HSC Physics by Beth Mitchell

From Ideas to Implementation: Study Notes

(From Syllabus Dot Points)

Contextual Outline
By the beginning of the twentieth century, many of the pieces of the physics puzzle
seemed to be falling
 into place. The wave model of light had successfully explained
interference and diffraction, and wavelengths at the extremes of the visible spectrum had
–4
been estimated. The invention of a pump that would evacuate tubes to 10
atmospheres allowed the investigation of cathode rays. X-rays would soon be confirmed
as electromagnetic radiation and patterns in the Periodic Table appeared to be nearly
complete. The nature of cathode rays was resolved with the measurement of the charge
on the electron soon to follow. There was a small number of experimental observations
still unexplained but this, apparently complete, understanding of the world of the atom
was about to be challenged.

The exploration of the atom was well and truly inward bound by this time and, as access
to greater amounts 
 of energy became available, the journey of physics moved further
and further into the study of subatomic particles. Careful observation, analysis,
imagination and creativity throughout the early part of the twentieth century developed a
more complete picture of the nature of electromagnetic radiation and matter. The journey
taken into the world of the atom has not remained isolated in laboratories. The
phenomena discovered by physicists have, with increasing speed, been channelled into
technologies, such as computers, to which society has ever-increasing access. These
technologies have, in turn, often assisted physicists in their search for further knowledge
and understanding of natural phenomena at the sub-atomic level.

This module increases students’ understanding of the history, nature and practice of
physics and the applications and uses of physics, the implications of physics for society
and the environment, and the current issues, research and developments in physics.

1. Increased understandings of cathode rays led to the development of television.

 Perform an investigation to gather first-hand information to observe the occurrence

of different striation patterns for different pressures in discharge tubes.

 Perform an investigation to
demonstrate and identify properties of
 cathode rays using discharge tubes:


 - containing a Maltese cross

Observation: When the cathode rays were fired directly at the Maltese cross, it cast a
shadow of the cross on the back of the tube.

Conclusion: Cathode rays travel in a straight line.

- containing electric plates

Observation: The rays are deflected towards the positive plate.

Conclusion: Cathode rays have a negative charge.

- with a fluorescent display screen

Observation: When cathode rays were fired at a screen coated with fluorescent
material, the screen lit up.

Conclusion: The rays have enough energy to react with the material.

- containing a glass wheel

Observation: The paddle wheel turns with sufficient voltage.

Conclusion: Particle – like properties e.g. Mass.

 Explain why the apparent inconsistent behavior of cathode rays caused debate as
 to whether they were charged particles or electromagnetic waves.

Wave-like properties Particle – like properties

- Not deflected by - Deflected by electric

electric and and magnetic fields
magnetic fields - Slower than light
(initial experiments - Emitted
by Hertz) perpendicular to
- Unaffected by source (not all
gravity around)
- Could pass through - Turned a paddle
thin metal sheets wheel – had energy
- Travelled in straight and momentum
lines

Key contributors:

William Crookes – Insisted they were a particle due to aspects shown through his
experiments (see previous outcome) such as energy and momentum and were deflected
by magnetic fields.

Heinrich Hertz – Insisted they were waves as they could pass through metal foils and
(incorrectly) were not deflected by electromagnetic waves.

J.J Thompson – Redid Hertz experiment with a more advanced vacuum tube and found
that cathode rays were deflected by magnetic fields and thus were a charged particle.
Defined the electron.

 Explain that cathode ray tubes allowed the manipulation of a stream of charged
particles.

Cathode rays are a stream of negatively charged particles. A cathode ray tube (or
Crookes tube) is a glass tube with a positively charged end (anode) and a negatively
charged end (cathode). Inside the tube the air pressure is extremely low. The charged
ends of the tube cause the charged particles to move from the negative to the positive in
a linear stream. The vacuum inside the tube reduces the interference of other atoms in
the flow of the stream. Once a stream is flowing in the tube the charged particles can be
manipulated and bent using electric fields and magnetic fields, due to their negative
charge they will move towards the positive. This effect can be clearly observed in a
cathode ray tube using fluorescent material that lights up when hit with particles.

 Identify that moving charged particles in a magnetic field experience a force.

A moving charge in a magnetic field experiences a force proportional to the velocity of
the particle, the charge on the particle, the strength of the magnetic field and the sine of
the angle of the motion against the magnetic field lines. If the particle is travelling parallel
to the field lines, no force is applied.

