RELEVANCE OF SOCIAL IMAGERY PORTRAYED DURING THE

MAHABHARATA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO GENDER AND THE

OVERALL INFLUENCE OF TEXTS TODAY

-Eashan Nakra
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
The topic this project is based on is an aspect of the Mahabharata, and shall involve analysis
of the same. The project shall deal with the question:
What was and is the relevance of social imagery, especially those pertaining to women,
during the Mahabharata?
The Mahabharata is an epic written during 6th century BCE and 6th century CE. It is an epic
known for its complex storyline and multiple sub plots. The Mahabharata is an epic of war,
kingship, marriage, property, kinship, power, divinity with greed, malice, love, friendship,
sacrifice as some of its themes.
{Themes in Indian History part 1, Theme 3 : Kingship, Caste and Class, Page 73}
The Mahabharata is not just a narrative text, contrary to popular perceptions surrounding it.
Historians classify this text both as narrative as well as didactic as it possesses elements of and
common to, both. The narrative aspect of Mahabharata is evident as its speaks of a story, and
a chronicle of events that might have or have not taken place, historians lean towards the
argument which suggests that while some events might’ve occurred and inspired many parts
of this epic, this text is one that has been greatly exaggerated and contorted due to its narrative
requirements.
The didactic nature of the Mahabharata is extremely intriguing and allows multiple
perspectives and deductions. The society then was based on the dominant culture of
Brahmanism wherein, Brahmins were at the top of the caste system (which had established
social hierarchy and division), followed by Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The culture of
Brahmanism fed off texts such as Vedas for legitimacy and for acquiring followers. One major
pathway for doing this was by providing their power a divine backing. The Vedas, spoke of a
pantheon of Gods before puranic literature came into being, and thus included Agni, Indra,
Soma and Vayu. They also consisted of hymns and sacrificial texts. While the Vedas did not
directly feed into Brahmanism, the dominant community manipulated such texts to prescribe a
way of life based on their ideas and beliefs. To increase stronghold on society, texts known as
the Dharmasutras and the Dharmashastras were introduced which included norms and rules of
behaviour. The Manusmriti was introduced for a similar purpose as it contained a detailed code
of conduct on issues as personal as marriage and intercourse, amongst others.

THE CENTRAL STORY

{The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page 12}

This introduction shall be observing the storyline of the Mahabharata, specific to its early
segment known as the Breach (bheda). This segment gives us an overview of the situation as
it exists in the epic and thus provides the ideal background the subsequent segments. It also
allows us to observe the kind of complexity that the whole text possesses. The Bheda can be
characterised by three principal moments:
1) The Fire in The Lacquer House
2) The Bridegroom Choice for Draupadi
3) The Burning of the Khandava Forest
{The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page xiv-xv }
Looking at the beginning we find the introduction of the King Samtanu, and his son Bhisma
who was born of the Goddess of the River Ganges and his father. Samtanu falls in love with
Satyavati who is of a lower social position as she belongs to the fisherman tribe. Her father
puts forth several conditions before the King and states that the son born of Satyavati must be
heir to the throne and Bhisma, mustn’t bear any sons. Bhisma agrees to these demands and
thereby establishes himself as a moral, magnanimous and awe inspiring character in the epic.
Dvaipayana also comes forth as a character, and while his importance in the storyline increases
manifold only subsequently, he is introduced as the pre marital offspring of Satyavati born of
her encounter with a seer, Parasara. Chitragada and Vicitravirya are the sons born of Samtanu
and Satyavati, however Samtanu’s bloodline ends with them both. While the elder (Chitragada)
dies unmarried, the younger (Vicitravirya) married to sisters Ambika (elder) and Ambalika
doesn’t bear any son, and dies childless. Satyavati calls upon Bhisma to oblige the widows
(Ambika and Ambalika), however he refuses, furthering his image as a moral and awe –
inspiring character. She then class upon Dvaipayana by the Law of Levirate, to service the
widows. This is where Dvaipayana’s contribution to the furthering of the storyline increases
considerably as he then goes on to bear Dhrtarastra with Ambika (who is born blind, and
therefore unfit to be king) , Pandu (who goes on to assume the throne) with Ambalika and
bastard son Vidura.
{The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page 6}
Dhrtarashtra with great difficulty bears a hundred sons, the eldest being Duryodhana. His
bloodline is termed as the Kauravas. Pandu in turn has five sons with divine intervention with
his two wives Kunti (the senior wife) and Madri. The five progeny are termed as the Pandavas,
eledest of whom is Yudhisthira, who was also in fact born before Duryodhana. Background as
to the divine origins of the Pandavas has been provided. Pandu has shot a buck while it was in
the act of mating with a doe. The Buck was a disguised seer who cursed Pandu to the same fate
as him when he would indulge in intercourse. This curse inhibited Pandu from having sons of
his own, and thus he called upon his wives to bear sons by various gods. Thus, Yudhisthira is
born of Dharma, Bhima is born of the Wind God, Arjuna is born of Indra, while the junior wife
Madri bears twins, Nakula and Sahadeva by the Asvins. {The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of
the Beginning – Page 7}
Pandu resigned as king after his curse and becomes a hermit, shifting the power onto
Dhrtarastra. However, Pandu is unable to avoid the curse as he indulges himself in intercourse
with his wife Madri, causing his death, followed by Madri’s. Kunti and the Pandavas are
escorted the court of the Kauravas, in Hastinapura by the fellow recluses of Pandu. The five
grow up there. Bhisma, the grand uncle of the Kauravas and the Pandavas, engages Krpa as a
teacher for the childrens’ education. Drona is also introduced as a teacher thereafter.
The storyline which remains reasonably amicable until now, begins to take a sharp turn towards
its more conflicting elements. Having established the background the story enters the first
major segment, i.e. “The Book of Fire in the Lacquer”, which starts off with a trial tournament.
Arjuna dazzles the audience with the impeccable skills in combat which he had acquired in his
years of schooling. Karna is introduced as a character at this moment. Karna is the half brother
of the Pandavas, and was born of Kunti and the Sun God. He challenges Arjun to a fight, the
verdict of which remains undecided. Meanwhile, Duryodhana has already been fostering
hostile feelins towards the Pandavas as they were a threat to fulfilling his ambition of acquiring
the throne. Karna and Duryodhana thus become allies in what soon develops as a intra family
war for power. There is an assassination attempt by Duryodhana, who attempts to burn the
house the Pandavas were residing in, thereby eliminating them. However, Vidura, the bastard
son of Dvaipayana warns Kunti and the Pandavas, who leave bodies in the house to convince
Duryodhana of their demise while they themselves escaped to the forest. Following this the
epic speaks of several adventures and events in the forest, one of the major ones being the
slaying of the Demon Hadimba by Bhima, and the latter’s marriage with Hadimba’s sister.
The story after a series of events breaks into “The Book of Draupadi’s Bridegroom Choice”.
The five disguise themselves as Brahmanas in the court of Drupada, the king of Pancala. Arjuna
wins the hand of his daughter Draupadi by accomplishing a feat of archery that none of the
other competitors could. Arjuna brings Draupadi home to his mother Kunti, following which
the famous incident occurs wherein, Kunti without turning back to see Draupadi, and thinking
it to be food, asks Arjuna to share it amongst his brothers, it is only that she realises her folly,
but her word stands unchallenged and Draupadi is married off to the five brothers. The news
of Arjuna’s win at the tournament in the court of Pancala, reaches the Kauravas who see the
Pancalas as a powerful ally to the Pandavas, and hence initiate attempts for partition instead of
pre-emptive war. The Pandavas accept the Khandava Tract in the River Yamuna.

