Aerospace Science and Technology 50 (2016) 127–138

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Aerospace Science and Technology

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Aerodynamic design of a MALE UAV

P. Panagiotou, P. Kaparos, C. Salpingidou, K. Yakinthos ∗
Laboratory of Fluid Mechanics & Turbomachinery, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the present study the aerodynamic design procedure of a Medium-Altitude-Long-Endurance (MALE)
Received 23 November 2015 Unmanned-Aerial-Vehicle (UAV) is presented. The procedure is broken down into the conceptual and
Received in revised form 18 December 2015 preliminary design phases. For the conceptual design, four groups worked with a common roadmap
Accepted 28 December 2015
and developed four presizing tools and four different configurations, based on the same mission
Available online 4 January 2016
requirements. Following an evaluation procedure and merging process, a single design concept was
Keywords: eventually developed, which served as the basis for the preliminary design phase. Considering the
Aerodynamic design preliminary design phase, emphasis was given on the aerodynamic aspects of the study. Namely, the
UAV fuselage design, wing design, stability and control study, empennage design, and the winglet design
CFD optimization technique, as well as the inlets sizing and cooling study, are all included in this work. The
Conceptual design analytical calculations and methods are presented at each step of the study, whereas the CFD supportive
Preliminary design computations are also shown in detail. The UAV final concept, at the end of the aerodynamic study,
together with the main geometric, aerodynamic, stability and performance parameters, is presented and
discussed.
© 2016 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction handheld vehicles to large-scale autonomous platforms [4]. There-

Radio-controlled aircraft date back to the First World War
where they were mostly used as missiles or target drones [1].
It was not until the 1960s however, that remote controlled air-
craft started carrying more sophisticated equipment, for military
reconnaissance purposes. Since then, the rapid advances in aero-
nautical industry and systems have allowed for the design and
large-scale production of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) capable
of carrying-out various missions. At the present, they are already
being operated by several military forces, whereas that there is a
growing need for unmanned platforms from civilian organizations
as well [2].
Modern UAVs present several advantages, largely due to the ab-
sence of crew on-board, such as the reduced operational cost, the
ability to operate under hazardous conditions and the increased
flight endurance, which is essentially only limited by the fuel avail-
able on-board. Hence, they are ideal solutions for a wide range
of operations, such as fire detection, search and rescue, coastline
and sea-lane monitoring and security surveillance [3]. Based on
their operation specifications though, the airframe characteristics
and design philosophy may vary significantly, ranging from small,
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kyak@auth.gr (K. Yakinthos).
fore, it follows that from a designer’s perspective each UAV concept
is a complex design problem that requires a different approach.
There are several existing studies dealing with the design of
UAVs. For example, Kontogiannis and Ekaterinaris [5] performed a
complete study of a small-size UAV. Jashnani et al. [6] carried out
a sizing study of a solar powered UAV, and although they also per-
formed some hardware testing, their study was mostly limited to
the conceptual design stage. Iqbal and Sullivan [7] applied a com-
prehensive design methodology in order to perform the prelimi-
nary design of a MALE UAV. Goetzendorf-Grabowski [8] designed
a MALE UAV concept, however their work emphasizes on the re-
liability and redundancy issues, rather than presenting the design
process itself.
In the present study, the design procedure of the Hellenic Civil
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (HCUAV) is presented and discussed. The
HCUAV project involves the design and construction of a fully func-
tional UAV prototype, developed in order to cover civil operations
in Greece. The consortium was made up from several different de-
sign groups, each being responsible for a different task, such as the
aerodynamic design, the structural design and the control systems
design, to name a few. However, this paper emphasizes the aero-
dynamic design study. Ranging from the initial weight sizing and
fuel mass estimation methods, the airfoil selection procedure and
the definition of the configuration layout process, to the more de-
tailed stability, cooling and winglet optimization studies, this work