 Identify that charged plates produce an electric field.

 Describe quantitatively the force acting on a charge moving through a magnetic

field.

The force acting on a charge moving through a magnetic field is described as:

𝐹 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
F = Force
q = Charge
B = Magnetic field strength
θ = Angle of motion against magnetic field lines

If the particle is at right angles to the field this can be reduced to the form:

𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸

 Discuss qualitatively the electric field strength due to a point charge, positive and
negative charges and oppositely charged parallel plates/describe quantitatively the
electric field due to oppositely charged parallel plates.

Point Charge: A point charge is a theoretical charge at a specific spot. It does not take
up space or have any mass.
The strength of the electric field between two charged plates:

𝑉
𝐸=
𝑑

Where:

E = Electric field strength

V = Voltage supplied
d = Distance between plates

 Outline Thomson’s experiment to measure the charge/mass ratio of an electron.

Cathode rays allow for the manipulation of a stream of charged particles. J.J Thompsons
set up allowed for the observation of the charge to mass ratio of these particles and thus
the nature of the electron. Thomson set up a cathode ray tube with an anode with a
small hole through the centre to produce a thin stream of electrons travelling into space
rather than between a potential difference. The setup also included: an internal pair of
electric plates (with the upper terminal positive) in order to deflect the beam upwards
and an external pair of solenoids creating a magnetic field in order to deflect the beam
downwards. At the end of the tube was a fluorescent display screen in order to allow
Thomson to observe the deflection of the electron from it’s original path. By balancing
the magnitude of the fields so that the electron experienced no deflection, Thomson was
able to find and expression for the velocity of the particle relative to the strengths of each
field. By equating the potential energy and kinetic energy of the electrons at the cathode
and anode respectively, and substituting the potential difference across the tube and the
velocity of the electrons, he was able to calculate the charge-to-mass ratio of the
electron.
 Outline the role of: electrodes in the electron gun, the deflection plates or coils, the
fluorescent screen in the cathode ray tube of conventional TV displays and
oscilloscopes.

The electrodes in the

electron gun:

- Produce the electron beam

- Control the brightness of the beam
- Focus the beam
- Accelerate the beam (high potential difference)

The deflecting plates or coils:

- Guide and deflect the electron beam to the correct points on the screen
- Can move a beam in any direction

The fluorescent screen:

- The fluorescent screen is coated with layers of fluorescent material

- The screen emits red, blue and green light in varying combinations to create a
full spectrum of colour

2. The reconceptualisation of the model of light led to an understanding of the

photoelectric effect and black body radiation.

The photoelectric effect: When light (photons) of the corresponding energy to the work
function (energy required to release an electron) of a metal strikes the metal, electrons
from the metal’s crystal lattice structure are ejected from the surface of the metal with a
velocity proportional to the work function of the metal subtracted from starting energy of
the photon.

Black body: An idealized physical body, which absorbs all incident radiation and
radiates ‘black body radiation’ or ‘perfect radiation’.
 Describe Hertz’s observation of the effect of a radio wave on a receiver and the
photoelectric effect he produced but failed to investigate.

Hertz used an induction coil and spark gap to

produce electromagnetic waves. He placed a
receiver (a small loop of wire) at the other end.
In placing a glass shield in between the two
loops of wire, Hertz observed a significant
reduction in the intensity of the second spark
produced. When he repeated the experiment
with a quartz shield no such effect occurred.
UV light does not pass through glass, while it
does pass through quartz. When the UV light
was allowed to strike the metal in the loop it
caused electrons to be ejected and thus
enhance the electrical conductivity between
the spark gap (the photoelectric effect).

However, Hertz failed to realise that this

distinction between the types of shields indicated the emission of UV light.

 Outline qualitatively Hertz’s experiments in measuring the speed of radio waves

and how they relate to light waves.

James Clerk Maxwell made two key predictions about the nature of electromagnetic
waves:

- Electromagnetic waves could exist a vacuum

- They travelled at the speed of light

However they were left unproved until Hertz’ experiments in 1886. Hertz repeated his
experiment (above) in a variety of different ways in order to reach a number of
conclusions about the nature of the electromagnetic waves he was producing.

