Machine Diagnosis PDF

6.
1 Tasks,measured variables and methods SCHENCK
6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of

machines
The condition of an entire machine can be globally evaluated using the overall
values. These values show whetherthe machine can continue to operate or the
condition needs to be improved.
A frequency analysis of an instantaneous recording of the vibrations provides

an affirmation of the condition of the individual moving parts of the machine if
some measures to eliminate the fautts are necessary. This enables you to initiate
some objective action such as exchanging the damaged components, and
re-aligning or balancing.
If the constructional characteristics of the machine should or must be evaluated

or changed, it is recommended that the dynamic behavior be analyzed. The
resuhs of this investigation affirm how well the manufadurer has laid the
machine out, and is a criterion for the performance capability of the machine at
the same time. Analyzing the dynamic behavior provides the prerequisites to be
able to:
determine the permissible operating speed range,

initiate constructional measures to improve the vibration behavior of the
machine,
increase the operational reliabilrty and
6 execute acceptance-test measurements to conform with standards, e.g.
DIN standards and API prescriptions.
Therefore this is an important diagnosis method for development, design,

construction, acceptance tests, quality assurance, maintenance and service of
machines.
6.1 f asks, measured variables and methods

The vibration behavior of machines, parts of the machine (e.g. rotor, bearing
supports, foundations) or structures' ( bridges, towers, buildings) is evaluated
when the vibration behavior is analyzed. When machines and machine parts
are being considered, the dynamic behavior can be measured:
Seminar C 40
SCHENCK 6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines
at a steady, fixed operating speed (e.g. the rated s e ~ c espeed of the

machine)
within a limited operating speed range (e.g. the service speed range of
variable speed machines) or
within any desired speed or frequency range
(e.g. from 1 to 1,000 Hz)
In all the above cases the reaction of the object to a dynamic effect (excitation)
is determined. The most important disturbances in machines are periodic forces
and vibrations which either affect the machine from an external source(e.g.
vibration excitation from adjacent machines) orwhich originate during operation
of the machine itself (e.g. from unbalance of rotating components, alignment
erson in shafls and couplings orwear of the bearing components and individual
gears in a gearbox).
Vibrations occur at the surface of the machine, the bearing housings, the
machine mountings and the foundations as a result of these effects, and they
represent the response of the entire machine "system" to the effect of these
excitations.
Figure 6.1: When the dynamic

behavior is analfled, the re-
action of me machine to a dy-
namic excitation is Dynamic
evaluated.
influence
(Per,odic forces.
vibration) I-? Machine
Sy-m
------* (Vbration)
response
The relationship System res~onse

Dynamic effect
is known as the Transfer function". This evaluation is the central task of the
analysis of dynamic behavior.
Seminar C 40
6.1 Tasks measured variables and methods
A number of characteristic variables which describe the dynamic behavior can

be derived by the transfer function. For machine diagnosis the most interesting
are:
the dynamic stiffness or compliance,

the resonance frequencies,
the damping factor and
the natural vibration modes
of the object being investigated.
A number of methods are available for measuring the transferfunction, the most
important of which are shown in Figure 6.2. Details of these methods are
explained in the following chapters.
Measuring the transfer function Figure 6.2: important methods

of determining the Pansfer
function of machines and
machine components.
I
1
I
Order trackiLg analysis Frequency spectrum analysis
with external excitation with edema1 excitation
Noise Impact
rundown excitation
Seminar C 40
€9SCHENCK 6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines
6.2 Basic principles

Machines are constructed with individual components, and any machine can be
considered to be a springmass system. The simplest form of spring-mass
system is a singlemass vibrator shown in Figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3: Principle construc-

tion of a single-mass vibrator.
Mass
Spring Damper
In many cases the dynamic behavior of machines can be approximately descri-

bed by a system of individual, coupled single-mass vibrators. An example of
this is the vibration model of a turboset (Fig. 6.4) the rotortrain of which is coupled
with the foundation via an oil film and bearing pedestals. Because the foundation
is also mpable of vibrating, it can also be considered a spring-mass system.
Figure 6.4: Greatly simpli-

fied vibration model of a turbo-
set.
Rotor train
Seminar C 40
6.2 Basic principles B SCHENCK
Fint of all the dynamic behavior of machines will be considered using the
example of a single-mass vibrator.
6.2.1 The single-mass vibrator

If the single-mass vibrator in Figure 6.3 is excited by a periodic excitation force
F(t), the mass of the spring-mass system will be displaced from its position of
rest by a distance x(t).
I I Figure 6.5: Displacement of a

single-mass vibrator by di-
1 force F ( t )
stance x(t) as a response to
excitation force F(t).
The response of the system, namely the displacement x(t), depends on the
stiffness of the spring as well as the ampidude and frequency of the exciting
force F(t). The larger the excitation force, the larger the displacement. Depen-
ding on the frequency of the excitation force, there can be a time delay in the
phase angle cp between the excitation force and response. The frequency of the
displacement about the position of rest always corresponds to the frequency of
the excitation force.
A prerequisite for this consideration is that the single-mass vibrator is only

excited within the linear range of the spring and damper.
Seminar C 40
53 SCHENCK 6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines
1
Figure 6.6:The time sequence
of excitation force F(t) and
displacement x(t) wth the sub-
sequent phase angle cp for a
constant frequency.
The relationship between the vector (amplitude and phase angle) of the system
response (displacement) and input variable (excitation force) as a function of
the frequency is known as the complex transfer function.
System response x ( f )
Complex transfer function G ( f ) =
Inputamplitude F ( f )
This will also show the meaning of the complex concept. The complex transfer
function provides information about
the amount of the quotient system response to input variable

and
the phase drfference between system response and input variable.
6.2.1 .ICharacteristic variables

To describe the behavior of a vibrating system a series of characteristic variables
calculated from the relationship between system response and input variable
can be used.
Seminar C 40
6.2 Basic principles SCHENCK
Characteristic Calculated from Unit Figure 6.7: Table of usable

variable characteflstic variables.
Acceleration - -
a m/s
lnertance Force - F
I
N
! Mobility
Velocity -
Force F
Displacement - -
s W
! Dynamic Force - F N
compliance
Sympathetic Force - F N
-
- -
mass Acceleration a m/s
I Mechanical Force F
impedance Velocity - v
I Dynamic Force - F -N
- -
I stiffness Displacement s elm
For a complete description of the concept "complex transfer function" the

characteristic variable must also be given, e.g. complex transfer function of
the dynamic stiffness. All the characteristic variables can be converted into
each other by calculation. Thus the Compliance can be converted by calculation
from the Inertance, or the Sympathetic mass from the Dynamic stiffness using
the relationships shown in Figure 6.7.
Wrthin the framework of machine diagnosis the "Mobilrty" charadenstic variable

is often measured, because in the frequency range most interesting for machine
construction this signal shows the most favorable relationship between the
practical and the disturbing signal components. Because of this the basis for the
complex transfer function of Mobility will be the main consideration of the
following subject material.
Seminar C 40
RI SCHENCK 6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines
6.2.1.2 Measuring the transfer function

Evaluating the complex tmnsfer function can be done using the measuring
arrangement shown in Fig. 6.8.
Figure 6.8:An example of the

measuring arrangement for
P
I
evaluating the cmmplex trans- Mbration
I
exciter Diagnosis
fer function. I
r sensor
The system to be investigated is excited with an input variable, whereby the

frequency is varied starting at the thoeretical value f = 0 (this is not always
achievable in praciice) and ending at the maxjmum value ofthe frequency range
of interest.
The diagnosis instrument measures the input variable and system response at
all frequencies in the range and calculates the complex transfer function.
6.2.1.3 Displaying the transfer function

The complex transfer function for a single fixed frequency is displayed as a
constant, i.e. the transfer fador. If the frequency changes, then in general the
amount and phase angle ofthe system response changes and therefore so does
the amount and phase angle of the transfer function. This interdependence is
commonly known as the frequency response [64) for the frequency range of
interest. The frequency response of the complex transfer function is graphically
displayed as:
Seminar C 40
Amplitude response
Amount as a function of the frequency
Phase response
Phase angle as a function of the frequency
Nyquist curve
A combination of the amplitude and phase angle reponses in the complex
multiple plane
The amplitude and phase response
The most commonly used display is the seperate amplitude and phase
response. The amplitude and frequency axes can be displayed with either a
1
linear or logarithmicscale; the phase angle axis is always displayed with a linear
scale.
lG(qt f! -
response
Amplitude
Figure 6.9: Frequency re-
sponse of the complex trans-
fer function of dynamic
compliance G(f) of a single-
- mass vibrator.
- I
IFI&
S
- I I - +
' 1:; !- --\

If, f
Phase
- response
180'
- I
I
90' -
- I
I
0" - I
I
' f ~
+
f
The diagram in Fig. 6.9 shows the typical frequency response of dynamic
compliance of a single-mass vibrator. The frequency at which maxtmum com-
pliance occurs is characterized as the resonance frequency fR.
Often the amplitude and phase response are displayed together also as a Bode
diagram. In this case the amplitude and phase responses are graphically
displayed dependent on the logarithmic representation of the frequency f o r the
angular frequency o [64].
Seminar C 40
6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines
The frequency response of the complex transfer function, displayed as a Bode

diagram, is also known as the characteristic frequency curve[64].
Figure 6.10 shows the same example as in Fig. 6.9 but this time displayed as a
Bode diagram.
Figure 6.10: Bode diagram of

the transfer fundion of a sing-
le-mass vibrator.
The Nyquist curve
If the amplitude response and phase response of the complex transfer function
are combined into one diagram, the Nyquist curve of the frequency response in
the complex multiple plane is obtained. This is known as the Nyquist curve of
the transfer function or also simply the Nyquist diagram.
Figure 6.71: Nyquist curve of

the transfer fundion of a sing-
le-mass vibrator.
Seminar C 40
6.2 Basic principles 5 SCHENCK
In this display the amount (amplitude) is represerfed by the distance of a point

on the Nyquist curve from the origin of the coordinates. The phase angle gives
the position of this point relative to the positive real axis.
In the examples of Fig. 6.9 to 6.1 1, the frequency response of the complex
transfer fundion of dynamic compliance
G (f)= so
l= ( f )
is shown. The system response s( f ) lags the input variable F( f ) in time
6.2.1.4 Example: A turbine rotor

The task
A newly manufactured industrial turbine is to be operated within a variable speed

range. Before the first commissioning the dynamic behavior of the turbine rotor
is to be analyzed within the entire service speed range.
To do this the complex transfer function of compliance of the turbine rotor is

evaluated while the machine is stationary.
Turbine rotor data:

