Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
by
Karen-Lyn Saysay
May 2011
Abstract................................................................................................................. iv
ii
The Best Part of Being Pilipino ........................................................................ 88
Institutional Support.......................................................................................... 92
iii
Abstract
This research examines the pattern of career choices among first, 1.5, and second
generation Pilipino students of immigrant heritage at a high school about eight miles
from Downtown Los Angeles, California. This study reveals significant patterns that
reflect their parents’ immigrant heritage, Ogbu’s cultural model of success and other folk
theories of success that are shared between the same ethnic background and culture. The
influence of the cultural model of success combined with literary works about Asian
American students brings forth a better idea of how these immigrant-heritage Pilipino
The purpose of the study was to examine the pattern of career choices among
Pilipino high school students and demonstrate how that pattern reflects the following:
1) The cultural model of their immigrant parents about what success means will be
among Pilipino High School students in Suburbia High School. I wanted to know their
motivation as well as their plan post-high school. The literature from five prominent
this research study, participants were asked using ethnographic interviews about their
iv
school engagement and familial expectations. The research was not intended to answer
all pending questions about Pilipino students. I did not want to generalize the issues;
There was a recurring theme that examined the pattern of career choices among
Pilipino high school students. First, the cultural model of their immigrant parents about
what success means will be marked through their children’s mindset. Second, how the
impact their career decision-making. Through this research study, I found that participant
rely heavily on their family’s decision. Students coped by following their parents’
advice. They also have to cope with an expectation of financially supporting the family
v
Chapter 1: Introduction
Pilipinos are the second largest Asian population in the United States. Their high
school graduation rates are high, as are their transition rates to college, but beyond
college they appear to have limited occupational choices. Pilipinos hold higher
professional positions than other minority students. Chang (2006) reports that Whites and
Asians hold proportionately higher status jobs and college degrees than African
American and Hispanic adults do. However, it is still important to note the limited
The present study addresses the career decisions that first, a generation and a half,
and second generation Pilipino students face after high school. Specifically, the intent of
this study is to unravel the factors shaping their career choices while in high school. The
completion of high school for Pilipinos is not an educational problem. Rather, the
problem lays in the post high school career choices that Pilipino high school students
make.
This study will look at several factors that impact career choices, including the
familial influence as their major source of human capital. The family, as the focal point
of Pilipino values, critically shapes the future of their children’s educational goal. The
research literature suggests that Pilipino parents define “success” through their children’s
educational and career choices. However, there are gaps in this research and the
1
emergent picture of Pilipinos and their definition of success as immigrants to the US is
sketchy.
Two primary themes frame the research for this present study. First, I use Ogbu’s
“Cultural Model of Success” as the theoretical foundation for understanding how Pilipino
parents define success in the United States. This includes a brief review of the historical
relationship between the Philippines and the United States. Through acculturation and
family values, this research describes the adaptation patterns of Pilipino families and their
children to their educational goals. Second, this dissertation will reveal and show how
Pilipino minority students from a suburban high school make decisions about their
careers. For ethnic students, career development includes role models, family influence,
Pilipinos have had a long-standing relationship with the United States, as far back
as the late 1800s, because of years spent under U.S. colonial rule. Anecdotally, some
even believe that Pilipinos may have been in the Southeastern United States as early as
the late 1700s but returned home. Salazar-Clemena (2002) has pointed out the cultural
temperament of the Philippines bears heavy traces of U.S. influence, such as Pilipino
(2002) continues,
2
The United States’ economic depression in the 1930’s further bolstered the need to
disseminate the push and pull need of a capitalist country (United States) from a third-
world country (Philippines). This study will further explain the need of workers to the
United States and how this affects the mindset for the creation of jobs in the Philippines.
Universities in the Philippines began offering majors that caters to the need of capitalist
What college education can we afford that can make you finish quickly,
get a job, and start helping with family finances? In other words, their
concern is not finding guideposts in a career path, but peso signs that
would lead them out of poverty.
With the importation of such democratic ideals, one might be surprised to find the level
Pilipinos are constantly struggling to survive and also struggling to find jobs in their
country. The economic trend of the country has resulted in a great disparity between the
poor and the rich. Therefore, like people of many third world countries, Pilipinos migrate
workforce, there are several challenges for career counseling in the Philippines today.
First, the matter of choosing a career in the Philippines is a family affair. Pilipino
families firmly believe that an education is the “great equalizer.” There is also a
anyone can still “make it” in the United States. Approaching education as the “great
equalizer” presumes that the education system is based on a meritocracy in which ability,
hard work, and “rugged individualism” can lead to success (Wong, 1999). The United
3
States continues to symbolize freedom, democracy, and opportunity for Pilipinos. They
hold to the belief that it is only in the United States that one has an equal opportunity to
be whatever they want. However, as this study contends, when it comes to career
a career that is stable and dependable rather than a career based on their passion or
intrinsic interest.
Pilipino parents pressure their children to succeed in school but also steer them
towards a career choice that is stable, dependable, and readily available. Wolf (1997)
attributes such pressure to the immigrant status of parents, their desire to succeed, and
their wish for their children to achieve at least the same status they have achieved. Back
home, it is not about education, it is about the immediate availability of stable jobs.
Wolf’s explanation of the impact of the immigrant status on Pilipinos is reiterated by the
challenge Pilipinos face in the Philippines because of the mismatch between training and
employment. Pilipino graduates choose a career that is immediately available rather than
deferring to a career interest that may not lead to immediate employment. Wolf (1997)
posits that most Pilipino undergraduates enroll in (college) majors that lead to a job their
parents have chosen. They do not find any value chasing a career that will not take their
family out of poverty. Thus Wolf suggests, Pilipinos bring this outlook with them as
immigrants to the United States and it continues to shape their children’s decision-
Pilipinos in America
There are three immigration waves in the history of Pilipino migration: before
World War II, after World War II, and after the Immigration Act of 1965. These are the
4
three periods when there was a huge influx of Pilipinos moving to the United States.
Before World War II, Pilipino men traveled to Hawaii, Alaska, and mainly in the West
Coast to work as farmers, fishermen, and cooks. After the war, many of the women
(mostly wives) and children followed the Pilipino men. The Immigration Act of 1965
was a turning point in the immigration history of Pilipinos to America. The Act removed
national origin quotas; instead, the Act focused on the educational backgrounds of the
immigrants. The important role of United States’ influence to Asian countries, including
Bozorgmeher (1996) suggest that the economic involvement of the United States in Asian
Pacific countries has created opportunities for Asian professional migration to the United
States. In particular, Asian Indians (33.7%), Japanese (27.9%), Chinese (27.4%), and
Filipinos (27.5%) are overrepresented in the professions. From 1965 to 1975, over
230,000 Pilipinos immigrated to the United States in search of a better life (Posadas,
1999).
Education, health, and social services have been the primary professions of
Pilipinos living in the United States. The surplus of Pilipino nurses from the island
contributed to their concentration in the health professions in the United States. After
the passage of the 1965 Act, Pilipino immigration to the United States soared. After
migrated with a temporary visa but soon found a sponsor through whom they could
secure permanent resident status in United States. By 1970, 43% of all foreign nurses
came from the Philippines, followed by 24 percent from Canada, 15 percent from Europe,
5
Pilipinos in Los Angeles
immigration. Usually, Pilipino immigrants already have family in Los Angele/s that can
help them find jobs and homes. Pilipinos showed an impressive growth in immigration
numbers of 563 percent from 1970 to 1990 (Waldinger & Bozorgmehr, 1996). As stated
earlier, the 1965 Immigration Act opened doors for educated Pilipinos to migrate to the
United States and the U.S. labor force had a high demand for nurses, lawyers, and
accountants. Pilipinos filled many of these jobs. The 1965 Immigration Act also changed
women and children started to follow their husbands and fathers to the United States.
Asian immigrant professionals. This pattern applies to Pilipinos since they are the second
largest Asian population next to Chinese in the Los Angeles area. First, most
education in their native homeland. As they gradually move up, they slowly move up
into the profession for which they had originally trained. Second, they gradually move
out from their current professions. Most of the time, the education from their native land
is invalid in the United States education system. They require more didactic experience,
licensing and transferable units from accredited colleges in the United States. Therefore,
immigrant parents encourage their children into the same professions as themselves, for
which they do not always fully qualify in the United States, as a way to pursue their own
dreams. Thus, perhaps unconsciously, parents are already socializing their children into
6
their own professions. Thus, immigrant children choose careers that they are familiar
with and have been talked about within the family context.
There has been a steady enrollment of Pilipinos in Los Angeles schools from
2000 to the present. Enrollment of Pilipinos ranges from 15,000 to 17,000 per school
year. Compared with Latinos and Blacks, Pilipinos have higher achievement levels on
almost all academic characteristics (Wong, 1990). Statistically, Pilipino students are
more highly enrolled in academic programs and take college preparatory courses such as
Wong (1990) unexpectedly found that Pilipino students receive more A’s and B’s in
English than white students. She accounts for this difference in grades by the large
number of hours Pilipino students devote to homework and the value for education that
parents have instilled in their children. Posadas (1999) further contends that because of
the bleak future that life in the Philippines offers, education has been the single most
compelling reason for Pilipinos migrating to the United States since the end of World
War II.
Pilipino students are more active than other ethnic groups in extracurricular
activities at school such as choir, honor clubs, and sports. This dictates an increased to
7
Compared to other ethnic populations, Pilipinos make friends with other students
more easily, probably because of their familiarity with the English language. This also
matriculation. They believe they can be success in school and work. They have the
institution and familial support on their side. Popular culture in the Philippines is also
similar to U.S. pop culture. Through global channels such as MTV and VH1, Pilipino
youths can more easily understand youth subculture in an American education system.
The stereotype of the general Asian population as introverts is not applicable to all
Pilipinos. Zhou and Xiong (2005) have noted that differences in origins, histories and
profoundly affect the formation of ethnic identities. Hence, each ethnic minority should
be treated uniquely. Diverse origins evoke drastic differences in languages and dialects,
from generational tension and expectations. Parents still cling to their Pilipino beliefs
and values; however, their children are exploring new ways in the United States. Cultural
conflict as they move through adolescence is another issue that they face as they go
through high school.) Career choices can be one of the conflicts that the parents and
children need to resolve. Salazar et. al (2000) asserts that maintaining family reputation
entire family and not a solitary individual effort. The adolescent stage is challenging,
which can be more complicated when two cultures clash. The coping styles of Pilipinos
8
have caused mental stress for both the parents and the children. Indigenous Pilipino
traits, including “hiya” (devastating shame), “amor propio” (sensitivity to criticism), and
“pakikisama” (conceding to the wishes of the collective) is fostered by the use of ridicule
and ostracism in child training. These traits often inhibit competitiveness, a trait valued
Family ties and employability are the two challenges Pilipinos face in the
Philippines as they make career decisions as high school graduates. These challenges
continue to persist even when they migrate to the United States. Family ties and the
situation of the first generation students and other ethnic groups as being more complex
The problem that I have addressed in this study deals with the Pilipino high
school students and the careers they choose post-high school. The literature review will
clearly show the lack of research on understanding this specific ethnic group. In an
attempt to make the right decision in terms of a career, there is a dual strain for these
students. First, there is the relationship between the US and the Philippines. Second, is
the strain from parental expectation for bringing them to the United States. Salazar et al
(2000) have previously pointed out that because of earlier American colonial contacts
with the Philippines Pilipino immigrants are generally familiar with American culture
and the English language. However, despite such a historical relationship, and
9
Pilipino high school students, even minority students at large, vary in their
personal choices, characteristics and motivational factors. In turn, it affects how they
learn, relate, and make decisions on what careers they ought to pursue after high school.
These differences are ignored when familial values and societal expectations are being
thrust on them. The pressure to get immediate employment stifles their intrinsic
motivation and curiosity. There is no room for their interest to grow. There is no room
for their personal curiosity to expand. Church and Katigbak (1992) deduce that since
people for specific vocations, it reinforces the strong economic motives of Pilipino
students.
The purpose of the study is to examine the pattern of career choices among
Pilipino high school students and analyze how that pattern reflects the following:
With this study, I will attempt to uncover how Pilipino high school students can be given
more options in choosing other careers that will enhance their intrinsic interests and
students other careers that they will truly enjoy after high school. This implies retention
in college and newfound knowledge for our college counselors on how they can make
10
Pilipino students aware of a wider range of career opportunity after high school. Of
course intrinsic interest and school engagement can be encouraged in high school. How
The Pilipinos are the second largest Asian population in the United States, next to
the Chinese. There is little research about the Pilipino high school students who are
about to finish high school. This study will contribute to this research gap. Although this
study focuses on Pilipino immigrant students, its implications can be applied to the ever-
Recruitment and retention of ethnic minority students in colleges and universities has
been a constant struggle for all stakeholders. Education is the key to the continued
success of this nation. The question remains: are Pilipino high school students choosing
the careers that they truly want or are they simply choosing careers they think their
academic performance to cultural compatibility or lack thereof. Simply put, the culture
shapes what these students believe is the right career choice for them. Pilipino
immigrants came from a place where American influence has been predominant for more
than a hundred years. They came from a place where education was the only way out of
poverty, oppression, and dictatorship. Hence, careers that are highly in-demand, i.e.
nursing, accounting, engineering, are the only viable choices they make when they arrive
to the United States. This issue becomes a problem when high school counselors and
11
administrators do not understand the need of these students. Often these high school
When the cultural value matches the economic demand of the society, there is less
friction between the “want” and the “need.” Practically speaking, these students choose
careers that are readily available rather than careers that are highly of interest. The
cultural modes of success and the school environment put a lot of pressure on these
Pilipino students to succeed. High parental expectation is also a confining factor for
these students. Specifically, Church and others (1992) suggest that Pilipinos place less
students. Instead, they put greater emphasis on attaining social approval and enhanced
economic status. Pilipinos (Church et al, 1992) also see education as a means to
economic opportunity and status, rather than acquiring knowledge for its intrinsic value.
For Pilipinos, uncovering and understanding their Cultural Model of Success may
be a key in helping these high schools students make more varied career choices. The
lack of Pilipino immigrant students in the fields of music, arts, and theatre will have
Studies show common reasons for the curricular choices of college and
high school students: interest in the field, opportunity for employment,
personal or family welfare, financial returns, and influence of role models
(mostly family members). Other factors that emerged in more recent
studies include prestige, admiration, status, ability, influence of media,
security … and the opportunity to go abroad.
The overarching goal of this study is to further inform educators and administrators on
the complexity of being a Pilipino immigrant from a country that has been influenced by
12
Americans for more than a hundred of years. Familial and societal ideologies influence
these students to make the right decision. Inadvertently, this dissertation will to answer if
the right career is really for the parents, the students, or the rise for a specific need based
Research Questions
fulfilling the American Dream, which includes being mobile in the American
2. Do Pilipino families influence the type of college majors and careers of their
children? If so, how do Pilipino families’ value and practice differ for the sons
subtractive) process that values (or devalues) their social and cultural capital?
Limitations
Due to time constraint and availability of resources, this study will utilize the
responses from Pilipino high school students grades 9-12 at one school site resulting in
ten participants, 5 males and 5 females. Due to this small sample size, the information
13
and data provided is more than likely not representative of all Pilipino high school
new knowledge about a specific population rather than generalizing to the population
under study.
introduction to this study. Chapter two is an overview of the research pertinent to the
history and migration of the Pilipinos to the United States. The literature review looks at
five major authors who have contributed to the theoretical foundation of this study.
