquid electrolyte
and the second foil acts as the cathode. This stack is then rolled up, fitted with pin
connectors and placed in a cylindrical aluminum casing. The two most popular
geometries are axial leads coming from the center of each circular face of the cylinder, or
two radial leads or lugs on one of the circular faces. Both of these are shown in the
picture
Aluminum electrolytic capacitor: compact but lossy, these are available in the range of
<1 µF to 1 F with working voltages up to several hundred volts DC. The dielectric is a
thin layer of aluminum oxide. They contain corrosive liquid and can burst if the device is
connected backwards. The oxide insulating layer will tend to deteriorate in the absence of
a sufficient rejuvenating voltage, and eventually the capacitor will lose its ability to
withstand voltage if voltage is not applied. A capacitor to which this has happened can
often be "reformed" by connecting it to a voltage source through a resistor and allowing
the resulting current to slowly restore the oxide layer.[9] Bipolar electrolytics (also called
Non-Polarised or NP capacitors) contain two capacitors connected in series opposition
and are used when one electrode can be either positive or negative relative to the other at
different instants. Bad frequency and temperature characteristics make them unsuited for
high-frequency applications. Typical ESL values are a few nanohenries

Ceramic capacitor

In electronics, a ceramic capacitor is a capacitor

constructed of alternating layers of metal and ceramic,
with the ceramic material acting as the dielectric. The
temperature coefficient depends on whether the dielectric is Class 1 or Class 2. A ceramic
capacitor (especially the class 2) often has high dissipation factor, high frequency
coefficient of dissipation.

25
Construction

A ceramic capacitor is a two-terminal, non-polar device. The classical ceramic capacitor

is the "disc capacitor". This device pre-dates the transistor and was used extensively in
vacuum-tube equipment (e.g., radio receivers) from about 1930 through the 1950s, and in
discrete transistor equipment from the 1950s through the 1980s. As of 2007, ceramic disc
capacitors are in widespread use in electronic equipment, providing high capacity and
small size at low price compared to other low value capacitor types.
Ceramic capacitors come in various shapes and styles, including:
 disc, resin coated, with through-hole leads
 multilayer rectangular block, surface mount
 bare leadless disc, sits in a slot in the PCB and is soldered in place, used for UHF
applications
 tube shape, not popular now

PIEZO SENSOR:

A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect to measure pressure,
acceleration, strain or force by converting them to an electrical charge.

26
Sensor design

Metal disks with piezo material, used in buzzers or as contact microphones

Based on piezoelectric technology various physical quantities can be measured; the most
common are pressure and acceleration. For pressure sensors, a thin membrane and a
massive base is used, ensuring that an applied pressure specifically loads the elements in
one direction. For accelerometers, a seismic mass is attached to the crystal elements.
When the accelerometer experiences a motion, the invariant seismic mass loads the
elements according to Newton’s second law of motion F = ma.

The main difference in the working principle between these two cases is the way forces
are applied to the sensing elements. In a pressure sensor a thin membrane is used to
transfer the force to the elements, while in accelerometers the forces are applied by an
attached seismic mass.
Sensors often tend to be sensitive to more than one physical quantity. Pressure sensors
show false signal when they are exposed to vibrations. Sophisticated pressure sensors
therefore use acceleration compensation elements in addition to the pressure sensing
elements. By carefully matching those elements, the acceleration signal (released from
the compensation element) is subtracted from the combined signal of pressure and
acceleration to derive the true pressure information.

27
Vibration sensors can also be used to harvest otherwise wasted energy from mechanical
vibrations. This is accomplished by using piezoelectric materials to convert mechanical
strain into usable electrical energy.[6]

Sensing materials
Two main groups of materials are used for piezoelectric sensors: piezoelectric ceramics
and single crystal materials. The ceramic materials (such as PZT ceramic) have a
piezoelectric constant / sensitivity that is roughly two orders of magnitude higher than
those of the natural single crystal materials and can be produced by inexpensive sintering
processes. The piezoeffect in piezoceramics is "trained", so unfortunately their high
sensitivity degrades over time. The degradation is highly correlated with temperature.
The less sensitive 'natural' single crystal materials (gallium phosphate, quartz,
tourmaline) have a much higher – when carefully handled, almost infinite – long term
stability. There are also new single crystal materials commercially available such as Lead
Magnesium Niobate-Lead Titanate (PMN-PT). These materials offer greatly improved
sensitivity (compared with PZT) but suffer from a lower maximum operating temperature
and are currently much more expensive to manufacture.