{The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page 13}

Subsequently, the Pandavas acquire a strong ally, Krsna Vasudeva and his brother Balarama.
In order to establish their kingdom, the Pandavas clear the forest by burning it, which is thus
in the form of the God of Fire, Agni. This remains as the most salient account of the third
segment of the Bheda, “The Burning of the Khandava Forest”
THE FUZZY EDGES
{The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page xvii}
As anticipated, with a complex storyline like this, there comes the risk of several loopholes and
fuzzy edges. One of the most basic flaw is the brief timespan this epic covers. The story’s major
theme is succession conflict, therefore tracing the lineage and family line from Samtanu is
inadequate. The dynasty to which he belonged, Bharata, should also be traced which in turn
would lead the reader onto Bharata. (the founder of the dynasty) and his mother, Sakuntala,
and the Puravas and beyond.
{The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page xviii}
The complexity in the family structure and paternity begins with Samtanu’s strange attraction
for a woman belonging to a lower social position (Satyavati) and the conditions their marriage
demanded, which Bhisma gave into. Dhrtarastra was born blind and unfit to claim the throne
however after Pandu resigned himself to the forest after the curse set upon him, the throne went
back to Dhrtarastra. This tangled the line of succession, subsequently leading to conflict in the
family.
{The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page xix}
“It is hard not to look upon some of these complications as deliberate elaborations. Not
necessarily demanded by the narrative but easily inspired by it. And, again, they grow so
organically out of the main story that it is impossible to amputate them”
{The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page 1}
Several additions and deliberate complications are thus evident in the epic. This brings us to a
salient historical concept: Just because there are exterior portions in a text, doesn’t mean during
our analysis of the text one blatantly ignores them. Instead, it becomes important to understand
the reasons behind these additions and complications.
THE SECOND PERIMETER
{The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page xix – xx}
The first step to analysing such accretions/additions remains, identifying them. Additions and
secondary material to the epic aren’t easy to differentiate.
“It is by no means easy to differentiate between them (secondary material) and the principal
narrative, because in the course of time the stylistic differences were glossed over.”
“Any line drawn will be subjective to a point”
Unless clearly stated, any attempt at differentiation between exterior portions and the main
story in the background of their gradual amalgamation over time, is seen as less backed by
historical evidence and study, and more by the historians’ discretion and individual opinion of
the text, thus making it subjective.
“But one place where the line might be drawn is between man and deity.”
In order to explore the same, it is essential to identify and question several elements in the text:
Why should Bhisma be portrayed as the son of the river goddess?
A salient feature of Bhisma is his virtuous nature. Bhisma promised not to sire children of his
own for the sake of his father’s happiness, thus giving him his name meaning : ‘awe inspiring’
The question as to why this wasn’t left as his natural magnanimity remains, what we find
instead are backgrounds (possibly addition) of his divine origin.
Bhisma is said to be an incarnation of the God Dyaus who was cursed to be a mortal by the
seer Vasistha when the former attempted to steal the latter’s cow. Dyaus went to the river
Ganga to ask of the Goddesses assistance. The latter agreed to five birth to Dyaus as a mortal.
The second background attempts to clear the loopholes and elaborate on how the Goddess
Ganga got involved in the above mentioned situation talks of how the recently sainted, King
Mahabhisa didn’t avert his eyes when the wind blew Ganga’s skirt up. He was cursed to new
birth as Samtanu. Ganga demanded he beget children to her in order to help her keep her word
to Dyaus.
After identifying such attributions it is essential to analyse their effects and their necessity. This
is an example of an unnecessary divine justification as the storyline could’ve continued
attributing Bhisma’s act of selflessness to his general personality and disposition.
“As usual as in such pious transformations, the results are less than gratifying: they take
away a man’s virtue while adding nothing to the God’s”
“Such further elaborations are disappointing because they rob the human actors of much of
their motivation…..Bhisma’s noble vow is reduced to the automatic consequence of a curse
by a sage, angered over, of all things, a cow.”
My speculation regarding the reason behind such justifications is that Brahmanas were existing
as a powerful section in society. One of the methods in which they as a community sought
respect and acknowledgement to and of themselves and the caste system was through divine
justification suggesting that God intended for such communities to exist and Brahmanas being
the “closest to God” therefore held utmost legitimacy. Such attributions established the image
of God as an entity that doesn’t remain aloof from the mortal world and actions of the people,
thus augmenting the practice of ‘worship through fear’. Moreover, inclusion of ‘incarnations’
and ‘divine origins’ also allowed the Brahmanas to exploit the same to draw reverence and
further strengthen their claim on their intimacy with God. It wouldn’t be a matter of surprise if
their motto read, “The Brahmana you insult, may just be a reborn God”

Now we arrive to the second kind of divine justifications, which is different by virtue of its
reason and intended effect. This starts off with a specific question surrounding one of the
fragments of the text, why should Karna be the offspring of the Sun God?
Several additions and elements in the book had the responsibility of justifying social realities.
In the case of Karna, Kunti had him before she got married. Having a child outside the sanctity
of a marriage was considered horrible in society then. To justify it in this case, Karna was
represented as a child borne out of the Sun God, thus making it unobjectionable. Addition of
divinity to such realities and justifying them using the same is a recurring feature in the text.
Another example of the same is Vidura, who was the bastard son of Dvaipayana. The text refers
to him as an incarnation of the God Dharma, to account for his genealogical illegitimacy.
{The Mahabharata, Book 1 Book of the Beginning – Page xxi}
A renowned and contended example of such justifications is that of Polyandry. It is puzzling
for historians to find a less prevalent practice i.e. Polyandry, included in the central plot of the
story. The background provided for the marriage of the five Pandavas to Draupadi involves
‘The Great God’ successively punishing five Indras for their insolence in proclaiming
themselves the king of the Gods. The five Indras were then born as Pandavas with Draupadi as
their common spouse.
“This story meant to excuse polyandry, by its foolish associations obfuscates the fact that the
Great God Siva had gained ascendancy over the now languishing Indra”

Thus, the literary practice of making various additions to the text and involving several
justifications for social realities is one that is of interest to historians as it allows a keen insight
into society prevailing then. Analysing such texts keeping all the necessary elements in mind
thus becomes of great value. The following section shall deal with the methodological specifics
as well as a description of the topic.