Methods and procedures are discussed in depth in chapter three, including a biographical
sketch of each student participant. Chapter four presents the details of the family
dynamics, school environment, participants, and the analysis of the results of the findings
of this study. Finally, chapter five will provide a discussion of the findings,
14
Chapter 2: Review of Literature
Americans, specifically 1, 1.5, and 2nd generation secondary school students in a large
California suburban high school. The review of the literature shows how their career
decision making is a reflection of their immigrant parents’ cultural model that defines
success and how to achieve it. The review illustrates how this cultural model works
around the central family (which includes the parents and external family members) on
Pilipino American students relative to their high school success and career choice. This
review will briefly discuss the impact of handling parental pressure to succeed. Showing
respect for elders and Pilipino parents is one of the most valuable traits a child can offer
to their parents. Following their parents’ desire is part of respecting their wishes. Since
respecting their elders is a tradition common to many immigrant cultures, children from
these cultures often feel obligated to obey their parent’s desires for their life-choices.
I also searched for literature that examined the educational experiences of the
minority students, immigrants specifically, and how this affects their postsecondary
school plans. The research literature shows that educational experiences mediate their
responses and long-term opinion about school. In short, high school is a place where
institutions that augmented or hindered the academic success or failure for post-
secondary education.
This dissertation will show that Pilipino American immigrants’ cultural model of
Voluntary immigrants believe that a high level of education will result in a better career,
15
and hence, will enhance the fortunes of their families. The family’s concern of “making
it” is reflected in the Pilipino American high school student’s pattern of career choice,
Pilipinos are always seen in the medical field as nurses and technicians. They are also
The focus of this study will be on the confounding factors that influence the career
decision-making of Pilipino high school immigrants including first, 1.5 and second
generation. While this literature review has invoked the findings of several studies, five
Stacey Lee’s and Grace Kao’s discussions of model-minority stereotype and high-and
success, and Diane Wolf’s work on transnational struggles among children of Filipino
immigrants constitute the theoretical framing of this study. Part of John Ogbu’s work is
better life mainly through a good education. Stacy Lee and Grace Kao’s work focuses
16
more on the Asian Students which is very useful in narrowing the participants’ reaction
and behavior. Pilipinos differ in cultures, but Lee’s and Kao’s literary work serve as a
good theoretical framework for this research. Serendipitously, Kim’s work combines
Ogbu’s Cultural Model Success for the Korean students. Lastly, Wolf points out the
conflict between the parent and the child. Living in two worlds is difficult and Wolf
pointed how these problems can be resolved. While this body of research is by no means
role of immigration, stereotyping, cultural success models, and family and their impact
minorities sheds light on how they incorporate their lives into American society, which
includes how to get ahead and the role of education in getting ahead. Voluntary
minorities, such as Pilipinos, have a different collective identity and cultural frame of
reference on how to succeed in a new land. The attitudes and behavior that voluntary
minority parents employ in preparing their children for school is a critical factor shaping
These views are widely held and firmly believed in inside and outside the homes
Americans and Mexican American, have come to believe that schooling does not pay off
in terms of occupational mobility. To rationalize this folk theory some come to associate
doing well in school as “acting white” and may be chastised by their peers for being
successful in school. Hence, even though they may agree that more schooling is better,
17
their corresponding belief that it does not pay off for them may lead them to sabotage
Chinese, consider academic success to be the essence of their ethnic pride. Eun-Young
strategies, applied a cultural model of success to help explain the career choice patterns
of Korean Americans. Eun-Young Kim (1993) found that money and prestige are driving
forces among Korean American families. She also found that these criteria are the
Such a framework can also be applied to the Pilipino immigrants. They look at America
the United States in comparison to what they could not accomplish in their homeland.
Pilipino parents believe that their children can be whatever they want to be in this
country. However, Pilipino parents also believe their children’s career choice should fall
within the context of employability, are in-demand, and culturally prestigious. Azores
(1987) found out that all her Pilipino participants had plans for some kind or another
18
Occupational expectation is a belief that after matriculation, their degrees will bring forth
a reliable source of income. Tseng (2006) mentions that math and science fields are
Immigrants are drawn to match and science fields because they are in high
demand in the economy and bear the promise of high status and well-
paying occupations. High social and economic aspirations are not
necessarily channeled only into math and science occupations, but for
children of immigrants, these fields might represent visible routes for
attaining their aspirations.
These prevailing Pilipino family beliefs may channel their children into narrowly defined
careers leaving no room for intrinsic interest, raw talent or passion. When their interest or
talent does not match society’s demands, the students end up suppressing their own
desires. In return, this means suppressing their aspiration to succeed. Pilipino students’
parental beliefs may actually limit their aspirations to readily available careers to
immediate contribute to the family. Hence, they then shy away from careers that prolong
in life for any Pilipino student. In short, factors that affect the level of educational
attainment are directly linked to one’s aspiration, the greater aspiration, the higher the
career goal. In this case, a Pilipino student’s destiny relies heavily on family support and
on reciprocating that support through the choice of a readily available career after high
school. Azores (1987) concluded that the strongest determinant of educational aspiration
was occupational expectation. This suggests that students who claim high academic
performance will also have high occupational expectations associated with completing a
19
Kim suggests that comparative research on other groups will further heighten our
understanding of minority education, for this review, Koreans and Pilipinos. Eun-Young
Kim points out the importance in understanding the cultural model of success because it
explains the career choice patterns of immigrant students, in her case, Korean Americans.
Such discovery can also be applied to the Pilipino students. It sheds light on the different
students really need in order to achieve their dreams. Ogbu’s “Cultural Model of
Success” is an important theoretical foundation that provides a more formal approach for
what has hitherto been an anecdotal explanation for dinner table conversations, church
prayers, and barbershop gossip about what it means for Pilipinos to be successful in
America, including their own Pilipino communities. It is where Folk Theories are
discussed. Who made it? Who didn’t make it in terms of succeeding in the United
States? Ogbu mentions the Folk Theory of Success amongst all cultures. Every culture
has it. This research attempts to solidify how anecdotally affect the students’ decision in
of family obligation, family values and gender roles. According to Wolf (1997) the
family offers an extremely magnetic and positive basis of Pilipino identity for the second-
generation of Pilipino children. It is also a deep source of conflict for both the parents
and the children. The parents are trying to impose the Pilipino culture at the same time
20
that the children are trying to adapt to a new social and cultural context. Part of this new
Attachment to parents has been linked to the career development of students. The
long-standing relationship between the United States and the Philippines has convinced
Pilipino parents that there are specific careers that are in high-demand in American
society. When the United States opened its doors to educated laborers during the 1960s,
it attracted a lot of professionals from the Philippines in the fields of accounting, nursing,
and engineering. This mindset in terms of a career choice still prevails. As Salazar and
others (2000) have pointed out, the predictors of academic achievement are authoritative
honor. As such, children of immigrant parents have to fill huge expectations in terms of
excelling in school. Their success stories have achieved a certain iconic status in
American culture, and many of these ethnic groups are often referred to as the “Model
Minority.” The term was developed during the 1960s when there has been an increasing
speculation about the academic success o Asian American students. As Kao (1995)
continues,
Since Asian Americans are considered a minority, they are deemed to be the model for
The achievements are likely a byproduct to the model minority folk theory of
success. It is possible that attention to Asian American students’ needs has been ignored
21
or has been diverted to the groups who need the resources more. Resources, such as
guidance counselors for immigrants, are not available to Asians who might need it
The model minority stereotype impact Pilipino students. Lee (1994) insists that
scholars the popular press have contrasted the success of Asian American students to the
underachievement of other minority students. The question then remains: How well do
Pilipino American students fit the model minority image? Does this perpetuate a
channeled process for career decision making? For instance, Asians compared to other
youth groups differ in terms of their aspirations and grades. Kao (1995) explains how
Asian children outperform their white counterparts in terms of grades because Asians
believe that success in life depends on what they study in school. Asian American parents
push their children to get good grades and enter “safe” professions such as becoming
engineers, physicians, and accountants. These aspirations likely result from a worldview
that associated Asians with technical (as opposed to creative) careers. These aspirations
may also protect immigrant children from perceived discrimination in occupations that
are deemed unsafe, i.e. music, arts, theatre (Kao, 1995). Kao describes careers that are
not perceived high in demand as “unsafe.” Based on the current economic needs, it is
harder to find a job when one majors in music, arts, theatre. Therefore, he considers such
careers as “unsafe.”
Educators and administrators should take into account the model minority
stereotype and the strong family influences when presenting post-high school career
information to Pilipino students. Getting the proper education is the only way they know
how to succeed in America. They achieve prestige by sending their children to the best
22
universities in hopes of getting them the necessary preparation for a high-demand career.
During this research, I ventured hoping to understand more about the motivation of
the Pilipino students and their success stories post-high school. I wanted to understand
their career choices and the factors that determined their decisions post-high school. A
serendipitous, I may call it, turn of events is when I realized that a strong influence
behind these students are the parents. There is no doubt that the parents only want the
best for their children. But what I unexpectedly noticed is a contradicting message that
the parents are trying to convey to their children. In one perspective, the parents want
their children to secure a job post-high school. On the other hand, they also expect their
Poverty is the key force to find the need to be employed right after college.
Salazar-Clemena (2002) explains that the Philippines is constantly struggling to get out
poverty. There was always hope of economic progress through their children.
In attempt to get out of poverty, the need for all the family to work (in and outside
the Philippines) is dire. It also becomes a duty, as Fuligni, et. al (1999) indicate,
Asian and Latin American families in the United States often have been
characterized as placing greater importance upon familial duty and
obligation than their counterparts with European backgrounds.
Therefore, the parents expect their children to help out with the finances right
23
sounds clear, but there are also literatures that illustrate the parents’ desire to have their
Song and Glick (2004), on the other hand, discuss obtaining college education.
Such expectation is societal. It is also parental. The college majors above require
and Familial Influence. The literature review will be organized into three these three
main parts to guide and deepen the reader’s understanding of these theoretical
(institutional support and being the model minority) and end it on how the Pilipino family
plays a big role in the career decision-making of their children. Lastly, the review of the
literature will conclude with possible emerging arguments on how this is aligned towards
Ogbu paid great attention to the distinction between voluntary and involuntary
minorities He defines involuntary minorities as people who became part of the United
24
States through slavery, colonization, or conquest, such as some African Americans and
Native Americans respectively. Voluntary minorities, on the other hand, had a choice of
coming to the United States. Ogbu (1998) claimed that voluntary minorities view
believe that through education they will learn and develop skills that will help them
Americans view education as a threat to the groups’ cultural integrity. They do not trust
the school system. They view the school as a place where teachers discriminate against
them and unfavorably compare them to other minority groups. Except for refugees and
minorities. Like other immigrants who moved voluntarily to the United States, Pilipinos
believe this would result in more economic well-being, better opportunities and/or more
expectations they bring with them influence their perceptions of U.S. society and its
schools. Voluntary minorities are generally more optimistic about the future than
involuntary minorities. They tend to believe that the hardships they encounter in the
United States are temporary problems and that they will be able to overcome these
problems through education and hard work without losing their minority-group identity.
Goyette and Xie (1999) share the same belief about family and high educational
expectations of Asian American parents. They claim that Asian American parents view
education as an effective channel of upward mobility for their children. Like Ogbu,
Goyette and Xie (1999) believe that Asian Americans are confident about the benefits
25
that education can bring to their children. Consequently, they value education more than
the cultural model of success among Pilipino immigrants. Most first generation parents
were educated in the Philippines. Hence, part of their “American Dream” is to have their
children go to a good school and choose careers that are prestigious and readily available.
Wolf (1997) discusses how the “family” is the magnet that holds everyone together. It is
the positive base of maintaining the Pilipino identity in a foreign land. Unfortunately, it
also leads to internal struggles among the immigrant children. In one of her interviews,
It’s true that they say what do you want to be and if you come out with
you want to be a doctor they will be really happy or any of the other two
categories (lawyers or engineers) but if you were to come back after your
first year and say “I want to be a musician or an artist,” they would have a
cow. They say “we encourage you to do what you want,” but they don’t
want you to do anything that is risky. They want the steady, secure job.
Pilipino immigrants consider money and prestige as the criteria for success. Prestige,
however, is not about luxury cars, big houses in Beverly Hills or fame. Prestige is
synonymous with the academic achievement of their children. Through this outlook, one
can begin to grasp Pilipino students’ high academic achievement or immediate post-
Several scholars and researchers have been focused on elaborating new conceptual
26
students. The focused has always been on African American and Latino youths. As per
Stanton-Salazar (1997), the existing classical models of early socialization are consistent
with dominant White cultural standards. The study of socialization among other cultures
needs to be addressed.
A few, if any, have been focused on Asian Americans, and for the sake of this
review, Pilipinos. Such models are important to understand the impeding problems of the
conducive to success in education for all students (e.g. African Americans, Asian
The study of how institutions (such as schools) affect students may not be
available, but the roles of institutional agents (teachers and administrators) are palpable.
Stanton-Salazar (1997) defines institutional agents as those individuals who have the
programs, academic tutoring and mentoring, as well as assistance with career decision-
making. Through relationships with institutional agents, a segment of society gains the
society. Minority students, including Pilipinos, direly need such support to advance and
institutional agents. They are the first line of defense in helping these students achieve
their dreams post-high school. If done correctly, they can assemble their social capital to
27
empower low status students of color. They can also share their knowledge of how to
They cannot just be role models and offer encouragement. They must alter the destinies
of low status students of color by sharing their social capital, i.e., their networks, with, in
this case, Pilipino immigrant, 1.5 generation, and 2nd generation too.
Portes and Rumbaut (2001) give adolescent years more importance than the early
where identities and plans often change and experiences determine the course of future
lives. Outlooks on their social-environment also evolve markedly during this critical
time. With this said, it is important for such institutional agents to be more supportive
and aware of the students’ needs. Azores (1987) suggests that Filipinos are dropping out
of the educational system after high school. Furthermore, out of the five English-
speaking Asian American groups (Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Pilipino and Vietnamese),
Pilipinos rank high in English and Reading, suggesting that the problems are non-
language related. One of the possibilities, as Staton-Salazar (1997) suggests that solid
relationships with institutional agents are necessary to advance and maintain position in
society.
school. Although we need more on school experiences for both voluntary and
extra-curricular activities, sports, and affective memories that can hold a strong
foundation for a better future. Stanton-Salazar alludes to important social spheres for
28
youth, school, organizations, and peer groups. Children, more so human beings, are not
agents, I focused my review on how teachers perpetuate the Model Minority Stereotype
Lee (1994) stated, “In the model minority stereotype, Asian Americans are
successful in school because they work hard and come from cultures that believe in the
Americans (as a whole, compared with Blacks and Latinos), low rates of marital
disruption, and the relative success of Asian American students suggest an almost
problem-free home environment (Kao, 1995). Kao (1995) suggests that an Asian
American home provides a stable and supportive haven for their children. Wang and Wu
(1996) observe the positive image of the Asian Americans is very convincing:
The Asian American population and scholars have ever since defied the Model Minority
Thesis. They claim that it is only a myth and that only some Asian Americans have made
significant strides in their socio-economic status and education success. Many articles
and books have been published challenging the Model Minority assumptions. Forty
years later, the Asian American population insists it is still a myth. Cheryan and
Bodenhausen (2000) claimed that focusing the Asian American participants’ attention on
29
their ethnicity, rather than ability, did not improve their performance. Such pressures
performance. Even high school and college students complain that the pressures of being
“smart” in school puts a lot of pressure on them in always being able to get good grades.
What is interesting is that they get disproportionally high grades compared to other
minorities who are not pushed by the model minority folk theory of making it.
Asian Americans have been frequently described as the model minority because
they are believed to have succeeded in the United States, surpassing not only other racial
minority groups but even White Americans (Ying et al, 2001). The Model Minority
Myth has been the most prevalent stereotype among the Asian American population. It is
measured through the numbers of college applicants, standardized test scores, and income
per capita per household. The numbers are impressive, but what the numbers do not
show is the motivational factors behind the myth. The cultural model of success explains
how voluntary minorities uses education as a way to “make it” in the foreign land. Asian
Americans, in this case, Pilipinos, are more inclined to encourage their children to
succeed in school simply because this is the only way they can “make it.” “Making it” is
a part of Ogbu’s Folk Theory of Success. It is the ability to succeed in a foreign land
with the proper education, a stable job, a solid family, and a house. As Ogbu (1998)
explains, immigrants see school success as a major route to making it in the United
States.