- Electromagnetic waves could travel and could be transmitted and received

- Electromagnetic waves could be reflected with metal plates
- Electromagnetic waves refract like light
- Electromagnetic waves are polarized (in rotating the receiver coil the sparks were
stronger at some angles than others)

Hertz also used his apparatus to measure the speed of the waves. To do this he
determined the wavelength of the wave. He first connecting the receiving loop and the
transmitter (spark gap), and then angled them towards different reflectors. He was then
able to determine the wavelengths by changing the positions of the reflectors and
analyzing the interference patterns. The frequency was known as it was controlled by his
apparatus, and was the same in both the receiver and the transmitter. These factors
allowed him to calculate the speed from the wave equation (𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆).
 Identify Planck’s hypothesis that radiation emitted and absorbed by the walls of a
black body cavity is quantised.

To develop a ‘prefect’ radiation curve against which other radiation can be measured, a
black body can be utilized. Measuring the Intensity of the radiation at different
wavelengths at different temperatures, the following curve was produced:

In a classical interpretation of this result some physicists hypothesised that the intensity
of the radiation was inversely proportional to the wavelength. However, this violates the
conservation of energy, as infinitely small wavelengths would have infinite energy. This
was known as the ‘Ultraviolet catastrophe’. To solve this problem Max Plank
presented the idea of ‘quantised’ radiation. He suggested that energy was emitted from
bodies in discreet packages, in response to changes in their atoms. For any given body
the majority of the packets of energy will be at a certain frequency, this is related to the
characteristic peak on the graph. The energy contained within a certain quanta is
dependent only on the frequency at which it is emitted multiplied by a constant (Planck’s
constant):

𝐸 = ℎ𝑓

E = Energy of he quanta
h = Planck’s constant (6.626 x 10-34 )
f = Frequency

 Identify/assess Einstein’s contribution to quantum theory and its relation to black

body radiation.

In studying the photoelectric effect the following observations had already been made:

- Target substances have a threshold frequency i.e. below a certain frequency no

electrons will be emitted.
- The energy of the ejected electrons is directly related to the frequency of the
incident light where Kinetic Energymax = Frequency of light
- Increasing the intensity of the light only increased the amount of electrons
released, not the energy.

To explain these observations, in 1905, Einstein suggested the following ideas:

 - The energy of light is not evenly distributed but comes in discreet packages
known as photons.
- The energy of the photons is given by Planck’s Law (E = hf) where ‘f’ is the
frequency of the light.
- Electrons in the target material are in ‘energy wells’. To release an electron a
photon must have at least hf0 energy (the ‘work function’ of the material).
Any extra energy from the photon turns into kinetic energy for the electron.
- Therefore, the maximum possible Kinetic Energy must equal hfphtoton - hf0

Einstein’s theories came about directly because of Planck’s work on black bodies.
Einstein took what Planck had seen as a mathematical trick as serious physical theory
and thus was able to develop the most accurate model of light to date. He validated
quantum theory, reinforced it’s solving of black body radiation and opened the door for
further quantum research. In this way, Einstein made a significant contribution to
quantum theory and it’s relation to black body radiation.

 Explain the particle model of light in terms of photons with particular energy and
frequency.

All light is transmitted in small particles known as photons. The energy of a photon is
directly related to it’s frequency, where greater frequency means higher energy.
Increasing the amplitude of the light increases the number to photons, not the energy.
Photon energies can only occur in multiples of Planck’s constant.

(Note: For light and electromagnetic waves, an unknown frequency or wavelength can
be found using c = f𝜆 where c = speed of light)

 Identify data sources, gather, process and present information to summarise the
use of the photoelectric effect in photocells.

A photocell is usually a vacuum tube with two electrodes, a photosensitive negative

cathode and a positive anode. When light is shined on the cathode it emits electrons,
which flow to the anode creating a current. This current can be used to operate a relay,
which might activate a motor to open a door or ring a bell in an alarm system. It can also
be made sensitive to the removal of light or a change in light intensity, such as when a
beam of light incident on the cathode is interrupted, causing the current to stop.
Photocells are common in devices used to analyse the presence of light or radiation at
particular wavelengths, such as in astronomy to examine the frequencies of light coming
from a star.

 Process information to discuss Einstein’s and Planck’s differing views about

whether science research is removed from social and political forces.
Einstein and Planck initially held differing opinions about the relationship between
science and political forces; however, they both eventually came to a position of
accepting that the two are inevitably linked.