SPECIFIC INTRODUCTION

{Themes in Indian History – Part1 , page 72- 75}

HANDLING TEXTS: HISTORIANS AND THE MAHABHARATA
While analysing texts, certain elements are analysed and looked into:
1. Language
The language in which the text has been written suggests a lot of the intended purpose of the
text. Based on how widely spoken the language is, one can deduce whether the author/s wished
for it to be widely read and for the ideas to be dissipated, or if the text was meant to be exclusive
and limited to a community of readers. The version of the Mahabharata that is mainly referred
to has been written in a Sanskrit that is more comprehensible than that found in texts such as
the Vedas, which were meant to be read and taught by a specific community – The Brahmans,
and read by the “upper” castes of the Varna system. Being written in a simpler Sanskrit suggests
that the author/s of the text wished for the Mahabharata to not be limited to a particular sect or
group but instead be widely circulated and read.
2. Kind of text
This particular element has been discussed previously where it was established that the
Mahabharata is a text possessing both didactic as well as narrative elements. It is important in
addition, to observe the vague differentiation between didactic and narrative segments, as there
are several instances of them overlapping. One of the main ways in which this indistinct
differentiation can be observed, is by taking into account instances and stories mentioned in
the text (similar to the ones mentioned above) that reflect social realities and prevailing norms.
Early Sanskrit tradition refers to the text as “itihasa” meaning” thus it was” roughly translating
into “history”. There are two schools of thought surrounding this nomenclature: Some
historians believe that the text finds roots in historical events and isn’t a work of fiction, further
suggesting that a real war might’ve taken place. The other group of historians suggest that this
remains a work of fiction in the background of the absence of substantial evidence suggesting
otherwise.
Moreover, excluding the possible exaggerations such the supposed divinity of the characters
and the wealthy cities and bloody battles, the storyline of the Mahabharata is still to complex
to be considered as inspired from real events. On the other hand, in the background of the
Dharmasutras and the Dharmashastras existing then, it is possible that the Mahabharata was
meant to be a reflection of society as a whole, this is because unlike a particular event that may
have occurred historically, the story lacks a focussed sense of direction and possesses
innumerable sub plots and underlining themes ranging from women’s role, patriarchy, power,
inheritance, forest communities etc thus making it more likely to be a reflection of society and
its aspects in the form of a fictional story.
3. Author
It is essential to observe the author(s) of the text. This is in no way limited to information about
the author(s) but more so about analysing the author’s ideas and intentions that are reflected in
the text. In addition, one can determine possible personal biases that the author might possess
(based on his duty, role, position, personal history etc) and reflect in the writings, resulting in
a more accurate analysis of the text. Specific to the Mahabharata, it is believed that there were
several phases to the writing of the text which initially began as oral literature. The first phase
of composition is attributed to charioteer bards (sutas) who travelled with the Kshatriya warrior
to the battleground or routine hunts, their role being the composition of poems about the
victories and accomplishments of these warriors. This phase is believed to be unwritten as the
poems composed were circulated orally. The second phase is one that is of great significance,
5th century BCE onwards, the Brahmana community consolidated control over the direction of
these poems by committing them to writing. What is of particular interest in this stage is the
stark difference existing between this one and the preceding one. The compositions of
charioteer bards were similar to the prashastis found by historians as they both were written by
people appointed by the king to glorify his life or rule and strengthen his legacy. Thus,
containing an inherent bias towards the king and exaggeration. The second stage is one where
writing of the text in being done during a time where chiefdoms are developing into kingdoms
and new norms are replacing pre existing social values as a result of new cultures and influences
developing due to the establishment of these kingdoms. Thus, making it safe to assume that the
text written then might possess several elements of social reality and record the changes
occurring during that time, giving historians impetus to search for such elements in the text.
The third phase (c.200 BCE and 200 CE) is also of great significance as the worship of Vishnu
was gaining popularity, as a result Krishna - one of the main characters in the epic began to be
associated with Vishnu. Adding a divine association to characters of the epic is not unknown
as discussed previously, but at the same time is also not devoid of reason. The case of Krishna
along with some other examples proves so, because initially he wasn’t associated with a God,
but was when the worship of a particular was gaining importance. The motive in this case
seems to be the increase in the audience base and following of the text and the culture of
Brahmanism as a whole, the Brahmanas hoped to acquire followers by the inclusion of deities
in the epic. This is interesting because it is the inclusion of various beliefs to subsume them
under a single one.
The period between c.200 and 400 CE, is recognised as the time frame during which didactic
portions and elements were added to the text. These additions were significant both from an
analytical point of view as well as the from the point of view of the text. These portions are
observed as similar to those found in the Manusmriti, (The Manusmriti is a text of norms and
society’s code of conduct under Brahmanism, and what makes it a matter of interest is its
relevance today as it’s a text that is still followed under Hinduism despite its atrociously
oppressive and backward content) and are believed to be added by a sage named Vyasa which
led to the growth of the text from 10,000 to around 100,000 verses. It is due to the substance
of normative writings and the developments believed to have inspired the text that Mahabharata
despite being an epic, cannot be considered like a bedtime story.
4. Audience
The fourth parameter for analysing the text is by identifying the target audience of the text.
Everything written has a target audience be it today with books targeted towards groups and
sub groups ranging from children to adults and fiction lovers to romance aficionados. When it
comes to historical texts, it is nowhere near that simple.
This is because, it texts weren’t written as per interests but largely with the motive of
enforcement and influence. Didactic texts such as the Dharmasutras, Dharmashastras and the
Manusmriti were written with the objective of enforcing social norms upon the people and
strengthening the roots of Brahmanism and its oppressive culture among believers and non –
believers alike. The language gives an insight into the target audience because as discussed it
suggests how exclusive or inclusive the text was meant to be. The target audience of the epic
was society in general as derived from the language it was written in.
5. Date and place
It is for largely obvious reasons, essential to determine the date in which the text was written
and place it was found in/based on. An important concept that exists in historical study of
artefacts is contextualise and knowing the date and place plays a similar role. It allows one to
draw parallels especially if the text has been inspired from the society then. This makes the
study of the text far easier with a detailed context in place allowing strong deductions and
analysis from and of the same.
While the dates are known to us in the form of the phases of composition of the text, in 1951-
51, the archaeologist, B.B.Lal attempted to search for locational correspondence, hoping to
find physical evidence of the content of the text (wars, palaces etc). He excavated a village by
the name of Hastinapura in Meerut, a place with the same name as the capital of the Kurus as
mentioned in the text. His account of the five occupational levels he found evidence of are of
interest as they furthered the search for convergence and also allowed a very important question
to be raised,
“Was the description of the city in the epic added after the main narrative had been
composed, when (after the sixth century CE) urban centres flourished in the region? Or was
it a flight of poetic fancy, which cannot always be verified by comparisons with other kinds
of evidence?”
Which brings us back to the conflicting schools of thought surrounding the Mahabharata and
its content – inspired or fictional.
6. Content
The sixth element which is analysed when handling a text is its content. The content of the
Mahabharata specific to the topic shall be discussed in detail in the subsequent section. At the
moment, we shall be delving into the introduction of the sub topic.
SPECIFIC TOPIC

‘Relevance of social imagery portrayed during the Mahabharata with special reference to
gender and the overall influence of texts today.’

