8606 2 PDF

To get Assignments through E-Mail or Whatsapp contact:- masters.academy2000@gmail.
com
We have Solved Guess Papers, 5 Years Papers & Notes for Students.
For more Information Contact 0321-5455195 (whatsapp #):- Masters Academy
Course: Citizenship Education and Community Engagement (8606)
Level: B.Ed
Semester: Spring 2018
Assignment No: 2
Q No: 1 (a) Explain the mean of social control in a society.
Social control is achieved through a variety of means, including through social norms, rules, laws, and social,
economic, and institutional structures.
In fact, there would be no society without social control, because society cannot function without an agreed upon
and enforced social order that makes daily life and a complex division of labor possible. Without it, chaos and
confusion would reign.
The primary way through which social order is produced is through the ongoing, lifelong process of socialization that
each person experiences. Through this process, we are taught from birth the norms, rules, and behavioral and
interactional expectations that are common to our family, peer groups, community, and greater society.
Socialization teaches us how to think and behave in accepted ways, and in doing so, effectively controls us our
participation in society.
The physical organization of society is also a part of social control. For example, paved streets and traffic signals
control, at least in theory, the behavior of people when they drive vehicles.
Sidewalks and crosswalks control foot traffic, for the most part, and aisles in grocery stores control how we move
through the space.
When we fail to conform to norms, rules, and social expectations, we suffer sanctions that remind us of their social
importance, and that serve to control our behavior.
These sanctions take many forms, from confused and disapproving looks to conversations with family, peers, and
authority figures, to social ostracization, among others.
The Two Types of Social Control
Social control tends to take one of two different forms: informal or formal. Informal social control refers to
our conformity to the norms and values of the society, and adoption of a particular belief system, which we learn
through the process of socialization. This form of social control is enforced by family, primary caregivers, peers,
other authority figures like coaches and teachers, and by colleagues.
Informal social control is enforced by rewards and sanctions. Reward often takes the form of praise or compliments,
but also takes other common forms, like high marks on school work, promotions at work, and social popularity.
Sanctions used to enforce informal social control, like those discussed above, tend to be social in form and consist
mainly in communication or lack thereof, but can also take the form of the ending of a relationship, teasing or
ridicule, poor marks in school, or being fired from work, among others.
Formal social control is that which is produced and enforced by the state (government) and representatives of the
state that enforce its laws like police, military, and other city, state, and federal agencies.
In many cases, a simple police presence is enough to create formal social control. In others, police might intervene in
a situation that involves unlawful or dangerous behavior in order to stop it--to "arrest" literally means to stop--in
order to ensure that social control is maintained.
Other government agencies enforce formal social control as well, like those that regulate which substances or foods
can be legally sold, and those that enforce building codes, among others.
It is up to formal bodies like the judiciary and the penal system to dole out sanctions when someone fails to comply
with the laws that define formal social control.
The Two Types of Social Control
Social control tends to take one of two different forms: informal or formal. Informal social control refers to
our conformity to the norms and values of the society, and adoption of a particular belief system, which we learn
through the process of socialization. This form of social control is enforced by family, primary caregivers, peers,
other authority figures like coaches and teachers, and by colleagues.
Informal social control is enforced by rewards and sanctions. Reward often takes the form of praise or compliments,
but also takes other common forms, like high marks on school work, promotions at work, and social popularity.
Page 1 of 15 For More AIOU Solved Assignments Contact: MASTERS ACADEMY RWP 0308-5455195
For our Message services send your Name, Class and Roll Number on this number 0345-5455195
To Get Assignment Through E-mail or Whatsapp Message on this Number 0321-5455195
To get Assignments through E-Mail or Whatsapp contact:- masters.academy2000@gmail.com
Sanctions used to enforce informal social control, like those discussed above, tend to be social in form and consist
mainly in communication or lack thereof, but can also take the form of the ending of a relationship, teasing or
ridicule, poor marks in school, or being fired from work, among others.
Formal social control is that which is produced and enforced by the state (government) and representatives of the
state that enforce its laws like police, military, and other city, state, and federal agencies.