As a pacifist, Einstein was initially a strong believer in pure science and refused to help
the war effort with his work. However he eventually came to realise that the two are
intrinsically linked and worked with the Manhattan Project in the later years of his life,
which contributed significantly to ending the war.

Planck initially felt that science definitely had a role to play in terms of politics, but
eventually he turned against the Nazi regime, criticising it, believing that science should
be separate. However, he understood that there is an unavoidable link between science
and politics. Even after Planck attempted to separate science from politics, research
science for the military continued through other scientists. Both had justification for their
actions at the time, but both came to regret advocating the support of science for military
purposes. Both became advocates of the pursuit of science for the common good.

3. Limitations of past technologies and increased research into the structure of

the atom resulted in the invention of transistors.

 Identify that some electrons in solids are shared between atoms and move 
 freely.

Almost all compounds are made up of either molecules or a lattice. Molecular

substances are held together with covalent bonds and thus have few ‘free electrons’. A
lattice structure consists of positive metal ions, surrounded by loosely held ‘free
electrons’, which are allowed to move through the lattice. Metals have a crystal lattice
structure, meaning they have many free electrons and are good conductors of
electricity.

 Describe the difference between conductors, insulators and semiconductors in

terms of band structures and relative electrical resistance.

Electrons in atoms are in definite, separate energy levels. But when atoms come
together to form a solid the energy levels merge together into energy bands.

To take part in conduction electrons must be able to move between atoms. This can only
happen if there are unoccupied spaces in the energy levels of neighboring atoms for the
electrons to go –> a band must be only partially filled for electrons to move through it.

In a metallic conductor the outer band (formed from the outer shells of the atoms) is
only partly filled, it has unoccupied positions and so the electrons are free to move. This
partially filled band is called the conduction band.

In an insulator all the electrons are in full bands. The uppermost full band is known as
the valence band. It would take an enormous amount of energy for an electron to jump
up from the valence band to the next energy level –> no conduction.

In a cold semiconductor (such as silicon) all the electrons are in a valence band and so
it acts as an insulator. However, the energy gap between the valence band and the next
empty band energy band is small, so a rise in heat can provide enough energy for some
electrons to jump into the conduction band, allowing conduction to take place.

 Identify absences of electrons in a nearly full band as holes, and recognise that
both electrons and holes help to carry current.

In the same way that the movement of an electron through an available band creates
current, an ‘electron hole’ can also transfer current through a substance, with the current
flowing through the movement of electrons to fill the hole. The current caused by an
electron hole flows in the opposite direction of the ‘movement’ of the hole.

 Compare qualitatively the relative number of free electrons that can drift from atom
to atom in conductors, semiconductors and insulators.

Conductors – Many free electrons, able to conduct easily.

Semiconductors – Few free electrons, number of free electrons increased on heating.
Insulators – No free electrons.

 Identify that the use of germanium in early transistors is related to lack of ability to
produce other materials of suitable purity.

During early research with transistors and semiconductors, germanium was the
semiconductor of choice. The main reason germanium was used was because of
purification- in order to operate with predictable properties, the semiconductor crystal
needed to be very pure. The only two semiconductors suitable for transistor use are
germanium and silicon, being Group 4 semiconductors and somewhat easily available.
Silicon was in fact the superior material, being more abundant and therefore cheaper,
easier to dope, and having superior thermal properties (germanium became too
conductive with only moderate heating making germanium chip performance highly
dependent on temperature).

However, in the 1940’s at the start of semiconductor research, scientists were only able
to purify germanium. The techniques that they used to purify germanium crystals could
not be applied to silicon crystals. This meant that although silicon was the superior
material, it could not be used because silicon crystals could not be manufactured pure
enough to make reliable chips. Germanium was therefore used in early transistors until
suitable purity silicon was developed.
 Describe how ‘doping’ a semiconductor can change its electrical properties/
identify differences in p and n-type semiconductors in terms of the relative number
of negative charge carriers and positive holes.
‘Doping’ is the act of adding a very small amount (<0.1%) of a different material to a
semiconductor in order to change its electrical properties. This is achieved by increasing
the number of free electrons or creating an electron hole. The two main elements used
as semiconductors are Germanium and Silicon (both Group 4 elements). A pure Group 4
element has each atom bonded to four other atoms, fulfilling the outer shell of each. In
this state a significant increase in heat is required to create free electrons. Doping the
substance significantly reduces the temperature needed for conduction, and thus
increases the conductivity, by replacing some of the Group 4 atoms with Group 3 or 5
atoms (such as boron and phosphorus respectively.)