It is important to determine the key terms mentioned in this topic to be able to analyse the same
on a level playing field and remove ambiguity. There exist several definitions depending upon
the context, in marketing social imagery is the conveyor of the meaning of the product.
However, since society is what we are going to be discussing this is the definition we shall be
considering:
Social imagery, is the process through which perceptions, attitudes, and beliefs about certain
groups are shaped through mediums including and not limited to posters, slogans pictures,
newspapers etc. Social imagery in today’s world has expanded its horizons to include several
medium by virtue of social media. Social imagery has a key role in reinterpreting people and
communities and redefining their identity in society thus also determining their treatment in
the said space. While this can be used positively to break free from prevailing stereotypes and
establish mutual respect in society. However, this wasn’t the case in 6th century Indian society
and thus we shall be exploring the role of social imagery from the perspective of the dominant
culture briefly, and then in detail.
The social structure prevailing then was experiencing several changes. There was the
emergence of religions such as those of Jainism and Buddhism which originated from
oligarchies existing then. Brahmanism, was seeking to establish a stronghold on society amidst
such changes which threatened to reduce the popularity of the former. The caste system was
still very prominent, it had the Brahmanas at the top, followed by the Kshatriyas, the Vaishyas
and the Shudras at the bottom, with them being oppressed to great extents in terms of treatment
and social standing. Another oppressed community was those of the chandalas, who were
treated as untouchables and weren’t part of the caste system. They faced social ostracization
along with blatant suppression and disregard in societal norms and behaviour. Several groups
known as the ‘jatis’ emerged which encompassed communities and guilds such as those of the
blacksmith etc which the caste system didn’t include.
Women were oppressed irrespective of their caste or community (although being a woman of
a lower caste was a plight like no other which brought upon complete subjugation), as they
were seen as inferior to men and several texts equated them to animals and as a possession of
the man in the house.
Texts such as the Dharmasutras, Dharmashastras, Manusmriti which as discussed previously
were didactic, set down a despotic code of conduct elucidating the role and behaviour of people
as per their position in society. Social ideals were as discussed, already in place. Reflections of
norms and society, in the stories of the Mahabharata is the social imagery that shall be referred
to through the course of this project. From the perspective of the dominant class i.e. Brahmanas,
social imagery was means for manipulating the image of several communities and classes,
propagating their cause of achieving absolute social dominance and ingraining their ideals.
They had control over creating such imagery as they were the wealthiest class with the farthest
reach in terms of ideological influence, making them a powerful class in a society they
weakened. As for the general society, they were consumers of the propaganda and falsehoods
that the Brahmanas were preaching as the divinely ordained truth and order. However, when
studying of rituals and norms it is important to realise that they were not followed by all and
they did emerge resilience within the culture of Brahmanism itself as well as by local cultures
who refused to be included within this tyrannical framework.
Women were restricted and repressed to an extent that their sexuality too or rather especially
was not under their personal choice was rather controlled by society which through norms
disallowed them sexual independence all under their consideration as a possession without a
mind and body of its own. They were seen as dependent beings with their only role being that
of serving the husband and having children. The constant objectification and lack of
acknowledgement of women’s individuality in light of blatant disrespect in “holy” scriptures
and didactic texts, bludgeoned women to the bottom to an extent where enforced norms had
become ingrained and oppression - routine.
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah; Page: 2}
Studying the role of women in the Mahabharata is one that bears great relevance. Several
female characters in the text are propagated as role models for women in Indian society even
today. This is an unfortunate reality because the women looked upto are “products of and
fashioned by millennia of patriarchal norms, which play an important role in creating
women’s images of themselves and in reinforcing gender dichotomy.”
Analysing these images allows us to understand how patriarchy has continued to survive and
thrive after all this time. It also gives us an insight into the role of women as either contributors
to this oppression, passive victims or active fighters of this system and thus, is “an attempt to
unravel the mystique of women portrayed in the Mahabharata may help in understanding
the evolution of an integrated social set up”