Length: 1,530 mm
Largest diameter: 329 rnm
Mass: 95 kg
Rated service speed: 16,500 rpm
Rated power: 1.100 kW
Executing the measurement
The rotor should preferably be mounted in its own service bearings for the
analysis. If for some reason this is not possible, the object to be tested can be
mounted on Vee supports or rollers. These supports should simulate the
stiffness of the service bearings of the rotor as dosely as possible (see
chapter 6.2.4).
Seminar C 40
E SCHENCK 6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines
1
Ffgure 6 . 7 2 SuppoC'ng the
turbine rotor on roller suppofls.
To evaluate the dynamic behavior, a sine-wave shaped excitation force with

constant amplitude and variable frequency is applied to the rotor. This is done
by using an electro-dynamic vibration exciter to simulate the dynamic forces
which the rotor experiences during rotation. The frequency of the excitation force
must be continuously varied through the corresponding service speed frequency
of the rotor.
Under the influence of the excilati~nforce the rotor begins to vibrate. This system
response is meascred at the rotor using a vibration velocity or accelerafion
sensor.
The diagnosis instrument measures and calculates the frequency response of

the transfer function. To be abfe to do this both the excitation force propoftiona:
signal (input variable) and t:!e vibration sensor signal (system response) m ~ s t
be measured simultaneously.
Seminar C 40
Figure 6.13: Measuring anan-

gement w ~ the
h turbine rohr
and
- electro-dynamic vibration
exc,?er (center)
- power amplifier with
sine-wawe generator
(leRrear)
- vibration sensor (right)
- VIBROPORT 41
diagnosis insbument (leff).
Particularities of the measuring arrangement
For smali and medium excitation forces and frequencies up to approx. 1,000 Hz
ar: electro-dynamic vlbratlon excite,' is commonly used in practice.
The vibration exciter is driven Sy a power amplifier with a built-in sine-wave

generator. Here the frequency and amplitude of the excitation force can be
pre-selected before meascrement begins.
The excitation force is transmitted to the rotofthrough a push-rod which pushes

against the housing of the exciter through membrane springs. The housing is
normally seismically suspended by a spiral spring (see Fig. 6.13). This elimina-
tes the necessity of m~untingor holding the exciter by hand and ensures
interference-free excilation.
Seminar C 40
EB]SCHENCK 6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines
Figure 6.74: Cross-sechon of

an electrodynamic vibration
exciter
I.. .Magnet
2... Circular air gap
3.,.Housing
4... Excitation coil
5...Membrane spring
6...Membrane spring
7...Push-rod
The resutt
The diagnosis instrument produces the complex transfer function of the turbine
rotor either as an
Amplitude and phase response or

Nyquist curve
Figure 6.15: Amplitude and

phase response of the turbine
rotor in Fig. 6.12 and 6.13 with
excitation by a sine-wave
shaped excitafion force F = 5N
in the frequency range f = 70 to
780 Hz.
Seminar C 40
Figure 6.16: Nyquist curve

90 O from Fig. 6.15
--
--
--
--
--
--
l 1 1 1 1 I l
la0
270
1.00 mm/s rms
Evaluating the measurement
The Mobility of the turbine rotor can be directly determined for any frequency
from the amplitude response (Fig. 6.17). For example, the value of vibration
velocity, ,v = 0.4 mmls when the excitation force of F = 5N is at a frequency
o f f = 65 Hz. The Mobilrty B is calculated according to the relationship:
- Velocity
B -
Force
Seminar C 40
Figure 6.17: Determining the

vibration velocdy at f = 65 Hz
from the amplitude response in
Fig. 6.15.
All other characteristic variables of the dynamic behavior corresponding to table

6.7 can be obtained by calculatjon. For example the Compliance N is derived-
horn the relationship
Displacement
N =
Force
For this, the vibration displacement spfor the vibration velocity of

, ,v = 0.4
mm/s at f = 65 Hz in Fig. 6.17 must first be calculated:
Thus the dynamic Compliance of the rotor at a frequency f = 65 Hz is calcula-

ted as follows:
Seminar C 40
6.2 Basic principles E9SCHENCK
The specific parameters of dynamic behavior of machines and machine parts

such as
resonance frequencies
damping values and
natural vibration shapes
can be determined from the frequency response ofthe complex transferfunction

using the methods described in the following chapters.
6.2.2 Natural and resonance frequencies

An especially important aspect of machine diagnosis is the knowledge of the
natural and resonance frequencies of machines, machine components and
layouts. Resonances which occur within the service speed range of machines
are especially dangerous because at each transition through a resonance
frequency the vibrations can be dramatically and dangerously amplified. There-
fore the resonance frequencies are also sometimes called the critical speeds of
machines or rotors.
Only an accurate knowledge of the resonance frequencies allows an objective

machine arrangement with respect to vibration-free and safe operation over long
periods of operation.
6.2.2.1 Basic principles

For an explanation of the natural and resonance frequencies of a vibrating
system, the single-mass vibrator in Fig. 6.3 which was used to explain recording
of the frequency response excited by an electro-dynamic vibration exciter, will
again be used.
If the single-mass vibrator is an undamped system (21,then the frequency at

which maximum occurs in the amplitude response is known as the natural
frequency f,. The phase angle difference which occurs at f, is equal to 90".
The turning point of the phase response is at this point.
The natural frequency is only influenced by the mass rn and the spring constant
c of the system, and is calculated from:
Natural frequency f, = - 1- - ,,/-L

2% m
Seminar C 40
Some examples of systems with negligible damping are
tuning forks,
church bells,
turbine blades etc.
If a damped system, e.g. a complete machine, is excited with a sine-wave

shaped input variable, the amplitude response reaches its maximum at the
resonance frequency fR.
Resonance frequency fR = fn
In this case D is a measure of the damping of the system (see chapter 6.2.3)
The turning point of the phase response in a damped system is also at cp = 90"
and therefore also at the natural frequency fn.
In practice it can be expected that some damping ahvays exists. Nevertheless

a distinction between natural and resonance frequencies can be widely ignored,
because in practical machine construction where there is small damping these
frequencies practically coincide.
Therefore in the following material only the case of damped systems with their
resonance frequencies will be considered.
If any rotor is operated at or very near to the resonance frequency, even a small
amount of residual unbalance will be enough to excite large, dangerous vibration
amplitudes. Forthis reason the resonance of a rotor is also known as the critical
speed.
6.2.2.2 Investigating resonance frequencies

In practice there are two methods of determining resonance frequencies of
machines and machine components:
By measuring the frequency response of the complex transfer function, or

by theoretical calculation
Seminar C 40
Measuring the resonance frequency
,;The resonance frequency is determined from the frequency response of the

complex transfer function from which, in the simplest case, the maximum
amplitude is located and the corresponding frequency is read.
Figure 6.1 8 shows the amplitude response of a single-mass vibtator with the
indicated resonance frequency.

resonance Frequency fR from
the amplitude response
Some advice when measuring at the rotor
Internal gyroscopic moments occur in every rotor during rotation. This can lead
to some small differences between the critical speeds (resonance frequencies)
during rotation and the resonance frequencies determined by excitation of the
stationary rotor, e.g.using an eledrcdynamic vibration exciter.
The critical speed of a thin. disc-shaped rotor (e.g. a blower wheel) increases
as the speed is increased, while the critical speed of a roll-shaped rotor (e.g. a
paper machine roll) decreases as the rotational speed is increased.
As a rule the influence of the gyroscopic effect is under 5% when determining

the critical speed, and therefore the resonance frequency measured during
rotation concurs well with the resonance frequency determined at zero rpm..
Care should be taken with the measurement of the critical speed of stationary
joumal bearing rotor. The bearing stiffness is different because of the oil film
which is missing with a stationary rotor, and this can lead to a large difference
between the stationary and rotational critical speeds.
Seminar C 40
Bl SCHENCK 6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines
Figure 6.19: Nomogram for

determining the cntical speeds d in mm I linm
of shafls
-
Far s h d w l m a a m s q R 7.8 #m' M t l n e i c i y nrrdtsw E,= Z4.5
for omrr r r u m u . vrm w b m r @ , a d E, -!am m LW n.
- 10'~an'.
Tm v a u l at. n-n f o r role Ih.m For halow r w mh m a w dbmm 4:
Calculating the resonance frequency
The resonance frequencies of machine components, which depend on the

geometric dimensions and the characteristics of the material, can also be
ascertained by calculation. For example the approximate critical speed of rotor
shaffs can be calculated by a simple equation based on the nomogram shown
in Fig. 6.19 (31.
If a straight line is drawn between the rotor diameter (lefl axis) and the rotor
length (right axis), the approximate critical speed of the shafl can read at the
point where the drawn line intersects the center axis. The length of the shaft
should be measured and the left or right side of the center axis of the nomogram
should be used depending on the characteristics of the shafi bearings.
Seminar C 40
1
i.

3
More expensive calculating methods must be used for all rotors which have
shafls which deviate from the pure shaft forms, e.g. turbines and generators.
Example 6.1
The uitjcal speed of the complete shaft of a fan witt, the following dimensions
is to be ascertained:
Distance between bearings: L = 7,250 mm

Shan diameter; d=50mm
Material: Steel
Bearings: Rollers (Hinged-hinged)
Result.
In the nomogram (Fig. 6.19) the line between d = 50 mm and L = 1,250 rnm
intersects the right side of the center speed axis at approx.
n~ = 4,000 rpm.
Figure 6.20: A scertaining the

I 1 cnfical speed of the complete
shaf? in example 6.1
6.2.2.3 Influence of resonance frequencies

If the effect of a resonance in the service speed range of a machine produces
unacceptably large vibrations, two courses of action are possible:
changing the service speed range and/or

changing the constmdion to influence the resonance frequency.
The objective is to keep the service speed range free of resonances or at least
reduce their effect to within safe levels.
Seminar C 40
The parameters which should be changed to have an influence on the resonance

frequency are given by the equation for fR:
The equation above shows that increasing the spring stiffness c and/or reduung
the mass m will lead to a shift ofthe resonance frequency fR to a higher frequency
and vice versa. t
If the damping D is increased the resonance frequency will be tuned to a lower

frequency. Certainly the effect of this measure on machines which customarily j
I
have low damping values is mostly small. It should also be noted that any
changes which are made to the damping values will also influence the resonance
ratio.
Some typical measures for influencing the resonance frequency are:
mounting additional stiffening elements,

mounting additional or other vibration isolators,
changing the foundations and/or foundation frames,
installing vibration isolators and
changing the shafi diameter or the distance between bearings.
The resonance frequencies of the machine can be influenced by all these

measures but cannot be eliminated!
Seminar C 40
L
I 6.2 Basic principles 5l SCHENCK

The task
The cntical speed of the turbine rotor in chapter 6.2.1.4 is to be ascertained by

measurement. To do this the amplrtude response shown in Fig. 6.21 is to be
evaluated.
Figure 6.21: Amplifude re-

sponse of the turhine rotor
Execution
The critical speed (resonance frequency) is determined by finding the maximum

point of the amplitude response and reading off the corresponding frequency.
Result
The maximum amplitude is at 74 Hz. Therefore the critical speed is
n c"t = 4,440 rpm
Seminar C 40
Therefore the crrtical speed of the turbo rotor is far below the operational speed
of n = 16,500 rpm and any disturbance from the resonance frequency will not
be noticeable during nominal speed operation.
Figure 6.22; Amplitude re-

sponse wrff, the critical speed
indicated
6.2.3 Damping factor

The damping factor D ,sometimes also called system damping, is decided in the
course of the frequency response of the complex transfer function especially by
the height of the maximum amplitude at the resonance frequency.
\hMh an amplitude ratio (also called resonance ratio) which is too high there is
a danger of overloading and damaging the machine components and perhaps
also the entire machine.
A higher damping factor D reduces the resonance ratio but also widens the
resonance range. This relationship can be clearly seen in Fig. 6.23.
Seminar C 40
Figure 6.23: Influence of the

damping factor on the fre-
quency response and the am-
plitude ratio at fR
For a damping factor of D = 1 no amplitude ratio can be determined. This is

called an aperiodic limit case. From Fig. 6.23 it is also possible to deduce that
the resonance frequency becomes smalleras the damping increases. In practice
i t can be an advantage, e.g. when the operational speed is near to the
resonance, to select a smaller damping factor. This allows the machine to be
operated closer to the crttical speed without exciting any dangerously high
vibration amplitudes.
Wfih the predominant use of steel in machine construction, system damping

factors in the area of D = 0.1 are obtained. Therefore a clear amplitude ratio at
the resonance frequency can be expected in most machines.
6.2.3.2 Determining the damping factor from

the frequency response of the complex
transfer function
Generally the damping factor can be detemined using the method in the
amplitude response. Here the maximum amplitude which occurs at the resonan-
ce frequency fR is located. From this value the l/uZ factored value of the
maximum in the diagram conforming to Fig. 6.24 is marked. The frequency
values f, and 5 obtained from the diagram are necessary to calculate the
damping factor.
Seminar C 40
€9SCHENCK 6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines
Figure 6.24: Detenntning the
*-
damping factor from the am-
plitude response using the
method
The damping fador is calculated using the formula
Wrth the charaderized distinct singlemass vibrator the damping factor is

calculated from the ratio between the static Compliance (at f = 0) and dynamic
Compliance (at f = fR):
Figure 6.25: Determining Me I I

damping facfor from the am-
plitude response of the Com-
pliance
i I
Thus D is calculated from
Seminar C 40
6.2.3.3Influencing the damping factor

The damping factor of a machine-foundation system can be substantially
influenced by
using alternative materials in the construction, e.g. aluminium, rubber or

plastic instead of steel,
altemative joining technologies, e.g. glueing or welding instead of screws
or rivets and
installing or mounting the machine on suitable vibration isolators ordamping
material.
-1
I In addition to changing the system damping, these measures can result in
significant changes to the resonana? frequency.