Asian students do well in school because “their parents expect it, their teachers
expect it, and their peers expect it” (Yan and Lin, 2002). Expectation is the greatest
motivating factors for Asian American students. Their parents also see a strong utility
30
value in education. School teachers perceive Asian Americans as quiet and respectful.
Sue and Okazaki have added that their high achievement is a result of their culture. Sue
and Okazaki (1990) have identified the following values or practices in Asian families
that may promote educational achievements. These values are typical in an Asian family
b. Induction of guilt about parental sacrifices and the need to fulfill obligations
c. Respect for education, social comparisons with other Asian American families in
Again, we see expectation as part of the social milieu for the Pilipino students.
Ogbu (1998) explains the cultural model of success or the folk theory of “Making
(hence, folk) or formally implemented. It is only spoken and passed on to the next
generation. The folk theory of success is the community’s discussion on how to achieve
success. Voluntary minorities believe that working hard and earning an education will
lead to a successful life in the United States (Ogbu, 1998). A quality education carries
much weight in the Philippines. Parents consider that a quality education is among the
greatest gifts they can bestow upon their children. Corrigan (2004) describes how
Pilipino immigrant parents work countless overtime hours so that their sons and
31
While there have been no direct studies on Pilipino American students and the
folk theory of “Making It,” there has been studies of other Asian groups. Eun-Young
Kim studied how Korean Americans convey the same high expectations of the parents for
their children’s education. Pilipino parents convey high expectations for their children
regarding success in their educational and professional careers in direct and subtle ways.
From conversations at the dinner table to formal gatherings, the children’s career choices
often become a central topic of conversation. These stories provide evidence of the way
the cultural model of success translates into pressure on the children to choose certain
careers and professional paths. Kim’s (1993) research on Korean American students
similarly reflects on how the Pilipinos choose to a make a home in America. According
to Kim (1993), they are determined to “make it”, and their determination influences their
perceptions of social realities. Folk stories about a student who graduated from a
prestigious school become the talk of the town. Conversation in hair salons, picnic
gatherings, and Sunday mass has been about the child of Mr. and Mrs. Educated whose
child went to Harvard. Informal conversations become a way to convey the salient ideas
of the culture as a whole both to parents and their children. Similarly, the Pilipino
law, and engineering. The folk theory of success lives on through informal and formal
congregation within the community. Ogbu’s cultural model of success allows us to look
at the relationship of Pilipino Americans and U.S. society as a whole. Ogbu did not write
directly on Pilipinos but it is important to point out that these direct assertions comes
from my own observations of the culture as a Pilipino and the researcher of this study.
32
Ogbu differentiates between voluntary and involuntary immigrants and their cultural
model of success. Pilipinos, as voluntary immigrants, have their stories to share as well.
Ogbu’s cultural model for success did not specifically look at the relationship of the
Pilipino Americans and American society as a whole. Yet, Ogbu’s model can be applied
to set up the foundation of how Pilipinos define their success in the United States. Kim
(1993) describes a sense of hopefulness as part of the trust that voluntary immigrants give
to the dominant society – the United States. Instead of having an oppositional identity,
mainstream society. The Philippines and the United States have a long-standing
relationship that can be traced back to the 1800s. The United States took over the
Philippines in 1898 from Spain. Pilipinos look at the United States as the savior, the
provider, and the land of opportunities. Therefore, Pilipinos perceive their prospective
life in the United States with the confidence that they are in good hands.
Ogbu’s (1998) cultural model also explores the dominant group’s treatment of
on the importance given to education. Teachers have different levels of expectations for
students of color. The student-teacher interaction pattern can differ from one student to
the other. The model minority myth, often applied to Asian Immigrants, can be
detrimental and beneficial at the same time for Pilipino students. Teachers tend to have
higher expectations for Asian students. Lee (1994) observed how teachers pointed to the
bulletin board which listed the names of the top students to show her that Asians did well
in school. The cultural ecology of success is essentially the study of minority perceptions
33
and their response to schooling. Immigrant students’ perceptions of their educational
experiences, even with discrimination and prejudice in the United States, can fashion a
positive view of life here. More specifically, the folk theory of “making it” can be
applied to any Pilipino student who believes that education is the key to success. Other
researchers have focused their studies on other ethnic groups and their definition of
“making it”. Interestingly, the motivating factor for succeeding in school is always
attributed to the core family. Suarez-Orozco (1987) believes first generation immigrant
students excel in school to repay parents and relatives, to make their struggles worthwhile
Americans, the pattern may still be applied to all first generation immigrants.
Pilipinos look at the United States in a positive light. First generation Pilipino
parents have not been in urban America long enough to experience direct discrimination.
Technology has also closely connected Philippines and the United States. The cultures of
the two worlds have been intertwined in the Philippines through television, movies, and
with other Pilipinos. This familiarity with American culture has encouraged many
First generation Pilipino immigrants often have limited resources. The lack of
social capital, networking, proper education for the parents, and cultural assimilation are
some of the limited resources of the Pilipino families. Some have dealt with the
34
Americans during their stay in the Philippines, but this is not enough when you are
permanently living on the American soil. The way of life is different. Expectations and
values are different. Pilipino parents want to keep their children close to home not just
because they are protecting their children from the new environment but because they are
afraid of losing their children – culturally. The cultural value that defines a Pilipino
family includes cooperation, mutual support, and a sense of belonging (Salazar et al,
2000). They place the highest value on interdependence which can be harmful for the
independent but at the same time, still be interdependent as a family. This split in attitude
is a contradictory practice that often contributes to the struggles that many Pilipino
Wolf (1997) defines the conflict between the parents and the children as
different culture, ideologies, and goals that permeate the lives of both the parents and the
children. Although parents are still directly linked to the Philippines, their children
maintain these ties at a different level. The children live in a different cultural code that
combines the old and the new culture. Wolf (1997) suggests that children experience
“emotional transnationalism” which falls in between the parents, the old/new ideologies,
and their own goals. It is a struggle due to its conflicting nature. In choosing a career,
these immigrant students are stuck between what is right and what feels right. As I often
argue, not all Pilipino students want to be in the medical or accounting field. Careers in
theatre and arts are often discouraged due to its wavering economic pull. Wolf (1997)
describes her observations by relaying a typical story after high school graduation:
35
None of their Filipino students applied to out-of-state universities. The
teachers and counselors found this excessive pushing and then braking to
be puzzling and disconcerting. While the parents push their children to
excel in school, they are also pulling them back from moving too far
away.
The family has a strong influence on the selection of a career path after high school.
Here or in the Philippines, Pilipino students listen to their family as a sign of respect. Ma
and Yeh (2005) suggest that the family plays an integral role in Asian-American youths’
career development. Family involvement and feedback are very important to Asian
families, including Pilipinos, who have recently immigrated to the United States. For
most of them, their college-bound child symbolizes hope for a better future. Their child’s
Salazar and others (2000) have pointed out that among Filipino families education
is a family project, not just an individual effort. It is a collective effort between parents,
children, and extended family members. Hence, family needs have priority and
individual members often downplay their own needs and desires if they conflict with
those of larger family (Huang in Fuligni et al 1999). Thus, duty to family becomes a
Family Obligation
Pilipinos) families socialize their children into the traditions of having a close-knit family
by expecting them to support and respect family authority. For example, Asian-
American parents expect older children to care for younger siblings while they work two
jobs. Parents expect them to perform some of the major tasks at home such as buying
food, preparing meals, and working after school to help out with expenses.
36
Such familial duties for the children extend throughout their lives into adulthood.
Parents expect their children to eventually care for them. Pilipino families condemn
convalescent homes and senior living. They think their children should be able to take
care of them at home and not in some old-age facility. Children feel obligated to support
their parents even if they have their own family. Three aspects of family obligations that
impact the career decisions of first generation Pilipino students include: 1) current family
support, 2) respect for the family, and 3) future support to the family as adults.
choices. This responsibility influences their choice of location of the college they are
likely to attend. Depending on the level of assistance to the family, the child will most
likely attend a college close to home. Family assistance can restrict children to choose
careers that are more practical over those that may be of greater interest to them. This
family obligation impacts the type of post-secondary education they will seek while
continuing to help their families. Assistance also includes taking care of brothers and
sisters, running family errands, and spending weekends with family (Fuligni et al, 1999).
Respect for family is one of the most influential factors impacting Pilipino
students’ career decision. Leon and others (2004) concur that “Out of respect and
loyalty, it may not be appropriate to express personal desires; rather, one may alter one’s
for the sake of the family, follow parents’ advice about choosing a job or major in college
and lastly, make sacrifices for the family. As previously mentioned, first generation
parents worry about being employable in a foreign land. They discourage majors in
music, drama, and art due to their unpredictability when it comes to finding a job after
37
college. It is important in the Pilipino culture for children to be obedient to their parents’
wishes. Parents usually encourage careers that will not cost much money, but at the same
time, are stable sources of income. Careers in nursing, accounting, and engineering are
stability and prestige. They discourage career choices in sports and arts because of their
unstable nature. Parents believe that the major reason they emigrated to the United States
is to have a better life; and a critical aspect of having a better life entails being able to
find a job that can support the whole family. Unlike American families, Asian families
do not find the need to encourage individualized and personal decisions; they approach it
Employability, i.e., the realistic feasibility of being employed in a stable job, then
culture, immigrant parents and children seek careers that will support the whole family.
Leong and others (2004) found that Asian American men and women tend to be more
Within Pilipino culture, providing future support for the family is about children’s
spending time with their parents even when they are no longer living with them or
attending a college near the parents. Fuligni and others (1999) interpret such obligations
38
Choosing the right career is a collective behavior that stems from students, parents,
It brings hope as well as financial stability for the whole family in the future. Pilipino
students’ career decisions reflect these values. As a result, students feel the pressure of
abiding by their parents’ wishes. The social norm of the American culture is quite the
opposite. Tang and others (1999) make the following observation: “While U.S. culture
choice, Asian Americans view career choice as mutually beneficial for themselves and
their families.”
Family Value
closeness and solidarity, 2) authority, 3) economic and social mobility, and 4) patience
and endurance to bear pain. Pilipino families abide by these values as part of any
decision-making they engage in. These values are important to our understanding of the
Family closeness and solidarity is not only important in education but also in
to feel a sense of home in a foreign land. Parental self-sacrifice is the most sentimental
theme of family dynamics in Pilipino culture. The notion that they came to the United
39
State for the future of their children is praised; however, it also exacts a hefty debt of
gratitude from the children. All parents ask of their children is to graduate from college
and get a good paying job. Parents hope that the debt of gratitude will inspire their
Pilipino families value authority which focuses more on respecting higher authority
in an educational setting. Gutelius (1981) makes the following observation: “This value
may readily account for the visible respect Filipino students have for school personnel
and their reluctance to publicly disobey or contradict their judgment even when they are
wrong.” Parents remind their children to always behave properly outside their homes.
The way children behave publicly is a reflection on how they are raised at home.
Children need to do well in school because they want others to see them as good children
and citizens.
Pilipino families value economic and social mobility. This value can be seen as a
desire to raise a family’s status in society. Economic stability provides a peace of mind
for the parent to know their children can support themselves and the family. Part of the
American dream is to have a stable job and be socially accepted in the United States.
Gutelius (1981) concluded that, “It is perceived as a means to dignity and social
acceptance.”
Gender Roles
Gender roles within Pilipino culture impact the career choices of immigrant
students. Typically, parents have a different set of expectations for daughters and the
sons. The eldest sons usually have the responsibility to care for the parents when they get
old. Hence, parents encourage their male children to pursue a career that will make more
40
money and bring further prestige for the family. The daughters, on the hand, have a
complicated role to fill. Since Pilipino highly regard education irrespective of gender,
parents still encourage their daughters to finish college. However, daughters need to fill
different roles for parents, the society as a whole, as a Pilipina, and as a future wife.
Pilipinas must take into account all of these expectations in choosing a career.
Belinda C. Badger (2002) believes that traditional Asian cultures have distinct
values in shaping a woman’s role. These include traditions, religious commitment, and
family piety. Espiritu (2001) calls this the push/pull factor from where parents encourage
their daughters to complete college, but simultaneously do not want their daughters to
move from home. On the other hand, parents are more lenient with their sons than their
daughters in regards to attending prestigious colleges away from home. Female peers
encourage other Pilipinas to attend local colleges so that they could live at or be close to
home. Espiritu (2001) conveys that Pilipino parents, particularly with daughters, pursue
contradictory tactics with their children. They push them to achieve academically while
in high school, but then “pulling the emergency brake” when they contemplate college.
Parents expect them to say home even if it means going to a less competitive college or
Hindin (2005) describes that boys are more likely than girls to see their mothers
as permissive, while girls are more likely than boys to see them as authoritative. Pilipino
parents are more protective of their daughters. Aside from being safe, the parents want to
defend their daughters’ reputations. They want to find a suitable husband for them.
However, with new opportunities and outlooks for women, such as new career choices
41
and management positions, girls are experiencing more gender norm changes. In the end,
Espiritu (2001) suggests that parenting is heavily gendered. Pilipino parents tend
to restrict their daughters’ autonomy, mobility, and personal decision making more than
that of their sons. Based on the historical context and religious implications, a Pilipina is
The strong gender influences suggest different sets of relationships for sons and
daughters. Cultural factors behind career decision making are important to consider when
interest and mental health. Traditional beliefs dictated gender roles and these may be
beneficial for children. However, global and local trends are exposing working women
They put a lot of pressure on us girls growing up. The two boys got the
most freedom from all of us because it’s like they are invincible, nothing
can happen to them. But the girls are so fragile and something might
happen to them so they have to make sure that they can do something and
that they are protected all the time.
Wolf (1999) states that the gender issue is part of the family secrets that Pilipino families
carry. Although the attempt to keep children at home as long as possible can be applied
to most daughters (and some sons), it is clearly more readily true for daughters. This
creates a very different experience for girls based on parents’ gendered notion of
42
propriety. The parents expect all their children to succeed post-high school, but there are
Colonial Mentality
The colonial mentality, which David and Okazaki (2006) define as internalized
oppression, is embedded in Pilipino minds regarding their thoughts and actions around
centuries of Spanish and U.S. colonization. Pilipinos are the non-dominant group
The colonial mentality of the Pilipinos also comes into play when choosing a
career. Colonial mentality is a psychological construct that plays a major role in the lives
condition in which oppressed individuals and groups come to believe that they are
(David & Okazaki, 2006). As a result, Pilipinos who have lived through American
influence may believe that they will never be better than the Americans. David and
Okazaki (2006) argue that because many Filipinos were poor and economic mobility was
extremely limited at the time, the Americans’ information about the United States may
have distorted the Filipinos’ way of life in America. As a result, Pilipinos developed a
grandiose picture that they need to be “American” to be socially accepted. This includes
being educated, choosing the right career, and working towards the middle-class citizen..
As a result, they go for careers that are immediately in demand, especially when these
careers help the family now. They seek careers that are immediately available rather than
43
careers in music or arts that can delay bringing in prestige or financial assistance to the
family.
There are a huge number of Pilipino parents that arrive to the United with a
college education. Goyette and Xie (1999) show that 29.9% of Pilipino fathers are
college graduates while 28.7% of Pilipino mothers are college graduates. These
percentages are higher than Whites parents whose average is 28% for fathers and 22.3%
for mothers. They also proposed that much of the educational success of Asian American
children in the United States can be attributed to the family background. Japanese,
Chinese, Filipino, and Korean American adults surpass whites in average educational
attainment. Although they cannot transfer their diplomas and degrees to American
institutions, parents are well educated and highly motivated to send their children to
school. Posadas (1999) observes that, “Having arrived with diplomas in hand, [the]
States – securing their children’s education and utilizing their own” (pg. 102). Their
children. Parental involvement in career decision making for the children serves to help
parents realize their own dreams and ensure that their children’s careers are practical and
Family background and parental expectations are linked to social capital from
where first-generation children are only exposed to what their parents know. According
that an actor (be it an individual or group or community) can access through 2) its
location in a social network. For the first-generation Pilipino students, the quantity
44
and/or quality of resources are very limited. As immigrants, their work and living
conditions are still unstable. The parents have not yet found a stable job to support their
children. They might not even have a place to call home. Most of the time, they stay
with relatives until they find a decent job. There is also a lack of social networking.