MAIN BODY

The Second Sex, by Beauvoir has tried to explain the reasons why women were largely unable
to mobilise themselves and unite against misogynistic social structures, one of the reasons
highlighted included that of having no past or history. This in no way undermines the role of
women in building civilisations and societies, but rather puts forth how the interpretation of
the collective memory of the history of humankind and development which is preserved by
both men and women, is manipulated by men. As discussed, the dominant structure or group
possesses control over the dominant modes of expression.
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 2}
Thus, male dominance over the narrative was something which rooted women of historical
backing, crippling a large part of their ability to organise themselves.
The Mahabharata was no different, as it remains an epic with a complex and differentiate
storyline reflective of multiple themes and issues. {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini
Shah; Page: 6} However, it was only later that the realisation of concepts of ‘dominant
cultures’ and ‘control over narratives’ came about and the societal consequences of ‘lack of
perspective in primary texts’ explored. For years The Mahabharata was used as a primary
source for research and was treated as a homogenous composition i.e. bearing a multitude of
perspectives and views.
What shall follow will be as described by Shalini Shah, “ a thematic discussion of the women’s
world in the Mahabharata which tends to unfold the mystique of “being a woman”.
PATRIARCHY AND PROPERTY
Patriarchy is a multipronged attack on equality amongst genders as its foundation is based upon
the glorification of the male and ideals of masculinity and creation of ideas of femininity to
control dissent from women who are simultaneously being reduced to subjects of a system
inherently against them and as objects incapable of being at par with men. The idea of
objectification and lack of acknowledgement of the agency of women, has always been
prominent in patriarchal setups and ancient India was no exception. In addition, women had
limited if not non- existent ownership of property and resources. In any society, ownership of
resources and means of production is a symbol and means of dominance and control and were
thus, kept out of the control of women. This section shall deal with several stories within the
Mahabharata that reflect this social reality.
The first instance is that of the law of levirate called upon by Satyavati. {The Making of
Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 31 }
Vicitravirya, the son of Samtanu and Satyavati married sisters, Ambika and Ambalika who
were the daughters of the King of Kasis and Kausalya. Problems arose when Vicitravirya died
without bearing a child, this was because this was the potential end of the lineage since
Citrangada (the elder son of Samtanu and Satyavati) has died unmarried without bearing any
progeny. Satyavati failed to convince Bhisma to bear children with the wives of late brother
since he had taken a vow of celibacy earlier. Thus, she calls upon her son Dvaipayana, whom
she had when she was unmarried, to under the “Law of Levirate” bear children for his half
brother’s widows.
“Satyavati then began to worry lest the line of Dul;u;mnta should become extinct. She
thought of the seer Dvaipayana”
She said to him, "Your brother Vicitravirya has died childless. Father proper children for
him." "The best,"
This instance alone is indicative of several aspects. The daughter in law were treated as property
of the paternal family after marriage, with them having complete control over her sexuality and
actions. The most shocking of which is the sheer lack of consent of the widows (Ambika and
Ambalika) who have no say in whether they want to bear a child, and with whom. They are
treated as objects used for the extension of the lineage with bearing children being their sole
duty, failure of which called upon arbitrary action from the family she was married into.
Another interesting inference is that while Satyavati is an exception when it comes to norms of
‘marriage with higher caste’ (she belonged to a fisherman’s tribe and Samtanu belonged to a
higher caste) and ‘virginity until marriage’ (she had a son with a sage Parasara while
unmarried), she did not contribute to the dismantling of the patriarchal system itself and in fact
with her orders, propagated it.
The marriage of Draupadi is a glaring example of the treatment of women as an object. The
following is an excerpt of the talks of marriage between Yudhisthira and Drupada, the father
of Draupadi.
“She was won by the Partha, your daughter and she is a treasure. We have a covenant that
we share together every treasure, king!”
The equating of Draupadi to “treasure” and the preceding instance where by Kunti’s word the
decision to “share” her was taken couldn’t be a clearer depiction as to how women were
perceived as objects. The absence of choice in the process of marriage and treatment as
“treasure” speaks volumes of how the institution of marriage was an exchange, with the bride
as no more than an offering.
What is also particularly disturbing is the absence of Draupadi herself in the entire process of
marriage beginning from her choice to marry and the selection of a groom. The practice of
svayamvara {The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 80} where the groom is
chosen from amongst a list of suitors is a veil of choice as the absence of the choice of the bride
- to – be has raised questions regarding its nature as a pseudo election of the groom instead of
a matter of self - choice. This is supported by the fact that the element of choice of the woman,
was nearly non – existent as it was her father who set the design and conditions of the
competition for her hand and, the one who succeeded would be her lawful husband as his
legitimacy as one could not be questioned by the family of the bride and her herself. When
talks of marriage began after Arjuna won the competition for Draupadi’s hand in marriage
through his dexterity at archery, inquiries were made by the family priest into the background
of the Pandavas, who were disguised as beggars:
“Yudhisthira spoke to the brahmin thus:
"The Pancala king has bestowed his daughter
As his own Law found and his wish desired.
"King Drupada set a price for her,
And this hero has won her accordingly;
No dispute can arise as to his class,
His living, his lineage, or family. “”
Thus her consent right from the competition held for her hand in marriage and the selection of
the groom, to the decision to share her amongst the five brothers to the final talks of marriage
between her father and her future family, was unimportant as was the case with several women
of the higher classes.
An even more startling instance exhibiting the absence of choice and consent of a woman in
marriage is that of Subhadra, the sister of Krsna Vasudeva. Vasudeva himself asked Arjuna to
abduct her seeing his interest in his sister, lest Subhadhra’s choice during the svayamvara be
unconducive to the Pandava and he loses his opportunity to marry her.
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah; Page: 32}
“Forcible abduction is also approved as a ground of marriage for barons who are
champions. as the Law-wise know. Abduct my beautiful sister by force, for who would know
her designs at a bridegroom choice?”
The most well known instance of treatment of woman as property however, is undoubtedly the
dice game. Yudhisthira was gambling against Duryodhana and after losing himself and his
brothers, he staked their common wife:
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah; Page: 30}
“She is not too short or too tall, not too black or too red, and her eyes are red with love – I
play you for her! …….. such is the woman, king, such is the slender – waisted Pancali, for
whom I now throw, the beautiful Draupadi!”
The staking of Draupadi is an explicit reference to her as the common property of her husbands,
what is more horrifying is the description of Draupadi as a commodity being sold to a buyer,
with high praise being spoken about her physicality to bring Duryodhana to accept her as stake.
There is an absolute lack of consideration of her identity as an individual person and as a
human.
When talking of women and property, it is important to not limit this section to the treatment
of women as property and explore the relation, in particular the ownership of property by
women as well. And it is in this context, emerges the concept of Stridhana. Stridhana, is an
issue that cannot be ignored when it comes to ownership of property by women.
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 32 }
While women did not share the same property rights as men as she didn’t inherit her father’s
property after his demise. Stridhana refers to the money or wealth women received upon their
marriage, the origin of the concept of dowry. The nature of dowry wasn’t simply financial
security for a woman.
“When the wedding was done.
King Drupada Gave the warriors plentiful bounty of gifts.
A hundred of chariots. wrought with gold.
That were yoked with four horses with bridles of gold……
…….When the wedding was done and the Pandavas
Had received their Sri with fullness of treasure,
They disported themselves like the equals of Indra
In the king of Pancala's capital seat.”
Thus, the Pandavas too received gifts and wealth from the family of the bride, which suggests
that dowry wasn’t simply meant for financially empowering the woman, moreover, the usage
of the wealth and ownership of the same was rarely in the hands of the woman as the paternal
family had complete control over her choices and decisions. Thus, it would’ve been a part of
the exchange between the two families. If the marriages are to be seen in terms of a transaction,
then the role of gifts emerges prominent as a tribute to establish trust and confidence between
those involved, and strengthening the link between the bride and her family and the groom.
The case of Draupadi isn’t an isolated instance as the same occurred in the case of Subhadra
where upon her marriage with Arjuna:
“Thereupon famous Vasudeva gave sublime wealth as a gift to the bridegroom's party and
as a dowry from her kinsmen to Subhadra. A thousand golden-membered chariots hung with
circlets of little bells. yoked with four horses. and driven by dextrous charioteers did the
illustrious Krsna give, and ten thousand cows from the Mathura countryside. fine milkers
all and propitiously coloured.”
The role of dowry less as pre-mortem inheritance and more as a linkage between the daughter
with a desirable son in law is further reaffirmed by the norm in the Manusmriti which barred
women from taking ornaments and wealth of her parents at the time of marriage if the groom
was of her choice. This is another indication of the lack of agency of the woman in matter of
her own marriage as legitimacy and confidence from her family (in the form of dowry) was
absent in cases where she exercised her choice to choose her partner and was otherwise present
as a salient feature of the marriages where the family chose the groom.
FEMALE BODY AND MALE REGULATIONS ON MENSTRUAL TABOOS
The idea and practice of attacking women’s individual agency had to be backed by a more
foundational ideology which would justify the subjugation of women. This notion was found
in the vile and abusive nature of the idea of the ‘female body’. A process unique to the body of
a woman was targeted in particular throughout this misogynistic culture – menstruation. There
are two perspectives reflected in the Mahabharata regarding menstruation:
1) Menstruation was regarded as a symbol of impurity of women and norms regarding how
woman should live in isolation in unhygienic conditions while menstruating give a horrifying
picture of the insensitivity and abuse prevailing.
2)The second perspective recognises the association of a woman on her periods with life as it
was a call for intercourse with the purpose of procreating and hence giving life. However, it
mustn’t be assumed to be sensitive and amiable to women, as it too had patriarchal foundations.
It is in such cases that the consideration of context is ever so important, taken out of context
this association would stand in a positive light however, keeping in mind the patriarchal setup
and obsession with the male child, one can observe the true nature of such beliefs.
The perspectives above may seem contrasting however, it is all a question of how society
viewed menstruation. The process of menstruation was marked by two primary features. First
being the discharge of blood. Secondly, the preceding phase where the woman was ovulating
and thus was a chance to have a child keeping in mind the woman’s fertility. The brahmanical
community was aggressively repelled with the idea of the former and sought to isolate
menstruating women. While keeping in mind the latter perspective, a woman on her periods
was seen as methods of extending lineage.
The first viewpoint under consideration is better shown through the case of Draupadi who upon
being staked and lost in a gamble to Duryodhana by Yudhisthira, was dragged out of her
chamber (where she stayed because social norms required a woman to do so when she was
menstruating) and presented before the Kuru assembly in an atrocious manner and condition.
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 45 }
““It is now my month! This is my sole garment, man of slow wit, you cannot take me to the
hall, you churl!”…. Her hair dishevelled, her half skirt drooping….
…She whispered again, and Krsna said,
“In the hall are men who have studied the books, all follow the rites and are like unto Indras.
They are all my gurus or act for them: Before their eyes I cannot stand thus!”
…….. “She (Draupadi) submits to many men and assuredly is a whore! Thus, there is, I
think, nothing strange about taking her into the hall, or to have her in one piece of clothing,
or for that matter naked! She, the Pandava’s wealth, and the Pandavas themselves have all
been won by Saubala here according to the law””
The above mentioned excerpts from this instance reflect numerous patriarchal and misogynistic
mindsets. The first, and the most obvious yet shocking is the isolation of menstruating women
which was written down in didactic texts, and the manner in which they were meant to stay in
unhygienic conditions with one a single piece of cloth draped around their body for days,
without being allowed to maintain personal hygiene during this time. This is representative of
the blatant consideration of the condition of a woman and the blatant attempts to degrade her.
This is further shown by the manner in which she was dragged out into the assembly full of
men in such condition and the consequent attempt made to humiliate her by stripping her
completely. It is also important to note the way in which Draupadi has been called a “whore”
due to her marriage to the five brothers, something that wasn’t her choice in the first place and
is only looked down upon because she’s a woman, for a man in the same circumstance would
not have his character questioned. Draupadi was by virtue of several ideas and stigmas
discussed, seen as the prized possession of her husbands, tainting this possession thus became
an attack on the owner. Even here, as seen in one the excerpts, she has been described as the
wealth of the brothers, thus, actions to humiliate Draupadi were thus with the intent of
humiliating her husbands. This brings in the notion of how the abuse of a woman is seen as a
matter of shame for her husbands and her household, with no focus being shed on the trauma
thus caused to her. Something that continues to plague Indian society as women who are
victims of rape are seen as harbingers of shame for their family. This notion shall be discussed
in the next section in greater detail.
The second perspective regarding the “sole role” of women in bearing sons is elucidated
through the following instances in the Mahabharata:
The first instance is of Vasu also known as King Uparicara and his wife Girika who was having
her periods and thus, looking at the chance of having a son:
“One day Vasu's wife Girika lovingly announced that her season had come, and she bathed
and made herself pure for the conceiving of a son…….Vasu went hunting…..And while he
roamed the lovely woods, his seed burst forth. No sooner had it been spilled than the king
caught it with a tree leaf, thinking, "My seed should not be spilled in vain," and "Nor should
my wife's season remain barren!" …….. he said to a fast kite that was perching close by,
"Friend, as a kindness to me, take this seed of mine to my house and give it to Girika, for
today is her season." The kite took it and flew up with a fast swoop.”
This is a clear example of the extent to which one was willing to go to for making the woman’s
‘rtu’ or “season” “fruitful”. The notion of menstruation being associated to life continues to be
overrun with patriarchy because the society continued to limit the individuality and character
of women to no more than objects that were to be used for the extension of the lineage and
birth of a son. Menstruation was seen as the time when the sole duty (to provide a son) of the
woman was ready to be fulfilled, which justified such madness to impregnate her. There was
no sensitivity and respect towards the sexuality of women. “Leaving the season barren” or not
having intercourse during a woman’s periods was a problem only because it was seen as a
missed opportunity for having a son.
The second instance is that of Utanka, who was a student of the brahmana, Veda. The former
was charged with the duty of catering to the needs of the house while Veda left to attend to
some work. The following is an excerpt from the mentioned context:
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 47}
“Meanwhile. Utanka lived in his guru's house. obediently carrying out his teacher's charge.
And while he lived there the women of his teacher assembled. summoned him. and said.
"Your teacher's wife has had her period. and the teacher is abroad. See to it that her season
be not barren. She is in a bad way now." “
The second instance is a sign of obsession with regards to engaging in sex during a woman’s
period, not only is the husband willing to go to great lengths to impregnate his wife, but society
too was willing to allow the woman to ask another man to have sex with her if her husband
wasn’t present. Something that was highly condemnable if done otherwise. Downgrading a
woman’s sexuality as something that can be passed around from one man to another is an
outrageous belief.