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ast.2015.12.033
1270-9638/© 2016 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
128 P. Panagiotou et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 50 (2016) 127–138
Nomenclature
b Wingspan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m
c Chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m
CD Drag coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
CL Lift coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
Cm Pitching moment coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -
D Drag force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N
is a complete, step-by-step presentation of the aerodynamic design
methodology procedure of a MALE UAV. In the end, the results are
presented and discussed including the key geometry and perfor-
mance features of the HCUAV concept.
2. Design methodology
In order to carry-out the aerodynamic design of the HCUAV,
a custom design methodology was developed at the Laboratory
of Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachinery (LFMT), at the Aristotle
University of Thessaloniki (AUTH), in Greece. Based on traditional
design methods such as the ones described in Raymer [9], Ander-
son [10], and Roskam [11], the design methodology also included
the aspects of unmanned aircraft design, and involved the use of
both analytical/semi-empirical presizing methods and CFD simula-
tions.
In the following sections a step-by-step presentation of the de-
sign methodology is made. The presentation begins with the con-
ceptual design stage, where the first concept is being developed
based on the initial mission requirements, moves on to the prelim-
inary design stage where each part of the aircraft is being analyzed
and the airframe geometry is fixed, and concludes with the results
of the design study.
2.1. Conceptual design
The conceptual design is essentially the design phase where a
first configuration layout is developed, and the first estimates re-
garding aerodynamics, geometry, weight and performance are be-
ing calculated, based on the design requirements. In the present
study, the conceptual design study was carried-out from eight
engineers divided into four groups. Therefore, after developing a
common custom sizing methodology, four different UAV concepts
were developed, whereas each team also developed an analyti-
cal tool in order to facilitate the necessary presizing calculations.
These tools were cross-checked by applying the calculations at al-
ready operational unmanned aerial systems. Some preliminary CFD
analyses were carried out as well.
At the end of the conceptual design phase an evaluation pro-
cedure was defined, where the four concepts were compared in
terms of aerodynamic efficiency and performance. Thus, based on
the most efficient concept, a single configuration was developed,
whereas the four presizing tools were merged into a common de-
sign tool that served as the base upon which the calculations for
the following design stages were carried-out.
2.1.1. Requirements
The design procedure initiates by defining the mission require-
ments of the aerial vehicle, i.e. the operational requirements re-
lated to flight endurance, range, surveillance coverage and flight
velocities. Considering the HCUAV, a detailed investigation was
carried-out in order to derive these requirements. Forest fires and
illegal immigration were defined as the most important issues,
therefore it was decided that an intelligent observation platform
should be developed, that can carry out both forest monitoring and
E Loiter endurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . h
L Lift force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N
R Cruise range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m
S Main wing reference area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m2
W Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N
Fig. 1. HCUAV patrol areas.
border surveillance missions. Hence, and by also taking the charac-
teristics of the Greek terrain into account, i.e. the island dispersion
in the sea and mountains in the mainland (Fig. 1), the mission re-
quirements were defined (Table 1).
2.1.2. Design procedure
The conceptual design presizing tools that were developed at
the Laboratory of Fluid Mechanics and Turbomachinery were based
on the presizing methods and guidelines which are described in
[9] and [10], whereas some changes were made in order to include
the aspects of unmanned aircraft. The resulting conceptual design
procedure is presented in this section (Fig. 2).
The presizing begins with an initial estimation of the aircraft
gross takeoff weight (GTOW or W 0 ), i.e. the aircraft total weight at
the beginning of its mission. For an unmanned system it is com-
prised of the payload weight W p , the fuel weight W f and the
empty weight W e , that is:
W0 = W p + We + W f (1)
The payload weight refers to the total weight of the on-board
electronic and surveillance equipment (e.g. computers, avionics, ra-
dio, gimbal, cameras, etc.), and is defined by the mission require-
ments.
The empty weight is essentially the tare weight of the aerial
vehicle and in this first design stage it is estimated using historical
trends and statistical data for operating aircrafts with similar re-
quirements and configurations [9,12], such as the ones presented
in Fig. 3.
The fuel weight is calculated by breaking down the aircraft mis-
sion in segments (Fig. 4) and calculating the required amount of
fuel for each segment, either from statistical data, or by employing
analytical calculations [10], depending on the segment. For exam-
ple, the Breguet equation (eq. (2)) is used to estimate the required
fuel for the loiter and cruise segments:
 P. Panagiotou et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 50 (2016) 127–138 129

Table 1
HCUAV mission requirements.

Flight requirements Structural requirements Payload requirements Other requirements

Payload weight ∼30 kg Composite materials Optical and IR sensors Automated mission control
Endurance >8 h Operating temp. <80 ◦ C Boundary layer sensors
Loiter speed ∼140 km/h
Maximum speed ∼200 km/h
Service ceiling >3 km

Fig. 3. Empty weight fraction curves for various types of aircraft [12].