The task
The damping factor of the turbine rotor in chapter 6.2.1.4 is to be determined.

To do this the amplitude response of vibration velocrty from Fig. 6.26 is
evaluated.
Figure 6.26: Arnplifude re-

sponse of vibration velocity of
the furbine rotor
Seminar C 40
SCHENCK 6 . Analyring the dynamic behavior of machines
Evaluation
Wtth the turbine rotor under consideration the 43 method and the ratio of static
Compliance to maximum dynamic Compliance can be used to determine the
damping fador.
fi method
First of all the resonance frequency at which the maximum amplitude is located
is found and the corresponding frequency is read.
Figure 6.27: Amplifude re-

sponse of the turbine rotor
with the resonance frequency
fR marked at 74 Hz
The next step is for determination of f. and f2 of the resonance frequency at

maximum amplitude and transferring the %F factored value (= 70.7%) to the
diagram.

f, and f2 Wifhthe firnethod
Seminar C 40
Thus the frequencies f, and f2 are determined at
f, = 68 Hz and
f2 = 80 HZ.
From fR, f, and f2 the damping factor of the turbine set is
The determined value of D = 0.08 shows that the turbine rotor under considera-
tion is a lightly damped system.
Should the resonance frequency or the critical speed of the rotor be in the range
of the operating speed, a small residual unbalance could be enough to excite
large vibration amplitudes. Therefore care should be taken that the resonance
frequency is passed through as quickly as possible during start-up and rundown
'of the machine.
6.2.4 Natural vibration mode

As a rule the distincl resonance ratio is o b s e ~ e dwhen the complex transfer
function of a machine is recorded. To discover which machine components
resonate and to evaluate their behavior during resonance, it is recommended
that the natural vibration mode be measured. This allows you to objectively
identify and eliminate weaknesses in the construction.
Seminar C 40

The natural vibration mode shows the spatial dynamic deformation of an object
at its natural (resonance) frequency.
If the dynamic deformation is measured at a frequency anomalous with the

resonance frequency, the vibration mode for this frequency is obtained. In both
cases the measuring arrangements shown in Fig. 6.29 can be chosen.
Figure 6,29:Measuring aran-

gement for defermining the
natural vibration mode
Solution A:
Reference channel
Exciter
Diagnosis
Measuring channel instr~~ment
Test object with
marked measuring points
\ 7
-. -.-.-.-,-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A A
Sensor
Solution B:
Reference channel
Exciter
Measuring channel 2 Diagnosis
instrument
Measuring channel 1
Test object with
marked measuring points
\ 7
- . .-.-.-,-.-.-.-.-,-,-,-.-.-.-.-
? 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
A A
Sensor 11 sensor 2 1
Seminar C 40
i 6.2 Basic principles BSCHENCK
6.2.4.2 Determining the natural vibration mode

The machine component (or the entire machine) being investigated is excited
at the resonance frequency using a vibration exciter as shown in Fig. 6.29.
In the simplest case (solution A) the amount and phase of the system response
is measured at the various measuring points on the component one at a time
and documented. Then the individual measured amplitudes and phase angles
relative to a reference point are transferred to a diagram (Fig. 6.33). The phase
measurements are necessary to determine whetherthe vibration is in a negative
or positive direction.
The line connecting the individual amplitudes shows the natural vjbration mode
of the object (Fig. 6.34).
When a two-channel instrument is used for the measurements soIution B can

be applied. In this case one sensor can be fwed to a selected reference point
on the object being tested and the second sensor can be used to measure the
system response at various predetermined points on the object. The advantage
of this solution is that the vibration at the reference point and measured point
can be simultaneously displayed and visually correlated with one another. The
graphic evaluation is otherwise identical to solution A.

natural vibration mode of a
shaff by measuring at points 7
to 8. Care should be taken
when locating the exciter that
the excitation force is not being
applied at a vibrafion node (in
fbis mse at the bean'ng
positions)
Measuring points 1 2 3 4 1 5 6 7 0
Seminar C 40
6.2.4.3 Influencing the natural vibration mode

The natural vibration mode can be influenced by
changing the resonance frequency,

changing the system damping and
changing the stiffness or the mass
of the object. The measures which can be respectively applied are described in
chapters 6.2.2 to 6.2.3.

The task
The natural vibration mode of the turbine rotor in chapter 6.2.1.4 is to be

determined. To do this the rotor must be excited at its resonance frequency of
fR = 74 Hz (see chapter 6.2.2.4) using an eiectrodynamic vibration exciter.
Execution
Fig. 6.31 shows the required test arrangement.
Figure 6.3 1: Measuring

arrangement wr?h
- elecfro-dynamicvibrafion
excifer (center),
- power amplifier wifh sine-
wave generator (frontnghf),
- sensor 7 (leff).
- sensor 2 (right),
- VIBROPORT 41 diagnosis
instrument (front le ffj
Seminar C 40
6.2 Basic principles E38 SCHENCK
I
Measuring point i Measured value I Phase Figure 6.32: Measured values
fo defermine the natural vrbra-
1 0.36 mm/s 270"
I
fion mode of the turbine rofor.
2 0.58 mmls 268" The excitat~onforce was F =
5N
3 0.75 mm/s 1 265"
7 I 0.63 mmls I 247"
An adequate number of measuring points should be selected and marked on

the rotor. Sensor 2 is applied at the individual measuring points (e.g. 8 points)
by hand orwith a magnetic holder. The respective measured values from each
point are measured and documented by the diagnosis instrument.
The measured values are entered on the prepared diagram (Fig. 6.33), namely
with the
in-phase or approximately in-phase vibration vectors drawn in a downward

direction and
a out-of-phase vibration vectors pointing upward.
A line which is drawn joining the ends of all the vibration vectors shows the
natural vibration mode of the turbine rotor.
Figure 6.33: The turbine rotor

wrth the vibration vectors
drawn on the diagram
Seminar C 40
BSCHENCK 6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines
Figure 6.34; Graphic illustra-

tion of the natural vibration
mode determined from the
measured values
Result
Figure 6.34 shows (greatly magnified) how the turbine rotor bends at the critical
speed (resonance frequency). Greatly increased centrifugal forces and vibra-
tions will occur during rotation at this speed. In addition there is also the danger
of the rotor contacting the stator if the clearance between them is small.
Seminar C 40
6.3 The complex transfer function of a multiplemass vibrator ISCHENCK
6.3 The complex transfer function of a multiple-

mass vibrator
In chapter 6.2 the dynamic behavior of a single-mass vibrator was described.
Each individual component of the machine can be regarded as a single-rnass
vibrator and, regarding the dynamic behavior, can be described by the parame-
ters of resonance frequency, damping factor, compliance and natural vibration
mode.
A complete machine is constructed using a number of single-mass vibrators and

can be regarded as a system of many individual single-mass vibrators coupled
with one another. An accurate analysis of the dynamic behavior shows that all
single-mass vibrators in a machine are coupled from a technical vibration point
of view, and even rotors such as the turbine rotor used in the previous examples
consist of a number of individual, coupled single-mass vibrators. Such a system
of coupled single-mass vibrators is called a multiple-mass vibrator, and the
dynamic behavior can also be described with the help of the complex transfer
function.
6.3.1 Basic principles

Excitation of the system using an electro-dynamic exciter is again used to
analyze the dynamic behavior of muttiple-mass vibrators.
Figure 6.35: Single-mass

vibrator wifh corresponding
amplitude response, Nyquist
cutve and resonance
frequency fR,
--. Seminar C 40
BlSCHENCK 6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines
The basis used for the following consideration is the single-mass vibrator with
its amplitude response and Nyqu~stcurve according to Fig. 6.35.
Now a further sngle-mass vibrator with mass m2, damping value D2 and spring
constant c;!is coupled to the first single-mass vibrator. The basic arrangement
and resultant amplitude response as well as the Nyquist c u m are shown in
Figure 6.36.
Figure 6.36: Two-mass vibraf-

or with corresponding amplitu-
8
Mass m2
de response, Nyquist curve
and the resonance frequen-
Spdng cz Dampa 02
cies fR, and fR2
Mass rnl
I
The corresponding display for a three-mass vibrator is shown in Figure 6.37.
Seminar C 40
6.3 The complex transfer function of a multiple-mass vibrator
Figure 6.37: Three-mass vi-

brator wrfh corresponding am-
plitude response, Nyquist
curve and resonance frequen-
Mass rn.2
Spriw 01 bmpcr D l
cies fR,, fR2 and fR3
spri~C 2 Damper D,
Mass m,
+I ,]\, I
k,
'
~R,'R,
+
f
~*-bnr l
$2 f,,
6.3.2 Determining the resonance frequencies