WOMEN AND SEXUALITY

In a society where procreation of sons and continuation of the lineage was of prime importance,
and the duty of a woman was solely of that of bearing a son, it was necessary that the sexuality
of women be controlled. Thus, the oppressive patriarchal system sought to control the sexuality
of woman to horrifying extents as they not only posed a threat to the structure, but were also
essential for the continuation of Brahmanism and thus, responsible for its possible
disintegration as well.
The foundation provided for the severe laws on the “promiscuity” of women was the
description of a tradition where women were unfaithful to their husbands:
"In the olden days, so we hear. the women went uncloistered my lovely wife of the beautiful
eyes; they were their own mistresses who took their pleasure where it pleased them. From
childhood on they were faithless to their husbands”
A statement by one of the protagonists of the epic – Yudhisthira, elucidates the image of women
that prevailed in society:
“No man is dear to them, only that man who gives them pleasure at the time of sexual
intercourse is dear to them for that time”
Following this was the description of an instance where at the sight of the ancient tradition the
son of a great seer, Svetaketu in a fit of anger laid down a law that would bar the infidelity of
women and henceforth impose absolute control over their sexuality:
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 52}
“Ever since, we hear. this rule has stood. 'From this day on.' he ruled, 'a woman's
faithlessness to her husband shall be a sin equal to aborticide, an evil that shall bring on
misery. Seducing a chaste and constant wife who is avowed to her husband shall also be a
sin on earth. And a wife who is enjoined by her husband to conceive a child and refuses shall
incur the same evil.' “
Now we arrive at the structure that would impose restrictions upon and control the sexuality of
women – the Father. It was the father who beheld control over the sexuality of his daughter
since a young age. The following instances within the epic highlight the nature of this control
The first instance is that of Yayati (A King and ancestor of the Pandavas) and Devayani who
soon becomes his wife. This is a conversation that occurs when Yayati asks her hand in
marriage:
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 53}
(Devayani) “The baronage is in league with brahmindom and brahmindom allied with the
baronage. You are a seer and the son of a seer, Yayati-by all means marry me!.......……
(Yayati) ………….Therefore, I think that it is harder to fight a brahmin, my bashful maiden.
And, therefore, my dear, I will not marry you if your father does not give you away.”
The second instance is regarding Satyavati, the great grandmother of the Pandavas who when
on a ferry was taken keen interest in by a seer - Parasara. She addresses him upon noticing his
want for her:
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 53}
“…..the modest and spirited girl said smilingly, "Sir, you must know that I am a virgin and
in my father's keeping. If I consort with you, blameless lord, I shall lose my virginity. And
when my virginity is lost, how shall I be able to go home, good brahmin?”
What is more than evident is the blatant nature of absolute control a girl as under by her father.
The father had control over whom she engaged in sexual activity with before marriage as well
as whom she married. The former is highlighted in the instance above as it was the
responsibility of the father to ensure his daughter’s virginity until marriage and thus in essence
he had control over the reproductive parts of his daughter – an idea horrific beyond measure.
A woman who exercised sexual independence had no place in her home and was a source of
shame for the household and the father.
That is more than evident in the case of Kunti and Surya where upon summoning the Sun God,
Kunti is trying to convince the God that she cannot have sex and bear a son with him due to
the effect upon the members of the household:
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 53}
“The sun said: Your intention, lovable girl, was to have a son by the sun…give yourself to
me, for I shall father a son such as you desire……..
……Kunti said: God, my father is alive, and my mother and other relatives. No such breach
of the rules should occur while they are alive. If I lie with thee, God, against the rules, then
the good name of my family in the world will perish on my account.”
Thus, it is clear that the sexuality of a woman was under no condition something pertaining to
just her own self, rather was to be regulated by the household who associated the idea of
integrity and respect with the same, something that shall be further elaborated in the next
section.
However, that isn’t to say that there aren’t exceptions. There are instances of women who
persuaded the man for the satisfaction of their desires thus exercising their will when it came
to their sexuality:
The first is an instance of Sarmistha, the daughter of Vsaparvan who was persuading Yayati to
bear her a son. However, Yayati being a King known for his lawful nature was reluctant to give
into her desires:
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 56}
Yayati: “I know you as the blameless Daitya girl of accomplished conduct, and in your
beauty I see not a flaw the size of a needle's point! But Usanas Kavya said when I married
Devayani that I was never to call Vrsaparvan's daughter to my bed…..
……Sarmistha: Save me from breaking the Law, king, and teach me the Law. If I have a
child by you. I shall practice in this world the purest Law….. I am Devayani's slave, and
Bhargava's daughter is your serf. She and I are equally your dependents, king - pleasure
me!......
……… At these words of hers the king saw the truth of them. He paid honor to Sarmistha
and taught her the Law. He lay with Sarmistha and had his pleasure of her.”
Another instance is that of Ulupi, daughter of Kauravya – the snake of the Airavata lineage.
This takes places when Arjuna is sentenced to the life of a hermit in the forest for a year, and
is spotted by Ulupi who falls in love with him and asks him to have intercourse with her:
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 56}
Ulupi: “……I saw you descend into the river to bathe, and I was driven out of my mind by
Love. Make me happy today, scion of Kuru, I am churned by the Bodiless God for your sake!
Make this matchless maiden happy today, in secret, by the gift of yourself!
Arjuna: King Dharma has ordered me for twelve months to a hermit's life, my dear. I am not
my own master……
Ulupi:……. You have always protected the destitute and unprotected Pandava. I am praying
to you out of love, therefore do my desire. You must fulfil me by giving yourself!
…..At these words of the daughter of the king of the Snakes, Arjuna did as she desired.”
Thus, while women did have their independence oppressed, some women were bold enough to
demand the satisfaction of their wants. However, this is not necessarily seen as independence
of women rather is seen as a mere reflection of the “unfaithfulness” and “promiscuity” of
women which was inherent to their being.