to-weight ratio ( T / W ) and wing loading ( W / S ) have to be cal-

Fig. 2. HCUAV conceptual design roadmap.
W i
V L dW
R = E ·V =
ct D W
W i +1
Note that R, E are the cruise range and loiter endurance re-
spectively, V is the respective flight velocity and ct is the specific
fuel consumption, whereas W i refers to the weight of the aerial
vehicle at the end of the mission segment i.
As a next step, the basic aerodynamic parameters of the aerial
vehicle are specified i.e. the airfoil characteristics and wing geom-
etry parameters. At this step, although driven by the same guide-
lines regarding low drag–high endurance configurations [13], each
design team worked independently from the others and, eventu-
ally, made its own choices. Hence, the aerodynamic parameters
were different between the four concepts (Table 2), and it was es-
sentially from this point onwards that the four concepts started to
vary from each other.
After the first estimation of the takeoff weight and having de-
fined the basic aerodynamic parameters, the estimates of thrust-
culated. For that purpose, the presizing methods described in [9]
and [10] were used. Specifically, the wing loading is the aircraft’s
weight W divided by the reference area of the main wing S. At
first, it is estimated for various critical performance conditions,
such as stall speed, landing distance, service ceiling and minimum
turning radius and subsequently the lowest value is selected, in
order to ensure that the wing provides enough lift for all of the re-
quired flight conditions. Thrust-to-weight ratio is the thrust of the
aircraft divided by its weight. Since the UAV is propeller-powered,
an equivalent term was used referred in [9] as power-loading i.e.
the weight of the aerial vehicle divided by the engine horsepower
( W /hp ). This term is estimated in a similar fashion to the wing
loading term, i.e. the W /hp is estimated for various critical flight
conditions whereas the lowest value is selected in order to ensure
that the aerial vehicle has sufficient power.
(2) The next step is to define the configuration layout of the aerial
vehicle. The shape, size and position of each part (e.g. wing, fuse-
lage, empennage) is drawn at this point, based on the aerodynamic
parameters and wing area estimates that were calculated earlier
on. Regarding the HCUAV case, each team developed a unique con-
figuration layout based on its own design philosophy (Table 2,
Fig. 5).
Estimates for the main aerodynamic parameters can now be
calculated. In the conceptual design phase, these calculations were
mostly calculated based on analytical and semi-empirical methods
[11], however some preliminary CFD computations were carried-
out as well. The analytical calculations, which were also incorpo-
rated in the presizing tool of each team, are a series of methods
that yield the lift and drag coefficients for every part of the air-
craft. As for the CFD computations, a 3D CAD was initially drawn
for each concept (Fig. 5), and by using Ansys CFX software [14] the
flow field was examined by employing the Reynolds–Averaged–
Navier–Stokes (RANS) coupled with the Spalart–Allmaras turbu-
130 P. Panagiotou et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 50 (2016) 127–138

Fig. 4. HCUAV mission profile.

Table 2
Key aerodynamic features of the four design concepts.

Team C Lα ( L / D )max C D0 Wingspan AR Main wing airfoil

1 5.38047 12.7 0.034 4.9 m 6.9 SG6042
2 5.745453 17.2 0.027 5.1 m 8.2 NLF0215
3 5.486953 15.9 0.028 5m 7.8 SA7038
4 5.60585 15.2 0.019 5m 7.8 NLF1015

lence model [15], which has been proven through the years that
performs with an excellent manner in external aerodynamic flows.
At this point, the weight of each of the components is esti-
mated based on its size, which was defined by the configuration
layout drawing. By summing up these components, a new estimate
for the empty weight ( W e,as drawn ) is derived, which in turn is sub-
stituted in eq. (3), thus yielding a new value for the total weight
of the aerial vehicle ( W 0,as drawn ). Furthermore, a performance es-
timation is carried out, to ensure that the design fulfills the initial
requirements and is up to the task.
Finally, a refined weight estimation procedure is being carried-
out, based on the methodology described in [9]. An iterative pro-
cedure is defined, where the W 0,as drawn is set as the initial value
for the total weight of the aerial vehicle. At first, a new estima-
tion for the fuel weight is calculated, based on the new estimates
regarding aerodynamics and propulsion. This fuel weight value is
added to payload weight and the last empty weight value, that is:

W 0 = W e,as drawn + W f + W p (3) Fig. 5. 3D CAD representation of the four design concepts.

