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\title{Photoelectric Effect}

\author{Group 8\\Tushar Choudhary (17110161)\\

Vinod Kumar(17110172)\\Sukkala Balaji(17110157)}

\date{\today}

\begin{document}
\maketitle

\section{Objective}
\label{sec:introduction}

1.1-To find out Planck’s constant "h" by using photocell and color filters.
\linebreak
1.2-To find the graphical relationship between current and $1/R^2$ i.e. to
demonstrate inverse square law.

\section{Apparatus Required}
\label{sec:introduction}
Vacuum phototube,Halogen tungsten lamp,Color filters,Regulated power supply,Current
meter,Optical Bench
\section{Principle and Theory}
\label{sec:theory}

\subsection{Planck’s constant}
When a light of sufficiently high frequency is illuminated on a metal surface then
electrons are ejected from the metal surface. This ejection of electrons is known
as the photoelectric effect. According to experimental results the energy
distribution of the ejected electrons is independent of the intensity of the light.
A strong light beam yields more photoelectrons than a weak light beam of the same
frequency. It is due to higher amount of energy, but the average electron energy
remains the same. It was found that the maximum photoelectron energy actually
depends on the frequency of the light. Below a certain frequency value no electrons
will emit. This frequency is called threshold frequency (Vo). Above this frequency
the maximum photoelectron energy, let it be $KE_{max}$ increases linearly with
increasing frequency. \\

$KE_{max}$=$h(\vee$-$Vo) $=$ h\vee$-$hVo$ \\

\\
Here h is planck’s constant. The experimental value of h is $6.626*10^–34$ $J·s =
4.136 × 10–15$ eV·s which is same for all frequency values. but Vo varies with the
particular metal being illuminated i.e. different metal have different Vo. Here,
hVo denotes threshold energy or work function, which is the minimum energy required
to eject an electron from the metal surface to be illuminated.
$hVo=e.\phi$
e is the magnitude of electron charge. $\phi$ is the work function.
On equating energies in various form, we have the following equation:
$hV=(1/2)m$v^2$ + e.\phi$
the time interval between falling of light on metal surface and ejection of
electron is infinitesimally less of nanosecond order.
\begin{center}
\includegraphics{phh.jpg}
\end{center}
Image Reference-globalsources.com\\
The potential at which the value of photo current in the circuit becomes zero is
called retarding or stopping potential Vs. And hV is the value of energy of the
electron after ejection.
$(1/2) mv^2 = e.V_{s}$
which is same as $V_{s} = (h/e).V–\phi$
when the stopping potential $V_{s}$ is plotted against the frequency V, the slope
gives the value of ‘h’ and the intercept on y axis gives the work function.

\subsection{Inverse Square law}

let L be the luminous intensity of an halogen tungsten lamp and E be the
luminescence at point ‘r’ from it then,
$E=L/r^2$
If light is allowed to fall on the photocathode, then the photocurrent ‘I’ is
proportional to E, i.e, $I=kE$, where k is a constant.
$I=k(L/r^2)$
Then the graphical plot between “i” and “$1/r^2$” should be a straight line.
\section{Procedure}
(1)Determination of Planck’s: \\
(a) insert any one out of five filters into photo vacuum tube.\\
(b)set the current multiplier to 0.001. and the voltage to -v.\\
(c)increase the intensity level slowly to maximum.\\
(c) measure the initial values of current and voltage. Here the voltage would be
0v.\\
(d)take two, three readings by increasing deaccelerating voltage, till the current
becomes 0A in the circuit.\\
(e)decrease the intensity of light after measurement.\\
(f)do the same process for the remaining filters and plot the graph between
stopping potential and frequency of color filters.\\
\\
(2) Demonstration of inverse square law of radiation:\\
(a) switch on the set up first.\\
(b)set the tungsten lamp to 40cm on the optical bench.\\
(c)now apply the filter on vacuum tube.\\
(d) set voltage direction switch to +V and Set the voltage to +0.1 V.\\
(e)increase the intensity of light slowly.\\
(f)measure the value of current in display mode.\\
(g)take ten readings upto 20cm on the optical bench and take down the readings of
current.\\
(h)now plot the graph between “i” and $1/r^2$ and check whether it is straight or
not.\\

\section{Experimental Data}
Table-1\\
\begin{center}
\includegraphics{tableone.png}
\end{center}
\newpage
Graph-1\\
\begin{center}
\includegraphics{pt.png}
\end{center}
Table-2\\
\begin{center}
\includegraphics{tabletwo.png}
\end{center}
Graph-2\\
\begin{center}
\includegraphics{graphtwo.png}
\end{center}

\section{Calculation and Error Analysis}

\label{sec:latex}
\subsection{Calculation}
$KE_{max}$=$h(\vee$-$Vo) $=$ h\vee$-$hVo$\\
let the equation of line be y=mx+a\\
\\
Least square approximation-\\
m=$\sum_{i=1}^{n}(x_{i}-\bar{x})(y_{i}-\bar{y})/(\sum_{i=1}^{n}(x_{i}-\bar{x})^2$\\
a=$\bar{y}-m\bar{x}$\\
Substituting values gives-\\
$y=0.39x-1.77$ \\
$e=1.6*10^{-19}$\\
$\frac{h}{e}=0.39$\\
$h=6.39*10^{-34}$\\
$\phi=1.77eV$\\
\\
\\
$E=\dfrac{L}{r^2}=$CI where C is a constant.\\
so graph between C and $\frac{1}{r^2}$ using least square approximation is a
straight line.\\

\subsection{Error Analysis}
Standard deviation of "h" is-\\
$\sigma = \sqrt{(\sum_{i=1}^{n}(x_{i}-\bar{x})^2)/(n-1)} $\\
\\
From table and graph we calculate $\bar{x} = 6.39*10^{-34}$\\
Standard deviation $= 0.26*10^{-34}$\\
\\
Standard error $ \sigma_{m} = \sigma/\sqrt{n}$\\
Calculated standard error is $0.13*10^{-34}$\\
\textbf{h $=(6.39\pm0.13)*10^{-34}$}

\section{Conclusion}
\label{sec:latex}
1-The value of Planck’s constant comes out to be $6.39*10^{-34}$.\\
2-Inverse square law of radiation is valid.

\begin{thebibliography}{9}
https://mycurvefit.com/

\end{thebibliography}
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