BATTERY:

Nine-volt battery

Duracell PP3 (9 volt) battery

28
Collage of images showing the opening of a 9-volt battery to reveal six LR61 size cells,
which are similar to the LR8D425 AAAA cells often used in medical equipment.

Three different kinds of 9-volt primary battery internals.

Rechargeable (NiMH) 9-volt battery internals.

A nine-volt battery, the most common of which (and the one referred to here unless
otherwise stated) is designated a PP3 battery, is shaped as a rounded rectangular prism.
9-volt batteries are commonly used in pocket transistor radios, smoke detectors, carbon
monoxide alarms, guitar effect units, and radio-controlled vehicle controllers. They are
also used as backup power to keep the time in digital clocks and alarm clocks.
Nine-volt alkaline batteries are constructed of six individual 1.5V LR61 cells enclosed in
a wrapper. [1] These cells are are slightly smaller than standard LR8D425 AAAA cells and
can be used in their place for some devices, even though they are 3.5 mm shorter.
As of 2007, 9-volt batteries accounted for 4% of alkaline primary battery sales in the US.
In Switzerland as of 2008, 9-volt batteries totalled 2% of primary battery sales and 2% of
secondary battery sales. [2] [3]

Connectors
The connector (snap) consists of two connectors: one smaller circular (male) and one
larger, typically either hexagonal or octagonal (female). The connectors on the battery are
the same as on the connector itself; the smaller one connects to the larger one and vice
versa.[4] The same connector is used on most other battery types in the Power Pack (PP)
series. The battery has both terminals on one end. Battery polarization is obvious since
mechanical connection is only possible in one configuration.
29
 A problem with this style of connector is that it is very easy to connect two batteries
together in a short circuit, which quickly discharges both batteries, generating heat and
possibly a fire. The clips on the nine-volt battery can be used to connect several nine-volt
batteries in series to create higher voltage.

Technical specifications
Inside an alkaline or carbon-zinc 9-volt battery there are six cells, either cylindrical alkaline or
flat carbon-zinc type, connected in series. Some brands use welded tabs internally to attach to
the cells, others press foil strips against the ends of the cells.
Rechargeable NiCd and NiMH batteries have between six and eight 1.2 volt cells.
Lithium versions use three 3.2 V cells - there is a rechargeable lithium polymer version.
There is also a Hybrid NiMH version that has a very low self-discharge rate (85% of
capacity after one year of storage).
Formerly, mercury batteries were made in this size. They had higher capacity than carbon-zinc
types, a nominal voltage of 8.4 volts, and very stable voltage output. Once used in photographic and
measuring instruments or long-life applications, they are now unavailable due to environmental
restrictions.
Common Colloquial IEC ANSI/NEDA Typical Nominal Shape Terminal Dimensions Comments
name name Name Name Capacity Voltage layout
(mAh)
9-volt PP3, 6LR61 1604A 565 9, Rectangular both H 48.5 mm Reference:
Radio (alkaline), (alkaline), (alkaline), 7.2 small end L 26.5 mm ANSI
battery, 6F22 1604D 400 (carbon- (NiCd), + male W 17.5 mm C18.1M
Square(sic) (carbon- (carbon- zinc), 7.2 clasp Terminal Part 1 and
battery zinc), zinc), 1200 (NiMH), - female centres 12.7 C18.3M
Japan 6KR61 1604LC (Lithium), 8.4 clasp mm Part 1
"006P" (NiCd), (Lithium), 120 (NiCd), (some
6HR61 11604 175 to 300 NiCd IEC 60086-
(NiMH) (NiCd), (NiMH), NiMH), 2011 pt2-
7.2H5 520 (Lithium 9.6 §7.6.1.12;
(NiMH) polymer (Lithium
rechargeable) and some
NiMH)

Self discharge
An alkaline battery that is unused or used with extremely low power consumption
devices (transistor leak current, etc.) can be expected to last approximately for 6 years,
essentially the shelf-life of a new battery.
Lithium 9V/PP3
Lithium 9-volt batteries are consumer-replaceable, high energy density batteries designed
to last up to 5 times longer than alkaline 9-volt batteries and up to 10 times longer than
30
carbon-zinc 9-volt batteries in many applications. In addition, lithium PP3 batteries have
a long shelf life of up to 10 years. Common applications for lithium 9-volt batteries are
smoke and CO (Carbon Monoxide) alarms.