Since the value W 0,as drawn is largely based on historic trends

and assumptions, it is more likely that it will differ significantly
from W 0 . Therefore, the empty weight component has to be recal-
culated and the procedure is repeated until convergence is reached
for the total weight of the aerial vehicle. During the HCUAV con-
ceptual design phase, eq. (4) was used in order to tune the empty
weight component:
 (1+c)
W0
W e = W e,as drawn
W0,as drawn
where c is a constant that refers on the W e of similar operating
aircraft.
The value W 0 may vary significantly from its initial value,
therefore it is likely that the key features of the design, such as
horsepower requirements and geometric characteristics will have
to change as well, in order to ensure that the performance param-
eters will not deviate from the calculated estimates. Hence, the
conceptual design phase concludes with a GTOW estimate and the
definition of the main performance, aerodynamic and geometric
characteristics of the aerial vehicle.
2.1.3. Comparison
The design specifications of each of the four concepts are briefly
presented at this section. As shown in Fig. 5, the four teams
were, up to a point, influenced by state-of-the-art UAV concepts.
It should also be noted that the concepts of teams 1 and 3 share
quite a similar configuration philosophy, as do the concepts of
teams 2 and 4. It therefore follows that, although each team
worked separately from the others, the design trends are evenly
distributed. Summing up, the main characteristics of each of the
design concepts are listed below:
• Concept of team 1: Fuselage-mounted V tail configuration, fea-
turing blended-type winglets.
• Concept of team 2: Boom-mounted  tail configuration, fea-
(4)
turing raked-type winglets and airfoil-shaped fuselage.
• Concept of team 3: Fuselage-mounted Y configuration, featur-
ing blended-type winglets.
• Concept of team 4: Twin-tail-boom-mounted configuration,
featuring blended-type winglets and airfoil-shaped fuselage
Table 2 presents the key features of each of the concepts.
Namely, the lift curve slope (C L α ), maximum Lift-to-Drag ratios
( L / D )max , zero-Lift Drag coefficient (C D 0 ), main wing span, aspect
ratio (AR) and airfoil are shown. Moreover Fig. 6 presents the aero-
dynamic coefficients, based on the CFD results.
In order to compare the four concepts, both the parameters
presented in Table 2 and the aerodynamic coefficient charts were
taken into account. For each of these variables a weighting factor
was defined and an evaluation procedure was consequently per-
formed for each concept. Indicatively, the L / D was defined as the
most important parameter. Hence, each of the four concepts was
rated based on this value, from better to worse, and the proce-
 P. Panagiotou et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 50 (2016) 127–138
Fig. 6. Lift coefficient (a) and Lift-to-Drag ratio (b) comparison between the four configurations, as a function of angle of attack.
Fig. 7. The HCUAV geometry at the end of the conceptual design phase.
dure was in turn repeated for the zero-Lift Drag coefficient, the
Lift-curve slope, etc. The final step was to compare the four de-
signs and sort them, based on their overall rating, following the
methodology described in [16]. The concept of team 2 was even-
tually found to have the highest rating, i.e. to be the most efficient
one, having optimal aerodynamic efficiency and performance char-
acteristics.
However, even though the final concept was based on the most
efficient design, it still featured some key elements from the other
three, thus ensuring that the design advantages of all four concepts
are exploited (Fig. 7):
• The overall configuration, along with the main wing and fuse-
lage characteristics resemble those of the concept of team 2.
• The main wing airfoil of team 4, and more specifically the
NASA NLF(1)-1015 [17], was selected as the airfoil of the main
wing, since it yields a lower C D 0 .
• A boom-mounted inverted V-tail configuration was eventually
selected for the empennage, combining the advantages of both
the inverted V-tail and boom-mounted tail configurations [9].
• The final concept features a high-wing arrangement, as do the
concepts of teams 1, 3 and 4, a feature that aids in terms of
lateral and directional stability [9].
• The concept also features a first winglet geometry, based on
the design of team 3.
2.2. Preliminary design
This design phase involved the use of more complex and de-
tailed methods, whereas each component of the HCUAV was an-
alyzed separately and was designed at its final size and shape.
131
Iterative procedures were also applied in order to optimize key
aerodynamic and performance parameters. Furthermore, detailed
CFD computations were carried-out in order to perform a thorough
study of the aerial vehicle. Aerodynamics, stability and control,
propulsion and cooling were all studied in detail. Attention was
also given on issues related to manufacturability and functionality,
whereas the parameters of cost played an important role as well.
What is more, the aerodynamic design team had to constantly be
in touch with the other design departments, in order to exchange
information related to structural issues, equipment cost, center of
gravity and moments of inertia etc.
2.2.1. CFD methodology
During the preliminary design stage, a detailed 3D CAD model
of the aircraft was designed so that the CFD computations could
be performed. The design had to be updated several times, until
the external geometry was established at its final form.
Two types of simulation were carried-out. The first referred to
the outer flow modeling, and the second to the modeling of the air
that flows through the fuselage. The analysis was carried-out with
the commercial code Ansys CFX [14]. The grid for the outer flow
consisted of approximately 7,000,000 computational nodes (Fig. 8a)
whereas the grid for the inner flow had round 4,000,000 nodes
(Fig. 8b). In both cases, 20 inflation layers were implemented on
the walls, the first of which was placed at 2.5 · 10−5 m from the
wall, so that the boundary layer phenomena can be properly mod-
eled.
Regarding the flow around the HCUAV, the Reynolds-Averaged–
Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations were solved coupled with the
Spalart–Allmaras turbulence model [15]. The boundary conditions
correspond to loiter flight conditions, since the loiter phase con-
132 P. Panagiotou et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 50 (2016) 127–138

Fig. 8. Computational mesh (a) on the surface of the HCUAV and (b) around the electro-optical payload.

