POINTERS (Understanding, Society, Culture and
Politics)
Enculturation and Socialization
Socialization – the process by which an individual
is oriented and taught by his or her society’s
norms.
Two types of identity:
 Primary Identity – consists of roles and
statuses that an individual learns as a child.
(e.g. sex, age and ethnicity)
 Secondary Identity – an individual gets
enculturated and socialized with his or her
society’s norm. (e.g. occupation, educational
background, economic status and gender)
Theories on Identity
 Role learning theory – promotes the
argument that individuals learn a repertoire
of social roles from their society.
 Symbolic interactionism – promotes the idea
that individuals construct their notion of the
self through social interactions performed
within a society.
Norms – is a standard of behavior, principle of
right action.
Values – refers to all those ideas held in society
that are considered good, acceptable, and right.
Four categories of norms:
 Folkways – socially approved behaviors that
have no moral underpinning.
 Mores – are the norms related to moral
conventions.
 Taboos – are behaviors that are absolutely
forbidden in a specific culture.
 Laws – consist of the rules and regulations
that are implemented by the state as the
source of social control.
Conformity – is the act of following the roles and
goals of one’s society.
Deviance – is the act of violating the prescribed
social norms.
Stigma – is a strong sense of disapproval on
nonconforming behavior from members of a
society.
Theories on the existence of deviance and
deviants:
 Social control theory – deviance is primarily
caused by a lack in stronger social bonds
within a society.
 Rational choice theory – the individual’s
decision to follow or to go against social
norms is dependent on their perceived cost
and benefit of such action.
 Differential association theory – conformity
or deviance is learned by an individual from
those he or she associates with.
 Labeling theory – actions are initially not
considered deviant until they are labeled as
such by member of the community.
 Conflict theory – society consists of opposing
groups of people whose access to power is
unequal.
 Structural-functionalist theory – product of
the breakdown of social norms (macro
level), and a product of the role strain that
an individual experience due to lack of
resources to cope with the demands of the
social norms (micro level).
To maintain social order and stability, social
control is needed.
Internalization – is an integral part of
communicating and incorporating social norms
to an individual’s personality.
Sanctions – are powerful in leading an individual
to conform to social norms.
Types of sanctions:
 Formal sanctions – these are the rewards or
forms of punishment that are formally
 awarded by an institution such as
government, a council or an establishment.
 Informal sanctions – these are the rewards
and forms of punishment that are
spontaneously given by an individual or a
group of people as a response to a behavior
that was either accepted or disapproved.
 Positive sanctions – these are actions or
statements that reward a particular
behavior which reinforce its repetition.
 Formal Positive – a reward given by an
institution to encourage conformity.
 Formal Negative – a punishment given by an
institution to enforce conformity.
 Informal Positive – a reward given by an
individual/group that encourages
conformity.
 Informal Negative – a punishment given by
an individual/group to coerce conformity.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
Social Networks – consist of individuals who
have dyadic relationships that are interacting
with other relationships within a structure.
Sociogram – is a visual representation of the
social networks present in one group of more.
In-group – is the social group in which an
individual directly affiliates and expresses loyalty
to.
Out-group – the group that an individual is not
part of.
Reference group – an ideal group in which an
individual can be shaped by the set of behavior
and beliefs of group.
Primary group – direct sources of an individual’s
social skills and knowledge. (e.g. family, friends,
peers, classmates and church)
Secondary group – relationship and interactions
are limited to a particular role that an individual
play within the group.
Small groups
Family is an example of a small group, village
(barangay) is an example of a large group.
Dyad – consists of two individuals.
Triad – a small group of three individuals.
KINSHIP
Kinship – refers to the “web of relationships”
Characteristics of a family:
 A family is a socioeconomic unit.
 A family can have one or more parents.
 A family can have parents who are not
married.
 A family can have parents with same gender.
 A family should have at least one child.
Two primary purposes of a family
1. To orient the individual of the norms of the
society.
2. To provide physical support as the individual
matures.
Kinship by Blood
One factor that allows an individual to identify
another individual as a family member is through
consanguinity, popularly called as blood
relatives.
Unilineal Descent – this allows an individual to be
affiliated to the descent of one sex group only.
Matrilineal Descent – trace kinship relations
through the female’s line.
Patrilineal Descent – trace kinship relations
through the male’s line.
An expansion of unilineal groups creates a
kinship group called the clan.
Bilateral descent – allows an individual to trace
kinship ties on both sides of the family.
Kinship by Marriage 5. Ambilocal Residence – type of residence
pattern allows the couple to choose to live
Marriage – is defined as the “socially or ritually
either with the wife’s mother’s area or the
recognized union or legal contract between
husband’s father’s area.
spouses that establishes rights and obligations
6. Transnational Families – families whose
between them, between them and their
members reside separately across
children, between them and their in-laws”.
territories. (e.g. OFWs)
(Haviland et al., 2011)
Political Kinship
Types of families based on marriage:
Political Organization – is any entity that is
Patrifocal – focused on the father.
participating in a political process.
Matrifocal – focused on the mother.
Bands
Monogamous – consists of a single couple and
 A band is the least complex form of political
their child or children. Also called as nuclear
organization, as it has neither a rigid form of
family.
governance nor a structured form of
Polygamous – consists of several parents and leadership.
their children.  Foraging (hunting and gathering) is their
economic subsistence.
 Polyandry – women is allowed to marry
 Reciprocity is a primary form of exchange
several men.
among the individuals.
 Polygyny – men is allowed to marry several
women. Tribes