Other nine volt batteries

There are other nine volt batteries, such as PP7 and PP9. These date from the days of
early transistor radios and are now less common than PP3. In the days of valve radios
which used batteries designed specifically for vacuum tubes, there was a nine volt grid
bias battery which had tapings for various voltages between 1.5 and 9.

SPEAKER:

31
An inexpensive, low fidelity 3½-inch speaker, typically found in small radios.
A speaker (or "speaker") is an electroacoustic transducer that produces sound in response
to an electrical audio signal input. Non-electrical loudspeakers were developed as
accessories to telephone systems, but electronic amplification by vacuum tube made
loudspeakers more generally useful. The most common form of loudspeaker uses a paper
cone supporting a voice coil electromagnet acting on a permanent magnet, but many
other types exist. Where accurate reproduction of sound is required, multiple
loudspeakers may be used, each reproducing a part of the audible frequency range.
Miniature loudspeakers are found in devices such as radio and TV receivers, and many
forms of music players. Larger loudspeaker systems are used for music, sound
reinforcement in theatres and concerts, and in public address systems.
History
Johann Philipp Reis installed an electric loudspeaker in his telephone in 1861; it was
capable of reproducing pure tones, but also could reproduce speech. Alexander Graham
Bell patented his first electric loudspeaker (capable of reproducing intelligible speech) as
part of his telephone in 1876, which was followed in 1877 by an improved version from
Ernst Siemens. Nikola Tesla reportedly made a similar device in 1881, but he was not
issued a patent.[1] During this time, Thomas Edison was issued a British patent for a
system using compressed air as an amplifying mechanism for his early cylinder
phonographs, but he ultimately settled for the familiar metal horn driven by a membrane
attached to the stylus. In 1898, Horace Short patented a design for a loudspeaker driven
by compressed air; he then sold the rights to Charles Parsons, who was issued several
additional British patents before 1910. A few companies, including the Victor Talking
Machine Company and Pathé, produced record players using compressed-air
loudspeakers. However, these designs were significantly limited by their poor sound

quality and their inability to reproduce sound at low volume. Variants of the system were
used for public address applications, and more recently, other variations have been used
to test space-equipment resistance to the very loud sound and vibration levels that the
launching of rockets produces.
32
Piezoelectric speakers

Piezoelectric speakers are frequently used as beepers in watches and other electronic
devices, and are sometimes used as tweeters in less-expensive speaker systems, such as
computer speakers and portable radios. Piezoelectric speakers have several advantages
over conventional loudspeakers: they are resistant to overloads which would normally
destroy most high frequency drivers, and they can be used without a crossover due to
their electrical properties. There are also disadvantages: some amplifiers can oscillate
when driving capacitive loads like most piezoelectric, which results in distortion or
damage to the amplifier. Additionally, their frequency response, in most cases, is inferior
to that of other technologies. This is why they are generally used in single frequency
(beeper) or non-critical applications. Piezoelectric speakers can have extended high
frequency output, and this is useful in some specialized circumstances; for instance, sonar
applications in which piezoelectric variants are used as both output devices (generating
underwater sound) and as input devices (acting as the sensing components of underwater
microphones). They have advantages in these applications, not the least of which is
simple and solid state construction which resists the effects of seawater better than, say, a
ribbon based device would.

4. CIRCUIT WORKING

Brief functional description:

33
 According to electrode theory An interface is necessary between the body and
the electronic measuring device when recording potentials and currents in the body.
Biopotential electrodes produce small voltages directly related to the changing electric
field produced by a beating heart.. The electrode is a practical electrode that
approaches the characteristics of a perfectly nonpolarizable electrode. Perfectly
nonpolarizable refers to the freedom of ions to pass through the electrode-electrolyte
interface to be transduced into an electrical current. The electrode converts the ionic
current produced by the body into a voltage, and the ECG amplifies this voltage.