stitutes the largest part of the HCUAV’s mission. Specifically, the

freestream velocity was set at 140 km/h, whereas the ambient
temperature and pressure correspond to the flight altitude of
2000 m. Considering the turbulence parameters at the inlet, the
intensity was set at 1% and the eddy viscosity ratio at 0.2, repre-
senting typical external flow conditions [18]. The Reynolds number
was calculated equal to 1.9 · 106 , based on the mean aerodynamic
chord. A wide range of angles of attack, namely from −8◦ to 27◦ ,
was examined, to ensure that all possible flight conditions have
been investigated, including stalling. Additional simulations were
also performed in order to examine the flow development around
the engine, whereas simulations were also conducted in order to
Fig. 9. Fuselage geometry rails.
identify behavior of the ruddervator and its stall limits.
The flow inside the fuselage had to be modeled, in order to
investigate the local temperature of the electro-optical equipment
and prevent the overheating of the payload. For this purpose, the
Shear-Stress-Transport model (SST) was used [19]. The boundary
conditions remained unchanged.
Furthermore, an important task was to model the effect of the
propeller, as the prediction of the induced flow distribution is of
great importance. However, as the modeling of the rotating blades
would be time consuming, the propeller was eventually modeled
as a momentum source disk. For different flight conditions, the
required thrust ( T req ) as well as the required pressure difference
( p prop ) to produce this thrust were calculated. Thus a calibration
function for the pressure zone was defined. The following function
was taken into account in CFD calculations:

 p prop · A prop = T req (5)

where A prop is the area of the propeller disc. Fig. 10. Fluid flow modeling around the engine.

2.2.2. Fuselage design and cooling study directly exposed to the flow. The flow field around the engine was
A proper fuselage design should have enough room for the examined using CFD (Fig. 10), while semi-empirical equations, such
electro-optical equipment to be placed and for the engine to be as eq. (6), were also used in order to ensure the proper cooling of
installed, and at the same time ensure their proper cooling. It is the cylinders [20,21].
also vital that it produces as small a drag force as possible. Hence,   
the external geometry was derived from a combination of airfoils a = 241.7 0.0247 − 0.00148 h0.8 / p 0.4 u 0.73 (6)
in order to minimize the drag (Fig. 9).
Note that α is the convection coefficient of engine fins, h and
The first step was to select an engine. From the conceptual de-
p refer to geometrical characteristics of the blades, and u is the
sign phase, it was estimated that the required horsepower should
velocity of the air.
be around 30 hp, so that the HCUAV could meet the initial re-
The next step was the design and sizing of the cooling ducts,
quirements. Several parameters were taken into account, includ-
which supply the internal of the HCUAV with the air needed to
ing horsepower, reliability and cost, and finally the model 305i
cool the payload equipment. Positioned in the front part of the
of Zanzottera Technologies was selected. It is a two-stroke piston,
fuselage (Fig. 11), the ducts were sized to have a specific section
air-cooled internal combustion engine, with a maximum available
area, which resulted from a 0D Heat Transfer analysis. Indicatively,
power of 25 hp. In order to verify the adequacy of the engine
some basic equations that were used for computing the required
model, a series of calculations were made, based on the methods
mass flow are the following [22]:
presented in [9], which showed that the engine will meet most
operating conditions.
Nu = 0.248 ∗ Re0.612 ∗ Pr1/3 (7)
In order to reduce the complexity of the concept, the engine
was positioned at the rear of the fuselage so that the cylinders are Q̇ req = ṁh T (8)
 P. Panagiotou et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 50 (2016) 127–138
where Nu, Re, and Pr are the Nusselt, Reynolds and Prandtl num-
bers respectively, Q̇ req is the heat flow that is required for the
payload cooling, ṁ is the mass flow rate, h is the heat transfer
coefficient, and  T the temperature difference.
For optimization purposes, NACA shaped intakes were designed
[23] in order to accomplish better adduction of the cooling air in-
side the fuselage. The shape of the cooling ducts can be seen in
Fig. 11.
After a first design had been made, CFD simulations were
carried-out to check the effectiveness of the cooling ducts and
the local temperatures developed on the equipment parts, in or-
der to apply the appropriate corrections to the inlets’ geometry.
For this purpose, simplified 3D representations of the devices were
designed, and a heat flux corresponding to the maximum load of
each device was applied. This heat flux value, or Q̇ i , was estimated
based on the power consumption data given by the corresponding
payload manufacturers. Hence, in order to achieve proper cooling,
Fig. 11. 3D CAD of the cooling ducts.
Fig. 12. Temperature on the surface of the payload devices.
Fig. 13. Flow development around the fuselage.
133
it had to be ensured that the required heat flux, or Q̇ req (eq. (8)),
must be at least equal to the total heat flux of all of the devices
together, that is