Zhou and Bankston III (1998) explain that family closeness can also be a problem:
The kinds of resources that families provide their children may not be enough to get
ahead here, including going to school and choosing the right career path. There are a lot
of social resources available to these families. Stanton-Salazar (1997) lists them as,
First-generation Pilipino students will have little access to social capital that will advance
their children academically. They do not have parents who are alumni of prestigious
colleges who can make phone calls. They do not have uncles who donated millions of
interacting with others in the similar social groupings, would be embedded in social
45
Career Choices with Limited Social Capital
Being a first generation high school student is hard. However, it is much harder to
survive life after high school without any guiding foundation from family and the rest of
the Pilipino community. High school students who receive a lot of support from family
and others have more positive attitudes about the value of school and their place in it
(Kenny et al, 2003). To reform education, we must also reform how we guide students to
their educational dreams. Feller (2003) adds, “Standards-based school reform efforts
conditions to stimulate students to use their strengths in socially relevant ways.” Positive
influence from the society and the environment is an important factor in eliminating
perceived barriers. Positive influence includes peers that attend college or an older
sibling that is already in college. Unfortunately, our urban students are now more
First generation students do not have the luxury of obtaining such resources such as
financial support, leisure travel to different parts of the world, theatre, and summer
camps. These kinds of resources are beneficial for their social awareness but also to
As Stanton-Salazar added,
Social capital is power. Their only access to social capital is through their parents who
struggle to survive in a foreign land. First generation families are more likely to come
46
from lower-income homes. The issue of family income or socio-economic status is one
McCarron and Inkelas (2006) stress the importance of parental involvement. They
claim that social capital as it relates to education includes the knowledge of the college
campus, financial aid, familiarity with college applications, and awareness of higher
lacking among first generation Pilipino students. Although first generation Pilipino
parents are educated, their knowledge about higher education customs in the United
network of adults is the key to a successful career. Since first generation students still
lack this connection, they are once again handicapped from choosing the career they
desire. As they go out in the real world, they are competing against new graduates that
may have connections to different fields through their parents, experience, and better
socio-economic status.
Social capital theory is relevant to this study because it describes the dynamics of
the social structures within first generation Pilipino students that foster the development
of career awareness, American identity, and a sense of belonging. The lack of experience
and awareness is a salient component when making the career decisions after high school.
It is an important study simply because (not quite sure what you are saying here:
Pilipinos, in general, are not models.) Their problems, like any other immigrants, are not
a myth either.
47
In summation, this literature review has invoked the findings of several studies;
five authors, of which, became the theoretical foundation of my research questions. John
and Grace Kao’s discussions of model-minority stereotype and high- and low-achieving
Asian American students, Eun-Young Kim’s work on cultural models of success, and
influences a career post-high school. I begin with Ogbu’s voluntary and involuntary
guidance on how she applied to Korean American students. Lastly, Wolf discusses how
such conflict can cause transnational struggle between the old and the new world. These
five authors provide a foundation that will help answer the underlying factors of how
one’s career is shaped during high school. It is a combination of family, values, two
different worlds (the new and the old), and institutional support that stem from teachers
and administrators.
Cazares’ dissertation (2009), Jews and Mormons are described as autonomous and very
successful. Then we have the immigrants and voluntary minorities who encounter some
problems in school and work but do not demonstrate major school failures. Lastly, we
have the involuntary minorities who seems to constantly suffer in school and post-
matriculation. The Pilipino Students are voluntary immigrants who face some struggle
due to the language barrier and cultural confusion. However, given appropriate guidance
48
and training, they seem to succeed in school and post- matriculation. Through this
literature review, we understand that involuntary minorities experience the most social
Stacey Lee and Grace Kao’s definition of the Model Minority Stereotype shed light
on how teachers and administrators have high expectations to the Pilipino students.
Some researchers argue that such expectations are detrimental to their mental health.
There are some, however, believe that high expectations pushes the Pilipino students to
do better in school. They have a reputation to uphold – socially and mentally. As Lee
This study will look at how the Model Minority Stereotype will shape a Pilipino students’
using Ogbu’s Cultural Model of Success. She applied the same theoretical foundation to
Korean American students and learned how family is a strong influence for the students.
Albeit its differences with the Pilipino students, the Korean children hold the same
respect and value in regards to their family. Young pointed out the importance of the
Folk Theory of Success. The way parents talk to their children during parties, dinner,
after church, during a social gathering are important pointers on how children mold their
Capital and it is important to note that having social capital is power. It is a power to
49
hold in order to gain access to inside information regarding job openings, college majors,
and personal relationships to people outside the family. Her research, with its richness,
With all these contrasts regarding family and children, there bound to be a struggle
between the old (parents) and the new (children). Wolf’s transnational struggles fit
perfectly on how the relationship of family can be explained. It is not easy. Each family
forms a different dynamics. The literature review depicts contradicting expectations from
their children. The parents want their children to be able to help financially after high-
school; and yet, they also want them to go to a prestigious college – close to home. There
is a push and pull phenomena for the children. This research will attempt to provide
five great authors to look at different angles on how we can provide help and alleviate
50
Chapter 3: Methods
further understand how the environment affects the education experience of the
This was a qualitative research study which served the following purpose:
foreign land
career enclaves
4) Devised implication for students, parents, school administrators, and the public as
a whole; addressed the lack of (social and human) capital strong enough to
The focus of this study was to identify viable factors that affect Pilipino high
school students in choosing their careers. My preliminary interest was on Pilipina nurses
in the United States. I wondered why an influx of nurses from the Philippines is booming
in the United States. I later found out that due to decades of relationship between the
United States and Philippines, there was an underlying economic factor: Supply and
Demand. The United States needed workers. The Philippines needed (and still need)
work. One hundred years later, how does this relationship guide or distract the Pilipino
students of today?
51
I was very intrigued at how Pilipino parents define success through their
relies on experience, family influence, and how success is being defined. I was interested
in examining the students’ life in and outside the school and how this affects his or her
decision-making post-high school. I had high hopes that these identifiers can still be
Even though Pilipinos are the second largest Asian American population in the
United States, little is known about them and very little socio-cultural research exists on
this particular group. Since it is fair to say that as a group, Pilipinos value education; and
the career success that they believe is aligned with a good education, I chose to study the
empirical study on the career patterns of Pilipino youth should benefit high school
counselors and parents. High school counselors generally guide students in terms of
college preparation and possible career choices. The parents of the Pilipino students can
better understand that there are more options and career choices open to these young
schooling. A positive high school experience can motivate students to continue their
matriculation to higher education. They can even correlate such positive experience to
having positive relationships with their peers. A negative experience, on the other hand,
can be discouraging. They might find schools to be boring and a waste of time. By
measuring the level of acculturation of Pilipino youth (and also their parents) and
including social capital as contextual factors for this study, I examined the career
52
trajectories of this group in depth.
Sampling
The study was conducted in Suburbia Unified School District (SUSD). SUSD has
an enrollment over 27,000 students attending over 31 schools. Suburbia High School
(GHS) was the research target selected for three reasons: (1) it had a 51/49 ratio of
female and male students, (2) offered AP courses (open to any other student) as any other
high school with similar characteristics, (3) was (and still is) a diverse learning
environment, with an almost equal distribution of students with diverse background, and
(4) 10% of the population is Pilipino. Their real names were changed.
enrollment data. It has a Base API of 755 and Ranked Number 7 Statewide. Suburbia
High School is part of California schools that has been steadily increasing in enrollment
for more than 15 years. The percentage of Latino and Asian students continue to grow
while percentages of African American and White students have been declining. Based
on the 2008-09 enrollment data, Suburbia High School has the following enrollment: 1)
Whites are 55%, 2) Latinos are 30%, 3) Pilipinos are 10%, 4) Other Asians are 5%, and
5) No Response is 5%. There are only 574 English Learners out of 3,051 students and
administrators. The percentage of teachers who are Whites are 84%, Latinos are 8%,
Pilipinos are 1%, Other Asians are 5%, and Unknown are 2%. The teachers and
administrators serve as the role model for the students. Specifically for the Pilipino
53
participants, data shows that there is only 1% of Pilipino teachers in Suburbia High
School.
students who were immigrant (first and 1.5 generation) and who were American-born
(non-immigrant). I also looked at high-achieving students with GPA of 3.5 and higher
versus average-achieving students with GPA of 2.0 and higher. Although the focus of
this research does not include gender issues, I included it in my sample size. I liked to do
a post-doctorate research on gender gaps and how it translates to school success and/or
failure.
High Achieving Students with 3.0 GPA or High Achieving Students with 3.0 GPA or
higher higher
Average Achieving Students with 2.0 GPA Average Achieving Students with 2.0 GPA
or higher or higher
and transcribing data from the one-on-one student interviews and follow-up clarification
with each student. The transcription process, together with the research questions in-
front of me, assisted me to examine student responses (at times, their body language)
more closely and intimately. It served me to maintain my focus and goal for this
dissertation. At times, these students needed just a voice. The disadvantage of this
54
approach was that not all participants are comfortable to share their answers when they
are being recorded. There were students who prefer to be anonymous and have their
answers written on the paper. This took a little bit more time (15 minutes per interview)
This case study of career choices of first generation Pilipino students at Suburbia
High School was focused on individual interviews. I secured consent from the site
administration and the college counselor at Suburbia High School that is contingent upon
the study’s approval by the university’s and the school district’s institutional review
times during the Fall 2009 semester. Additionally, my focus groups were divided
between male and female participants. I randomly selected 14 Pilipino students from
grades nine through twelve. Once participants were identified (state who these were),
and demographic data (see Appendix I) , which consisted of age, sex, place of birth,
generation status, parents’ occupations, plans after high school, and current career
choices.
choices that the participants plan to pursue after high school. I expected that the
individual interviews may bring out information not easily shared in the presence of peers
and parents. The data gathered from the participants provided a sense on how the
children agree or disagree with their parents’ cultural model of success. Their definition
of success may differ from what their peers and parents believe in.
It was my choice to use a small sample size so I could go much more in depth. The small
55
of career choices for Pilipino students and the possibility of offering research-based
each participant and their current situation at school. Their educational experiences
varies, which can be a useful tool for the rest of Pilipino-heritage to follow.
Student Profiles
The fourteen students were recruited through the assistance of the high school
principal. All of them were involved in a student organization devoted to dance and this
may have placed some limitations; however, it is a sample of convenience and worked to
secure the students for this dissertation. A brief description is provided for each student.
Lali arrived from the Philippines five years ago to Los Angeles, CA. She moved
to California with her mother, father, and younger sister. Both of her parents are born
and raised in the Philippines. Most of her family comes from the Philippines. Lali’s
father completed his education in the Philippines as a Civil Engineering. Currently, his
father is a bank clerk in Pasadena, California. Her mother, on the other hand, did not
complete her college education. She is working as a student store clerk in one of the
Lali is excelling in class. She is taking most honors and AP classes. Her GPA is
above 4.0 (weighted) and she plans to go straight to a 4-year college. Unfortunately, her
parents are encouraging her to go to a community college first to save some money. She
wants to pursue nursing or become a pharmacist once she completes her general
education.
56
Lali enjoys theatres and reading on her spare time. She spends most of her time
with her family and still has strong ties to the Philippines. She watches the Filipino
Channel and is still much aware of the Filipino culture through the television. She speaks
Bryan is born in California. He lives with his mother, father, and grandmother.
Both of his parents finished high school in the Philippines. Bryan is not taking any honor
or AP classes in his last year of high school. He loves his dance class and this is his great
motivator to get to school on time, everyday. His GPA is between 2.6 to 2.9. He applied
to some California State Universities and if none of the schools accept him, he will attend
a community college. Even though he is still undecided about his career, he believes that
obtaining a higher education is the key to a successful life in the United States.
Nina arrived in Suburbia, California three years ago. Both of her parents
completed a four-year degree from the Philippines. Even if she has only been here for
three years, she is aware of the careers that are direly needed in the medical field. Her
mother is very involved in her career decision-making. She tells Nina about other
daughters and what schools they attended. Her mother talks about career options in the
She loves to sing and dance but she refers to these career paths as “risky.” Now,
she is looking for a career in the medical field. Nina is not taking any honors or AP
classes. She would like to go straight to a State University but her parents urge her to go
57
4. Donna, 11th Grade (Group 3)
Donna arrived to the United States when she was 6 years old. Both of her parents
completed a four-year degree from the Philippines. She claims she lives in a “Full
House,” with her parents, sister, grandmother and “much more.” Donna has a lot of
families here in Suburbia and Eagle Rock, California. Donna is not taking AP or honor
classes. She and her parents would like her to attend a four-year college, and as much as
possible, avoid community college or trade school. She likes to major in astronomy or
nursing because that is what her mother would like her to be. Her father is more laid-
back regarding her career choices. Her father would like her to complete a college degree
Donna’s family is also thinking about sending her back to the Philippines to
complete her nursing degree. It is transferrable, affordable, and she can easily come back
to the United States to work. Donna would like to stay in the United States for her
college degree.
Jeffrey arrived to the United States when he was only one year old. He came here
with both of his parents, a brother, and a sister. He lives in Pacoima which is about 25
miles from his high school. His parents believe that Suburbia High School is a good
public school and is willing to travel a total of 50 miles just to get to Suburbia High
School. Both of his parents obtained a college degree from the Philippines.
taking any honors or AP classes and his GPA is between 3.5 to 3.75. His parents are
58
involved in his career-decision making. He believes that “not getting good grades makes
him a failure.”
Niccole is born in Santa Ana, California. She has a huge family that includes
three of her grandparents, her mother, three uncles, two aunts, and three cousins. They
are very close to each other. Her mother is very much involved in her career-decision
making. Her mother discussed with her several options, not only in the medical field.
Her GPA is between 3.0 to 3.4. She is taking one honor class and one AP Class.
She plans to be a Doctor of Pediatrics or a nurse. Niccole’s plan after high school is to
get a job and attend a four-year college. Her mother, however, would like her to
Yvonne is born in Saudi Arabia and migrated to the United States when she was
seven years old. Both of her parents are Pilipinos who worked in Saudi Arabia before
moving to Suburbia, California. She lives with her parents and one other sister. Her
Yvonne is currently taking one honor class and no AP classes. Her choices in
career are: Pharmacist, accountant, nurse, and flight attendant – all of which are
Josh is the oldest of four children. He believes that he is the smartest out of all
the siblings. Josh was seven years old when they moved here from the Philippines. He
used to be insecure of his Tagalog accent but got over it as the years pass by. Both of
59
Josh’s parents are nurses. Although it is a secured career, Josh believes that his parents
are not happy being a nurse. The parents don’t really encourage Josh to be a nurse.
After high school, Josh wants to get a job and attend a UC University. His parents,
however, wants him to get a job after high school. His GPA is higher than 3.75.
Ariel was born in Culver City, California. She lives with her mother, two
brothers, grandmother, and an uncle. Her mother is her greatest motivator in life. She
helps Ariel with her career choices and Ariel listens to her mother a lot. As a single-
parent, Ariel wants to make her mom proud and “still want to try harder” even though she
Ariel is taking one honor class and no AP class. Her GPA is between 3.5 to 3.75.
Her mother wants her to attend a State University but Ariel wants to try going to a
community college first. Her career choices are: Veterinarian, astronomer, and teacher.