p-type Semiconductor

When a Group 3 atom (such as boron) replaces a Group 4 atom, only three valence
electrons are free to complete the covalent bonds in the lattice. If a valence electron
from a neighboring atom jumps across to complete the bond a ‘hole’ is produced. (See
above)

n-type Semiconductor

When a Group 5 atom replaces an atom of either silicon or germanium, only four of the
available five electrons are used to form covalent bonds, the remaining electron is
available for conduction.

 Describe differences
between solid state and thermionic
devices and discuss why solid state devices replaced thermionic devices.
Thermionic emission is the ejection of particles from solids and liquids when heated to
high enough temperatures. It is utilized in thermionic devices such as valves, which
consist of an evacuated tube, electron emitting cathode, a heat filament behind the
cathode and at least one other electrode (diode = two electrodes, triode = three
electrodes). Thermionic devices were once used extensively in electronics, for example,
triodes used in amplifiers. However they have subsequently been replaced by solid state
devices, such as transistors, which make use of an n-p junction in order to control
electrical flow.

Thermionic Devices Solid State Devices

Size Larger Very Small
Reliability Burn out Reliable
Stability Very fragile Robust
Energy Demands High voltage required Low voltage required
Lots of heat lost Efficient
Speed Requires start up time Requires no start up time
Slower Operates faster

 Gather, process and present secondary information to discuss how shortcomings

in available communication technology lead to an increased knowledge of the
properties of materials with particular reference to the invention of the transistor.

In the early days of iPods, MP3 players, mobile phones and computers many of these
devices relied on thermionic devices. These made them large, bulky and slow, as well as
being less energy efficient. With further research into semiconductors, a far more
efficient device for controlling the ability and direction of current to flow (a binary switch)
was developed – transistors. Transistors rely on the phenomena of n-p junctions. That
is, the junction formed when a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor are
placed together.

On its own, a p-type semiconductor has many holes, or a lack of electrons. An n-type
semiconductor has many free electrons. (Each of these are neutral, as there are still the
same amount of electrons and protons overall.) Consequently, when the two pieces are
joined electrons from the n-type diffuse into the p-type (and recombine with holes near
the boundary) leaving positive ions behind. Similarly holes from the p-type silicon diffuse
into the n-type (where they recombine with electrons near the boundary) leaving
negative ions behind. This diffusion of electron carrier’s results in a ‘depletion zone’ near
the boundary – depleted of current carrying holes or electrons. The semiconductor is
now charges, which the p-type being negative and the n-type being positive. This
creates an electrical field, preventing the electrons from moving back over.

By applying an external electric field (a voltage source connected to each side of the
junction) we are able to either enhance or reduce the effect of the junction. In this way,
we create a switch with no moving parts, rather, the application of current allows
electrons either to flow or not flow. In a transistor, two junctions are aligned in a way that
if current is allowed through the first junction it becomes amplified through the second.
The biggest problem with communication technology in the early days of the radio was
amplification-the received signal was extremely weak and could not produce a loud
sound without being amplified. This meant researchers were always trying to improve
amplification technology to address the short-comings with valves such as their high
failure rate, high power consumption, their weight and their warm-up time. When they
first determined some of the properties of semiconductors this need for better amplifiers
fuelled heavy research into the properties of semiconductors and the ways in which they
could be used as amplifiers in the form of transistors. So the shortcomings in available
communications technology led to the rapid development of the transistor, which would
have otherwise taken many years longer.

 Identify data sources, gather, process, analyse information and use available
evidence to assess the impact of the invention of transistors on society with
particular reference to their use in microchips and microprocessors.

The invention of the transistor has dramatically changed society, largely through the use
of micro-processors and microchips. They have enabled the building of small, efficient
computers that now have widespread applications throughout society as well as in
scientific research. It has allowed the automation of repetitive tasks, which has led to
higher quality of life, at the expense of jobs and a rise in unemployment. However, in
terms of communication it has had a tremendous benefit enabling the internet which has
drastically changed society for the better. So overall transistors have had an extremely
positive impact on society.