N
Q̇ req ≥ Q̇ payload = Q̇ i (9)
i =1
where N is the number of the equipment parts.
Fig. 12 depicts temperature contours on the surfaces of the pay-
load. These temperature values were calculated after computing
the thermal equilibrium between the payload ( Q̇ payload ) and the
cooling ( Q̇ req ) heat flux values. The analyses showed that the heat
adduction is sufficient, as the temperatures did not exceed the crit-
ical limits set by the manufacturers of the payload equipment.
At the end of the preliminary phase the fuselage was re-
designed, taking the dimensions of the engine and the character-
istics of the electronic equipment into account. Moreover, modifi-
cations were made in order to ensure that the wings and landing
gear can be integrated. Finally, the flow around the fuselage was
studied using CFD, in order to optimize the external geometry and
enhance aerodynamic performance (Fig. 13).
2.2.3. Wing design and winglet optimization
The final wing configuration (Fig. 14) generally resembles the
wing concept that was developed during the conceptual design
stage, although some design parameters were changed during pre-
liminary design in order to optimize the performance characteris-
tics and aerodynamic efficiency (Table 3). Namely, the taper ratio
and twist angle remained unchanged. The aspect ratio was slightly
increased and the NLF(1)-1015 [17] was fixed as the main wing’s
airfoil, since it combines high aerodynamic efficiency for the ex-
amined Reynolds numbers, with a big internal space, due to the
relatively large thickness (t /c = 15%). As a next step, these refer-
ence parameters were kept constant, and several wing platforms
with different geometry features, e.g. sweep and reference area,
were compared by employing CFD computations. The changes in
Fig. 14. 3D representation of the optimal HCUAV main
wing geometry.
134 P. Panagiotou et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 50 (2016) 127–138

Fig. 15. Initial (configuration 2) and optimized (configuration 5) winglet geometries.

aerodynamic efficiency and performance were evaluated, through

the L / D and W / S ratios, and thus the optimal wing platform was
eventually selected.
With the overall geometry defined, a winglet optimization pro-
cedure took place in order to enhance aerodynamic performance
and increase the endurance of the HCUAV. A parametric study
was conducted on a blended-type winglet, employing both theory
and CFD computations [24]. A wide range of parameters, namely
height, blending radius, winglet airfoil, taper ratio and cant an-
gle, were examined, regarding their effect on both the L / D ratio
and stall behavior. As a first step, the different concepts were com-
pared on the wing, in order to determine the optimal design. The
flow around the main wing was examined for loiter conditions, us-
ing CFD computations. A blended-type winglet with a PSU 94-097
airfoil [25] at the tip and a 60◦ cant angle was eventually selected
Fig. 16. Trimming diagram of the HCUAV.
(Fig. 15).
Afterwards, the flow around the entire UAV was examined,
in order to compare the two configurations i.e. before and after The trimming diagram comprises of two parts.
installing the optimized winglet. The comparison showed a 10%
increase in total flight time, proving the efficiency of the new con- • In the left part of the chart, the Lift-coefficient is plotted as
figuration. a function of the angle of attack. The C L is at first calculated
for the desired flight condition e.g. flight altitude, speed and
weight, and consequently the corresponding angle of attack
2.2.4. Empennage design, control surfaces sizing and stability study can be estimated.
All parts influence the stability characteristics of an aircraft, ei- • In the right part of the chart, the pitching moment curve for
ther by affecting the center of gravity and moments of inertia, or δ e 0 corresponds to the pitching moment coefficient for zero
through the production of aerodynamic forces. However, the over- elevator deflection, at the reference CG location, or xcg,ref =
all stability of the vehicle is essentially defined by the empennage. 1420 mm. On the vertical axis the C mcg = 0 condition is satis-
On the other hand, there are several geometry parameters that af- fied at the reference CG position, whereas the right and left
fect the sizing of the empennage itself, such as the airfoil shape, oblique dashed lines are the locations where the C mcg = 0
the chord length and the boom length. Hence, the empennage de- condition is satisfied, at the most aft and most forward CG
sign is a complex design problem and that is the main reason why positions respectively. Hence, this part of the chart yields the
its dimensions were significantly changed throughout the entire elevator deflection at different flight conditions, i.e. C L , and CG
design process. values.
The fundamental parameters that determine the longitudinal
stability can be seen in the eq. (10), where C mcg is the moment In other words, the trimming diagram provides the designer
coefficient at the center of gravity. In each flight phase it must be with the required angle of attack and elevator deflection angle
ensured that C mcg = 0. In order for an aircraft to be stable, the that allows the aerial vehicle to perform a stable flight. More de-
slope of the moment coefficient C m curve must be negative, that tails about the trimming diagram of an aerial vehicle can be found
is C ma < 0 [26]. in [11].
A similar analysis was carried-out for the lateral and directional
C mcg = C m0 stability coefficients, based in [11,25,26], but a detailed presenta-
tion is beyond the scope of this study. Fig. 17 shows the yawing
⎧
⎪ C m0 = C m0, w + C m0, f + η V H C La,t (ε0 and rolling moment coefficients as a function of the sideslip an-
⎪
⎪ +i −i )
⎨ w t
gle β .
+ C ma a X cg X ac (10) Thus, combining the above studies, the final empennage design
⎪ C ma = C La, w (
⎪
⎪ c
− c
)+ C ma, f
was drawn, so that both the requirements on aerodynamic perfor-
⎩ dε
− η V H C La,t (1 − da
) mance and flight stability are satisfied. It should be noted though,
that the stability study of an aerial vehicle is not finished at this
Fig. 16 shows a typical trimming diagram of the HCUAV. point. For example, the lateral stability is also influenced by the
 P. Panagiotou et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 50 (2016) 127–138 135