Don was born in Los Angeles, California. He lives with both of his parents and a
brother. His parents completed high school in the Philippines. His parents want him to
painter.” His mother, in particular, is very involved in Don’s career decisions. Jokingly,
she also plans Don’s life e.g. career, wife, number of children, house, etc.
Don wants to be a computer engineer, but he is afraid that his parents would
rather want him to be a nurse. He is not sure yet what to do after high school. He is
willing to go to a trade school or a four-year university. His GPA is higher than 3.75.
60
11. Francis, 11th Grade (Group 2)
Francis was born in Long Beach, California. His parents are divorced and live
with his mother and step-father. His relationship with his step-dad and step-brother is
great. His parents are both educated from the Philippines. His parents are both
Francis is taking mostly honors and AP classes. He is outgoing and has a girl
friend in high school. He is very open to any opportunities that may come. When asked
about his plans after high school, he is not sure yet. He can go to a trade school,
community college, State University, or the UC System. His parents, however, only
prefers that he goes to a four-year private college. Francis wants to be a pharmacist and
Kyle is the most outgoing student I interviewed. He views his life differently and
plans to go solo after high school. He is funny and very engaging. This is his last year in
high school. His responses to my questions were mostly unexpected. Kyle is born in
California. He lives with his mother and step-father together with a sister and a half-
brother. His father is also part of his life. Both is parents completed a 4-year college,
although it was never disclosed if it was in the United States or Philippines or somewhere
else.
Kyle is not taking any honors or AP classes. His GPA is between 2.0 to 2.25. He
did not apply to any universities because he is going straight to community college.
According to Kyle, his parents never talk about his career options because there is only
one thing to be: a Nurse. “My parents tell me that I should finish my high school and go
61
to a community college to be a RN.” His dream is simple, to get a place “near the beach
with his lover.” For a person with grand views, why is his career choice so limited?
Julia is born in the Philippines and migrated to Suburbia, California when she was
8 years old, third grade. She lives with both of her parents and a brother. She doesn’t
know the education level attained by both of her parents. Both of her parents are
involved in her career choices but she is not sure if they know what she really wants in
life. Her parents suggest careers that make “a lot of money but won’t be necessarily be
something (she) would like to spend her life doing.” Julia is taking most honors and AP
classes. She wants to be an engineer and attend a four-year college. Her GPA is between
3.5 to 3.75.
Bhoie is born in the Philippines and moved to Suburbia, California two years ago.
He lives with his parents, two brothers, and a sister. Both of his parents completed their
college degree in the Philippines. He has an older brother who completed his college
degree here in California. Higher education is a must in the Bhoie household. “There are
community college after high school. His parents, on the other hand, want him to go to a
doesn’t want a typical, stereotype Filipino job.” His GPA is between 3.5 to 3.75.
Instrumentation
62
control the answers. Much revision was necessary because there was no similar guide to
follow. There was no research regarding the specific background and group to rely upon.
As it turns out, the interview guide was the best way to go. The sessions were less
structured and flexibility was advocated. The interview guide contained thirty questions
Data Collection
Before collecting the data, I applied to the Institution Review Board (IRB) through
the University of Southern California. This mandatory process was to make sure that the
study is ethical and in no way harm the participants. Consent forms were both sent to the
parents and the students since most of the participants are under the age of eighteen. An
initial meeting was conducted with the principal of Suburbia High School for
The interview lasted for an hour for each participant. There were five interviews
per day. In total, the interviews lasted for three days. I spent the last two days observing
the students during nutrition and lunch to find out how they interact with their peers and
teachers. I also wanted to see how the teachers and administrators treat them. Overall,
the interviews and observations lasted for a whole week. Each interview was recorded in
order to transcribe the answers properly. I also used a note pad in order to highlight some
answers. It took two more days to transcribe all the answers. In order to properly
compare the answers, each of them was grouped into themes: Cultural Model of Success,
School Experience, and Family Values. The findings were based on these three themes.
Data Analysis
I digitally recorded each of the interviews with the permission from the students
63
and teacher. Later that day, I transcribed each interview in order to preserve it in my
memory. Then, the transcriptions were transferred onto the computer so that the
was read and interpreted. I looked at the general tone of the participants and looked at
the bigger picture of their message. Overall, is it a positive experience? Is there a cry for
help? From these transcripts, I was able to pull out specific and relevant excerpts that I
can use to solidify my research questions. For further clarity, I then used simple codes in
or order to group the answers together. The codes are “F” for family, “S” for school, and
“O” for Ogbu’s Cultural Model of Success. Once the themes were classified, I was able
to highlight the similarities and differences found within each thematic category. At this
point, it was easy to generate a description and set a specific tone for analysis. Lastly, I
then investigated the meaning of these similarities and differences, compared and
contrasted the results and presented policy implications for future readers. I interpreted
each question based on the five main authors’ work on cultural models, institution, and
family.
The questions from the structured student interviews were designed to tease out
whether one’s education level for the Pilipinos is an indicator of success. Through
Ogbus’s Cultural Model Success, these questions helped to understand the mindset of
Pilipino-heritage students. Secondly, the questions were also designed to find out more
may differ from other students and how it affects their future post-high school. Lastly,
the questions also included questions regarding parental relationship and how it can affect
64
the students’ decision-making process
65
Chapter 4: Findings
Fourteen students formed part of the voluntary immigrant cohort. This included
sub-groups which consists of: five high-achieving students (four-year universities track),
achieving students (some-sort of college track). Their ages upon arrival to the United
States ranged from less than a year to seventeen years. All the participants are what
Ogbu calls voluntary minorities who have moved more or less voluntarily to the United
States. They believe that coming here would lead to greater economic well-being.
Besides, Ogbu believed that the main factors distinguishing higher achieving minorities
appear to be their voluntary incorporation to the United States and their responses to
Given that all participants are voluntary immigrants, I divided them into sub-
groups based on their level of school achievement. Again, the sub-groups are: 1) High-
Keep in mind that all of these students are performing well in high school. Their
interpretation of their high school experience makes them more or less accomplices to
their own school success or failure. Based on their responses to the research questions, it
is clear there are three sources contributing to their post-high school plans: society,
The first sub-group of high-achieving students is what Ogbu depicts as part of the
presents, they are more accommodating to the educational system. They do not question
66
its value. Instead, immigrant parents are grateful for this opportunity. The immigrants are
The grades of the high-achieving students, 3.8 or higher, are testimony to their
positive relationship to school. They applied and got accepted to California State
University, Fullerton and Los Angeles. Four of the students will be attending a city
college and one received a full scholarship at Mt. Saint Mary’s College, Chalon. There is
one student who wants to go to the military and the rest of the students I interviewed have
not yet decided where they will be completing their college degrees. The students who
fall under this category are the immigrants who only have been in the United States for
less than five years. They attended schools in the Philippines and speak Tagalog fluently.
Two of the students have been in the United for less than five years. Ten of them were
born and raised in the United States, but their parents still communicate with them on
their native language. They still have strong ties in the Philippines. They still visit the
Philippines and are aware of the famous TV shows that are shown in cable in the United
States. Based on my observation (during lunch breaks), these students stay within their
groups and speak Tagalog among their peers. Their response towards post-high school is
very positive.
The second sub-group is the complete opposite of the first sub-group. Although
they perform well in high school, their post high school plans are vastly different that the
first sub-group. They value their high school education, but they do not find any utility
value after four years of matriculation. This group has a GPA between 2.5 to 3.0. They
67
During my observation, they are not afraid to express their opinions. They are
friendly with all the teachers and seemed to have their “place” in the school squad. They
wear clothes that you will see in teen magazines. Two of my participants are dating. It
was known that they are dating. Most of them have invited me to be part of their
Facebook account, a social networking system on the Web. All of them understand
Tagalog but they mainly speak English among their peers. They are more outspoken and
assimilated. They are well-liked by their peers and teachers. As part of the dance team,
they are required to raise money during the weekends by selling shave ice at the local
mall or sell chocolates. I have observed how well-rounded these students are. They are
not shy to talk to customers about their dance team. They encourage sales by telling the
customers that they need the funds for transportation and new uniforms.
This group shares some of the qualities as what Ogbu calls the involuntary
minorities. Although this reference is usually used to describe African Americans, Native
Americans and some Latin Americans, involuntarily minorities were taken to the United
States through slavery, conquest, or colonization. They had no choice but to move here.
Thus, their cultural frame of reference is different than the voluntary immigrants who had
social identity, which includes the importance of education (or lack thereof). They stress
other strategies besides schooling to “get ahead.” The second sub-group is performing
well in school. They do not skip class. They do not get in trouble. They have completed
all their A-G High School Graduation requirements, but they do not seem to find value in
68
The last sub-group is the most interesting. They are mostly 1.5 to second
generation Pilipino immigrants. They perform well in high school, with the GPA of 3.0
to 4.0. They have completed all the high school requirements. They want to go to state
colleges close to home. None of these students applied to out-of-state colleges or Ivy
League schools. Their majors are mostly in the healthcare field or accounting. As a
researcher, I would ask “why?” Initially, I applied Ogbu’s explanation that if language
problems persist, older children tend to select courses requiring less use of language, and
they avoid fields of study that prepare them for jobs where there is a job ceiling or
The last sub-group values their education like the first generation Pilipino
immigrants. I would like to know where institutional supports, ie schools, come into
place and provide a break between these three groups. All of these students, as voluntary
minority, try to develop serious academic attitudes, make good grades, respect school
authority, follow school rules; and yet, at the end of their high school experience, they
respond to their experiences differently. They are still afraid to leave the nest and listens
very carefully as to what their parents want. They were apprehensive in answering
questions that will make their parents “look bad.” None of the participants want to fail.
Their parents are a major part of their decision-making. In the end, it is just a matter of
this chapter. The findings of the differential accounts and experiences of these students
were presented separately for added clarity. Each student will be given a short
69
description as mentioned in Chapter 3. In the end, each research question will be
Research Question 1
Do Pilipino immigrants embrace education success as the vehicle for mobility in the
American Society? (Cultural Model of Success)
Dream. Success in education means success later in life. I want to be able to gather
evidence if such theory is true for the Pilipinos. The aim of this question is to figure out
if the Pilipinos are indeed part of the voluntary immigrants in regards success in
education. Moreover, the aim is to understand the mindset of the high school students
Higher education, may it be through trade school or a four year college, is the key
to success in the American Society for these immigrants. Unlike the involuntary
immigrants who does not see education as the key to success for they might see it as
“acting white” or simply being institutionalized by the majority. The data should clearly
present how the Pilipino students define their success. Will education help their
situation? Or will they see it as a useless process? Nina arrived in Glendale, California
three years ago. Both of her parents completed a four-year degree from the Philippines.
Even if she has only been here for three years, she is aware of the careers that are direly
needed in the medical field. Her mother is very involved in her career decision-making.
70
She tells Nina about other daughters and what schools they attended. Her mother talks
about career options in the car, in the kitchen, anywhere she gets a chance.
She loves to sing and dance but she refers to these career paths as “risky.” Now,
she is looking for a career in the medical field. Nina is not taking any honors or AP
classes. She would like to go straight to a State University but her parents urge her to go
to a community college first. Her GPA is between 3.5 to 3.75. She agrees,
Nina’s answers indicate that education is indeed important to achieve one’s dreams. She
also mentioned that her parents are involved in her decision-making post high school.
Parents are big influential factors for all of the children. Surprisingly, mothers put more
weight on the decision factor. Niccole is born in Santa Ana, California. She has a huge
family that includes three of her grandparents, her mother, three uncles, two aunts, and
three cousins. They are very close to each other. Her mother is very much involved in
her career-decision making. Her mother discussed with her several options, not only in
Her GPA is between 3.0 to 3.4. She is taking one honor class and one AP Class.
She plans to be a Doctor of Pediatrics or a nurse. Niccole’s plan after high school is to
get a job and attend a four-year college. Her mother, however, would like her to
71
A higher education to my mom, who is a single mother, means everything,
since she struggled and wasn’t able to pursue a higher education this is
something she recommends highly for me. She believes that this is the
key path to success.
Julius, however, has a different perspective. Although he studies hard and never
skips class in high school, he does not believe that education is the only way to a
successful life. He argues that he can still be happy and successful without going to
college. While Julius’ parents’ cultural model of success includes higher education, it
may not be the case for Julius. Julius is a junior who sits at the back of the class. He
quietly listens to his peers. His physical built is smaller than the rest of the boys in the
Not really (believing that higher education can achieve all your desires),
education is not everything in this world. I mean, my parents think so but
there are a lot of people who did not achieve high education by they are
still happy.
Not clear on how you are presenting so you need to add more to the introduction
and should be clearer where each discussion begins and ends. The fathers are a little bit
more flexible as to what their children want post high school. Overall, the family
dynamics of the Pilipino immigrants can make or break the education success of the
children.
The parents believe that one of the main reasons they migrated to the United
States is to provide a better future for their children. Most of the Pilipino parents did not
escape any political oppression, communism, or hunger in the Philippines. Most of the
immigrants are voluntary immigrants who were not forced or coerced to be in the United
States, e.g. slavery. Such background provides us the assumption that the reasons behind
72
their migratory pattern is not because of mere survival. It is to have a better opportunity
in education and in their future careers. Twelve of the fourteen Pilipino children believe
that not getting good grades in high school is a sign of failure. For them, getting a “B” is
for average students only. Their goal is to get all A’s for all of the classes. Grade “A”
For Jeffrey, this is a fact. Jeffrey arrived to the United States when he was only
one year old. He came here with both of his parents, a brother, and a sister. He lives in
Pacoima which is about 25 miles from his high school. His parents believe that Glendale
High School is a good public school and is willing to travel a total of 50 miles just to get
to Glendale High School. Both of his parents obtained a college degree from the
Philippines.
taking any honors or AP classes and his GPA is between 3.5 to 3.75. His parents are
involved in his career-decision making. He believes that “not getting good grades makes
him a failure.”
The Pilipino immigrant students, mostly on the second subgroup, also associate
higher education with happiness on material matters. The interviews revealed that
is equated with material success which is in turn equated with happiness. These children
73
are aware that money cannot buy happiness, but it sure is nice to be able to afford
anything that they wish. Mobility for these students does not necessarily mean leaving
their family. Most of them plan to stay within Glendale, California. The definition of
mobility is the freedom to buy any material objects, e.g. car, house, travel to the
I did notice, however, that the students defined success in broader terms. For the
students, it is not just about obtaining a good job. It is about happiness. It is about family
and being with the loved ones. Brian described his success as,
Having an education and graduating from college. Also, that you are
happy with your life, meaning you have a job that you love to do and like,
not what your parents want for you.
Bhoie is born in the Philippines and moved to Glendale, California two years ago.
He lives with his parents, two brothers, and a sister. Both of his parents completed their
college degree in the Philippines. He has an older brother who completed his college
degree here in California. Higher education is a must in the Bhoie household. “There are
community college after high school. His parents, on the other hand, want him to go to a
doesn’t want a typical, stereotype Filipino job.” His GPA is between 3.5 to 3.75.
(It) is not having a lot of money or a big house or having multiple cars. I
would define success as overall fulfillment not only with your life but with
yourself. The way you face problems and handle things is also a way I
would define success.
74
Yvonne is born in Saudi Arabia and migrated to the United States when she was
seven years old. Both of her parents are Pilipinos who worked in Saudi Arabia before
moving to Glendale, California. She lives with her parents and one other sister. Her
Yvonne is currently taking one honor class and no AP classes. Her choices in
career are: Pharmacist, accountant, nurse, and flight attendant – all of which are
approved by both of her parents. Her biggest motivator is her family. Yvonne, on the
other hand, believes that she can obtain success by being happy and educated.