Wrth the single-mass vibrator, the resonance frequencies at the maximum
amplitudes can be very accurately determined from the amplitude response and
from the Nyquist curve.
The Nyquist curve of the muttiple-mass vibrator contains a combination of more

individual circles or circular loops than exhibited by the single-mass vibrator
system.
If the resonance frequencies of the multiple-mass vibrator are far apart enough,
their influence on each other is negligible. The circles in the Nyquist curve, which
have their origin in the same coordinate system, exhibit maximum amplitude at
the resonance frequency in the amplitude response, and clear junctures in the
phase response. Figure 6.38 shows an example of this. The resonance frequen-
cies are determined the same way as with a single-mass vibrator.
Seminar C 40
ffl SCHENCK 6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines
Figure 6.38: Amplitude re-

sponse, phase response and
Nyquist curve of a two-mass
vibrator with widely dispersed
resonance frequencies fR7and
f ~ 2
I 1.00 mm/s rns
When the resonance frequencies are closely adjacent, loops appear in the
Nyquist curve instead of the circles shown in Fig. 6.39. In this case to determine
the resonance frequency and the damping fador, a coordinate system must be
established for each vibrator. At the point of infersection of each respective loop
a tangent and a perpendicular are established. The perpendicular line cuts the
respective loop at the 90" phase turning point of the spring-mass system
concerned, i.e. at the resonance frequency' . a)
Note 1): This statement is only accurate for undamped systems. However it can also be used with
sufficient accuracy for general investigations because normally only very small amounts of damping
can be expected in machine construction.
Seminar C 40
6.3 The complex transfer function of a multiplemass vibrator
Figure 6.39: Composition to

determine the resonance
frequencies in a three-mass
vibrator
In cases where the resonance frequencies are very close to one another it is
only possible to determine the approxjmate resonance frequencies from the
amplitude response. The reason for this can be exptained using the Nyquist
curve in Fig. 6.40. Here the Nyquist curve has three maxima, namely fR1, fR2'
and fR3'.\hlhile fR, shows the actual resonance of the primary vibrator, fR2' and
fRJ'differ from the resonance frequencies fR2and fR3 of the coupled system.
Figure 6.40: Resonance fre-

quencies fR, to fR3 and fre-
quencies fR1' to fR3' at wtrich
the amounts of the Nyquist
curve vectors respedively
reach maximum.
Therefore it is generally ttue to say that the amplitude response for a multiple-
mass vibrator must be evaluated with great care when the maximum amplitudes
at the individual resonances occur in close proximity to one another.
.-
1 Seminar C 40
Bl SCHENCK 6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines
Depending on how close the resonance frequencies are to each other in the
amplitude response, they can be at
maximum amplitude,
minimum amplitude, or
any intermediate value.
This is shown for example in Fig. 6.41.
Figure 6.41: Amplilude re- I 1

sponse of a three-mass vi-
brator showing the
resonance frequencies fR1 to
fR3 and the amplitude maxima
at fR,' to fR3:
6.3.3 Determining the damping factor

The respective damping factors for the individual single-mass vibrators can be
as long as their resonance
determined using the v2method (see chap. 6.3.2),
frequencies are not close to one another.
f2 - fi
Damping factor D = -
2- fR
Seminar C 40
6.3.4 Determining the natural vibration modes

To determine the natural vibration modes of a multiple-mass vibrator, the entire
system has to be excited at its individual resonance frequencies and the natural
vibration mode recorded at each seperate frequency in turn. The result is the
same number of natural vibration modes as the number of single-mass vibrators
in the system.
From these diagrams it is possible to identify which machine part resonates at

which frequency and the dynamic deformation which occurs as a result. Thus
it is possible to take some objective measures to improve the construction of
the machine.
6.3.5 Example: A turbine rotor

The task
The 2nd critical speed, the corresponding damping factor and the natural
vibration mode of the 2nd critical are to be experimentally determined for the
turbine rotor in chapter 6.2.1.4.
The same measuring arrangement used for previous experiments will be

utilized, i.e. the rotor is supported on roller supports, excited using an electro-
dynamic vibration exciter, and the system response is measured using a
portable diagnosis instrument.
Seminar C 40
ESCHENCK 6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines
Figure 6.42: Measuring arran-

gement to determine the 2nd
wifical speed, the damping
factor and the 2nd nafural vi-
bration mode
Particularities of the measurement
The excitation force must not be applied at the center of the rotor (this is where
the nodal point ofthe 2nd natural vibration mode can be expected!) but at a point
between 20 to 30% of the distance between the two bearing positions.
Compared to the measurement in chapter 6.2.1.4,the excitation frequency must

be increased until the rotor has clearly passed through the 2nd critical speed.
The resuk
The amplitude reponse and phase response as well as the Nyquist curve of the
transfer function of mobility must be recorded and evaluated afterward.
The 2nd critical speed of the turbine rotor is at
nR2 = fR2 X 60
nR2=248x60
n ~ ,= 14,880 rpm
Seminar C 40
6.3 The complex transfer function of a multiplemass vibrator SCHENCK
Resonance frequencies
I I
Figure 6.43: Amplitude and
phase response w'th the 1st
and 2nd resonance frequen-
cies ("critical speeds")hown
Figu,~ 6.44: The Nyquist

curve corresponding to Fig.
6.43 shows that born resonan-
ce frequencies are far enough
apart and do not mutually in-
fluence one another
I 1 .a0 mm/s rms
Damping factor
Using the *method, the damping factors for the 1st and 2nd critical speeds
are determined.
Seminar C 40

sponse wdh the resonance fre-
quencies 1/& shown
f2 - f1
Damping fador D = -
2f~
Natural vibration mode
The 2nd natural vibration mode is determined by applying the vibration sensor
to the designated measuring points along the length of the rotor.
Figure 6.46: Turbine rotor with 1

fhe vibration vectors of the 2nd
witical speed shown
Seminar C 40
- -.
6.3 The complex transfer function of a multiple-mass vibrator
Figure 6.47: 2nd natural vibra-

tion mode of the rotor (top). For
comparison the 1st natural vi-
bration mode determined in
chapter 6.2.4.4is also shown
(bottom).
6.3.6 Example: A milling machine

The task
The natural vibration mode of a bed-milling machine is to be determined at the

resonance frequency fR = 105 Hz,to provide information for improvements to
the dynamic stiffness to be made.
Seminar C 40
The machine is excited using an electro-dynamic vibration exciter. 'The input

variable is a sine-wave force with an amplitude of F = 500N at a frequency of
f = 105 Hz, applied to the vertical part of the machine stand.
The transfer function of the system response is measured at various points on

the surface of the machine using piezoelectric acceleration sensors and a
portable diagnosis instrument.
Figure 6.48: Natural vibration

mode of a bed-milling machine
at a resonance frequency
f = 105 Hz w131 an applied
excitation force F = SOON
2
2
o, 5 Foundation x
f = 105 Hz; Fx = 500 IU sin o t
Bending in the vertical part of the column and slight torsion
in the horizontal port of the column.
Seminar C 40
The result
The amount and direction ofthe vibration amplitudes measured at the individual
measuring points are transferred to the machine sketch. The natural vibration
mode obtained in this way shows that quite a large amount of bending is
occurring in the vertical part of the stand and some light torsion in the horizontal
part of the stand.
Thus the dynamic weak points of the machine at the resonance frequency are
identified, and some objective measures can be taken to improve the dynamic
behavior.
Seminar C 40
6.4 Measuring methods

It has been shown that analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines with the
help of a transfer function provides important information. Wdh knowledge of
resonance frequencies,
system damping,
dynamic compliance and
the natural vibration mode
weak points in the construction of the machine can be identified and objectively
eliminated. Damage and breakdowns can be avoided and the service life of the
machine can be lengthened.
The method of recording the transfer function is distinguished mainly by the type
of excitation used. In the previous considerations the excitation force was
respectively applied to the object being tested using an electredynamic vibra-
tion exciter.
Further commonly-used methods of excitation will be explained in the following

chapter. Fig. 6.49 shows an overview of these methods.
- -
Figure 6.49: Common-used

excitation methods for recor- Excitation methods
I
ding the complex transfer I i
!
funcfion in machine diagnosis.
I
I Eledro-dynamic 1 Impact hammer I Unbalance I
excitation excitation excitation
with using the

with without with
1 1 1 1
white- existing
sine-wave noise with force force regulated
1 residual
excitation excitation transducer (transducer exciter
1
I
Seminar C 40
6.4 Measuring methods BSCHENCK
6.4.1 Electro-dy namic excitation

Electro-dynamic exciters are used for small and medium excitation forces in the
frequency range up to approximately 1,000 Hz.
Figure 6.50: Cross-section of

an eledro-dynamic vibration
exciter
I ... Permanent magnet
2 ... Ring-shaped air gap
3 ... Housing
4 ... Excitation coil
5 ... Membrane spring
6 ... Membrane spring
7 ... Push-rod
The exciter consists of a permanent magnet (for models with a force >200N an
electromagnet is common) with a ring-shaped air gap. The exciter coil on a
bobbin is centered in the air gap so as to allow it to vibrate in an axial direction
while it is held in the radial direction by two membrane springs. The exciter coil
is connected to the push-rod which ultimately transfers the excitation force to
the test object via a longer rod. The rod which is in contact with the test object
must be firmly screwed or glued to the test object, or attached with a strong
magnet.
The external housing provides mechanical protection and back-support for the
force field created by the permanent magnet.
When an attemating current flows through the exciter coil, the push-rod vibrates
with an attemating force F(t) which is proportional to the amplitude and frequen-
cy of the exciter current. Thus the push-rod pushes against the housing which
can either be
fued to a stationary reference point or

seismically suspended by a spiral spring or cable
Seminar C 40
5 SCHENCK 6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines
Figure 6.51: The exciter hou-

sing screwed to a stationary
reference point
Holder
Figure 6.52: Seismically sus-

pending the exciter housing by
a spiral spring
When the exciter is seismically suspended it should be noted that with an

I
excitation frequency < 15 Hz, the exciter housing itself will be excited to vibrate
because of the back-pressure of the impulses. To prevent these vibrations at
frequencies under 15 Hz from occurring, the mass of the housing should be
increased by fixing an additional weight to it (see Fig. 6.53 and 6.54).
Seminar C 40
Figue 6.53: Seismically sus-

pending the exciter housing
' with an additional mass for

kquencies
< 15 Hz
The necessary additional mass for the SCHENCK VIBROEXCITER 47 can be

calculated using the following formula:
rn,,, = 4.2 ( 225 -, 1) in kg

f~
Here fE is the lowest desired excitation frequency in Hz
Example 6.2:
For seismic suspension and excitation at a frequency of fE = 5 Hz, the following

additional mass is required:
The exciter with the additional mass is to be suspended using a cable instead
of the spiral spring supplied.
Seminar C 40
Figure 6.54: Nomogram for

additional mass to be added to Additional
mass in kg
the VIBROU(C1TER 41 to lo-
wer the usable frequency ran-
ge
At high excitation frequencies attention has to be given to the length of the rod
used, as the resonance frequency of the rod could be within the excitation
frequency range. Therefore the rod should be shorter at higher frequencies.
Fig. 6.55 shows the relationship for the eledrodynarnic exciter supplied by
SCHENCK.
Figure 6.55:Usable frequency Mounting for

Usable frequency range for force
range of the SCHENCK VI- exciter housing transmission with a rod of length L
BROEXCITER 41 with the dif- ~
ferent mounting methods and LI 100 mm L s 280 mm 1
lengths of transmission
rod.
, Mounting at a I
I stationary reference
I 1 1 ... 1,000 Hz 1 ... 800 Hz
I point
I
1 (Fig. 6.51)
I Seismic suspension 15 ... 1,000 Hz