Fig. 17. HCUAV yawing (a) and rolling (b) moments as a function of the sideslip angle.

A very important part of the HCUAV stability analysis is the

calculation of the stability derivatives. For this purpose another an-
alytical tool was developed, based on the methodology presented
in [26] and [28], which takes into account the contribution of ev-
ery part (main wing, fuselage, empennage), in the stability of the
aerial vehicle. A comparison was made between the calculated val-
ues and the ones suggested from the literature, in order to ensure
that the HCUAV is stable and has sufficient controllability. That
way, a validation of the sizing of the empennage and control sur-
faces was also made. Indicatively, these stability derivatives (C i )
directly affect the Lift, Drag and side force (F side ), which are pre-
sented in equations (11), (12) and (13) respectively.

1 c
L= ρ V 2 S C L a + C Lq q + C L δe δ e (11)
2 2V

1 c
Fig. 18. Representation of the HCUAV control surfaces geometry. D= ρ V 2 S C D a + C Dq q + C D δe δ e (12)
2 2V

fuselage, which in the case of the HCUAV is positioned almost en- 1 b
F side = ρ V 2 S C Y0 + C Yβ β + C Y p p
tirely at the front of the main wing. Therefore, an evaluation of the 2 2V
stability characteristics has to be made after the empennage is de-
b
signed, by examining the aerial vehicle as a whole, and applying + C Yr r + C Y δa δ a + C Y δ r δ r (13)
corrections to the empennage geometry if necessary. That sort of 2V
evaluation was carried-out during the calculation of the stability CFD computations were conducted in order to examine the
derivatives, as discussed in a following paragraph. function of the ruddervator, define the stall conditions, and per-
The design of the control surfaces was based on the methodol- form a thorough study. A typical result of this study is presented
ogy presented in [27]. According to their function, they are divided in Fig. 19.
into three main categories: ailerons, elevators and rudders. The siz- Finally, to complete the sizing of the control surfaces and select
ing procedure of each control surface is carried out by taking some the appropriate servo-actuators, the moments which are exerted
extreme flight conditions into account. Thus, the control of the on the control surfaces, have to be defined. For this reason a tool
aerial vehicle is ensured for all possible the flight scenarios. The was developed, which contains the analytical calculations required
final control surfaces geometries are presented in Fig. 18. to calculate these moments, based on [28]. Eq. (14) is used for
In the case of an inverted V – tail configuration the control sur- the calculation of the moment coefficient which is exerted on the
faces of the empennage are combined into one common geometry, rotating axis of the control surface.
the ruddervator. The ruddervator of the HCUAV was sized taking
into account the required size of the larger of two individual con- C h = C ho + C ha a + C hδ δ + C hδt δt (14)
trol surfaces.

Fig. 19. Ruddervator at (a) 15◦ and (b) 25◦ deflection angle. The region of flow separation is represented with orange color. (For interpretation of the references to color in
this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
136 P. Panagiotou et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 50 (2016) 127–138

3. Results
The final concept, following the last stages of the aerodynamic
design, is an inherently stable UAV with a total endurance greater
than 10 hours. Table 3 sums up the basic characteristics of the ve-
hicle, considering performance and geometry, whereas a 3D repre-
sentation of the HCUAV’s external geometry is presented in Fig. 20.
It should be noted that, based on the characteristics presented in
Table 3, the HCUAV can be classified as a MALE UAV design [4].
Fig. 21 presents the HCUAV external geometry, whereas the lift
and drag coefficients of the aerial vehicle are presented in Fig. 22,
where a comparison between the CFD results and the analytical
methods is also made.
Note that in lower angles of attack, where boundary layer sep-
aration on wing’s surfaces does not occur, the two curves are in
agreement. In higher angles of attack however the results deviate,
as the analytical methods cannot predict effects due to stalling and
viscous effects.
Table 4 presents some of the stability derivatives of the HCUAV.
Considering the control surfaces stability derivatives, the subscript
“max” states that the derivative value corresponds to small deflec-
tion angles (i.e. the absolute value of the deflection value does not

Table 3
HCUAV specifications.