Julia is born in the Philippines and migrated to Glendale, California when she was
8 years old, third grade. She lives with both of her parents and a brother. She doesn’t
know the education level attained by both of her parents. Both of her parents are
involved in her career choices but she is not sure if they know what she really wants in
life. Her parents suggest careers that make “a lot of money but won’t be necessarily be
something (she) would like to spend her life doing.” Julia is taking most honors and AP
classes. She wants to be an engineer and attend a four-year college. Her GPA is between
75
There is a cognitive dissonance between what the parents want for them and what
they want for themselves. Like their parents, they want careers that will give them more
money. Hobbies are not careers. Hobbies are done during down-time after working a
full day. But as they define success, it means much more than just a 4-year college
education.
Don was born in Los Angeles, California. He lives with both of his parents and a
brother. His parents completed high school in the Philippines. His parents want him to
painter.” His mother, in particular, is very involved in Don’s career decisions. Jokingly,
she also plans Don’s life e.g. career, wife, number of children, house, etc.
Don wants to be a computer engineer, but he is afraid that his parents would
rather want him to be a nurse. He is not sure yet what to do after high school. He is
willing to go to a trade school or a four-year university. His GPA is higher than 3.75. As
Don concluded,
My dad wants me to go the military but when I told him I don’t want to –
he stopped. I am not sure what I want to be, all I know it will not be
dictated by anyone. My dad wants me to be in the military but I am not
going to the military.
education success as the vehicle for mobility in the American Society. It is also apparent
that the parents are very influential in the decision-making process. Based on the
76
migration pattern, the parents are the first-generation citizen that moved from the
Philippines. Their goals are much stricter in defining success as the vehicle for mobility
in the American Society. The students, on the other hand, provided a much more holistic
It is understandable that the parents and children define success differently. For the
parents, this is the reason why they moved to the States – to provide a better for their
children. As for the students, they consider themselves Americans already – half, that is.
This is their home. And they are doing their best to succeed the best way they know. In
the end, yes, immigrants embrace education as the vehicle for mobility. Unlike the
parents, this is not; however, the end all be all for the students. The students provided
other options such as joining the military, finding a life-long partner, or doing something
Research Question 2
Do Pilipino families influence the types of college majors and careers of their children?
If so, is there a difference on how value is practiced on sons and daughters? (Family
Value)
Pilipino families try to influence the types of college majors and careers of their
children. They talk about careers that will provide security and stable income for the
children. They hear it on parties, churches, and other social gatherings on how other
children fare well on specific careers. Immigrant parents believe that careers in nursing,
accounting, and engineering are the strong careers that should be pursued by their
children. Diane Wolf’s work on transnational struggle posits that children may reject any
ideas that might come from their parents. The children may defy everything that the
77
parents want. In this case, this research question will take a look at whether or not the
Yvonne is born in Saudi Arabia and migrated to the United States when she was
seven years old. Both of her parents are Pilipinos who worked in Saudi Arabia before
moving to Glendale, California. She lives with her parents and one other sister. Her
Yvonne is currently taking one honor class and no AP classes. Her choices in
career are: Pharmacist, accountant, nurse, and flight attendant – all of which are
approved by both of her parents. Her biggest motivator is her family. As Yvonne
proves,
As Dereck adds,
Yes, my mom was the one that told me to get LVN at a technical school
first before I go to a 4-year college. I guess my mom is right. We don’t
have money to pay for a 4-year college, but I guess I need to save first.
Donna arrived to the United States when she was 6 years old. Both of her parents
completed a four-year degree from the Philippines. She claims she lives in a “Full
House,” with her parents, sister, grandmother and “much more.” Donna has a lot of
families here in Glendale and Eagle Rock, California. Donna is not taking AP or honor
classes. She and her parents would like her to attend a four-year college, and as much as
possible, avoid community college or trade school. She likes to major in astronomy or
nursing because that is what her mother would like her to be. Her father is more laid-
78
back regarding her career choices. Her father would like her to complete a college degree
Donna’s family is also thinking about sending her back to the Philippines to
complete her nursing degree. It is transferrable, affordable, and she can easily come back
to the United States to work. Donna would like to stay in the United States for her
I guess you could say that my parents are involved with making a career
choice for me. They want me to be a nurse or anything that includes
medicine. They say that it gives a better pay. They don’t really want me
to become a dancer or a singer because they don’t think that it’s possible.
Don claims that it would disappoint his parents if he becomes a painter (artist).
Yes, they are always in my business about my career. They always tell me
to be a nurse or a doctor, something with high pay. They would be
disappointed if I became a painter or something like that.
Karylle is also afraid to tell her parents about going to art school:
Historically, the Philippines have been a strong supplier of laborers for the United
books. America has been the savior of the Philippines ever since 1898. They look at
79
education as the key to be able to leave the Philippines. The Immigration Act of 1965
equalized the immigration policies of the United States which resulted in an influx of
California and other mid-west states for nurses and accountants. It is important to
remember these historical events so that we may understand where the parents are
coming from. They were the children of this immigration pattern. They were the
laborers who supplied nurses, accountants, and engineers. From afar, they wanted to be
these professions so that they can have a better opportunity in America. Close to home,
they believe that these professions can provide the same stability and flexibility it
In return, most of these students are following their parents’ dreams. Some of
them question if they are following their own dreams or are they just listening to their
parents’ wishes. Some students feel that becoming a nurse, an accountant, or an engineer
is a way for them to pay back their debts to their parents. Derek shared a tragic event in
his family, “I love my family plus my dad got into an accident so I have more
responsibilities.”
Julia is born in the Philippines and migrated to Glendale, California when she was
8 years old, third grade. She lives with both of her parents and a brother. She doesn’t
know the education level attained by both of her parents. Both of her parents are
involved in her career choices but she is not sure if they know what she really wants in
life. Her parents suggest careers that make “a lot of money but won’t be necessarily be
something (she) would like to spend her life doing.” Julia is taking most honors and AP
80
classes. She wants to be an engineer and attend a four-year college. Her GPA is between
Nichole added,
Amongst the eighteen participants, Karylle was the only who posits, “Yes,
education pays off. But how can it be fun when what I am studying is boring?” They feel
like they are indebted to their family for taking them here to America. They also feel like
that these careers will make everyone “happy.” Again, the definition of happy is vague.
Happiness is correlated with stability and security. Happiness is when the community
Parents are more accepting of gender issues. Fifty years ago, only daughters decide to go
to nursing; while, sons, become engineers. Nowadays, parents just want their children to
complete their education. All of the students that were interviewed have no plans of
My parents are like every single Pilipino parent out there when it comes to
my future, college, and majors. They want me to attend a college which is
near them and they want me to major in something medical because I will
make a lot of money.
This may be another implication that we need to re-visit on another time. One
serendipitous finding is the fact that the mothers are more proactive about the children’s
81
careers. The mothers do most of the pushing and sampling. They talk more and they
expect more from the children in terms of choosing the “right” path.
Followed by Nichole,
Usually when my mom and I are alone in the car, we talk about college.
She tells me she signed me up for all these college summer programs and
all these brochures for Berkeley and John Hopkins. She also starts
blabbering on about her co-workers kids that went to Yale and USC blah
blah blah (sic). She also knows about the amount of pay certain majors
yield. Interesting, I must say. Overall, all the papers and information she
gives me does help, however, it does frustrate me too at times.
My mom usually tries persuading me to take higher classes, but she still
says I’m allowed to choose what type I would like to take. Though she’s
pretty convincing, I’m sometimes iffy on her suggestions.
Pilipino families, including the Pilipino community, heavily influence the types of
college majors and careers of their children. The Folk Theory of Success is very
dominantly influential for these families. The students relayed their stories as if it is part
of their daily conversation in the car, at home, and even at parties. For the Pilipino
families, it is a group effort to decide the types of college majors that economically fits
the budget.
82
I see two problems with this situation. The parents, being first-generation
immigrants, have a limited social capital. Social capital is power. Knowledge is power.
The only college majors that they are aware of are the ones they have heard of in the
Philippines. Majors in theatres and the arts may not be something that they encourage
their children. Secondly, there is not a bigger push to become a doctor, lawyer, or
needs to be broken. All of my participants have no plans of leaving their homes after
college. Practically, it will save a lot of money. But the effort is still lacking. The
definition of happiness is different to everyone but maybe we should add more to what it
can be.
Research Question 3
get from teachers, administrators, and parents. They take pride for being Pilipino and
being looked at as “good students.” At times, they use it to their advantage such as
extended lunch periods, closer parking, and freedom in the hallways. High school life is
hard, but to be able to have the teachers and administrators to be on their side is a huge
benefit. Most of these students look at such relationship as part of the status quo.
Teachers treat them more like friends than just students. Together with the high
expectation is the trust that they earn from getting good grades. It is about the
relationship that they develop because of their good grades and being Pilipino. But is it
83
being Pilipino that gets them the special treatment or is it the good grades (and the
Research has shown that high expectations can lead to educational success. When
parents expect only the best for the children, they strive harder. The same theory can be
applied with teachers and students. It is, however, a complicated situation when getting
good grades has nothing to do with being Pilipino. The perpetrator, whether it be the
parents, teachers, or administrators, have the responsibility to treat all children the same.
In a separate study, it has been proven that the physical appearance of a student still plays
a part.
Research from Stacey Lee dictates two interesting points. First, the model
minority can put a lot of pressure for students of Asian descent to perform well. This can
lead to more stress and mental anguish. On the other hand, being the so-called-model
minority can also be a beneficial because of the high expectation that it brings. This
research looks at how teachers and administrators at Suburbia High School treat the
Albeit its “annoying” outcome, the students admit that high expectations from
The only thing I find difficult about being a pinay (Pilipino woman) is the
high expectations that my family gives me. They expect so much from me
and give me all this pressure on achieving them.
84
Model Minority Stereotype has deemed to have a negative impact to Asian
American students, as a whole. The expectation that has been placed to the Asian
American community brought nothing but disappointment if such expectation has not
been met. I argue that there is still some positive aspect to such stereotype. The
participants I gathered from Glendale High School proved that having a good relationship
with teachers and administrators also have benefits. I also believe, with the risk of
bringing the “race card,” that being Asian, more specifically; Pilipino has some benefits
to it. The stereotypical good student (quiet, obedient, hard working) still lingers to the
As such, the high expectation imposed by the administrators, pushes the students
to do well in class. The special relationship makes the students feel wanted. In return,
they are held accountable for their actions. They show up in class every day. They try
their best to do their homework. They participate in class, and best of all, they are
“present” in the classroom. They try their best not to fail because not only are they
disappointing their parents, they are also disappointing their teachers. Lee (1994) also
added that “Asian American students saw school success as a necessary part of resisting
school, is gratifying.
Admittedly, there are psychological implications for such high expectations, but I
truly believe that the Model Minority Stereotype has some valuable effect on the
performing Asian American students. What I believe is that we need to focus on positive
85
effect it has on our students. High expectations are prominent in Glendale High School,
as it should be.
Research Question 4
Do Pilipino Immigrant students believe that success in school equates to fulfilling the
American Dream? (This question was later combined with Research Question 1)
the American Dream. They define the American Dream as owning a house, having a car,
and being able to afford anything on their leisure. They look at success in school as the
educated. The relationship between the United States and the Philippines is an indication
on how the Pilipino immigrant parents define success. The education system in the
Philippines produces workers that can be useful for developed countries such as United
States and Canada. This is the reason why the parents still want their children to finish
school. Education opened doors for migration. For the parents, education can still open
doors.
As Jeffrey indicated,
My parents tell me that having a higher education will get me through life.
That’s partially true, but sometimes I don’t get to live the way I want to
live.
Dereck is still not sure what he really wants to be, but for his family,
86
I really need something that will give me a stable job. I really want to go
to a 4-year college, but for now, I will go to one of those technical schools
and be a LVN (Licensed Vocational Nurse). Higher education can wait,
for now, my mom wants me to be a LVN so I can start earning good
money.
mental disability or lack of parental support. Hence, it takes a Pilipino village to raise
ownership, they would also like to take care of their parents when they get old. Their
parents are always part of the plan. During the interview, it is interesting to notice that
their American Dream encompasses the caring of their parents and/or guardian. There is
no doubt in their mind that such responsibility is acquired when the time comes. As
Brian indicates,
the American aspiration. The concept of being indebted to the parents is once again
prominent.
Undoubtedly, culture plays an important role in the drive of how Pilipino defines
success. Ogbu’s Cultural Model of Success through his own writing and Kim’s work on
Korean students, attests on how such model is applicable to every culture. It would be
87
The Best Part of Being Pilipino
How someone feels about their ethnic background can be correlated on how they
view the world as a whole. Five out of the fourteen participants were born in the
Philippines and the rest were born in the United States. These five participants are
motivated differently. They take pride of being a Pilipino who is getting an education in
America. The American-born participants, on the other hand, are dealing with two
cultures. They may have different backgrounds, but moving forward, they know they are
still Pilipinos.
To define oneself as a Pilipino, or any ethnic background for that matter, can be
helpful in determining how happy they are in school, at work, or just on their daily life.
Pilipino students have so much pride of being Pilipino. Not so long ago, there was a
huge push for becoming “American.” Having fair complexion, more English accent, and
being able to assimilate to the pop-culture of MTV were the goals of the youth. Now, the
times have changed. Immigrants embrace their culture more. Julia wants due respect:
Something difficult is that I don’t think we are given enough credit for our
contributions to the world throughout history. We have always been
hindered and never really get the credit we deserve.
They have pride of being “brown,” with brown eyes and black hair. Acting
“white” is the thing of the past for these Pilipino immigrants. Unlike other minority
students, the Pilipinos do not find the need to “act white.” They now appreciate their
own color. They appreciate their culture and how it is unique, like all cultures.
Nichole defends the accent, “One thing I don’t like is how some people
think we aren’t quite civilized possibly because of our accents.”
88
Josh did too, “I used to hate my accent, people used to make fun of me but
as the years went by, people got more matured and I learned not to care
about it.”
Kyle used the word beautiful, “I believe the best thing about being
Filipino is being beautiful. Cause to me, I am beautiful and so are all
Filipinos.”
The best part of being Pilipino is the sense of the camaraderie. Everywhere they
go, they immediately feel safe and at-home when they see fellow Pilipinos. May it be in
Graduation, birthdays, and weddings are deemed to be huge celebrations for the
Pilipinos.
Brian stated,
I love being Filipino because of how closely knit our families are.
Whenever there are families parties and all of our relatives come and you
see everyone your titas (aunts), titos (uncles), and little cousins, it’s just
such a good feeling. It makes you happy to have all of these people
around you.
I love how our heritage gets alone with each other. You could get
really comfortable with anyone who is Filipino right away. I love
how everyone has a Tito (Uncle) Boy, Tita (Aunt) Baby, Tita
(Aunt) Girly. We can all relate to one another right off the bat.
The family gatherings of Filipinos are most enjoyable too because
everyone is just happy and we have a sense of humor.
To belong in a social group is also important to the Pilipino students. They feel a
We never like being far away from each other which is why most of my
family lives in California or Nevada, but some of my relatives are still in
89
the Philippines. My dad’s side of the family hates my mom’s side of the
family. But we manage to keep it clean.
Even if they are not blood-related, just being able to share their success (or at
This is one of the reasons why success in education is important for the Pilipino
students. Their success is everyone’s success. It is the success of their aunt, their uncle,
the Pilipino neighbor, even the cousin’s neighbor in the Philippines! With that said, it is
also hard to fail in front of everyone. It is hard to choose a career that is not approved by
Yvonne expressed it as such, “There are some things that bug me about
Filipinos, and we always strive for the best.”
Bhoie agrees,
implications that will be further discussed in the next chapter. As stated by most
students, they love the sense of community but at the same time, the margin of error is
They also like the food. Research shows that food is the strongest cultural aspect
90
Nina, “Love, love, love Filipino food and how Filipinos are comfortable
around one another, even if they’ve known each other for five minutes.
Nichole, Frances, Donna, and Erielle expressed the same adoration for the
food, “I love Filipino food!”
The value, language, and religion might be lost in the process of assimilation, but
food remains the same. Children of immigrant parents may not remember the old
country, but they will always remember the food as a symbol of social gatherings.