 Identify data sources, gather, process and present information to summarise the
effect of light on semiconductors in solar cells.

Essentially, a solar cell consists of a junction between a P-type and N-type

semiconductor that is exposed to light. Electrons are ejected from the N layer due to the
photoelectric effect, and they then travel around a circuit to reach the P layer.

4. Investigations into the electrical properties of particular metals at different

temperatures led to the identification of superconductivity and the exploration
 of
possible applications.

 Outline the methods used by the Braggs to determine crystal structure.

When waves pass over/past obstructions they diffract, splitting into different directions.
When these diffracted waves interact with each other or with the original wave they
make ‘interference patterns’, which are easily observable and give great indication of
the nature of the original diffraction. Diffraction is most evident when the gap between
obstructions through which the wave passes is equal to the wavelength of the wave. In
the early 1900’s the Bragg’s (Sir William and his son Lawrence) recognized that the
gaps between atoms in the lattice structure of a crystal was roughly equivalent to
the wavelength of X-rays. A crystal could therefore be used as a ‘diffraction grating’
and the interference patterns caused could give an indication of the nature and
size of the crystal lattice itself. The Braggs used an x-ray tube as their x-ray source,
and the x-rays travelled through a hole in a shield, which acted as a collimator to
produce a tightly focused beam of x-rays. The waves then reflected through a crystal
target which acted as a diffraction grating, and then the x-rays travelled to a sensor to
analyse the interference pattern. From this they could calculate lattice separation
distance, which was of great importance to science and understanding crystal structures

 Identify that metals possess a crystal lattice structure.

Metals, like many other molecules, have a crystal lattice structure in their solid state.
This means that they exist as a 3-dimensional grid of atoms arranged into layers. It is a
repeating structure where each atom occupies a well-defined equilibrium distance from
its neighbors. In the case of metals, free electrons exist in between lattice layers and
conduct electricity.

 Describe conduction in metals as a free movement of electrons unimpeded by the

lattice.

The sea of electrons in a metal lattice structure are generally free to move under the
influence of an electric field. Without an electric field the electrons move in random
vibrations in the lattice hitting the lattice and each other resulting in no net flow. When an
electric field is applied all the electrons move in one direction causing net flow of current.

 Process information to identify some of the metals, metal alloys and compounds
that have been identified as exhibiting the property of superconductivity and their
critical temperatures.

Metallic Critical Temperature Ceramic Critical Temperature

Superconductors Superconductors
Aluminum 1.2K YBa2Cu3O7 90K
Mercury 4.2 HgBa2Ca2Cu3O8 133K

 Identify that resistance in metals is increased by the presence of 
 impurities and

 scattering of electrons
 by lattice vibrations.

It is as a result of the collisions of the electrons with the impurity ions or imperfections
that the metal offers resistance to the current. As the temperature of the metal increases,
the ions of the lattice vibrate more, increasing the probability of the conduction electrons
colliding and so increasing the resistance.

 Describe the occurrence in superconductors below their critical temperature of a

population of electron pairs unaffected by electrical resistance.

When a superconductor is cooled to below it’s ‘Critical Temperature’ (Tc) all resistance
disappears and electrons are allowed to move unimpeded by the lattice. They move this
way through the formation of ‘cooper pairs’. This phenomenon is known as
superconductivity.

 Discuss the BCS theory.

Developed in 1957 by John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and J. Robert Schrieffer.

Superconductors are materials that exhibit no resistance. They only occur at low
temperatures because at higher temperatures electron pairs are not capable of forming.
In a superconductor, lattice vibrations are eliminated due to the low temperature. As an
electron travels through the lattice, it attracts lattice ions causing a lattice distortion- a
small region of positive space that attracts another electron. The two electrons then
exchange phonons and bind, forming a Cooper pair of electrons which behaves as a
single particle. Because the two electrons are interacting with each other they interact
less with the lattice, and so travel through it very easily with very little resistance. So
below the critical temperature, when a material becomes a superconductor pairs of
electrons form that are unaffected by electrical resistance. The BCS theory of
superconductivity is simply the idea that lattice distortions at low temperatures lead to
the formation of Cooper pairs. This theory is extremely successful at explaining
superconductivity in Type 1 superconductors (substances that have a critical
temperature below 30K) as it is almost 50 years old now, and still used. It provided a
concrete framework on which to model superconductivity that was vital to understanding
how it works. However, it is unable to explain superconductivity in Type 2
superconductors- the ceramic variety that can be superconductors at far higher
temperatures. This is because the model predicts 30K as being the maximum
temperature at which Cooper pairs are able to form. So while it is extremely important to
understanding Type 1superconductors, it does little to explain Type 2 and so is an
incomplete theory
 Discuss the advantages of using superconductors and identify limitations to their
use.