In many cases, a simple police presence is enough to create formal social control. In others, police might intervene in
a situation that involves unlawful or dangerous behavior in order to stop it--to "arrest" literally means to stop--in
order to ensure that social control is maintained.
Other government agencies enforce formal social control as well, like those that regulate which substances or foods
can be legally sold, and those that enforce building codes, among others.
It is up to formal bodies like the judiciary and the penal system to dole out sanctions when someone fails to comply
with the laws that define formal social control.
(b) what is social deviance ? Differentiate between formal and informal deviance.
The study of Social Deviance is the study of the violation of cultural norms in either formal (criminal) or informal
(deviant) contexts.
Social deviance is a phenomenon that has existed in all societies where there have been norms. There are two
possibilities for how an individual will act in the face of social norms; conform or violate. There are implicit social
norms and explicit social norms. Explicit social norms are not necessarily laws (such as a sign at a computer lab that
says food and drink are prohibited). In reality, there is often a blend of conformity and deviance in the ways people
behave. Rarely if ever does a person deviate from or conform to all norms. Furthermore, some behaviors in
themselves reflect both conformity and deviance at once. Consider breaking the speed limit, which is technically a
legal violation, but which is also conformist, particularly on freeways where motorists "go with the flow." That is a
critical feature of deviance, conformity, and norms. Relativity abounds. That is, norms can change over time (e.g.
women in the paid labor force), depend on situational context (e.g. laughing at a party as opposed to doing so at a
funeral), depend on statuses (e.g. an adolescent blowing up neighbors' mailboxes as opposed to an elderly woman
doing so), and any number of other factors. But it's not all relative. There are forms of deviance (and certain norms)
that are about as universal as anything in the social sciences can be, such as when one maliciously harms a child. In
light of the way we think about norms, deviance, and conformity, many thinkers throughout history have tried to
explain the causes behind deviance.
Social deviance
social deviance
behavior that violates social standards, engendering anger, resentment, and a desire forpunishment in a significant s
egment of the society or culture.
difference between formal and informal deviance?
“Deviant behavior may violate formally-enacted rules or informal social norms. ... Examples of formal
deviance include robbery, theft, rape, murder, and assault. Informal deviance refers to violations of informal social
norms, which are norms that have not been codified into law.” Boundless Sociology
• source Boundless Sociology
Such as some may call homosexuality a informal deviance. Others may see tattoos, piercing, love of heavy metal,
furries, cosplay, cutting, self mutilation jewelry, BDSM, ritual scarring,.. while all the above are legal, socially some
see them as informal deviance.
Q NO: 2(a) Analyze the effect of school on community in a progressive society.

Progressive education is a pedagogical movement that began in the late nineteenth century; it has persisted in
various forms to the present. The term progressive was engaged to distinguish this education from the traditional
Euro-American curricula of the 19th century, which was rooted in classical preparation for the university and
strongly differentiated by social class. By contrast, progressive education finds its roots in present experience. Most
progressive education programs have these qualities in common.
• Emphasis on learning by doing – hands-on projects, expeditionary learning, experiential learning
• Integrated curriculum focused on thematic units
• Integration of entrepreneurship into education
• Strong emphasis on problem solving and critical thinking
• Group work and development of social skills
• Understanding and action as the goals of learning as opposed to rote knowledge
• Collaborative and cooperative learning projects
• Education for social responsibility and democracy
• Highly personalized learning accounting for each individual's personal goals
• Integration of community service and service learning projects into the daily curriculum
• Selection of subject content by looking forward to ask what skills will be needed in future society
• De-emphasis on textbooks in favor of varied learning resources
• Emphasis on lifelong learning and social skills
• Assessment by evaluation of child's projects and productions
(b) what strategies can the administration of the school apply I order to strengthen its relationship
with community.
SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY RELATIONS
Importance of School-Community Relations
Today's school administrators are expected to be multi-talented in their approach to their jobs. First, within the
context of instructional improvement, collective bargaining, budget issues, and other complex tasks facing
administrators is the need to possess well-honed community relations skills. Second, is the recognition that
administrators do not function in a monolithic community. Even the district which appears homogeneous is made up
of diverse constituencies. Third, the expectations are that administrators will anticipate and prevent crises, increase
communications between the school and the home, and respond to special interest groups. The consideration of
these issues presents administrators with the understanding that they are an important link to our communities and
that the development of appropriate skills is important to being a successful administrator.