Pilipinos are naturally the same. They love Pilipino food and they also love Pilipino
parties. They enjoy the chatting of the old people. They also enjoy the abundance of
food.
American Idol, The Olympics, America Got Talent, and other television shows that
showcase raw talent. The students were very eager to share the famous Pilipinos on
television. Even if they are only part Pilipino, for them, it is such an honor to be as such.
Kyle said, “APL from Black Eyed Peas is Filipino even if he looks black
(everyone laughs).”
Followed by Brian who yelled, “I love the fact that when there’s anyone
Filipino like on shows like American Idol or things like that all of the
Filipinos are automatically supporting them voting and everything.”
The rise of Manny Pacquiao, WBO World Welterweight Champion 2010, gave
the Pilipinos in America something to be proud of. It has become an un-official holiday
for the Pilipinos every time there is a boxing match with Pacquiao. Again, the sense of
camaraderie is apparent amongst the Pilipinos. Yes, they are proud of Pilipino
91
performers, but for Pilipinos, there is a difference between education and their hobby.
Institutional Support
is access. It is power. It is knowledge. And once a student feels that their school has
provided all the options post high school, they are more confident in making the right
choice. Suburbia High School, with its numerous programs and rigorous instructional
schedule, still provides adequate information about life post-high school. The lasting
memories that a student experiences in high school can make or break his or her success
in higher education. A child who remembers that one great teacher who constantly
believed in his work can make a lasting impression. A counselor who discouraged a
student may became an affective memory that will forever stay in his mind. That is why
They have claimed that if you ask some teachers or others, they
would give you good information, and sometimes even give a
letter of recommendation.
Nina explained how the school elaborates on the necessary units to graduate,
Our counselors plan out our college plans and usually aim at getting
students into four-year universities. They tell us how many credits we
need to graduate, the amount of extra-curricular activities we need and
other things that will help us get where we want to be after high school.
This high school allows military representatives to talk to the students. They let
technical schools such as ITT Tech talk to the students. They also have vocational
92
schools such as FIDM experience the world of fashion. Lastly, they provide a lot of
Brian concurs,
But it still needs a little push. According to most of the Pilipino participants, the
the students need information, there are college counselors to help and hand out
brochures. The students need to be more assertive in asking the right question regarding
The participants feel that they need to be more proactive about careers post high
school; however, they feel intimidated to ask. They do not know what to ask the college
counselors.
Nichole shared her frustration, “At our school you have to ask for help, it is not provided.
Jeffrey wants more information, “It does have enough extra things to help us get through
high school into college, but it would be so much better if they had more.”
93
They also feel that college, especially out of state, is very expensive. Most of
them are not aware of grants and scholarships. They do not know that the loans are
deferred until the end of the four years (if they decide to go to a four-year college).
As Dereck explained,
My mom and I plan for my college life together. I am not going out of
state. I am going to Pasadena City College (or something).
Another policy implication that will be discussed in the next chapter is how the
and careers.
“They supply you with a little information and it is up to you to find out
more information. My counselor is helpful but is scary to talk to because I
don’t really think she completely understands what I want,” followed up
by Yvonne.
Pilipinos are taught to be respectful to the authority. They are expected to answer
and not to question authority. At times, they do not know what to ask. At times, they do
not know what other careers are available other than being a nurse, an accountant, or an
engineer. Institutional support coincides with social capital. Without the right
connections, the Pilipino immigrant students only get their information from their
families and friends. Unfortunately, the immigrant parent themselves rely on different
94
Chapter 5: Analysis
Pilipinos are the second largest Asian population in the United States. From an
educational standpoint, their high school graduation rates are high, as is their transition
rates to college, but beyond college they appear to have limited occupational choices.
Pilipinos hold higher professional positions than other minority students. Chang (2006)
reports that Whites and Asians hold proportionately higher status jobs and college
degrees than African American and Hispanic adults do. However, it is still important to
note the limited occupational choices Pilipinos have available after degree completion.
The present study addressed the career decisions that first, a generation and a half,
and second generation Pilipino students face after high school. Specifically, the intent of
this study was to unravel the factors shaping their career choices while in high school.
As stated above, completion of high school for Pilipinos is not an educational problem.
Rather, the problem lays in the post high school career choices that Pilipino high school
students make.
This study looked at several factors that impact career choices, including the
specifically considering that familial influence is their major source of human capital.
The family, as the focal point of Pilipino values, critically shapes the future of their
children’s educational goal. The research literature suggested that Pilipino parents define
“success” through their children’s educational and career choices. However, there are
gaps in this research and the emergent picture in terms of Pilipinos and their definition of
95
The research for this present study was framed by two primary goals. First, I used
Ogbu’s “Cultural Model of Success” as the theoretical foundation for understanding how
Pilipino parents define success in the United States. This included a brief review of the
historical relationship between the Philippines and the United States. Through
acculturation and family values, this research described the adaptation patterns of Pilipino
families and their children through their educational goals. Second, this dissertation
attempted to shed light on how minority students from a suburban high school make their
decision about their careers. For ethnic students, career development includes crucial
factors such as role models, family influence, notions of cultural prestige, and the process
of acculturation.
The purpose of the study was to examine the pattern of career choices among
Pilipino high school students. I also wanted to analyze how that pattern reflects the
1) The cultural model of their immigrant parents about what success means
immigrants
With this study, I attempted to uncover how Pilipino high school students can be given
more options in choosing other careers that will enhance their intrinsic interests and
96
students other careers that they will truly enjoy after high school. This implied retention
in college and newfound knowledge for our college counselors on how they can make
Pilipino students aware of a wider range of career opportunity after high school. Of
course intrinsic interest and school engagement can be encouraged in high school. How
The Pilipinos are the second largest Asian population in the United States, next to
the Chinese. There is little research about the Pilipino high school students who are
about to finish high school. I hope that this study will contribute to this research gap in
the future. Although this study focuses on Pilipino immigrant students, its implications
can be applied to the ever-increasing populations of students from diverse ethnic and
and universities has been a constant struggle for all stakeholders. Education is the key to
the continued success of this nation. The question remains: are Pilipino high school
students choosing the careers that they truly want or are they simply choosing careers
they think their parents and the society as a whole will accept?
academic performance to cultural compatibility or lack thereof. Simply put, the culture
shapes what these students believe is the right career choice for them. Pilipino
immigrants came from a place where American influence has been predominant for more
than a hundred years. They came from a place where education was the only way out of
poverty, oppression, and dictatorship. Hence, careers that are highly in-demand, i.e.
97
nursing, accounting, engineering, are the only viable choices they make when they arrive
to the United States. This issue becomes a problem when high school counselors and
administrators do not understand the need of these students. Often these high school
When the cultural value matches the economic demand of the society, there is less
friction between the “want” and the “need.” Practically speaking, these students choose
careers that are readily available rather than careers that are highly of interest. The
Cultural Success Model and the school environment put a lot of pressure on these
Pilipino students to succeed. High parental expectation is also a confining factor for
these students. Specifically, Church and others (1992) suggest that Pilipinos place less
students. Instead, they put greater emphasis on attaining social approval and enhanced
economic status. Pilipinos (Church et al, 1992) also see education as a means to
economic opportunity and status, rather than acquiring knowledge for its intrinsic value.
For Pilipinos, uncovering and understanding their Cultural Model of Success may
be a key in helping these high schools students make more varied career choices. The
lack of Pilipino immigrant students in the fields of music, arts, and theatre will have
Studies show common reasons for the curricular choices of college and
high school students: interest in the field, opportunity for employment,
personal or family welfare, financial returns, and influence of role models
(mostly family members). Other factors that emerged in more recent
studies include prestige, admiration, status, ability, influence of media,
security … and the opportunity to go abroad.
98
The overarching goal of this study was to further inform educators and administrators on
the complexity of being a Pilipino immigrant from a country that has been influenced by
Americans for more than a hundred of years. Familial and societal ideologies influence
these students to make the right decision. Inadvertently, this dissertation hoped to find an
answer whether or not the right career is really for the parents, the students, or the rise for
Summary of Findings
The findings for this research are similar as to what Ogbu, Lee, Kao, Kim, and
Wolf has indicated. Although their participants differ in ethnicity, the behavior at large is
experience is prevalent in the Pilipinos’ daily lives. Lee’s and Kao’s definition of the
Model Minority Stereotype is evident on how the administrators interact with the Pilipino
students. The students enjoyed the extra privilege. They appreciate the fact that their
Based on the literature, there were three factors that can influence the career-
decision making of these Pilipinos post-high school. First, I need to look at how
Pilipinos define success, as part of Ogbu’s Cultural Model of Success. Secondly, their
high school experience can also be a positive (or negative) motivator in pursuing a higher
education. Lastly, familial influence weighs heavily on how these children decide what
to do post-high school.
99
Research Question One
as the vehicle for mobility in the American Society? As stated in the introduction and
differ in their mode of assimilation which includes the importance of education success
as the vehicle for mobility in the American Society. Eun-Young Kim studied how
Korean Americans convey the same high expectations of the parents for their children’s
education.
The two findings of this research question convey high expectation for their
children regarding success in their educational and professional careers in direct and
subtle ways. Both parents and students believe that education will be the key to a
successful life in the United States. There are two students who do not believe that
education is the answer for everything. But interestingly, they are still taking AP and
Honor classes in high school. They still attend school every day and interact positively
towards their peers and teachers. Secondly, they enjoy the positive reinforcements the
teachers bestow upon them. They have the freedom to leave the campus during lunch
knowing they will come back on time for the next class. They can open classrooms and
assist the teacher in facilitating the class with an assumption that they can keep up with
the lessons. At times, the teacher-student relationship has become less formal. For this
research question, the findings are: 1) Pilipino immigrants do embrace education as the
100
vehicle for mobility in the American society, 2) the teachers’ and administrators’ high
expectations are positively reinforces a relationship with their Pilipino students. This
motivates them to do well in school but not missing classes, participating with activities,
As stated in the literature, folk stories provide evidence of the way cultural model
of success translates into dictating the children to choose certain careers and professional
paths. A total of fourteen students were interviewed in this study, each were asked
identical questions regarding the education success. All of these students have parents
that grew up in the Philippines. All of the parents completed their matriculation in the
Philippines. The students, however, formed a different value attending high school in the
United States.
The students have three different answers about success. Most of the students
agree that having a college education is an important factor to being successful in life.
The second group had a more holistic approach in defining success. They included
internal satisfaction, family, and love; all of which are not included in this study.
Defining the indicators for internal satisfaction can be challenging. The last group,
consisting of two male students is defiant about the whole education “issue.” They do
not associate success with education. They both used the words “annoying” when they
describe how their parents are getting involved about their careers post-high school.
Out of curiosity, I asked these students what they really want to be when they
grow up. Only two of the eighteen students matched their careers of their dreams! One
really wants to be a nurse and the other, an obstetrics doctor. The rest of the students are
following what they think will make the most money, according to their parents.
101
According to Kim who studied Korean American students, this trait follows the pattern of
society. As part of the American culture, these students are choosing careers that are
mainly acceptable for the capitalist America, which includes nursing and engineering. To
Most of these students are motivated to find a stable job in order to give back to
their family. Due to limited social capital, their only knowledge of the “real life” is what
they hear from their folks, hence the term, folk success stories. It is passed on from
generations to generations on how other daughters and sons made it in the real world.
Most of these stories are success stories of being a nurse. It is a stable job and it pays
One of the main goals of this study is to be able to understand the underlying
factors behind choosing the careers post-high school. There is more than life itself than
being a nurse or engineer. I understand being non-oppositional, but it does not equate to
success is possible. The model minority stereotype will remain as such: a stereotype. It
produces problems to the Pan-Asian community from expectations, hatred, and unfair
legislations. However, for this research, we cannot deny the fact that it gives the Pilipino
students some pride of being in that group. At the end of this chapter, there will be
suggestions on how counselors and high school administrators can promote other careers
102
Compare to the literature. Integrate into the discussion. Be specific in how it
compares and tell us what the author says specifically that is the same. Don’t have to
Research question two asked: Do Pilipino families influence the types of college
majors and careers of their children? If so, is there a difference on how value is practiced
on sons and daughters? I find that Pilipino families, especially mothers, influence the
types of college majors and careers of their children. They discuss careers that provide
security and stable income for the child, as well as for the family as whole. Their
intentions meant well, however, it causes dissonance towards the children. Wolf’s work
on transnational struggles points out the apparent problems that the parents and children
have against each other. There is the generation gap, age gap, and migration gap. As she
puts it,
Although they want to please their parents, they want to be able to explore their intrinsic
interests such as modeling, drawing, dancing, and singing. It is bothersome to realize that
passion no longer dictates the way of life. The definition of success should really be re-
103
defined. Donna, one of the students, explained all of the students’ sentiments by stating
the following:
There are two policy implications that I would like to bring up about Donna’s
sentiments. First of all, she is right that a career in the medical field is a more stable job
than being a lone artist in Hollywood. I do believe that it is not a black or white choice.
Secondly, Donna is right: reach for the stars! Being a nurse is not an end all be all
careers of all careers. There are other careers that can take the place of a nurse. It
becomes a self-imposed goal to be a nurse in the Pilipino culture. Due to the Philippines’
long standing relationship with the United States, it has been instilled to the minds of the
The Pilipinos also have a positive perception of the American Society. Even
though some of the students shared some moments of discrimination, their overall
experience in America is a positive one. They believe that the discrimination and
stereotypes from other background will become less as long as the children obtain the
proper education. Success in education will not only provide better jobs, it will also
protect them from the judging American society. The Land of Opportunity will never fail
104
Their (Koreans) general cultural model of social reality incorporates an
additive identity derived from a historically positive image of and trust in
America as a powerful, rich, and friendly country where cultural values
that the Korean immigrants brought from their country, such as hard work,
education, and future orientation, are justly rewarded.
Like the Koreans, the Pilipinos’ frame of reference is the experience they had in the
Philippines. The Brain Drain of accountants and nurses in the Philippines marked
powerful impact until today. Hence, the family tends to lean on careers that are
But why is there not a bigger push to become a doctor, lawyer, or director
also noticed that all of my participants have no plans of leaving their homes after college.
Practically, times are hard. A lot of money can be saved. But the effort to find other
means for scholarship or grants are lacking. The access to information to the parents is
lacking. Instead, they depend on their neighbors, and other family members on
information about other schools or careers. Fear gets the best out of everyone. Fear not
being able to afford college. Fear of failure. Fear of not getting a stable job. But what
about fear of unhappiness, how does it contribute to one’s well-being? The definition of
happiness is different to everyone but maybe we should add more to what it can be.
As Brian concludes,
My parents are like every single Pilipino parent out there when it comes to
my future, college, and majors. They want me to attend a college which is
near them and they want me to major in something medical because I will
make a lot of money.
The second finding is that there is no difference between the male and female
students in regards on how parents treat their children. The fourteen participants were
105
treated equally. This may be due to the small sample size or the fact that the difference
are too small to notice. In any case, the difference (if any) between a son and a daughter
were not prevalent in this study. This is not the case on Wolf’s review.
My findings indicated that there are no difference between sons and daughters.
The times have changed in terms of how parents treat their sons and daughters.
There used to be more freedom on how parents allow boys to spend more time outside
the home. Sons have more flexibility in terms of taking care of house chores, driving,
etc. Daughters were expected to take care of the house and the siblings. It is no longer
the case. Sons and daughters now have an equal treatment. Unfortunately, the parents
are still stuck with their children as mere laborers who will choose “safe” professions.
productive (or subtractive) process that values (or devalues) their social and cultural
capital?
understand their initial motivation of performing well in a high school setting. According
to Stanton-Salazar,
106
While the nuclear family carries the responsibility for initially
engendering the appropriate motivational dispositions, school agents are
viewed as either enhancing these traits…
Suburbia High School does provide an additive experience to the Pilipino immigrant
students that encourage them to pursue and/or continue their matriculation. Careers in
the technical field, military, or attending college are the popular options.