(Fig. 6.52) I I
15 ... 800 Hz
i
Seminar C 40
6.4 Measuring methods B3 SCHENCK
The impulses of the exciter transfer a force which in its time function is
proportional to the attemating current which flows through the exciter coil. The
alternating current is supplied by a signal generator via a buik-in power amplifier.
The type of excitation (sine-wave or white noise) and the frequency (only for a
sine-wave) are preselected at the signal generator, while the amplitude of the
excitation force is adjusted at the power amplifier.
Figure 6.56: Diagram of the

principle of the elecfrodyna-
VIBROPOWER mic exciter with signal gener-
S~ne-wave
ator and power amp/ifier.
signal source
Power
amplifier
VlBROWClTER -
White nolse
signal source
l
Figure 6.5 7: Power amplifier

wifh builf-in signal generator
and dialog operated functions
Seminar C 40
6.4.1.ISine-wave excitation
Excitation of the test object is normally done using a sine-wave shaped force.
Thus the machine - or the component in some exceptional cases - vibrates at
only one individual frequency at any time. If the frequency response of the
transfer function is to be recorded, the excitation frequency is tuned through the
frequency range of interest. This frequency sweep can be automatically or
Figure 6.58:Frequency spec-

trum o f a sine-wave excitation
force
Frequency Spectrum
8.8
e" r.5 E
$
6.8
4..
2.e
0.8
-! I 1. I I
I 58 lge 150 20e tt2
manually controlled.
To allow the resonance frequency of the test object sufficient time to build up
and be accurately measured, the rate of change of the excitation frequency
should not be selected too high.
If the natural vibration mode is to be determined, the excitation frequency must

be sustained at the resonance frequency of interest to allow for measurement
of the dynamic deformation of the object at the resonance frequency.
Wrth sine-wave shaped excitation, all the parameters described earlier such as
resonance frequency, damping factor, dynamic compliance and natural vibra-
tion mode can be determined.
A disadvantage of this method compared to white noise excitation described in

the following chapter is the necessarily high cost of the time involved.
Seminar C 40
6.4.1.2 Excitation with white noise

Wrth this method the test object is excited at all frequencies in a selected range
at the same time instead of one frequency at a time. Signals of this type are
called "white noise". All the individual harmonic signals within the frequency
spectrum of the defined frequency range have the same amplitude.
Figure 6.59:Frequency spec-

trum of a white noise excitation
Frequency Spectrum force in the frequency range
8.380
eu rms 15 ... 1,000Hz
0.225
8.158
0.875
0.008
1 10 1888 Hz
The measuring time is drastically shortened because it is not necessary to

sweep through the excitation frequency. A disadvantage is that natural vibration
modes cannot be measured because the object is excited at all the frequencies
at the same time.
Otherwise the same results and the same parameters can be determined as
with the sine-wave excitation method.
In addition it is also possible to measure and display the frequency spectrum of

the system response. In this case the resonance frequencies are displayed as
discrete lines in the spectrum.
Seminar C 40
ElSCHENCK 6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines
Figure 6-60: Amplitude and

phase response and frequen- 6.380
WS/N Transfer Random Noise
cy spectrum of a test object 0 . 2 25
excited using white noise 0.:58 r
0.075 --
-
8.000 II , I I I
:i!90"
!
8'1 .OO 188.60 288.86 =.@0 408.08 500.88 HZ
Frequency Spectrun
8.380 -
RNS rm
0.225 --
I
I
0.880 r I I I
1 168 288 368 400 508
6.4.2 Excitation with an impact hammer

For excitation with a sine-wave or white noise the following is always required:
A signal generator with power amplifier and

an electro-dynamic vibration exciter.
A cheaper alternative which is also easier to implement is to use an impad

hammer to excite the object by striking it.
Fig. 6.61 shows a cross-section ofthe construdion of a typical impact hammer.
The force transducer integrated into the impact hammer provides a signal
proportional to the impact. Wrth some impact hammers a vibration acceleration
sensor is built-in instead of a force transducer. Using the relationship
F = m - a
Seminar C 40
6.4 Measuring methods SCHENCK
the force F can be calculated because the hammer mass m and the vibration
acceleration a are known.
Figure 6.6 1: Impact hammer

for westing impulse-shaped
excitation forces 1651
1 Extension bolt
2 Additional mass
3 Hammermass
4 Quartz element
5 Housing
6 Tubular element
7 l7p element
The measuring arrangement fordetermining the complextransferfundion using

an impact hammer is shown in Fig. 6.62.
Figure 6.62:Measuring
gernent for excitation us
impact hammer
Seminar C 40 259
The object being tested is struck with the impact hammer. The impulse created
by the impact theoretically contains a wide range of frequencies all having the
same energy content, similar to excitation with white noise. This causes the
object being tested to vibrate, namely at its resonance frequency.
The force transducer integrated into the impact hammermeasures the excitation
force created at the object while the system response is measured by the
vibration sensor mounted on the object. The diagnosis instrument calculates
the transfer function from these two variables and provides the results as
a frequency spectrum,
amplitude and phase response or
a Nyquist curve.
The measurement must be started at the excitation created with the impad
hammer by the signal from the force transducer ('triggering by the measured
signal''). The trigger level is preselected and should be set at approx 10% of
the selected measuring range full scale value.
The "exponential window" should be selected for calculating the frequency

spectrum, and the pretrigger set at 1O0/0 before measurement starts.
Excitation with the impact hammer and excitation using white noise will provide
the same results when the force is applied at the same position and the system
response is measured at the same point.
i
Peculiarities when using the impact hammer
The force impulses generated at the test object are influenced by
the mass of the hammer,

the properties of the tip element and
the speed and strength with which the object is struck.
The typical hammer masses for different applications are
approx. 5 - 50 g for very light objects (knife blades, p.c.boards),

approx. 50 ... 100 g for small, light objects,
approx. 100 ... 500 g for medium-sized objects (vehicles, frames, etc.),
approx. 1,000 ... 2,000 g for large objects (e.g. machines in group G
according to VDI 2056),
approx. 5 kg for very large objects (buildings, ships, locomotives, founda-
tions, etc.).
Seminar C 40
6.4 Measuring methods SCHENCK
Figure 6.63: Possible displays

Transfer Irwact of the transfer fundion when
excited by an impact hammer
188' --
90'
0'
--
- rC
I
j L
I
-,
I
-I
I
1.00 100 .BB 288.83 388.08 400.88 580.88 Hz
Transfer Inpact
90"
-
-
180°1 I 1 1 I I I I
270'
-
8.380 r m / s / ~
Frequency Spectrum
0.500 -
mnys rns
I
0.375 --
0.me
1 180 266 488
Seminar C 40
Impact hammers with interchangeable tip elements are obtainable for universal
applications.
The excitation frequencies actually existing in the impact and the length of time
the impulse is sustained depends on the characteristics of the tip element. The
excitation signal can be adapted to suit the application by selecting the appro-
priate tip element.
Figure 6.64: Influence of the

various materials for the tip
element on the impulse spec-
trum and the period of the im-
pulse
6
3000 N
Lal L N al
2 4
$ 2000 ea
C
.
d
0
g 1000
-2
L
a
3
2
-E V]
I u I
0 0,5 1,O 1.5 rns 2,5 0 250 500 750 Hz 1250
Frequency f
The maximum excitation frequency is obtained with the "hard" tip element.
Depending on the mass of the hammer, the following excitation spectra can be
created.
Figure 6.65: Typical excitation Hammer mass Max. frequency range for a
frequency ranges for an im- hard tip element
pact hammer wrff, a hard tip
I
element
59 I 0 ... 15 kHz
100 g I O... 5 kHz
500 g O... 2 kHz
1,500 g 0 ... 0,5 kHz
5,000 g 0 ... 0.2 kHz
For exciting resonance frequencies in the range fR 5 10 Hz the soft tip element
should be used.
To optimize the measurement results it is recommended that first of all a

measurement should be executed using a hard tip element. The frequency
range of the spectrum should be adjusted to the maximum range for this test.
Seminar C 40
The resutts of this initial measurement will enable you to find
the most suitable tip element,

the coned hammer mass and
the most interesting frequency range
for the application.
In practice it is sometimes sensible to measure the complex transfer function a

number of times. If this is done, the hammer impacts should be made with the
same strength at the same position on the object and the vibration sensors
position should not be changed. The object should also stop vibrating completely
before each new strike with the hammer.
Experience has shown that between three and five averages yield optimum
results.
'The striking speed of the hammer determines the forceof the excitation which
is imparted to the object. With light objects it should be especially noted that the
excitation force should only excite the object in the linear range. In each case
the initial impact attempts should be made with different strengths and at
different positions on the object to determine the strength and position of
excitation which produces the best results.
The most important advantages of impad hammer excitation are:

it is cheaper
cost of instrumentation is lower
time spent on the test is shorter
The most important disadvantages of this method are:

Influences induced by the operator, e.g.
- exciting the object in the non-linear range,
- selecting an unsuitable tip element,
- selecting a measuring range which is not correct
unsuitable for heavily damped objects or systems.
Some advice
If there is only a singlechannel diagnosis instrument andlor a normal hammer

without a built-in force transducer available for determining the resonance
frequencies, it is still possible to produce good results from the test.
In this case the diagnosis instrument is set to "Single-shot" in the FFT mode and
the object is struck with the normal hammer. The resonance frequencies will be
clearly visible in the uncalibrated spedrum obtained this way. In this case some
creativity is necessary to simulate different tip elements.
Seminar C 40
Figure 6.66: Frequency spect-

rum of the system response
m e n the same object which Frequency S p e c t r m
0.500 -
produced the results in Fig. m w s rns
--
6.63 is struck with a nonnal
hammer without a built-in force 0.375 --
transducer
I 1
0.000 I I I I
1 100 200 300 400 500k
6.4.3 Excitation by unbalance

With unbalance excitation the excitation force is created by adding unbalance
masses to a rotor. These unbalance masses induce a 1X rpm centrifugal force
during rotation which serves to excite the objed.
The centrifugal force can be changed in its
frequency by changing the rotor speed, and

force by changing the unbalance masses.
Unbalance exciters are mainly engaged as regulated exciters which deliver a

regulated excitation force.
Regulated exciters have two shafts which are unbalanced and which rotate in
the opposite direction. The components F, and F2 of the centrifugal forces at
the two shafts add together to produce the resultant force F.
Seminar C 40
Figure 6.67: Diagram of the

forces from a regulated exo-
ter.
The effects of the forces perpendicular to F are influenced by the opposite

direction of rotation of the two shaffs.
Figure 6.68: A regulated exci-

ter
Seminar C 40
The advantages of regulated exciters are:
rugged construction and

the creation of large excitation forces suitable for exciting large, rigid and
heavy objects.
The disadvantages are:
The excitation force is not constant but speed dependent.

the unbalance masses have to be changed if the excitation force must be
reduced for a prescribed speed. and this involves the expense of time.
Wrthin the framework of machine diagnosis, regulated exciters are employed

when large excitation forces at frequencies up to approx. 100 Hz are required.
Figure 6.69: Unbalance exci-

ter built into the bearing pede-
stal of a balancing machine to
determine the resonance fie-
quencies
266 Seminar C 40
6.4.4 Special excitation methods

The mass of the exciter and the sensor, which both vibrate together with the
objed, must be small compared to the mass of the object being tested (normally
< 1 : 50) when determining the transfer function, otherwise the results w ~ lbe
l
unacceptably falsified.
This requirement is not always achievable using the methods already described
for small and light objects. For example a loudspeaker is often used for excitation
of small turbine blades to transmit the excitation force using sound waves
without making contact with the blade.
Sometimes the object is excited using a non-contacting inductive sensor if the

objed is made of a magnetic material An ahemating current is passed through
the coil of the sensorwhich effectively reverses the sensor pnnciple and creates
an atternating field of electro-magnetic force around the coil.
Extremely small and light acceleration sensors (with a mass from approx. 2 g!)
or non-contacting displacement sensors are used to measure the response in
these cases.
The diagnosis instrument displays the results of the complex transfer functionas
already described. However the measurement results are "uncalibrated" becau-
se the excitation force cannot be measured. The resonance frequencies and
damping factors can still be accurately determined from the diagram. In addition
the natural vibration mode of the object can also be determined by this method.
Seminar C 40
ffl SCHENCK 6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines
6.5 Tracking analysis