Increased Emphasis on Community Relations Skills
One of the dramatic shifts in the last two generations has been in the direction of increased emphasis on
administrators developing good relationships with their communities. From the mid-19th century through the
middle part of this century, concerted efforts had been focused on not politicizing the role of school administrators.
The shift to a more community-involved role for school administrators was noted by Kimbrough and Burkett (1990)
in their acknowledgment that:
Studies since the early 1950s have shown that schools do not exist in a political vacuum; . . . this opinion dictates
that the school leader should see that an effective home-school partnership in the education process is
developed. Thus the principal, or the person so designated by the principal, must mount strategies to establish good
school-community relations . . . .
The community relations function of the administrator's role is usually described in terms of providing programs
which result in the school and district being viewed more favorably by the community. The executive director of the
National School Public Relations Association states that the way to garner community support for schools is to do
four things.
1. Do a good job.
2. Do a Good Job.
3. Do A GOOD JOB.
4. Make sure people know about it. (pp. 263-264)
The administrator must do a good job and communicate that success to the diverse publics each school serves. Too
often schools are doing a good job and make no attempt to communicate their accomplishments to their constituent
communities. Undoubtedly, there are also those schools whose public relations campaigns greatly exceed their
factual accomplishments. However, the emphasis here is on the schools which are striving to provide both a sound
education for students and the rationale behind strong, positive school-community relations.
Q No: 3 (a) Explain the role of communication skills for effective teaching.
Communication:
What is ‘communication’? According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary the word means ‘the act of imparting,
especially news’, or ‘the science and practice of transmitting information’. These definitions clearly show the link
between ‘teaching’ and ‘communication’: teachers are constantly imparting new knowledge, or transmitting
information.
Hubley has shown us that communication is a complex processAt any stage of this process things may go wrong,
making the communication less effective. For instance, the sender may not express what s/he wants to say clearly;
or the room may be noisy; or the receiver may not understand the words the sender is using. To be effective,
teachers have to try to minimize these barriers to communication. We do this in a number of ways – for example, by
making sure that the room is quiet and well lit; by speaking slowly and clearly; by only using words which the
students should be able to understand. However, the most important way to overcome the barriers is two-way
communication. This means getting regular feedback from the receivers (the students in this case): are they really
understanding what we are trying to put across?
Teachers must communicate clearly, so students, parents and co-workers understand classroom goals and can
work together to accomplish academic tasks.Even though teachers still need strong verbal and nonverbal skills,
they must also act as collaborators and coordinators. As an educator, you'll not only present lectures, you'll also
find and organize educational materials that require technology. It's your job to guide classroom activities, so
students understand what's expected and can successfully complete assignments.
Patient, Straightforward Directors
Students need teachers who patiently, yet firmly, explain guidelines, policies, expectations, requirements and
objectives. Instructions must be clear and well-structured, so there's no confusion as to classroom rules or
assignments. You must consistently teach core concepts and reinforce desired outcomes, so students accomplish
their targeted goals for the year. Kindness, friendliness, fairness and respect are key elements to a successful and
productive classroom. Make sure students understand your expectations and encourage them with positive remarks
and helpful suggestions.
Consistent Corresponders
One of the best ways to help students with their overall classroom experience is to communicate with parents about
assignments, special projects, grades and behavior issues. Parents can't get involved unless you keep them informed.
You might send home a weekly classroom letter and briefly jot down a few handwritten notes on individual student
copies. Or, you might call or meet with two or three parents every week, so you get a chance to spend one-on-one
time with each student's parents during the quarter. Frequent, consistent communication is the best way to keep
parents in the loop and build relationships with them.
Trainers by Example
Educators who teach by example are often powerful communicators. By using your manners, speaking to students
politely and ensuring that all students are treated with respect, you create an orderly classroom.