The second finding is the social relationship that the students develop with their
teachers and administrators. There is an underlying power behind knowing the right
people upon venturing the right careers. Given the right opportunity, role models open
doors to endless possibilities of what one can be. Role models, in this case, are the
the interviews, the only networks the students are aware of are their parents or extended
families. In turn, the careers that they are exposed of are the careers of their families.
Not having the right social networks can be seen as “structural barriers” to endless
opportunities post-high school. Teachers and administrators must realize that their
responsibilities to these students go beyond their daily lesson plans. They need to be able
to present endless possibilities and numerous options in terms of careers later in life.
They need to have an idea of the students’ strengths and talents and hone them for better
performance.
support for the children. Stanton-Salazar explains that such support enables young
people to become successful within the mainstream and to manage effectively the stresses
of the daily life, which includes success in school. Suburbia High School provided
support for their students. According to the participants, college counselors are helpful in
107
terms of providing information regarding state universities within California.
California.
There was a recurring theme that examined the pattern of career choices among
Pilipino high school students. First, the cultural model of their immigrant parents about
what success means will be marked through their children’s mindset. Second, how the
Here are the three confounding factors that influence the career decision-making
of the Pilipino Immigrants. For future research, we can perform a gap analysis to figure
a) The Cultural Model of Immigrant Parents and How it is Marked Through the
Children’s Mindset
may be a key in helping these high schools students make more varied
career choices.
b. Familial and societal ideologies are influencing these students to make the
right decision.
108
e. The parents are a huge part of the children’s social capital/social network.
b. Besides their parents, the students use their schools as their main point of
d. The school needs to be able to provide more resources about careers post-
high school.
e. The parents also depend on the school to provide more information about
b. Value includes Folk Theory of Success, culture (from the Philippines), and
c. Employability and prestige are two strong factors that influence careers
post-high school.
d. Due to high respect for their parents, the students follow their parents’
pushes them to find a job/career that will help the families’ financial
needs.
The Cultural Model of Success, Family Influence, and School (institution) are
what shapes the career decision-making of the students. It is important that we hone our
109
awareness about these three factors so our children can be directed to the right decision.
We need to be able to provide enough information and be able to let these students make
the proper decision for themselves and not for anyone else.
Policy Implication
There are several policy implications that we should note on this matter. First of
all, the importance of the institution (school) can make or break the achievement of such
Dream. The school, which includes the administrators, teachers, and counselors, provide
the initial access to information about majors in colleges. If these students want to pursue
nursing, offer other alternatives such as physical therapy, athletic training, surgeon,
physician assistant, and thousands of other careers in the medical field. Second of all, the
students, we need to understand their culture. It is not their weakness if they do not want
to leave their family. It is not their fault if they decide to listen to their parents’ wishes.
As the institution of education, we are simply there to provide more options, more
solutions. And lastly, Wolf (1997) suggests that the children experience “emotional
transnationalism” which falls between the parents, the old/new ideologies, and their own
goals. There are not a lot of studies regarding transnationalism but maybe this is a good
head start. United States will always welcome first, second, third, and so forth
generations and it is important to analyze their own needs, their own affects.
generational tension and expectations. Parents still cling to their Pilipino beliefs and
values; however, their children are exploring new ways in the United States. Cultural
conflict as they move through adolescence is another issue that they face as they go
110
through high school.) Career choices can be one of the conflicts that the parents and
children need to resolve. In part, education is an end goal for the whole family and not a
solitary effort. The adolescent stage is challenging, which can be more complicated
Family ties and employability are the two challenges Pilipinos face in the
Philippines as they make career decisions as high school graduates. These challenges
continue to persist even when they migrate to the United States. Family ties, as well as
the choice of a career become critical as first-generation Pilipino students graduate from
an American high school. It is important for school administrators to understand that the
situation of the first generation students and other ethnic groups is more complex that just
The problem that I have addressed in this study dealt with the Pilipino high school
students and the careers they choose post-high school. The literature review clearly
indicated the lack of research on understanding this group. My interview with the
participants posits further study in this field. There is a cry for more research on how to
deal with immigrants trying to succeed in the United States. School Administrators need
Asians into one group. Historically, the Pilipinos have always been connected to the
United States. Their reasoning for being a nurse or an accountant stems back from the
beginning of the century. This is an important factor to consider when career counselors
Pilipino high school students, even minority students at large, vary in their
personal choices, characteristics and motivational factors. In turn, it affects how they
111
learn, relate, and make decisions on what careers they ought to pursue after high school.
These differences are ignored when familial values and societal expectations are being
thrust on them. The pressure to get immediate employment stifles their intrinsic
motivation and curiosity. There is no room for their interest to grow. There is no room
for their personal curiosity to expand. Church and Katigbak (1992) deduce that since
people for specific vocations, it reinforces the strong economic motives of Pilipino
students. To be more specific, Philippines universities are more focused on the technical
All the students in the sample had plans of some kind regarding post-secondary
education. One is going to the military. Kyle, my favorite, plans to buy his beach house
occupational expectation. These students understand that in order to survive or get ahead
in the United States, they need to be educated. They understand the importance of
education. Better yet, they value education as part of their self-image, at times, family-
image. Education is still considered as “the great equalizer,” meaning those who were
economically or socially disadvantaged could increase their life chances and improve
their situation for their own sake and their family too.
academic performance to cultural compatibility or lack thereof. Simply put, the culture
112
shaped what these students believe is the right career choice for them. Pilipino
immigrants came from a place where American influence has been predominant for more
than a hundred years. They came from a place where education was the only way out of
poverty, oppression, and dictatorship. Hence, careers that are highly in-demand, i.e.
nursing, accounting, engineering, are the only viable choices they make when they arrive
to the United States. This issue becomes a problem when high school counselors and
administrators do not understand the need of these students. On the same token, these
high school students, with limited options, are forced to take on careers that are only
familiar in the household, which leads to dropping out in college due to lack of interest.
When the cultural value matches the economic demand of the society, there is less
friction between the “want” and the “need.” Practically speaking, these students choose
careers that are highly in demand exactly—the rest of the statement assumes you know
better, and that is where the problem lies: rather than careers that are highly of interest.
Perhaps if you explained these two models more fully, the context of your arguments
would be more fully understood: The Cultural Success Model together with the
environment, i.e., school, put a lot of pressure for these students to succeed. High
decision-making post high school. They have similar stories on how their parents instill
the importance of education focusing on jobs that are immediately employable. One of
the participants aspires to be a fashion designer and a model, all of which she can attain
by going to school. This dream has been squashed in her family discussion. Her answer,
“There is no money in fashion design, unless I became famous.” They all want to
113
support their family after graduation. But what’s important is that these students have a
dream.
study:
a) Pilipino students – need to be able to explore careers outside their Folk Theories.
Attend career events provided by the school or the community. Be involved with
other activities that can help them be aware of other careers that might catch their
interest. Times are currently tough economically, but a good place to start is to be
able to quench their curiosity. Watch the news, read articles on the Internet and
outside sources. Be open to change and believe that your children have the
capability to make the right decisions. Most of the time, there is a conflict of
what you want for your children. On one hand, you want them find employment
to be able to help the family, on the other hand, you also want them to attend a
four-year college (close to home). Let the message out. Understand that your
children are trying their best to survive in combining two different cultures.
relationship of the United States and the Philippines. Pilipinos tend to lean on
careers that deemed employable for the students. There is nothing wrong with
more information about any careers. The students in Suburbia High School
114
indicated that there is a lack of information regarding options, unless they ask. It
is time to provide the social network that these students need. May it be a four-
year college, technical school, or the military, the students need to be able to have
may be a key in helping these high schools students to make more varied career choices.
The lack of Pilipino immigrant students in the fields of music, arts, and theatre will have
important implications for many urban schools in Los Angeles. The overarching goal of
this study is to further inform educators and administrators on the complexity of being an
immigrant from a country that has been influenced by Americans for more than a
hundred of years. Familial and societal ideologies are influencing these students to make
the right decision. Inadvertently, this dissertation hoped to answer if the right decision is
really for the parents, the students, or the rise for an economic demand. The three
policies I would like to focus on are: 1) The responsibility of the school (institution) in
preparing students post-high school, 2) The historical relationship of the United States
and the Philippines and how it affects the career-decision making of Pilipinos in and
outside United States, and lastly 3) To be able to break familial and societal ideologies of
higher education. Most of the literary works are focused on Chinese, Japanese, and
115
Koreans. This dissertation is only to satisfy a curious mind. To further enhance this
work, I would recommend a continuation on how these students are performing post-high
school. A longitudinal study for the next four years would be a valuable work for the
Pilipino community.
I would also recommend studying the social capital for each student. Some might
have more access than the others. This affects on how the students fare post-high school.
Much of what I wish to discuss here has to do with addressing the relationship of the
student towards their family and school. Is it possible that the constraints and the support
for these students stem from the family and institution? It is my intention that such
curiosity may spark a little call for help in the near future. That is, how Pilipino
immigrants overcome barriers in order to succeed and follow their Cultural Model of
116
Epilogue
The Pilipinos are the second largest Asian population in the United States, next to
the Chinese. There is little research about the Pilipino high school students who are on
about to finish high school. I am hoping that this study will contribute to this gap in
literature. Although this study is only focused on Pilipino immigrant students, its
ethnic and racial backgrounds. Recruitment and retention of ethnic minority students to
colleges and universities has been a constant struggle for all stakeholders. Education is
the key to the continued success of this nation. It does, however, lack the sensitivity to
immigrant of United States, I wanted to understand the reasoning behind the limited
career choices that my fellow Pilipino colleagues are choosing. My mother wanted me to
This dissertation became more than just a paper but more like a journey. My only hope is
that it becomes a triggering point for any striving education psychologists out there to
look into cultural motivation of other ethnic backgrounds. It is with pride that I present
to you eighteen talented students of Suburbia High School. They are dancers. They are
past June. Lali, a female senior, graduated as the Salutatorian and will be attending Mt.
Saint Mary’s College in the fall under a full scholarship. I even helped her write her
speech. Another participant interviewed me for her oral history report. Another three
117
have asked me to help them write their personal essays. Albeit its time consumption, I
was glad to help. It was then that I just realized that all they wanted to have is a role
model with their same ethnic background. My interview questions only consisted of
about fifty questions. On the other hand, their questions were endless! They asked me
about my college experience, my graduate studies, my love life, my dog, and my career.
They were thirsty for a comparison. Whether or not they need a friend, a role model, or a
I wish I had more time to develop this study. But life happens, and we all have to
move on. In the future, I plan to continue my research branching out on the following
topics:
someone who barely makes end meet, I get it. And yet, I still worry about their
internal satisfaction on their chosen career. I truly believe that it is not called work if
you enjoy what you do. I still have this idealistic belief that within this lifetime, we
need to be able to find that one thing that makes us get up in the morning. If it’s not
our dog, then it better not be our partner. I want to look into internal satisfaction for
I am proud of my participants for having that fire in their hearts. But at the
back of my mind, I still worry about those Pilipinos who did not make it. Those who
incarceration are my next participants to further this study. Admittedly, they exist,
118
but most likely, forgotten. I would like to know more what happened and to be able
to understand the difference between the successes and well, the not so-successes.
school, we (as the education institution) need to inform the parents of other options
other than being a nurse or accountant. More social capital is needed outside the
walls of Pilipino parties and dinner tables. Colleges and universities must find a
better way to reach out to the marginalized population, to the misinformed, to the
apprehensive ones.
On a personal note, I would like to thank my chair, Dr. Rey Baca who never
gave up on me. Our relationship was more than the four corners of this dissertation.
daughter who will someday write better dissertations than mommy … Both of you are
my reason for living. To my mom and my sister, thank you for believing in me; there
were a lot of times when I stopped having faith. To all my friends who patiently
waited for me to stop talking about my dissertation, I thank you. To the rest of my
family, we defined our own Cultural Model of Success, without you, such model will
119
References
Azores, Tania. (1986). Educational attainment and upward mobility: Prospects for
Filipino Americans. Amerasia, 13(1), 39-52.
Chang, E.S., Chen, C., Greenberger, E., Dooley, D., & Heckhausen, J. . (2006). What do
they want in life? The life goals of multi-ethnic, multi-generational sample of
high school seniors. . Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35(3), 321-332.
Cheryan, S., & Bodenhausen, G.V. (2000). When Positive Stereotypes Threaten
Intellectual Performance: The Psychological Hazards of "Model Minority"
Status. . American Psychological Society, 399-402.
Church, T., & Katigbak M. (1992). The cultural context of academic motives: A
comparison of Filipino and American college students. . Journal of Cross-
Cultural Psychology, 23(1), 40-58.
Corrigan, J. (2004). The changing face of North America: Immigration since 1965
Filipino immigration. Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers.
Espiritu, Yen Le. (2001). "We Don't Sleep Around Like White Girls Do": Family,
Culture, and Gender in Filipina American Lives. Journal of Women in Culture
and Society 2001, 26(2).
Fuligni, A., Tseng, V., & Lam, M. (1999). Attitudes toward Family Obligations among
American Adolescents with Asian, Latin American, and European Backgrounds.
Society for Research in Child Development, Inc., 70, 1030-1044.
120
Kenny, M.E., Blustein, D.L., Chaves, A., Grossman, J. M, & Gallagher, L. A. (2003).
The role of perceived barriers and relational support in the educational and
vocational lives of urban high school students. Journal of Counseling Psychology,
50(2), 142-155.
Lee, S. J. (1994). Behind the model-minority stereotype: Voices of high- and low-
achieving Asian American students. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 25(4),
413-429.
Leong, F.T.L., Kao, E.M., Lee, S. (2004). The relationship between family dynamics and
career interests among Chinese Americans and European Americans. Journal of
Career Assessment 12(1), 65-84.
Ma, P.W., & Yeh, C (2005). Factors influencing the career decision status of Chinese
American youths. . The Career Development Quarterly, 53.
Mei Tang, Nadya A. Fouad, Philip L. Smith. (1999). Asian Americans' Career Choices:
A Path Model to Examine Factors Influencing Their Career Choices. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 54, 142-157.
Portes, A., & Rumbaut, R. (2001). Legacies: The Story of the Immigrant Second
Generation.
121
Salazar, P., Schludermann, S., Schludermann, E., & Huynh, C. (2000). Filipino
adolescents' parental socialization for academic achievement in the United States.
Journal of Adolescent Research, 15(5), 564-586.
Salazar-Clemena, Rose Marie. (2002). Family Ties and Peso Signs: Challenges for
Career Counseling in the Philippines. [ABI/INFORM Global]. The Career
Development Quarterly, 50(3).
Sanchez, F., & Gaw, A. (2007). Mental health care of Filipino Americans. Psychiatric
Services, 58(6).
Song, C., & Glick, J. (2004). College Attendance and choice of college majors among
Asian-American students Social Science Quarterly, 85(5).
Waldinger, R., Mehdi, B. (1996). Ethnic Los Angeles. New York: Russell Sage
Foundation.
Wang, T.H., & Wu, F.H. (1996). Beyond the Model Minority Myth. Massachusetts:
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.
Wong, M.G. (1990). The education of White, Chinese, Filipino, and Japanese students:
A look at "High School and Beyond". Sociological Perspectives, 33(3), 355-374.
Yan, W., & Lin, Q. . (2002). Parent Involvement and Mathematics Achievement:
Contrast Across Racial and Ethnic Groups. Washington DC: Heldref
Publications.
122
Ying, Y., Lee, P.A., Tsai, J. L., Hung, Y., Lin, M., & Wan, C.T. (2001). Asian American
College Students As Model Minorities: An Examination of Their Overal
Competence. Berkeley: Educational Publishing Foundation.
Zhou, M., Bankston III, C. (1998). Growing Up American: How Vietnamese Children
Adapt To Life in the United States New York Russell Sage Foundation.
123