THE FEMALE CHILD

Before delving further into the norms surrounding womanhood, it is necessary to observe the
initial stages of a woman’s life i.e. her childhood as a girl in a patriarchal household and society.
We shall in this section observe the opinion and behaviour surrounding upon and after the birth
of a daughter in a house, and further observe the same with respect to a son.
The idea of a daughter as a burden was two pronged. It focussed on the threat a female child
could pose to the integrity of the family and the burden upon the same. It also focussed around
her burden on the resources of the family, a considerable proportion of which was given during
her marriage as dowry. While instances highlighting the latter are evident through the quotes
descriptions in the section on “Patriarchy and Property” which showed the extravagant wealth
given during marriage. The former aspect of this idea is however of particular interest as it’s
an extension of the previous section which talked of the apparent need to control the sexuality
of a woman and the role of the father in the same.
The first instance that highlights is that of Matali, a father of a marriageable daughter whose
words reflect the prevailing mindset around the birth of a daughter. He talks of how undesirable
the birth of a daughter is in a reputed family, and how a daughter brings into disrepute her
father’s house, her mother’s house and the house where she lives as a bride.
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 62}
Such a statement cannot be considered as the consequence of simply sexism for that remains
as too simplistic an analysis. Rather, such a statement stems from a collection of the various
patriarchal norms and ideas, many of which have been explored in the above sections.
It is because it is the role of the father and the family as a whole to exert control over the
sexuality of the woman in a family in the background of the inherently “promiscuous” nature
of women that it becomes a task for a family to control the sexuality of a woman until marriage,
after which agency is transferred to the husband. (something dealt with in detail in the next
section). This leads us to observe the idea of virginity until marriage and the dynamics of the
same in the context as presented.
Virginity until marriage was a symbol of the two ideas stated above. Thus, it represented the
success of the family in carefully exerting control over the sexuality of the woman, failure of
which was a source of shame. Thus, the idea of virginity comes to the forefront as an idea not
just limited to the woman herself, but also pertaining more so to her family and the latter’s
integrity.
The instances highlighting the reluctance of Kunti and Satyavati to engage in sexual activities
before marriage are a consequence of the same. The following instance of Draupadi’s marriage
brings into focus further dynamics of the idea of virginity:
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 63 }
“One after the other. a day apart.
The warrior sons of the king of men.
The beautiful scions of Kuru's line.
Took each the hand of the choicest of brides.
And this great wonder the seer declared.
A wonder surpassing the power of man.
That the beautiful bride of majestic might
Each day became a virgin again.”
This suggests that at each marriage with each of the five brothers, Draupadi’s virginity was
restored. This is an indication of how virginity was not a sexual concept in any form, because
in that case it could not be restored once lost. Virginity thus, drawing from the context is a
social concept built upon a contorted idea of morality which was inherently patriarchal and
oppressive for women. In essence, virginity could be described as one of the strongest
mechanisms to control the sexuality of women and prevent her from realising her own agency.
However, this was a socially dictated concept which held a lot of value in society. This is
evident from the consequence described for a woman exercising one’s sexual independence
before marriage:
“…the maiden who spoils her virginity incurs three-fourths of the sin of brahmanicide, while
the man who knows her incurs a sin equal to fourth part of that of brahmanicide”
We shall now explore the idea of a female child with respect to a male child. This isn’t a new
concept for several of the instances mentioned through the course of this project have reflected
a strong bias towards the sons. Having introduced this idea in isolation, the following instance
of Kunti’s blessings to Draupadi after the wedding highlights the same:
"… bear live children, bear man children, and be, my dear, joined with much happiness,
favored with love, and gifted with joy! ……..As I bless thee now, bride, in thy linen raiment,
so shall I bless thee again when thou hast virtuously born a son."
The last line is suggestion of how Kunti was willing to bless Draupadi again when she’d bear
her a grandson. The idea of a woman as a burden influenced this bias, along with the idea that
it was the role of the son to extend the lineage. Women were inferior to men and thus, incapable
of taking on this task. However, there is more to it than patriarchal norms and opinions, for
when it came to men taking on the lineage instead of women, there was a strong element of
fear involved.
Allowing a woman to bear power after her father in the household risked a shift in the entire
structure of the household which was a unit of society in itself. This is because allowing women
to hold power was a grant of agency, something was society through its oppressive mechanisms
was trying it’s best to avoid. A greater concern however could the aftermath where power
would shift from a woman, a feature of matriliny, thus setting a motion in change in system
which in turn could lead to a stark change in patriarchal perceptions and machinery.
However, this is a very weak possibility because in the context of the society then, such a
change would never materialise. To understand why it is essential to understand the auxiliary
concept on matriliny. The reason it can be said with near certainty that matriliny wouldn’t shift
the power structure is because the epic already has instances of brotherless women holding
power due to the absence of a son in the family, yet the structure reverting to patriliny in the
following generation.
The instance of Citrangada, the daughter and only child of King Citravahana is a prime example
of this process. When the topic of marriage between Citrangada and Arjuna arose, the king set
the condition for marriage as the son born of Arjuna and Citrangada to be his heir:
“All my forebears had sons, but to me this girl was born who surely shall continue the line,
My fancy is that she is my son, and I have styled her my puppet according to the provisions,
bull of the Bharatas. So let her bring forth a son who shall be the dynast: this son I demand
as my price for her. By this covenant you must take her Pandava”
A major reason why matriliny cannot be equated with matriarchy is because matriliny was
integrated within patriarchy itself, is based on anthropological data which indicates that the
power in a matrilineal setup rested with the maternal uncle and not the mother. However, the
mention of the maternal uncle as a key holder of power is absent in the Mahabharata since it is
entirely based on patrilineal succession. In the Mahabharata, the maternal uncle is presented in
a positive light with examples of Sakuni and Vasudeva, maternal uncles of the Kauravas and
Pandavas who in several instances have undertook initiatives to preserve the ambitions and
interests of their nephews, with regard to the throne. This positive image is contrasting with
what would’ve existed in a matrilineal society since a child and his maternal uncle would face
a conflict of interest as the former would hope to inherit after the latter’s demise.
Reverting to the original topic of deliberation under this section we find an extremely negative
image surrounding a female child in a household, an image that led to the propagation of
patriarchy while it itself was fuelled by patriarchal notions, thus giving us an insight into the
vicious social setup that relied on the cyclical oppression and control of women.
MARRIAGE AND WIFEHOOD
While marriage was discussed as an example of objectification previously, this section will
observe marriage in more detail by exploring the dynamics of wifehood.
Marriage as a phase in the life of a man and woman was seen as essential. The following is an
extract of a conversation between an ascetic Jaratkaru and his ancestors who asked him to
marry and have a child lest they go to hell:
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 67}
“Strive. son. with all effort for the continuation of our family. for your own sake as well as
ours - for such is the Law. O lord, For by neither merits of Law nor high-piled austerities do
people in this world gain the goal that others reach by having sons.”
The purpose remained the same as it has always been, to continue one’s lineage by having sons
who would do the same.
Marriage as in institution however was much more complex. The idea of marriage as a
transaction by treating women as an object has been introduced earlier. The control of a
daughter’s sexuality by her father until marriage has also been talked of. This section is a
continuation of that line of thought as it shall explore the shift in control from father to husband
which takes place during marriage, and also the nature of control exercised upon the woman
by her husband.
Like any other institution of oppression, in order to establish control over women after marriage
a foundation must be strengthened that justified such control. This foundation was provided by
the notion of a wife in several texts including the Mahabharata. The image of the woman as a
sinner and vile creature born to oppose the interests of and harm the man, was encased in
rhetoric and propagated. The following is a line from the epic describing the “nature of
women”:
“The nature of women is to injure man. Be a wise man or foolish, woman drag him down.”
Such notions provided the justification needed to exercise unquestioned control over women
and more specifically their sexuality as they were seen as creatures that must be tamed and
limited lest the cause the harm they were meant to do. The following few instances shall
elaborate upon the nature of this control:
The first instance is of a seer by the name of Uththya, his wife Mamata and his younger brother
Brhspati.
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 74}
“Mamata said to her brother-in-law, who was a great arguer, "I am with child by your eldest
brother, stop! And right here in my womb this child of Utathya's has learned the Veda and
its six branches, my lord Brhaspati. Now you would spill your seed in vain. And since this is
the case, you must stop now!"
While there is opposition to the act of sex between a wife and her brother in law, the nature of
opposition is most horrifying. Brhaspati has been described as a man of great virility and the
priest of the Gods. Semen was seen was a sign of such virility and masculinity and thus it’s
discharge when not for the purpose of procreation was looked down upon. It was due to
Mamata’s pregnancy during that time that barred her from indulging in sex as Brhaspati
wouldn’t have been able to impregnate her. This is an example of the complete disregard for
the body of a woman and choice of the wife who if not pregnant would have no choice but to
oblige the lust of her brother in law and go on to bear his child as well.
While this is an instance of infidelity, and norms regarding the fidelity of women existed, they
gave discretion to the husband who decided if and whom should she have sex with. Such
control of sexuality by the husband is blatant in the example of Oghavati. Oghavati was the
wife of Sudarsana and was offered by her husband to his guest in sexual hospitality. {The
Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 74 }
Thus, women were objects not just to help bear a son but also objects that could be used in any
manner desired. This is an example of the complete loss of integrity for a woman where she is
being reduced to a sex slave for a guest upon her husband’s command. Her identity and
character is openly ignored as her body doesn’t belong to her and is but an instrument of
procreation, pleasure and another’s will.
The other side of control over the sexuality of women saw husbands having complete
legitimacy and authority in determining their wives’ fidelity as per their will and interpretation,
and taking actions based on such assumptions.
The following is an instance of a woman named Renuka and her husband, the great seer
Jamadagni:
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 74}
“Once when all her sons had gone out to gather fruit, Renuka, who kept to her vows, went
to bathe. As she went, Renuka happened to see King Citraratha of Mrttikavati; and when
she saw the wealthy lotus- garlanded king playing in the water with his wives, Renuka
coveted him. From this bad though she wetted herself mindlessly in the water and returned
trembling to the hermitage. Her husband found her out……
………and the great ascetic Jamadagni irately said to him (his son Rama) , “Kill your wicked
mother, have no compunction, son!” Rama took his ax and cut off his mother’s head”
This instance highlights the two aspects to the second form of control. Not only did there exist
a disparity in the social norms for men and women with regard to fidelity, with the infidelity
of men treated as absolutely pardonable. There was also an unfair balance of power within the
household as the husband held the power to judge and question her integrity, and furthermore
take arbitrary actions against her without any opposition irrespective of the punishment. Thus,
the husband was in control of the idea of ‘sex ethics’ and controlled the sexuality of his wife
based on his personal will as well this idea. As in any form of subjugation, ideology was a
major aspect and was thus also dominated by the men with women having no liberty to redefine
the idea of sex ethics within the household and question the same.
Such examples aren’t isolated as they are even found with respect to the protagonists of epics
and major deities. The case of Ram and Sita is such an example as well. The following is an
instance from after the defeat of Ravana at the hands of Ram and the time for Sita to be received
by her husband who rescued her from the house of the Raksasa:
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 75}
“Rama suspected her (Sita) of having being touched, and he said to Vaidehi (Sita), “Go,
Vaidehi, you are free. I have done what I had to do. Once you found me as a husband, good
woman, you were not to grow old in a Raksasa’s house………. Whether, you are innocent
or guilty, Maithili, I can no more enjoy you, no more than an oblation that has been licked
by a dog””
Thus, no consideration was given to the actual innocence of his wife who wad been abducted
and thus kept against her will, it was upto the husband to judge if he still wanted her or not
which did not necessarily require a rational foundation and was a decision that could not be
opposed by the person involved i.e. the wife.
The despotic control over the sexual relations of women within the marriage existed, however
norms for sexual relations before marriage were prevalent as well. The apparent “promiscuity”
and “immorality” of women with regard to pre - marital indulgence was also condemned with
great severity.
Kunti, the mother of the Pandavas is a character whose pre - marital son (Karna) was a
reflection of the social reality however, adding the element of divinity as discussed in the initial
part of this project, an attempt to justify this social reality was made.
A strong reference to this is made in the epic where Kunti discloses the identity of Karna until
after his demise, and her eldest son, Yudhisthira curses the entire woman race for the truth kept
hidden because had Karna been on their side they would’ve been formidable the horrors of the
war could’ve been averted.
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 76}
What’s interesting is the lack of perspective in Yudhisthira who is ironically described as the
‘righteous one’ and a personification of the Law. He merely confines his vision to the damage
done and the truth hidden ignoring the social context in which his mother was coerced to hide
the identity of Karna and abandon him at birth, thus, suggesting that a child born out of wedlock
and pre - marital sexual relations of a woman were absolutely unacceptable.