Graders and Assessors
Teachers must monitor, report and discuss student progress. Effective communicators offer frequent, consistent tips
as to how students might improve. Talk to students on an individual basis to discuss their strengths and weaknesses
and suggest ideas for meeting competency requirements. Grading and assessing students is more than just typing
letter grades in a spreadsheet. It's about taking the time to talk to students about their academic goals,
achievements, successes and struggles.
(b) How can effective communication create an environment that is conducive for learning?
Effective communication create an environment that is conducive for learning:
Book Store
By definition, a conducive learning environment is a platform devoid of both physical intimidation and
emotional frustration, which allows for a free exchange of ideas.
The key proponents of the learning process are teachers and learners, as such their freedom of interaction,
safety and respect should be equally guaranteed within the physical and emotive environment they find
themselves in.
The first port of learning is the physical environment, which includes, but is not limited to classrooms.
The classroom should be neat, well ventilated and spacious to allow for free movement.
The chairs and desks should be arranged neatly to give the teacher a clear view of the class, with learners
facing the chalkboard.
All learning and teaching materials like chalks, books and charts should be at hand. The classroom should be
safe to both the teacher and the learners.
The smaller the classes, the more effective teacher pupil interaction is, and the more rewarding teaching
becomes. Most learners also feel weighed down by larger numbers in classrooms.
Emotions play a crucial role in both teaching and learning and therefore should be harnessed and embraced.
Mutual respect is an indispensable ingredient in the recipe of learning, (Stronge: 2002; Wilen et al: 2004). A
teacher who feels disrespected easily gets frustrated and is likely to deliver dismally; similarly a disrespected
learner disengages himself/herself from the learning process. The learner should feel relaxed, respected,
trusted, accepted and safe when his or her teacher is around.
The teacher, therefore, should always be unintimidating, friendly, respectful, tolerant and accommodating
for learners to warm up to him or her.
He/she should be respected and not feared. Younger learners, especially the lower forms, tend to withdraw
into their shells if the teacher exhibits aspects of intimidation and patronization.
Under no circumstances should the teacher use disparaging remarks even to those physically or
intellectually challenged, neither should he/she allow such remarks in the classroom.
A marketer is quick to remind his customers that a good product sells itself, but its reputation is heightened
through repackaging and constant advertising; and it is also indisputable that an experienced captain or
pilot is a safety assurance to passengers.
Credibility sells, thus the competent teacher should be aware that learners are not dullards, as they can
easily discern mediocrity from excellence.
The effectiveness of any learning method applied depends largely on the teacher and its worth is
determined by results. If the results are always poor, then the trainer’s reputation dips, and the opposite is
always true. His or her credibility both in deportment and delivery heightens reputation.
As is the case with passengers on a plane, learners feel secure in hands they can trust, and that in itself
regulates their behavior and learning patterns. It is perilous therefore, for one to walk into a classroom
clueless and ill prepared.
Learning is an interaction of ideas whose effectiveness lies in the consideration of both the teacher and the
learners as they all contribute to the outcome. The teacher may be the source of knowledge but is certainly
not the only one, as learners also have access to other sources of information like textbooks, journals and
the internet.
In today’s globalized world the teacher should be the custodian of the knowledge that learners acquire as
raw data elsewhere, guide them in the acquisition of such information and hone it, so that it becomes
effective as academic knowledge.
“Learners are conscious of what they want to achieve, and although they may not be certain of the how part
of it, they definitely know what interests them as such the teacher should be privy to their goals so as to be
able to “influence the nature of the activities they undertake, engage seriously in their study, regulate their
behavior, and know of the explicit criteria and high expectations of what they are to achieve,” (Queensdale
Department of Education, 2005).
What is of interest to learners is what appeals to them more, so they should be given a reason to listen,
otherwise their attention will be drawn elsewhere.
Active learning thrives on questions because questions are more important than answers (Terry Heich:
2014); as the philosopher Socrates posits that the best way to answer is to ask questions, and the scientist
Albert Einstein concurs that the best strategy in the acquisition of knowledge is to keep asking questions.
The competent teacher, therefore, should not force his or learners to ask questions, but should encourage
them to freely ask them according to their understanding of the concepts taught.