There are many advantages to using superconductors. These are mainly that they
operate with very little loss and so are extremely efficient, and also that they generate no
waste heat because they are perfect conductors. They are capable of generating very
strong magnetic fields per unit of weight, useful for MRI scanners, and could be used to
make very efficient motors, generators and batteries. There are two key limitations to
superconductors, however. Firstly, it is very difficult to cool superconductors to below
their critical temperatures- they require a constant supply of liquid nitrogen at the
moment (given the low temperatures currently needed to achieve superconductivity),
and secondly it is very hard to shape ceramic superconductors as they are not ductile,
making it difficult to turn superconductors into wires.

 Analyse information to explain why a magnet is able to hover above a

superconducting material that has reached the temperature at which it is
superconducting.

A magnet is able to hover over a superconducting material for two reasons- firstly
because magnetic fields are excluded from the superconductor, forcing the magnet to be
repelled from the superconductor thus causing it to rise up (this is the Meissner effect),
and secondly due to the phenomenon of quantum pinning which stops the magnet from
moving horizontally off the superconductor. The Meissner effect is separate to the
induction of eddy current, which would theoretically perfectly oppose the magnetic field
of a magnet. This is shown to be true because if a magnet is placed on a
superconductor as it is being cooled, it will jump into the air as the superconductor
becomes superconducting - this shows it is not an induction phenomenon as change in
magnetic flux is required to induce eddy currents. Therefore the levitation occurs due to
the exclusion of magnetic fields from the superconductor
 Gather and process information to describe how superconductors and the effects
of magnetic fields have been applied to develop a maglev train.

A maglev train relies on superconductors for operation, because superconductors are

extremely light, extremely strong magnets, making them well suited to levitate a heavy
load such as the train. Superconductors are used in two areas - to levitate the maglev
train, and to propel the train. The tracks and the train both have superconductors.
Superconductors on the train consist of a looped superconductor on either side of the
train. The superconductor is charged with electric current when it is made, and because
it is looped (physically, with one end joined to the other), the current flows
continuously. This sets up a strong, constant magnetic field. Superconducting
electromagnets on the track, positioned above and below the train’s magnetic loops,
repel the train from the bottom, and attract the train from the top, causing the train to
float. The track magnets are mounted on the vertical sides of the track. Additional
superconducting electromagnets on the track serve to propel the train. These
electromagnets are situated all along the side of the track. Magnets in front of the
train attract the train’s magnets, while magnets on the track behind the train repel the
train. By constantly changing the polarity of the track magnets, the train is attracted and
repelled in the same direction constantly, causing the maglev train to move rapidly along
the track. Superconductors are vital to the development of maglev trains, because
permanent magnets would be too heavy to generate the same field strength, and
conventional electromagnets would lose too much energy as waste heat due to electrical
resistance.

 Process information to discuss possible applications of superconductivity and the

effects of those applications on computers, generators and motors and
transmission of electricity through power grids.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Because they can carry large electric currents without heat losses, superconductors can
be used to generate large magnetic fields. Such fields are used in a variety of devices
including MRI machines.

Electronic Switches
Superconducting switches can operate up to ten times as fast as semiconducting
switches.

Electricity Transmission
Energy losses in electricity transmission occur because of resistance in the wires. If this
can be eliminated, enormous amounts of energy could be saved. Power plants could
also be built further from populated areas.

Magnetic Levitation
Use in Maglev trains, reduces energy consumption and increases speed by reducing
friction.

Superconducting Quantum Interference Device (SQUID)

An extremely sensitive device, which relies on the ability of superconductors to transfer
current through a thin insulator to detect tiny magnetic fields. Used in geophysics to
measure oscillations of the earth’s magnetic field and in brain scanning/imaging.

Particle Accelerators
Using superconductors makes them cheaper to run, use less electricity, have a smaller
carbon footprint. Benefit society by enhancing our understanding of nature.