Extended family – type of family has several  A tribe is a political organization that consists
married couples and their children living in one of segmentary lineages. This type of kinship
household. relationship is marked by loyalty per family
cluster or segment.
Reconstituted Family – allowing divorce and
 Most tribes are either holticultural (shifting
legal separations.
agriculture) or pastoral (tending animals).
Postmarital Residency Rules  The leaders that are chosen in this type of
organization are individuals who are
1. Patrifocal Residence – the woman is
believed to possess special skills or aptitudes
expected to transfer to the residence of her
that relate to the economic activitiy.
husband’s father.
 A tribute is a form of gift that may consists of
2. Matrifocal Residence – the man is expected
wealth, food, or other materials given to a
to the residence of his wife’s mother’s area.
central figure who in turn redistributes the
3. Neolocal Residence – an arrangement that
accumulated goods to the other member of
requires both spouses to leave their
society.
households and create their own at times
even in a different locality. Chiefdoms
4. Natalocal Residence – an arrangement that
 Embodied its characteristics that include a
allows both spouses to remain with their
political leader with an advisory council, a
own households after marriage.
leader who exercises power that is based on
 legitimacy, and the existence of social
stratification.
 Horticulture and pastoralism are the
economic subsistence.
 Existence of social stratification that
segregates into the elite and the commoner.
States and Nations
 Nation refers to a group of people sharing
similar culture and political history.
 State refers to a political organization united
by a common set of laws.
 A state uses absolute power in directing the
path of a society.
 The primary form of economic subsistence is
market exchange.
 Standardized currencies are used to
exchange commodities.
 As a citizen of a country, an individual is
subjected to the legal norms in the territory.
(paying taxes, rendering military services)
 Natural rights – are those that are expected
to be enjoyed by all individuals, regardless of
citizenship. (right to life, right to liberty, right
to property)
 Legal rights – are those that are rewarded to
an individual by the state as part of its
culture, traditions, and norms. (right to vote,
right to privacy, right to join formal
organizations)
 Article III or the Bill of Rights which states
the rights to be enjoyed by its citizens.
Authority and Legitimacy
Legal authority – is achieved by a leader through
the process of following established codes and
procedures governing the allocation and
distribution of power and resources within a
society.
Traditional authority – is a form of leadership
legitimacy that highlights the right of a leader to
rule based on inheritance of the title.
Charismatic authority – type of leadership that is
based on the personal attachment of the
subordinates to the ruler whose characteristics,
experiences, or even skills are believed to be
extraordinary, or maybe even supernatural.
Institutional charisma – is a combination of
charismatic and legal authority.
Familial charisma – combination of traditional
and charismatic authority.
ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION
Reciprocity – exchange of commodities between
parties.
Types of Reciprocity
 Generalized reciprocity – gift giving without
any expectation of immediate return.
e.g. giving birthday presents to a friend.
 Balanced reciprocity – expecting immediate
return from any given favor. The value of the
commodities is expected to be equal.
e.g. selling goods and services in the market
 Negative reciprocity – the exchange tends to
favor one party over the other, as the value
of the goods for exchange is equal.
e.g. a merchant selling fake commodities at
prices of the original and genuine items
Transfers – when resources from one individual
or organization are given to another with no
expectation of return.
Redistribution – when the resources of one,
several individuals, or groups are collected and
distributed proportionally or equally to
participating members. (e.g. charity donations
and income tax systems)
Market Transactions
Market is referred to as the exchange of goods
and services that involves buying and selling
processes. However, it is not a simple process of
exchanging materials, goods, and services. It
involves several elements and transactions.
Market is about making money, capital, income
and growth. (Women and Economy, 2011)

Uses standardized currency.

Types of Economic Subsistence

Foraging

 Hunting for animals and gathering wild

plants were their common activities.
 Hunting (men) and gathering (women).
 Nomads are individuals or group of people
who stay in a place for a short period of time.
 Types of Foraging Patterns: Pedestrian
(land), Equestrian (with horses), Aquatic
(hunt water species).

Pastoral

 Pastoralism is a subsistence pattern that is

primarily focused on “tending herds of large
animals”.
 Dependent on drought, weather variability
and predators.
 Pastoral Nomads – transfer from one place
to another in search of food and resources
for themselves and for their animals.
 Transhumance pastoralists – following a
cyclical pattern of migrations.

Holticulture

 Holticulture is a combination of small-scale

of farming and domesticating animals for the
purpose of food and prestige.
 Participate in small surplus or selling in
exchange of the goods they cannot
reproduce.

Agriculture

 Farming methods and domestication of

animals were developed intensively to meet
the needs of the growing population.