WOMEN AND THE PUBLIC SPHERE

The above sections have dealt with the despotic control over women within the household,
which brings out the question of the role of women in the public sphere. The role of any
community in the public sphere is an important feature as it determines their public credibility.
Strong public credibility in turn, allows the concerned community to propagate their interests
and ideology and consolidate their community thus bringing it to social dominance. Which as
visible in the case of Brahmanas, is an asset that allows the community to mould society as per
their belief and will. Obviously in light of all the misogynistic social norms it is evident that
women didn’t have a prominent role in the public sphere.
Exceptions mentioned within the Mahabharata reflect a very important principle – Norms
weren’t universally followed. We shall study the role of women in the public sphere through
exceptions, which gives us a picture of what was required of a woman that wasn’t being
followed and how men and women were in fact disturbed by the condition of the latter and
entered the public sphere to increase their agency and bring in a change in the patriarchal
norms.
The first instance is that of Yudhisthira questioning Markandeya on the glory of faithful wives:
“Sir, I wish to hear you tell of the greatness of women and the subtleties of the Law, O
Brahmin…..The obedience of women who are devoted to their husbands seems to me very
difficult. Pray, my lord, tell of the greatness of devoted wives who continuously think of their
husbands as Gods……What is more marvellous than to be born a woman who is devoted to
her husband, speaks the truth, and carries a child for ten months in the womb?”
This instance reflects how even among the elite brahmanas, there were men who questioned
the existing “law” around women, and sought to credit women as they went through several
hardships throughout their lifetime. Dissent is such a case becomes a very important idea since
even those who were placed at the top of the hierarchy – male brahmanas, were dissatisfied
with the inequalities present in the system.
The example of Sandili is one that is very important as despite the mention of women who
were exceptions to their social image, in other texts, the Mahabharata has fewer examples. In
the epic, the woman Sandili proudly claims that she didn’t attain heaven by performing penance
and renouncing the world dressed like an ascetic.
{The Making of Womanhood by Shalini Shah – Page 156}
This reflects, that women were questioning the prevailing norms which dictated their “duties”
and the entire concept of a “good woman”. This is a reflection of how women did exercise their
own will and agency of thought, things that were blatantly outlawed in the oppressive culture.