The electrode-electrolyte interface is the junction where the ionic transfer occurs. A
temporary current is induced in the electrode from the changing electric field of the
beating heart. This current causes electrons and anions to move across the electrode-
electrolyte interface in the direction opposite to the flow of the current, and for cations to
migrate across this interface in the direction of the current. This temporary separation of
charge produces a temporary potential. This potential is created from a current induced
from the heart and is thus directly related to the changing electric field produced by a
beating heart. The ECG circuit hugely amplifies the potential, and the output gives the
electric characteristics of a beating heart.

Another sensor that was considered was the piezoelectric sensor. Piezoelectric materials
generate an electric potential when mechanically strained. During a heart beat, the
pressure in the blood vessels is higher than when the heart is in its resting stage. This
higher blood pressure causes a physical deformation in the skin, and thus a piezoelectric
sensor can produce an electic potential during every heartbeat. The principal reason why
the piezeoelectric sensor is less than ideal is that it is pressure sensitive. In order to pick
up a signal the nurse or doctor would have to press the sensor hard against the patient
which could cause a permanent deformation of the piezoelectric material This
information, combined with the fact that hospitals across the nation use Silver/Silver
Chloride sensors, made it obvious that the silver-silver chloride sensors were the best to
use for this project.

The hardware design for this project consisted of building an electrocardiograph

(ECG) amplifier circuit. The Silver/Silver Chloride electrodes produce induced voltage
signals from the heart and the ECG circuit amplifies and filters these signals.
Furthermore, the ECG circuit should be able to correctly amplify signals from a patient,
even though the patient might not be grounded due to displacement currents flowing to
and from their body.
The ECG circuit has a number of component parameters that must be met in order
for it to operate effectively. First, an important factor for amplifiers is that the first stage
34
(the preamplifier) must have high input impedance and low input bias current. High
input impedance is necessary in an amplifier circuit to minimize loading effects. Loading
occurs when the gain of the second stage of an amplifier affects the gain of the
preamplifier. A low input impedance can cause loading, thereby affecting the
characteristics of biopotential electrodes. This loading can result in a distortion of the
output signal.

Another factor that can cause the distortion of the output signal is the input bias
current of the op-amps. Input bias current is the amount of current that flows into the op-
amp. Ideally, the input bias current is zero, but in practice there is always a small input
bias current. Low resistance between the op-amp inputs compared to the feedback
resistance can cause bias currents, so large resistors are placed between op-amp inputs to
minimize this current. Furthermore, the input bias current of the 741 op-amp was found
to be significantly higher (800 nA) when compared to the 411 op-amp (200 pA).

For this reason, 411 op-amps were used in the ECG circuit instead of the more traditional
741 op-amps.
Another important characteristic of the ECG amplifier circuit is that it must have a high
gain since biopotentials are usually on the order of millivolts. These signals must be
amplified to a degree such that they are capable of being effectively displayed on
recording devices. This means that the signals will have to have a magnitude on the
order of volts, so gains of approximately 1000 are need for the ECG circuit.
Finally, the ECG circuit must have the ability to filter out low and high frequency noise.
Since biopotentials signals from the heart are in the range of 0.05-150 Hz, the final stage
of the ECG amplifier should contain a bandpass filter suited to pass these frequencies but
to cut off all others. This frequency response can be achieved by adjusting resistor and
capacitor values in the third stage of the amplifier according to the equation (1) below:
fc = (2RC)-1
(1)

The actual design of the ECG amplifier differed slightly than the one presented by
Webster in that resistors and capacitors were added in parallel to the non-inverting
terminals of the preamplifier in order to reduce electromagnetic noise and to minimize
input bias currents, and thus minimize loading. The figure doesn’t include electrode
impedance, which was a factor in the output. It was decided after some experimentation
and research that some important high frequency effect should be displayed by the ECG,
so the high frequency cutoff was brought up to 121.3 Hz from 106.1 Hz (see table 2-1
below). Furthermore, to eliminate some low frequency noise, the low frequency cutoff
was raised from 0.05 Hz to 1 Hz (see table 2-2). It should be noted that the Design
Adjusted ECG cutoff frequencies are only theoretical; in practice, variations in the actual
impedance of resistors and capacitors can lead to cut off frequencies.
35
 s