Learners who ask intelligent questions are encouraging as they propel the lesson forward, as opposed to
passive absorbers of information. There are a plethora of reasons why learners may not ask questions which
include lack of understanding of the objectives outlined because of poor delivery on the part of the teacher,
lack of interest from the learners, or satiation; the presumed satisfaction of the learner.
Q NO: 4 (a) Describe the relationship between technology change and society.
When we talk about the progress that society has had, is it equal to the progress technology has had or is the
progress of technology a way to achieve progress. How is the interaction between society and technology?
There are two mayor trends of thoughts in the relationship between technology and society, one explains the
development of technology as predetermine and the changes that occur to our society are cause because of
technology, this trend of thought puts technology as the shaper of society. Technology is deterministic and a
roadmap of technological change can be constructed. The other trend goes against the believe that technology is a
shaper of society, it believes that society is the shaper of technology and by no means technology is deterministic,
this are called social constructivism. Technology changes because of pressure from society.
Both trends of thought make reliable arguments. Deterministic proclaims that technology only occurs because of the
accumulation of knowledge and the mastery of certain techniques, without this new technology cannot exist. Social
constructivism claims that technology changes and adapts, and those changes are to please the needs of certain
groups and that is the way that technology is shaped by society. In other words, social constructivism studies the
relationship between society and technology by providing empirical models of technological changes and revels the
course of events that lead to those changes.
Even with strong arguments, both of those trends have weakness. Deterministic treat technology as a black box and
do not focus on changes that the technology has, it just focus on the evolution of the technology. On the other hand
social constructivism tries to open that black box but doesn’t go farther on explain the consequences of those
changes.
A third trend explains that both extremes are wrong and that the relationship between society and technology is
mutually influence by the other, technology is at the same time a shaper of society and shaped by it. Technology
Momentum tries to force its way by explaining that in the initial stage of a technology, it is basically shaped by the
society but once the technology has grown and the systems tends to be bigger and more complex then it tends to be
more a shaper of society.
Technology changes because of a mixture between the technology we have available and the needs of society.
Scientist and technologist can come up with new artifacts, new technology but the initial design will change over
time. They can create new products, but when they have them they not always know what to do with it, if society is
not ready for a type of technology then they will reject it.
Technology and society have a stronger relationship that we might think, people have been replaced from certain
types of job by technology, but also new jobs have been created thanks to technological changes. Mundane work
like opening and closing a door to maintain the temperature in a room, have been replace by machines.
Society doesn’t live on technology but embrace it to facilitate it. Progress is not measure on technological progress
alone, it is only a part of the progress that society has accomplish. Society embraces technology and use it according
to it own value. Technology can be used to join people together and make them understand, but also it can be used
to separate and segregate people. But is not technology itself that does that, but the designer of them. People who
design bridges create them so that places can be connected, but the designer can make sure that buses don’t fit so
that people without car can’t go to those places. But is it the technology that is preventing those people from going
or is it the designer? Winner argues that artifacts do have politics but the politics are not of the technology per se
but they are the reflection of the designer, either done by mistake or on purpose.
Technology doesn’t control itself, people control it and people design it. The problems that technolog brings to
society are just cause by them. Technology is a creation of society and even though it can change how we work, how
we live and how we communicate, those changes are brought because society needs them and found solution to
problems they had. Technologies like e-government have changed the way some governments operate. The
implementation of this type of systems have made those governments more agile, more transparent, and more
accountable, but isn’t this the wish of the people for as long as democracy has been implemented? We could argue
that the will of the people to end corruption is what lead to this type of technology to be developed.
We have to face the truth, technology change society but to a way that society wants to be change to. We design
and create the technology so that society can be like we want it to be. Society changes technology and vice versa,
but the change that technology makes on society is based of how society wishes to be.
