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GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 

 Microvilli – in folding area to increase the absorption of


Gas Exchange of Plants
nutrients in small intestine
 Spongy Mesophyll – gas exchange surface; diffusion of  Bile Salts – emulsify fats and turn it into tiny droplets
gases  Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate – neutralizes acid from
 Stomata – opening for entrance chime to pH 7
 Guard Cells – regulate the entrance of air  Bile – for emulsifying fats; gallbladder stores bile
produced by liver.
 Kangkong and Water lily – more stomata on the top of
the leaves  Pancreas secretes enzymes that break down all major
food molecule secretes the hormone insulin for control
Gas Exchange in Unicellular Organism of glucose metabolism
 Large Intestine – a small amount of fluid, sodium and
 Cell Membrane – gas exchange surface, thin, high vitamin K are absorbed through its wall. Many bacteria
surface and permeable to gases live and thrive within this where they help process
In Worms: undigested material into final excretory product, feces.
 Surface of the skin – gas exchange surface, thin,  Rectum – short extension of colon and final segment of
elongated, with high surface area and moisten digestive track; where the compacted undigested food
In Insects: from the colon is pushed via peristaltic contractions. The
 Tracheoles – gas exchange surface, thin, and numerous distention of the rectum triggers expulsion of feces.
with fluid  Anus – feces are expelled
SPIRACLES – TRACHEA – AIRSACS – TRACHEOLES
In Fish: TRANSPORT SYSTEM OF PLANT
 Gill Plates – gas exchange surface; numerous folding 1. XYLEM – transport water from roots to leaves; dies as cell
huge surface are remove dissolve oxygen from water mature (remain cell wall); transport materials passively
 Gills – gas exchange organs (doesn’t require ATP) ; create pressure inside the plant
Pathways of Air in Human a. Vessels – huge holes yet kokonti; form when a column
PHARYNX – LARYNX – TRACHEA – BRONCHI – BRONCHIOLES of parenchyma cells lose their end walls; with lignin for
– ALVEOLI ( tiny air sac; gas exchanging surface) mechanical strength; with pits to allow water to pass
 Lungs – gas exchange organ sideways; can transport water vertically or horizontally
Features of Gas Exchange because of pits.
 Large Surface Area, Thin, Moist Surface, Able to maintain b. Tracheids – small holes yet marami; elongated cells
concentration gradient. with tapering ends; do not have open ends; water passes
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM through the pits
 Functions of Digestive System 2. PHLOEM – transport food from leave to different parts of
1. Digestion – breakdown of food plants; transport materials actively (requires ATP) ; living
2. Ingestion – eating/ feeding tissue; composed of “Sieve tubes” and Companion Cell
3. Absorption – passage of digested nutrients and fluid a. Sieve Tubes – parenchyma cells when mature, it
across tube wall and into body fluids become sieve element; allow the mass flow of materials
4. Egestion – eliminating of undigested materials (translocation); nucleus, ribosome, and golgi bodies
5. Peristalsis – propelling of food degenerates as cell mature to wider (maluwag); with
 Mouth – ingestion, mechanical digestion (chewing of mitochondrion; with sieve plate where two sieve elements
food), chemical digestion (starch to maltose thru salivary meet food particle pass; with large pores on the end walls
amylase. where materials pass through translocation.
 Esophagus – peristalsis (wave like movement of food) b. Companion Cells – linked to sieve elements by
 Stomach – temporary storage, cardiac sphincter and plasmodesmata; with typical plant structures; helps the
pyloric sphincter. Gastric juice secreted by mucosa. sieve elements to survive
Components of Gastric Juice  Dicot form anuual rings
1. Hydrochloric Acid – gives stomach pH of 2.0 to activate  In non-vascular plants (mosses, horn wort, liver wort) it
stomach enzyme; inactivate salivary amylase; kill bacteria doesn’t have xylem and phloem; transport thru osmosis
from food and diffusion
2. Pepsin – breaks down protein into polypeptide  In vascular plants it uses/ have xylem and phloem to
3. Rennin – converts soluble thing into insoluble for longer transport materials.
digestion TRANSPORT IN ANIMAL
4. Mucus – protect the stomach wall from pepsin and HCL
 Small Intestine – chemical digestion (duodenum); bile
produce by liver, pancreatic juice by pancreas, intestinal
juice by Brunner’s gland