5. STRIP BOARD ASSEMBLING

36
Strip Board and its types:

The above fig showing a piece of an unused strip board

Strip board is a widely-used type of electronics prototyping board characterized by a
0.1 inch (2.54 mm) regular (rectangular) grid of holes, with wide parallel strips of copper
cladding running in one direction all the way across one side of the board. It is usually
known by the name Veroboard, which is a trademark, in the UK, of British company Vero
Technologies Ltd, & Pixel Print LTD Canada. In using the board, breaks are made in the
tracks, usually around holes, to divide the strips into multiple electrical nodes. With care,
it is possible to break between holes to allow for components that have two pin rows only
one position apart such as twin row headers for IDCs.
Perf board:
A related product is called perfboard (short for perforated board). This is like a Vero
board but each hole has an isolated copper pad rather than a default pattern of copper
tracks. Per board is also widely used for electrical prototyping, generally with techniques
such as miniature point to point wiring, wire wrapping, or a wiring pencil.

Variations:
Strip board is available from many different vendors. All versions have copper strips on
one side. Some are made using printed circuit board etching and drilling techniques,
although some have milled strips and punched holes. The original Veroboard used FR-2
synthetic-resin-bonded paper (SRBP) (also known as phenolic board) as the base board
material. Some versions of strip board now use higher quality FR-4 (fiberglass-reinforced
epoxy laminate) material.

37
Hole spacing:
Strip board holes are drilled on 0.1 inch (2.54 mm) centers. This spacing allows
components having pins with a 0.1 inch (2.54 mm) spacing to be inserted. Compatible
parts include DIP ICs, sockets for ICs, some types of connectors, and other devices.
Strip boards have evolved over time into several variants and related products. For
example, a larger version using a 0.15 inch (3.81 mm) grid and larger holes is available,
but is generally less popular (presumably because it doesn't match up with standard IC
pin spacing).

Assemblies:

An example of a populated strip board

The components are usually placed on the plain side of the board, with their leads
protruding through the holes. The leads are then soldered to the copper tracks on the other
side of the board to make the desired connections, and any excess wire is cut off. The
continuous tracks may be easily and neatly cut as desired to form breaks between
conductors using a 5 mm twist drill, a hand cutter made for the purpose, or a knife.

Tracks may be linked up on either side of the board using wire. With practice, very neat
and reliable assemblies can be created, though such a method is labour-intensive and
therefore unsuitable for production assemblies except in very small quantity.
External wire connections to the board are made either by soldering the wires through the
holes or, for wires too thick to pass through the holes, by soldering them to specially
made pins called Vero pins which fit tightly into the holes. Alternatively, some types of
connectors have a suitable pin spacing to be inserted directly into the board.

Cutting strip board tracks:

38
Most strip board circuits will need to have some tracks cut to break the
connection at that point. This is always necessary under ICs, except for the rare
cases where opposite pins must be connected. The tracks are cut with a special
track cutter tool or a 3mm drill bit.
Places where the tracks must be broken are usually shown with a cross (X). The
cuts are made on the underside (copper side) so extra care is needed to identify
the correct hole. It is best to cut the track after soldering because the solder joints
will make it easier to identify the correct position.
Place the track cutter on the correct hole and twist it to and fro using moderate
force. The aim is to break the copper track, not drill a hole through the board!
Inspect the cut closely to ensure there is no fine thread of copper left across the
break, because even the tiniest piece will conduct.

Comparison with other systems:

Wire wrap:
Strip board is not designed for surface-mount components. For high density prototyping,
especially of digital circuits, wire wrap is faster and more reliable than Strip board for
experienced personnel.[2]

Breadboard:

Vero board is similar in concept and usage to breadboard, but is cheaper and more
permanent—connections are soldered and while some limited reuse may be possible,
more than a few cycles of soldering and desoldering are likely to render both the
components and the board unusable. In contrast, breadboard connections are held by
friction, and the breadboard can be reused many times. However, a breadboard is not very
suitable for prototyping that needs to remain in a set configuration for an appreciable
period neither of time nor for physical mock-ups containing a working circuit or for any
environment subject to vibration or movement.
Prototype boards
Strip boards have further evolved into a larger class of prototype boards, available in
different shapes and sizes, with different conductive trace layouts.