All the methods of determining the complex transfer function up to now have
required an external vibration exciter. The excitation is done with a stationary
machine or component.
Instead of using an external exciter, the machine being investigated can also
be excited by the ever-present residual unbalance of the rotor, or some other
periodic force occurring in the machine (e.g. the uncompensated oscillating
forces in a piston-type machine).
W-th unbalance excitation, the existing 1X rpm centrifugal forces which occur
during rotation as a result of the residual unbalance and which are transmitted
via the bearings to the machine housing and the foundations are used. Changes
in the frequency of the excitation force occur as a result of changes in the rotor
speed. Here it should be noted that the amplitude of the excitation force is not
constant, but increases with the square of the rotational speed:
F = Centrifugal force in N (Newton)

2
F = U - 0 U = Unbalance in gmm
o = angular frequency in cpm
The transfer function is commonly recorded during the start-up or rundown of

the machine when rotor unbalance is used as the exciter. As a rule it is not
possible to measure the excitation force (centrifugal force) in this method. The
system response provides valuable information about the
resonances which occur,

corresponding damping factors and
natural vibration modes and vibration modes
within the service speed range of the machine.
6.5.1 Measuring principle

In a tracking analysis only the vibration components which exist in the vibration
mix!ure and which occur at the fundamental rotational frequency or one of its
multiples are taken into consideration. These vibrations are always associated
with the rotor speed and are called harmonics or orders. Therefore this method
is also known as an order-tracking analysis.
The table in Fig. 6.70 shows an example of some orders for a machine speed
of n = 3,000 rpm (f = 50 Hz).
Seminar C 40
I Order Corresponding frequency at a Figure 6.70: Example of or-

rotor speed n = 3,000 rpm ders and he corresponding
I
frequencies
1. Order 50 Hz
I
I 2 Order 100 Hi!
I I
3 Order 150 Hz
0,5. Order
1 1 3 . Order
2,5. Order
I
I
37
- Order
24.
19
- Order
98.
During an order-tracking analysis, which will be called a "tracking analysis", a

narrow-band filter is used to automatically follow the center frequency of the
machine speed or the selected order. This filter is called a tracking filter.
In modem diagnosis instruments this filter method is achieved by digital signal

processing, namely with the discrete Fourier Transformation or DFT. By
multiplying the measured signal with a sine and cosine, the 1-line spectrum is
calculated. As a comparison a frequency analysis is generally calculated with
up to 3,200 lines.
The frequency of the order to be determined is given by a reference sensor.
Figure 6.71: Measuring an-an-

gement for a tracking analysis
Seminar C 40
Q SCHENCK 6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines
This can be e.g. a photo-electric sensor which detects one or more reflective or
non-reflective marks on the rotor shaff. Another possibility is an inductive sensor
which detects a number of individual teeth on a gear wheel. The frequency of
the impulses detected in either of these methods can be electronically multiplied
by a quotient to provide the exact frequency of the orderwhich is to be analyzed.
The results of the tracking analysis are the
amount (amplitude),
phase angle and
frequency
of the selected order. These can be displayed and evaluated as the
amplitude and phase response and

Nyquist curve
in a graphic format.
To obtain authoritative resutts and a sufficiently high number of measured

values, attention should be given to the relationship between the bandwidth of
the measuring method, measuring and calculation time as well as the rate of
change of speed of the rotor.
With a tracking analysis, just as with a general frequency analysis, the selectivity
of the measuring method increases inversely proportional to the bandwidth. The
narrower the filter which is used, the longer the measuring time becomes. This
means that the maximum rate of speed change which a narrow-band i.e. very
selective filter can follow, is lower than the rate of speed change which can be
followed using a broad-band filter.
Generally the relationship is
1
Measuring time =
Bandvvldth
For a bandwidth of e.g. 0.75 Hz this gives a measuring time of
Wrth very large bandwidths, e.g. 7.5 Hz and 25 Hz, the calculation time of the
microprocessor determines the required time for acquiring a measuring point.
Seminar C 40
6.5 Tracking analysis 5 SCHENCK
These relationships are shown for the SCHENCK SERIES 40 instruments in

Fig. 6.72 to 6.73..
Frequency range in Hz 1-3 3 - 10 10-100 1 100-1.000 1 1 , 0 0 0 - 2 0 , 0 0 0 ~

Speed range in rpm ' 60 - 180 180 - 600 600 - 6,000 ' -
6,000 60,000 160,000 - 120,000
I I
I !
I Bandwidth in Hz 0.25 0.75 2.5 7.5 25
I
I
Max. measuring and 4 1.3 1 0.5 0.5 0.5
calculating time per
I I
I
meas. value In secs.
Figure 6.72: Relationship between frequency range, bandwidth, measuring and calculating time for the 1st order
with SERIES 40 instruments
Rate of change of rotor Number of measured values which can be stored and displayed
speedduring in the frequency ranges 1
start-up/rundown I
I I
1-3Hz 3-10 Hz ' 10-100 Hz 100-1,000 Hz 1-20 kHz
i
60-1 80 180-600 0.6-6 k rpm 6-60 k rpm 60-120 k rpm ,
Figure 6.73: Number of measured values dependent on the rate of speed change of the rotor and the frequency
ranges for the 7st order in the SERIES 40 instruments
Seminar C 40
B SCHENCK 6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines
Wrth respect to these technical measurement relationships, the following vibra-

tion technical ground rules must be noted, in general when determining the
transfer function and especially for a tracking analysis:
Every springmass system requires a finite time for

response because of its inertance
Forthis reasorl the frequency change ofthe excitation, i.e. the rate of rotor speed
change, should not be selected too high. If the resonances frequencies are
passed through too quickly, the resonances have no time to buid up or build up
only partly, and therefore they cannot be measured or are measured only
incompletely.
6.5.2 Example: A turbine rotor

The task
The transfer function of a complete industrial turbine with the turbine rotor
already described (see example 6.2.1.4) is to be determined in the operating
condition.
Figure 6.74: Industrial fuhine

in operating condifion
Seminar C 40
The measuring arrangement corresponds to Fig. 6.71. A sensor is attached to

one bearing position (or better at both bearing positions) to record the absolute
bearing vibrations. If non-contacting displacement sensors are already installed,
their signals can alternatively be used.
A reflective mark which will be detected by a photo-electric sensor for a phase

and speed reference is attached to the rotor shaft or coupling using adhesive
tape.
The amount of residual unbalance in the rotor is not known. The measurement
of the transfer function is therefore limited to measuring the system response in
the form of the amplitude and phase response of the 1st order of the bearing
vibration (or relative shaft vibration), during the start-up of the turbine to its
maximum service speed of n = 16,500 rpm.
Measurement results
From the amplitude response of the tracking analysis, the maximum amplitudes
at the two resonance frequencies
,f = 71 Hz = 4,260 rpm
and
are clearly visible.
The resonance frequencies determined in the tracking analysis do not coincide

exactly with the resonance frequencies determined using an external exciter
with the stationary rotor because of the reasons described in chapter 6.2.2.2. In
addition the amplitude response shows vibration values which increase with the
speed because the excitation force increases with the square of the rotational
speed.
The additional smaller resonances can be attributed to the coupled vibrators.

e.g. machine components, piping and adjacent machines.
The damping factor can also be determined from the amplitude response using
the 6 -method. To determine the vibration modes and the natural vibration
mode, the turbine housing should be measured at a number of measuring points
in the frequency range of interest using an absolute vibration sensor.
Seminar C 40

sponse of the vibrah'on of the
1st order of the industrial tur- Trackins/'Sinsle Order
bine measured during an ope- ,,,,3.08
, --
--
r
74 Hz
rational staff-up (top). As a 2.25
comparison the amplitude 1 .SO --
-
response with excitation of the 0.75 --
rotor using an electrodynamic
-
I I
0.88 I I I I I I I {
exciter is shown (bottom). 60 ZBBB 4888 600Q 80B0 10000 12000 14088 17088 rpn
Some advice for the measurement
If the rotor speed changes too fast during the measurement and the relationships
described in Fig. 6.72 and 6.73 are not taken into account, the amplitude
response can appear as shown in Fig. 6.75. In this case the number of
determined measured values is not sufficient to make a clear interpretation of
the amplitude response possible.
An objective improvement can only be made in this case if the rate of change
in the rotor speed is reduced.

sponse of Fig. 6.75 when the Trackinq6insle Order
rate of change in rotor speed is nm/s rms
too fast
: : : : 8.75
8 .#60 2988 98BB 6#0 8060 1000% 12088 14000 17000 rpm
Seminar C 40
6.5.3 Example: A gas turboset

The task
On an industrial gas turboset consisting of the turbine, gearbox and generator,

vibrations of various high amplitudes occurred during operation under different
load conditions. The cause of this was to be determined and a suitable solution
was to be offered.
Executing the measurements
First of all the vibration severity was measured at all the bearing points according
to VDI 2056, namely with respect to the load condition (Fig. 6.77). Wrth a load
of 400 kW the vibration behavior of the generator was evaluated as "st111
permissible", while the evaluation at "idling" gave a "good" result. The frequency
analysis which was executed afier this gave no clear hints about this or the
cause of the vibrations.
Because all three machines in the machine train were mounted on the same
foundation frame, it was decided to determine the vibration mode of the entire
arrangement. To do this the amplitude and phase of the 1st order of vibration
was measured at operating speed at various points on the frame under different
load conditions.
Figure 6.77: Machine arrange-

ment of an industrial turboset
on one common foundation
frame. Measuring points 1 to 9
were established to determine
the vibration mode
Seminar C 40
Figure 6.78: Record of the

SCHENCK 2 8 4 3 r193
~ 14 :24
vibration severify measure-
ments taken at the dn'veend Overall Bearins Uibration
generator bearing * 1
Measurement 1: Idling run
Measurement 2: P = 700 kW
1.6 mm/s rms
Measurement 3: P = 200 kW # 2
El 1.7 mm/s rms
3.0 mm/s rms
4.5 mm/s rms

# 5
• 6 . 1 mm/s rms
Seminar C 40
6.5 Tracking analysis SCHENCK
Figure 6.79: Record of the

SCHENCK 28/Apr/93 15 :08 amount and phase of the 1st
Trackins/5insle Order order vibration with P= 400 k W
8 1 measured at the points in-
i/i 6 . 7 mm/s rms 280 " dicated in Fig. 6.77
REF 1506 cpm
Speed : 1500 rpm
2
i/i 3.8 mm/s rms 180 "
REF 1500 cpm
Speed : 1500 rpm
8 3
i/i 8 . 1 mm/s rms 290"
REF 1500 cpn
Speed : 1500 rpm
u 4
i/i 5 . 4 nm/s rms 244"
REF 1580 cpm
Speed : 1500 rpm
u 5
I/1 2.7 mm/s rms 174"
REF 1560 cpm
Speed : 1500 rpm
s 6
i/i 2 . 9 MWS r m s 150O
REF 1588 cpm
Speed : 1500 rpm
tr 7
I/I 3 . 6 mm/s rms 260 "
REF 1500 cpm
Speed : 1500 rpm
u 8
i/i 4 . 4 mm/s rms 265"
REF 1500 cpm
Speed : 1500 rpm
u 9
i/i 0 . 8 mm/s rms 216"
REF 1500 cpm
Speed : 1500 rpm
Seminar C 40
After all the measured values were recorded the vibration mode of the founda-
tion frame for each load condition could be drawn. Figure 6.79 shows the mode
of the frame with the stationary machine drawn with solid lines, and the
measured vibration mode for the 1st order at a load of 400 kW overlaid with the
dotted lines.
The dynamic deformation of the foundation frame can be dearly recognized.