GTOW 185 kg
Payload weight 35 kg
Fuel weight 55 kg
Wing loading (W/S) 8.49
Wingspan 6.4 m
Propulsion Two-stroke 25 hp reciprocating engine.
Cruise speed 160 km/h
Loiter speed 140 km/h
Maximum speed 190 km/h
Stall speed 70 km/h
Endurance > 11+ hours
Service ceiling >5000 m
Rate of climb >2.79 m/s (550 fpm)
Fig. 20. 3D representation of the HCUAV at the final stages of the aerodynamic de-
T.O. runway <130 m
sign.

Fig. 21. The external geometry of the HCUAV.

Fig. 22. Lift coefficient versus angle of attack (a) and drag polar (b) of the HCUAV.
 P. Panagiotou et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 50 (2016) 127–138 137

Table 4 sizing tools along with a dedicated CFD methodology formed an

HCUAV stability derivatives. integrated tool that was used for the design of the aerial vehi-
(C L δe )max 0.381 cle. It should be noted though, that this tool can also be used
(C mδe )max −1.08 for the development of other Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) as
(C Y δr )max −0.126 well.
(C lδα )max 0.103
CYβ −0.36
A complete CFD-aided sizing study of a fuel-carrying MALE un-
C lβ −0.029 manned aerial platform is presented. During the conceptual de-
C nβ 0.076 sign phase an initial weight sizing was carried-out, including fuel
sizing estimation methods, and the aerodynamic, geometric and
performance characteristics were estimated, by employing some
exceed 10 degrees) where the effectiveness of the control surface
preliminary computational simulations as well. Four UAV concepts
is maximum [11].
were developed and merged, thus combining their optimal fea-
In Fig. 23 the flow development over the HCUAV is shown, as a
tures into one common design. The preliminary design phase was
result of the CFD computations.
consequently initiated, where each part of the HCUAV was stud-
Finally, Fig. 24 presents the pressure distribution on the surface
ied in detail and optimized. All aspects of the aerodynamic design
of the aerial vehicle at two different angles of attack, namely 0◦
were analyzed, including stability, propulsion, and aerodynamic
and 12◦ . These kinds of distributions were used to calculate the
performance, whereas CFD-aided methodologies for the engine and
aerodynamic loads that are applied on the skin of the aerial ve-
payload cooling studies were developed. In each of these studies
hicle, thus providing the structural design team with the required
computational simulations proved to be a most valuable tool in
information in order to carry-out their FE computations. combination with the analytical calculations and methods which
were carried out throughout the design process. That approach
4. Conclusions proved to be vital, as it allowed for the accurate modeling of the
complex 3D flow phenomena, and at the same time was both cost-
The present work focuses on the aerodynamic aspects of the and time-efficient.
design procedure of the HCUAV project, which involves the design Finally, considering the results of the design study, the aerody-
and construction of an Unmanned-Aerial-System (UAS) prototype, namic optimization was focused on the loiter phase, which con-
developed to perform civil operations in Greece. The aerodynamic stitutes the largest part of the mission of the HCUAV. The final
design was the first study to be carried-out, and its results served design yields an endurance greater than 30%, compared to the ini-
as the base upon which all the other studies, such as the con- tial requirements. On the contrary, a compromise had to be made
trol and structural design studies, were performed. Custom pre- regarding the maximum velocity, as the available budget did not
allow for the selection of a more powerful engine.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that no conflict of interest exists.

Acknowledgements

The work presented in this paper is a part of the 11SYNER-

Fig. 23. Streamlines around the HCUAV at 0 degrees of angle of attack.
GASIA_6_629 “Hellenic Civil Unmanned Air Vehicle – HCUAV” re-
search project, implemented within the framework of the National
Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) and through the Opera-
tion Program “Competitiveness & Entrepreneurship - SYNERGASIA
2011”. The research project is co-financed by National and Com-
munity Funds, 25% from the Greek Ministry of Education and Re-
ligious Affairs – General Secretariat of Research and Technology,
Greece and 75% from E.U. – European Social Fund, EU, Grant num-
ber: EYDE-ETAK 2143/19.9.2013.

Fig. 24. Pressure contours on the HCUAV surface at (a) 0 and (b) 12 degrees of angle of attack.
138 P. Panagiotou et al. / Aerospace Science and Technology 50 (2016) 127–138
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