39
TriPad:

TriPad strip board has strips of copper broken up into three-hole sections
For example, one variant is called a TriPad board. This is similar to strip board, except
that the conductive tracks do not run continuously along the board but are broken into
sections, each of which spans three holes. This allows the legs of two or three
components to be easily linked together in the circuit conveniently without the need for
track breaks to be made. However, in order to link more than three holes together, wire
links or bridges must be formed and this can result in a less compact layout than is
possible with ordinary strip board.
Other prototype board variants have generic layouts to simplify building prototypes with
integrated circuits, typically in DIP shapes, or with transistors (pads forming triangles). In
particular, some boards mimic the layout of breadboards, to simplify moving a non-
permanent prototype on a breadboard to a permanent construction on a PCB. Some types
of boards have patterns for connectors on the periphery, like DB9 or IDCC headers; to
allow connectors with non-standard pin spacing’s to be easily used.[3] Some come in
special physical shapes, to be used to prototype plug-in boards for computer bus systems.

Placing components on strip board and Soldering:

Components are placed on the non-copper side, then the strip board is turned
over to solder the component leads to the copper tracks.
Strip board layouts are shown from the component side, so the tracks are out of
sight under the board. Layouts are normally shown with the tracks running
horizontally across the diagram.
Placing components on strip board requires care. The large number of holes
means it is very easy to make a mistake! For most small circuits the best method

is to very carefully place the IC holder(s) in the correct position and solder in
place.,

40
Then you can position all the other components relative to the IC holder(s). Minor
position errors left and right will not usually be a problem because the component
will still be connected to the correct tracks. However, up and down position errors
must be avoided because just one hole too high or too low will connect the
component to the wrong track and therefore the wrong part of the circuit.
Some people like to label the holes with letters (up/down) and numbers (across)
to give each hole a 'grid reference' but this still requires careful counting of holes.

See that the soldering is done well very carefully so that no short circuit occurs, if
any short circuit occurs then there may be a chance of damage in the circuit and
its components. During the soldering one should not use excessive lead which
may lead to a bigger solder patch on the board which may later results in a short
circuit.
Thus, one has to be careful during the soldering process as it may affect the
circuit and also to its result.

6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

41
Completed the project work and submitted it in front of the project guide. For the purpose of
the demonstration, we determined the pulse rate of heart beat both in analog and digital form
in front of our guide. To determine the pulse rate using the heart beat monitor firstly we have to
connect the battery terminal with a probe to the circuit board for the power supply in the circuit.
We have to see that the entire circuit is supplied with equal amount of power supply from input
end to the output section and this can be done through a continuity tester or multi meter.
Beginning with the input point of the live wire and proceeding towards its other end LED inside
the continuity tester starts glowing during the presence of AC voltage supply at all the ends
from ground to top of the circuit board, when ever the breakage point is tested on the board,
LED immediately extinguishes due to the non-availability of mains AC voltage supply.
When we observe that the power supply in the circuit is distributed equally at all the points then
place the piezo sensor on the chest we can able to hear the lub-dub sound of heart beat
through the speaker provided and pulse rate will be displayed on the LCD monitor provided, if
every thing is all right then that would be the end of our experiment.

Testing:
Before determining the pulse rate of heart beat broken faulty wires, take out any connected
load and find out the faulty wire first by continuity method using any multi meter or continuity
tester. We need to notice that the power is supplied in the circuit thoroughly in equal amount.
This can be noticed through a multi meter or a continuity tester by placing one of its end to the
ground and other end to the top of the circuit. Check the equal power supply at all the
connected wires , if we able to notice that the LED bulb inside the continuity tester glows at all
the points , then circuit is tested and we can get the desired the output.

Advantages and Disadvantages of a Heartbeat Monitor:

Everyone knows what is a heart beat monitor is. If you don’t, then just go outside and see
what most exercisers are wearing on their arms or on their chests nowadays. These
simple, yet extremely useful gadgets became very popular in the mid-90s, when most
people wanted to make sure that they were really training effectively within their target
heart rates. Nowadays, it is still an important part of any exerciser’s tool, although it has
branched out more.