This has the tendency to move the individual machines in the train in different
directions, and causes ailgnment errors and restricting forces in the entire train.
This inevitably resutted in the increased vibration values as the output of the
generator was increased.
The solution
First of all the U-profile used for the foundation frame was closed by welding
plates into position. Furthermore, some additional supports for the base of the
frame were added to increase the stflness. After both these measures were
completed the vibrations when the load condition was P = 400 kw were reduced
to approximately 40% of the original values.
Figure 6.80: Vibration modes

of the gas turboset for the 1st
order vibrations at a generator
load of P = 400 k W
Top: Initial condition
Bottom: After modifying the
frame and frame supports.
Seminar C 40
6.6 Summary 8 SCHENCK
6.6 Summary
The analysis of the dynamic behavior of machines and machine components
consists mainly of a determination of the complex transfer fundion. From this
determination the constructional characteristic peculiarities of the object, such
as:
resonance frequencies,
damping factors,
dynamic stiffness/compliance and
natural vibration mode
can be graphically represented or calculated.
Using this information some objective measures can be decided on to improve

the dynamic behavior.
The complex transfer fundion is obtained by
exciting the complete machine or individual machine component using an

external vibration exciter, or
using the residual unbalance in the rotor to excite resonances during a
start-up or run-down
and simukaneously measuring the response of the system, i.e. the mechanical
vibrations.
The analysis of the dynamic behavior shows whether machines are suitable for
fulfilling their tasks from a constructional point of view, orwhether measures are
necessary to improve the behavior.
Thus this method is very exacting and ambitious but is also an especially
economic method of diagnosing problems.
In the hands of the person responsible for solving vibration problems, the
analysis of dynamic behavior can, and will in the future, help to clarify many
problems thought to be "unsolvable", and will provide fast and long-lasting
solutions.
Seminar C 40
Ed SCHENCK 6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines
Notes
Seminar C 40
7. Conclusion SCHENCK
7 . Conclusion
Congratulations! You have participated with interest and read the seminar
material with care, and now you know all the important facts about machine
diagnosis.
Now the time begins when you can put all this information into practice. Don't
be anxious about using machine diagnosis techniques. You have the knowledge
and capabilrty to increase the quality and service life of machines in your plant,
and prevent machine damage and production downtime at the same time. You
can make an active contribution toward saving costs, protecting people and the
environment from injury and damage and strengthening the position of your
company in a modem competitive industrial world.
Certainly some questions will arise in the future. You can be assured of the
support of SCHENCK. Whenever you need support SCHENCK can offer you
technical advice and suggestions for your diagnosis tasks,

modem measuring instruments and reliable monitoring systems,
installation and commissioning of instruments and systems,
machine diagnosis, field balancing and predictive maintenance services by
order and
service, training and seminars.
Wrth this final word we wish you every success and satisfaction in machine
diagnosis.
CARL SCHENCK AG
Seminar C 40
@ SCHENCK 7. Conclusion
Notes
Seminar C 40
.
8 lndex
8. lndex
Accuracy
Dynamic range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Resolution in Bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Air-borne sound
Acoustic calibrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Emission investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82. 96
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95. 100
Free field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Frequency analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Frequency assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Guidelines and prescriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94. 99
lmmission investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82. 93
Loudness level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Microphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Nearfield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Reverberant field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Sound pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Time weighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Amplitude response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Amplitude accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Analog-to-digital converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Analyzing the dynamic behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Basic principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Damping factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Displaying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213.225.229.234.243.272. 275
Measured variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203. 208
Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Measuringmethods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Multiple-mass vibrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Natural and resonance frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Natural vibration mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Single-mass vibrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Anti-Alias-Fitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Exponential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Non-averaged spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Seminar C 40
BISCHENCK 8 . Index
Quadratic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Single shot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Time domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Trigger operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158.174. 270

Absolute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Relative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Band-passfitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Actual band-pass curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Ideal bandpass curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Bearcon-Signature-Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Bearing vibration. absolute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33. 43

Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44. 46
Examle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Measuring points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44, 47
Overall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Power amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33, 37
Standards and guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Cascade diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

Characteristic frequency curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Complex transfer function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208. 209
Damagefrequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Impulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Typical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Damping factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

Basic principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Determining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227. 242
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Seminar C 40
SCHENCK
Diagnosis methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Analytical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17. 18
Global methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Overve
iw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Differencespectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Discrete Fourier Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Dynamic range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Dynamic effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Dynamic compliance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Dynamic stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Eddy-current method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Electro dynamic exciter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215. 251
Evaluation criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
with electrodynamic exciters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
with impulse hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
with sine-wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
with unbalance exciters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
with white noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Excitation methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Fault recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

FFT-analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146. 162
Form factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Fourier-Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Frequencyanalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Averaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Blade-passfrequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Dynamic range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Frequency line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 171.184.187. 200
Frequency line spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Number of lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Seminar C 40
.
8 Index
Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Frequency resolution capabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Frequency spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Cascadediagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Difference spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Linear scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Logarithmic scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Machine data sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150. 152
Order analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Strobe lamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Tooth impact frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Vibration identification table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Zoom function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Housing expansion. absolute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Impact hammer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Hammer masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Striking speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Tip element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Input amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Inertance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Limits from Guidelines and Standards . . . . . . . . . . 121. 122. 123. 124
Machine condition
Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Machine diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.12. 13

of operational condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
operating machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Seminar C 40
.
8 Index
Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.16.18
Stationary machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Machine evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115. 117. 119

Evaluation criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125.128.131.135. 140
Limits from guidelines and standards . . . . . . . . 121. 122. 123. 124
Manufadurers recommended limit value . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131. 133
Measuring the value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Normal level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Operators recommended limit value . . . . . . . . . 135. 137. 139. 141
Trend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Manufadureres recommended limit value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131. 139
Mechanical impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Mechanical vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Average value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Basic principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Broad-band examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.25. 29
Conversion nomogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Displaying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Effective value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Equivalent peak value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25. 30
Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Harmonic vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Measured variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Measurements types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Narrow-band examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Peak-to-peak value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Peakvalue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Periodic vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Phase angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Summation of vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Vibration acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Vibration displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Vibration velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Seminar C 40
ElSCHENCK 8. Index
Measured values
Comparing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Forming the measured values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Microphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Ceramic- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Condenser- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Dynamic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Electret- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Electro-static . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Multiple-mass vibrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

Basic principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Determining the damping factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Determining the natural vibration mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Determining the resonance frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243. 247
Natural frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Natural vibraton mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Determining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233. 243
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Nyquist curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : 211

Nyquist diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
0
Operators recommended limit value . . . . . . . . . . . 135. 137.139. 141
Order analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Blade-pass frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Coupling and alignment errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Tooth impact frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Order-tracking analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Seminar C 40
8 . Index 1SCHENCK
Phaseresponse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Power amplifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Vibration seventy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recording the time signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153.155. 157

Reference sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Resonancefrequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Critical speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220. 222
Damped systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Natural frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Spring constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Undamped systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Regulated exciters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Rolling element bearing condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

BEARCON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Causes of breakdowns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Damage frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Frequency spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Measured variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Measuring points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Period of impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Shock impulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Sources of vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Seminar C 40
SCHENCK I . Index
S
Selectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Sensor types
Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Ceramic microphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Condenser microphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Dynamic microphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Eddy-current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Electret microphone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Inductive displacement sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Photo-electric sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Thermo-couple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Thermo-resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Vibraton velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Seperation sharpness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Shaft expansion. relative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Measuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Shaft movement. relative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Axlal bearing wear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Shaf? vibration. relative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Alarm level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74. 77
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Greater vibration amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
ffinetic orbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Limit values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Linear displacement measuring range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Linearrty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Linearity. differential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Maximum displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Measurement types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Peakvalue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63. 66
Transmission curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70.73
Transmission factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69. 71
Seminar C 40
.
8 Index
Shannon.Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Sampling theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Aliasing-effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Anti-aliasing filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Signal generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

Single-mass vibrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206. 207
Sound analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199. 200
Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Run-down behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Gear wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Spring-mass system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

Sympathetic mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
System response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204. 208
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Therrno-couples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Therrno-resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Time signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147. 153

Time window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Tracking analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272. 275
Discrete Fourier Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Guidelines and standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Measuring principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268.271.273.275. 277
Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Tracking fitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Transfer function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Characteristic variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Displaying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Frequency response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Measuring arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nyquist curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transfer factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Seminar C 40
.
8 Index
Unbalance exciter
Regulated exciter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Vibraton measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Analytical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Overall methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Vibration mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232. 278

Vibration model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Vibration types in machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Absolute bearing vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Absolute shaf? vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Relative shaft vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
W~ndowfunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162. 164

Exponential window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165.167. 168
Flat-Top window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.65.168
Hanning window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165. 168
Uniform window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165. 168
Seminar C 40
9. Literature
9. Literature
[I] H. J. Bohnstedt: Frijherkennung von Wellenrissen bei Turbosatzen
durch Uberwachung der Schwingungen. In: Allianz Berichte Nr. 24
(November 1987), Page 10 to 11
[2] DIN 1311, Part 1 to 4: Schwingungslehre. Beuth-Verlag GmbH.

Berlin 30.
[3]: H. Schneider: Balancing technology. VDI pocket T 29, VDI Publishers

GmbH, Dusseldorf.
[4] W. Scheithe: Mel3wertgewinnung und Verarbeitung BW 7440,

VDI Bildungswerk.
[5] Applied Predictive Maintenance, C 50 Workshop (1989).

Carl Schenck AG, Datmstadt.
[6] VD12056: BeurteilungsmaBstabe fur mechanische Schwingungen von

Maschinen. Beuth-Vertrieb GmbH, Berlin 30.
[7] IS0 2372: Mechanical vibration of machines with operating speeds

from 10 to 200 revls. Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin 30.
[8] DIN/ISO 2373: Mechanical vibrations in rotating electrical machines

with shaft height from 80 to 400 mm. Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin 30.
[9] IEC 34-14: Rotating electrical machines. Part 14: Mechanical vibration
of certain machines with shafl heights 56 mm and higher., Bureau
Central de la Commission Electrotechnique Internationale, Geneve.
01
[I DIN-VDE 0530, Part 14: Umlaufende elektrische Maschinen. Mecha-
nische Schwingungen von bestimmten Maschinen rnit einer Achshohe
von 56 mm und hoher; Messung, Bewertung und Grenzwerte der
Schwingstarke. Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin 30.
[11] DINJISO 3945: Mechanical vibrations of large rotating machines with

speeds between 10 and 200 revsls..
[ I 21 Druckschrift firr die Anlagenindustrie, 3. D,0887. Anton Piller GmbH &

Co. KG. 3360 Osterrode.
[13] KugellagerzeitschriftNr. 224: Ein neues Modell fur die Etmiidungsdauer

von Walzlagem. SKF GmbH, Schweinfurt.
[14] Katalog 4000 T, 1989-04. SKF GmbH, Schweinfurt.
Seminar C 40
SCHENCK 9. Literature
1151 A. Sturm (Mitverf.): Wiilzlagerdiagnosen an Maschinen und Anlagen

Ausgabe fijr Verlag TlJV Rheinland GmbH. Koln: 1986. VEB Veriag
Technik, Berlin, 1985.
[I61 H.-J. Beckmann: Schadensfruherkennung an Walzlagem.