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM  Pulmonary Valve – prevents back flow of blood
 Constant supply of oxygen and nutrient from Pulmonary Artery to Right Ventricle
 Get rid of waste product  Mitral Valve – prevents back flow of blood from
 “Simple animals” like sea anemones and worms can do Left Ventricle to Left Atrium
this by diffusion (high to low)  Aortic Valve – prevents back flow of blood from
 “Large animals” need a transport system Aorta to Left Ventricle
1. Open Blood System – blood does not flow through  3 TYPES OF BLOOD VESSELS
blood vessels; blood is pumped by heart into large  1. ARTERIES 2. VEINS 3. CAPILLARIES
spaces in the body cavity where exchange of materials CARDIAC CYCLE
takes place between the blood and the tissues; then  Describes the sequence of events in one
blood returns o the heart; examples are insects and heartbeat.
snails. a. Systole – Contraction
b. Diastole – relaxations
2. Closed Blood System – blood flows through blood vessels Three main stages of Cardiac Cycle
a. Single Circulation – blood passes through heart once; 1. Atrial Systole – the heart is full of blood; atria
heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the gills; contract; ventricles are relaxed; blood passes
oxygenated blood is carried to the tissues; deoxygenated down the ventricle.
blood returns to heart; examples are fishes. 2. Ventricular Systole – atria relax ventricles
b. Double Circulation – blood passes through heart twice contract; blood is pump.
 Pulmonary Circulation – heart pumps  When Mitral and Tricuspid Valves are open in
deoxygenated blood to lungs; oxygenated blood Atrial Systole, then it is close in Ventricular
returns to heart. Systole.
 Systemic Circulation – heart pumps oxygenated  When Pulmonary and Aortic Valves are close in Atrial
blood to body tissues; deoxygenated returns to Systole, then it is open in Ventricular Systole.
heart 3. Diastole – the heart is full of blood; atria and ventricles
HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM relax; blood enters the atria; Mitral and Tricuspid Valves
 Closed blood system; double circulation are open; Pulmonary and Aortic Valves are close.
 To deliver food, nutrients and oxygen EXCRETION/ ELIMENATION OF WASTE PRODUCTS OF
 Collect metabolic wastes such as carbon dioxide, excess LIVING ORGANISMS
water and salts, and nitrogenous waste PLANTS
 Combination of water, salts, and nitrogenous waste form  Oxygen gas
“Urine”  Excess water through transpiration
 To protect from foreign bodies ANIMALS
 Heart – pumps blood  Solid feces (digestive)
 Blood Vessels – carries blood  Carbon dioxide
 Blood – delivers and collects materials and protects  Nitrogenous waste (urea, uric acid,
ammonium cells)
 Excess water
REMOVAL OF WATER AND OTHER WASTE PRODUCTS
PLANTS
 Oxygen gas is expelled through gas exchange
in the spongy mesophyll (found in leaves)
 Excess water through transpiration (loss of
water through evaporation from leaves)
ANIMALS
 Through excretion
 Fishes – release nitrogenous waste
in the form of ammonia through
4 Chambers: gills. Ammonia toxic but extremely
1. Right Atrium – receives deoxygenated blood from vena soluble in water
cava  Birds and Insects – release
2. Left Atrium – receives oxygenated blood from lungs nitrogenous waste in the form of
3. Right Ventricle – pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs uric acid (white paste). Uric acid
4. Left Ventricle – pumps oxygenated blood to Aorta insoluble in water but non toxic
 Valves – to prevent back flow of blood and very little water is needed to
 Tricuspid Valve – prevents back flow of blood from Right excrete
Ventricle to Right Atrium
 Mammals – release nitrogenous waste in the form of
urea. Urea made in liver (2 ammonia + Carbon dioxide),
main nitrogenous waste carries from the liver to the
kidneys
URINARY SYSTEM
 Renal Artery – carries oxygenated blood to kidney. It is
important to carry the blood to kidney to filter out the
waste product from the blood.
 Renal Vein – carries deoxygenated blood away to the
kidney.
 Kidneys – to filter out the waste product from the blood
 Ureter – carries urine from kidney to bladder
 Bladder – temporary storage of urine
 Urethra – passageway of the urine during urination
Importance of kidneys
 Filter metabolic waste from blood
 Reabsorb important materials into blood
 Regulate pH in the blood
PARTS OF THE KIDNEY
 Cortex – filtration and re-absorption area
 Medulla – solute concentration regulation area
 Pelvis – passageway of urine from kidney to ureters
 Nephron – cells that can filter, reabsorb, and regulate pH
PARTS OF NEPHRON
 Bowman’s Capsule – absorbs materials filtrate from
glomerulus
 Proximal Convoluted Tubule – reabsorbs important material
from filtrate (glucose, amino acid, and water)
 Loop of Henle – make the medulla high in solute
concentration
 Distal Convoluted Tubule – regulates the pit of the blood
 Collecting Duct – carries urine to pelvis
 Afferent Arteriole – carries blood to glomerulus
 Glomerulus – removes materials from the blood (20% of
water and solutes)
 Efferent Arteriole – carries filtered blood away from
glomerulus to capillary network in the medulla.
 Distal Convoluted Tubule – together with collecting duct,
regulate concentration of solute in medulla controlled by
antidiuretic hormone by hypothalamus
 Collecting duct become permeable to water when the blood
is lack of water
 When blood is rich in water, the collecting duct and distal
convoluted tubule are become less permeable to water.

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