Today, it is not only seen on people, but in exercise equipments as well.

Because these monitors are becoming popular, among serious exercisers and health-
buffs alike, they are now becoming more available (and much cheaper) right now. Aside
from improving its innovative features, such as clocks, calories burned, targeted heart
rates, speed, distance, and easy one-touch buttons, their features have also dramatically
changed over the years. No more boring, black straps; no more box-typed designs. Now,
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they come in a lot of trendy colors designed to fit the aesthetic needs of the consumer. No
wonder these gadgets have never lost their appeal even until now.
With all the things that it can do, what are the advantages and disadvantages of an heart
rate monitor?
Advantages:-
First, it can be a motivating factor in your workout. Nothing beats having a machine
strapped on your arm reminding you that you need to run faster.
Second, it is a valuable tool in making sure that you are training on your target heart rate.
While this sounds so simple, it is an important aspect for any patient who is suffering
from heart disease, or someone recovering from an illness. This is because over training
the heart can be very dangerous for these individuals.
Third, it helps an exerciser to be more in touch with their bodies and heart rhythms. There
are some who have used these gadgets for so long now that they have become an expert
on their heartbeats. In fact, they have become so good at it that they don’t even use their
heart beat monitors anymore.
Fourth, you can record your progress, so you can make the necessary adjustments to your
training.
Fifth, you can make sure that you are measuring your maximum and resting heart rates
accurately. This can help you to stay within your normal training zone, which can help
you avoid unwanted injuries and minor accidents from occurring during your workout.
Disadvantages:-
Sometimes, too much data can confuse, instead of guide you. Some people quit early on
their training, because they feel intimidated with all the details.
Second, the monitors may be expensive, especially if you want it to be as accurate as
possible.
Third, the beeps can be quite distracting, especially when you are in highways and other
public places. Accidents sometimes occur because of this.

An exercise heart rate monitor can be an added bonus to anyone, although the level of
improvement can be different, depending on each person’s situation. The best thing to do
is to weigh how well it can help you attain your fitness or health goals, because in the
end, your improvement is what really counts the most.

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Chances of Further Advancement:
For visual indication, one may Use a LCD in place of speaker. In such a case, the current
consumption of the circuit will be around 7mA. Or by using the microprocessor or micro
controller by doing the suitable programming we can make this circuit to find the fault in more
than 3 core cables having long length.
With the use of LCD in the circuit project one can visualize the heart beat rate on the LCD
monitor, one can determine the heartbeat rate correctly and accurately. We can see the heart
beat rate in systolic and diastolic pressure readings on the LCD monitor.
It is quite easy to calculate the heart beat rate using an LCD, rather than determining the pulse
rate without an LCD, as the pulse rate readings will be displayed on the LCD monitor quite
clearly.

Apart from this using an advanced micro controller based circuit & probe design it
provides an easy way to measure and monitor heartbeat rate. The instrument uses Infrared
sensors which can easily be clipped to finger ends or ear lobes to detect the heartbeat by
finger plythysmography technology.
Thus usage of LCD in the project of determining the pulse rate of heart is the main and further
advancement.

7. CONCLUSION

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This implementation of a heart monitor involves low cost amplifier and filter components
coupled with a sophisticated microcontroller and LCD screen. Because the device is most
useful if it is portable it was designed with use of one or two 9V batteries.

The amplifier and filter stage of the implementation were successful with an ECG
successfully detected and recorded. In doing this the output voltage was found to be
strongly related to the quality of contact between the electrodes and the skin and was
observed to be highly variable. This complicated the calculation and display of the actual
rat since the proposed microcontroller code relied on a fixed reference which the peak of
the ECG would cross and trigger the timer. The variability of the voltage output made this
approach unfeasible. Using a fixed signal made demonstration of this part of the circuit
possible

This project successfully implemented an ECG while the Digital Heart Rate counter was
only partially successful. The weak signal heart rate signal was amplified in the presence
of noise from other muscles and electrical sources but we were unable to create an
integrated device which could take this signal and calculate the heart rate.

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