VDI Bildungswerk. B W 8058.
-
[I71 W. Scheithe: Vibration Measurement A method for Early Detection
of Rolling Element Bearing Features. Pradice of Vibration Analysis 13
(1990). Carl Schenck AG, Darmstadt.
[18] Werkzeitschrift: Walzlagertechnik, Industrietechnik. 1991-502. Lager-

schaden vermeiden durch Uberwachung der Walzlager wahrend des
Betriebs. FAG Kugelfischer, Schweinfurt.
119) VDI 2059: Shaff Vibrations of Turbosets, Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin 30.
Part 1: Shaft Vibrations of Tubosets
- Principles for Measurement and Evaluation
Part 2: Shaft Vibrations of Steam Turbosets for Power Stations
- Measurement and Evaluation
Part 3: Shaft Vibrations of Industrial Turbosets
-Measurement and Evaluation
Part 4: Shaft Vibrations of Gas Turbosets
Part 5: Shaft Vibrations of Hydraulic Machine Sets
[20] API STANDARD 670: Vibration, Mal-Position and Bearing Temperature
Monitoring Systems. American Petroleum Institute, Washington,
D.C. 20037
[21] DIN 45 670: Wellenschwingungs-MeBeinrichtung. Anforderungen an eine

Meaeinrichtung zur ~berwachungder relativen Wellenschwingung.
Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin 30.
[22] Leaflet C 1338: VIBRONECS, 1992. Carl Schenck AG, Darmstadt.
[23] IS0 7919: Mechanical vibration of non-reciprocating machines -

Measurement on rotating shafts and evaluation. Beuth-Verlag GmbH.
Berlin 30.
Part 1: General guidelines
Part 2: Guidelines for large steam turbine generator sets 1)
Part 3: Guidelines for coupled industrial machines ')
Part 4: Guidelines for gas turbines ')
Note 1): Ptan
Seminar C 40
9. Literature
Part 5: Guidelines for hydraulic machine sets 1)
[24] API STANDARD 610: Centrifugal Pumps for General Refinery SeMces.
American Petroleum Institute, Washington D.C. 20037.
[25] API STANDARD 61 I: General-Purpose Steam Turbines for Refinery

Service. American Petroleum Institute, Washington D.C. 20037.
[26] API STANDARD 612: Special-Purpose Steam Turbines for Refinery

(271 API STANDARD 613: Special-Purpose Gear Units for Refinery SeMce.
(281 API STANDARD 616: Type H Industrial Combustion Gas Turbines for
Refinery Service. American Petroleum Institute, Washington D.C. 20037.
[29] API STANDARD 617: Centrifugal Compressors for General Refinery

[30] API STANDARD 619: Rotary-Type Positive Displacement Compresson

for General Refinery S e ~ c eAmerican
. Petroleum Institute, Washington
D.C. 20037.
(311 Linde-Turbokompressoren Baureihe RW KompaM 3- und 4-stufig.

Druckschrift V 3801 39 679 d. Linde AG, 5000 Koln 50.
[32] Sound measurement. Brijel & Kjaer brochure, Naerum, Danemark

(1989).
[33] Measurement microphones. Briiel& Kjaer, Naerum, Danemark (1989).
[34] DIN 45 64512: Einheitliche Ermittlung des Beurteilungspegels fur

Gerauschimmissionen. Ger;duschimmission am Arbeitsplatz. Beuth-
Verlag GmbH, Berlin 30.
[35] VD1 205813: Beurteilung von Larm am Arbeitsplatz unter Beriicksichtigung

unterschiedlicher Tatigkeiten. Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin 30.
[36] Technische Anleitung zum Schutz gegen Lam. Allgemeine Verwakungs-

vorschrift der Bundesregierung (1 968).
[37] "LBrm"(VBG 121) vom 1. Dez. 1974.

Unfallve~iitungsvo~~chrift
Carl Heymanns Verlag KG, 5000 Koln 41.
Note 1): Plan
Seminar C 40
SCHENCK 9. Literature
ArbeitssMttenverordnungvom 20. Marz 1975 (BGB).
VDI 205811: Beurteilung von Arbeitslam in der Nachbarschaft.

Beuth-Verlag GmbH. Berlin 30.
DIN 45 635: Ger'duschmessung an Maschinen. Beuth-Verlag GmbH,

Berlin 30.
DIN EN 27574: Statistische Verfahren zur Festlegung und Nachpriifung

angegebener (oder vorgegebener) Gerauschemissionswerte von
Maschinen und Geraten. Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin 30.
VDI 2159, VDI 3729-3737, VDI 3739-3744: Emissionskennwerte techni-

scher Schallquellen. Beuth-Verfag GmbH, Berlin 30.
DIN EN 21680: Verfahren zur Messung der Luftschallemission von

umlaufenden elektrischen Maschinen. Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin 30.
Druckschriff: POWER PACK - das preisgunstige Energiepaket, A E G

Kanis Turbinenfabrik GmbH, Nijmberg.
C. Jackson: How to prevent turbomachinery thrust failure, Hydrocarbon

Processing, Juni 1975.
DIN 45 665: Schwingstarke von rotierenden elektrischen Maschinen

der Baugrol3en 80 bis 315. Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin 30.
CEN HD 347: Mechanical vibration of certain rotating electrical machinery

with shaft heights between 80 and 400 mm. - Measurement and
evaluation of the vibration seventy. Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin 30.
API STANDARD 541: Form-wound squirrel-cage induction motors -

250 horsepower and larger. American Petroleum Institute,
Washington D.C. 20037.
API STANDARD 546: Form-wound brushless synchronous motors.

I S 0 DP 2372-1: Mechanical vibration - Evaluation of machine vibration

by measurement on non-rotating parts
Part 1: General guidelines. Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin 30.
I S 0 2372-2: Mechanical vibration - Evaluation of machine vibration

Part 2: Large steam turbine generator sets. Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin 30.
IS0 2372-3: Mechanical vibration - Evaluation of machine vibration

Part 3: Guidelines for rotating machines with nominal power between
Seminar C 40
9. Literature BSCHENCK
30 kW and 50 MW and nominal speeds between 1 and 200 revls when

measured in situ. Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin 30.
VDI 2063: Measurement and Evaiuation of Mechanical Vibratons

of Reciprocating Piston Engines and Piston Compressors.
Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin 30.
DIN 6280-1 1: Stromerzeugungsaggregate mit Hubkolben-

Verbrennungsmotoren. Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin 30.
I S 0 2372-6: Measurement and evaluation of mechanical vibrations of

reciprocating machines with power ratings above 100 kW. Beuth-
Verlag GmbH, Berlin 30.
I S 0 8528-7: RIC engine driven generating sets - Measurements and

evaluation of mechanical vibrations. Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Berlin 30.
Th. Schwirzer: Messung und Beurteilung von Maschinenschwingungen -

Stand der Normung. In: VDI-Schwingungstagung 1990:
Schwingungsiibemachung Maschinendiagnose. VDI Berichte 846.
VDI-Verlag, Diisseldorf.
Produktkatalog der Firrna Voith-Novenco GmbH, Heidenheim.
U. Olsen: Benefits, costs and trends in condition monitoring of hydraulic

turbine generator sets. In: 7th lntemationale seminar on Hydro-electric
power plants. Technical UniversQ of Vienna, 1992.
H. J. Schmid: Zum dynamischen VerhaRen und zur [Jberwachung von

Wasserkraflmaschinensatzen. In: Wasser, Energie, Lufl. Hefl718, 1986.
CH-5401 Baden.
C. Troeder u. a,: Dynamik gekoppeker Systeme. VDI Berichte 603

VDI-Verlag GmbH, Dusseldorf.
Dekanter, Druckschrift der Fa. Westfalla Seperator AG, D-4740 Oelde
Briidendampfverdichter der Fa. Schiele GmbH, D-6236 Eschbom.
DIN 19 226: Regelungstechnik und Steuerungstechnik. Beuth-Verlag

GmbH, Berlin 30.
M. Weck: Werkzeugmaschinen Band 4. Meatechnische Untersuchung

und Beurteilung. VDI-Verlag, Diisseldorf.
i
Seminar C 40 297
9. Literature
Notes
* '
-
Seminar C 40
L3 SCHENCK
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+49(3)6151 . 52,155,Y- Fax &tCL(::iE'Sl . 32137C;
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Interr.el. http !/WL&.J c ; ~ ~ . s c ~ E ~ , c ~ . ~ ~ ~

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6.

1 Tasks,measured variables and methods SCHENCK

6. Analyzing the dynamic behavior of

A frequency analysis of an instantaneous recording of the vibrations provides

If the constructional characteristics of the machine should or must be evaluated

determine the permissible operating speed range,

Therefore this is an important diagnosis method for development, design,

6.1 f asks, measured variables and methods

at a steady, fixed operating speed (e.g. the rated s e ~ c espeed of the

Figure 6.1: When the dynamic

The relationship System res~onse

A number of characteristic variables which describe the dynamic behavior can

the dynamic stiffness or compliance,

of the object being investigated.

Measuring the transfer function Figure 6.2: important methods

Order trackiLg analysis Frequency spectrum analysis

with external excitation with edema1 excitation

6.2 Basic principles

Figure 6.3: Principle construc-

In many cases the dynamic behavior of machines can be approximately descri-

Figure 6.4: Greatly simpli-

6.2.1 The single-mass vibrator

I I Figure 6.5: Displacement of a

A prerequisite for this consideration is that the single-mass vibrator is only

the amount of the quotient system response to input variable

6.2.1 .ICharacteristic variables

Characteristic Calculated from Unit Figure 6.7: Table of usable

For a complete description of the concept "complex transfer function" the

Wrthin the framework of machine diagnosis the "Mobilrty" charadenstic variable

6.2.1.2 Measuring the transfer function

Figure 6.8:An example of the

The system to be investigated is excited with an input variable, whereby the

6.2.1.3 Displaying the transfer function

The amplitude and phase response

' 1:; !- --\

The frequency response of the complex transfer function, displayed as a Bode

Figure 6.10: Bode diagram of

The Nyquist curve

Figure 6.71: Nyquist curve of

In this display the amount (amplitude) is represerfed by the distance of a point

is shown. The system response s( f ) lags the input variable F( f ) in time

6.2.1.4 Example: A turbine rotor

A newly manufactured industrial turbine is to be operated within a variable speed

To do this the complex transfer function of compliance of the turbine rotor is

Turbine rotor data:

Executing the measurement

To evaluate the dynamic behavior, a sine-wave shaped excitation force with

The diagnosis instrument measures and calculates the frequency response of

Figure 6.13: Measuring anan-

Particularities of the measuring arrangement

The vibration exciter is driven Sy a power amplifier with a built-in sine-wave

The excitation force is transmitted to the rotofthrough a push-rod which pushes

Figure 6.74: Cross-sechon of

Amplitude and phase response or

Figure 6.15: Amplitude and

Figure 6.16: Nyquist curve

Evaluating the measurement

Figure 6.17: Determining the

All other characteristic variables of the dynamic behavior corresponding to table

For this, the vibration displacement spfor the vibration velocity of

Thus the dynamic Compliance of the rotor at a frequency f = 65 Hz is calcula-

The specific parameters of dynamic behavior of machines and machine parts

can be determined from the frequency response ofthe complex transferfunction