Society and information technology are rapidly co-evolving, and often in surprising ways. In this installment of
“Trends and Controversies,” we hear three different views on how society and networked information technology
are changing one another. Becoming socialized means learning what kinds of behavior are appropriate in a given
social situation. The increasing trend of digitizing and storing our social and intellectual interactions opens the door
to new ways of gathering and synthesizing information that was previously disconnected. In the first essay, Jonathan
Grudin—a leading thinker in the field of computer-supported cooperative work—points out that, like a naive child,
information technology often ignores important contextual cues, and tactlessly places people into potentially
embarrassing situations. He suggests that as we continue to allow computation into the more personal and sensitive
aspects of our lives, we must consider how to make information technology more sophisticated about social
expectations, and become more sophisticated ourselves in understanding the nature of computer-mediated
services. In the second essay, I discuss a related issue—how newly internetworked information technology allows
people acting in their own self-interest to indirectly affect the experiences of other people. It is to be expected that
people will try to trick or deceive systems that support intrinsically social activities, such as running auctions. What is
surprising here is that technologies that do not obviously have a social aspect, such as information-retrieval ranking
algorithms, are nevertheless being manipulated in unexpected ways once they “go social.” In our third essay, Barry
Wellman—a sociologist and an expert in social network theory—explains how the structure of social networks
affects the ways we live and work. He describes the move away from a hierarchical society into a society in which
boundaries are more permeable and people are members of many loosely knit groups. He introduces the notion of
glocalization: simultaneously being intensely global and intensely local. Wellman describes how computer-mediated
communication is contributing to this glocalization transition in social habits and infrastructure. As networked
information technology continues to provide us with new views of ourselves, we hope that these essay will help
designers of information technology better understand the broader impact of the work they do,.
Conclusion
As a result of technology, the rate of progress increases, society must deal with both the positive as well as the
negative implications. 3. Conclusion Greenwood and Seshadri (2002) emphasized that the role of technological
progress is a catalyst for economic transformation. Energy, physical sciences, information and communication all
have been boosted by the innovation of technology. The world cannot operate without technology today, since it
has brought so many conveniences to human life. It is a common believe that technological progress has opened up
a range of modern activities for people; Contrariwise, technology are socially shaped, as it have been the primary
impetus for technological progress in society. However the detrimental effects of technology progress are also a
notable aspect in human society. There is no doubt that the essential precondition for technology development must
ensure a safe and sustainable world for today's society and for the later generation. This may include a cleaner
environment, better healthcare, less crime and a more equal standard of living for all members of society (Nolan,
1999).
(b) Explain how technology has influenced the international labour market?
Technological Change and the Labor Market
Economists have long been interested in the effect of technological change on the labor market. Our recent research
has focused on how technological change influences 1) the retirement decisions of older workers,(1) 2) the skill
acquisition of young workers,(2) and 3) the interindustry wage structure.(3) Since data on the rate of technological
change faced by the worker in his or her job is unavailable in any non-firm-level dataset, we have used industry-level
measures of technological change instead. Our early work on retirement studied the manufacturing and
nonmanufacturing sectors and used the Jorgenson productivity growth series as a proxy for the industry rate of
technological change. In our work on skill acquisition and the interindustry wage structure, we restricted the analysis
to the manufacturing sector because of the difficulties in accurately measuring technological change outside the
manufacturing sector and used a number of additional proxies for technological change: the NBER productivity
series, the Census of Manufacturers series on investment in computers, the industry's research and design to sales
ratio, the industry's use of patents, and the number of scientists and engineers employed within the industry. This
approach has enabled us to examine the robustness of alternative measures of technological change, thereby
increasing our confidence in the results.
Technological Change and Retirement Decisions
Technological change can affect retirement decisions in two main ways: 1) through the direct effect of technological
change on the amount of on-the-job training, and 2) indirectly, through the effect of technological change on the
depreciation rate of the stock of human capital. Economic theory does not provide a clear prediction with regard to
the effect of technological change on the optimal level of on-the-job training. This relationship will depend on the
effects of technological change on the marginal return to training, and the complementarity and substitutability
between schooling and training. Given a positive correlation between technological change and on-the-job training,
human capital theory predicts that, ceteris paribus, workers in industries with higher rates of technological change
will retire later.(4) However, in industries that have higher rates of technological change, human capital will
depreciate at a faster rate, and higher rates of depreciation will lead to a lower optimal level of investment, inducing
earlier retirement. Hence, from a theoretical perspective, the relationship between the long-run variation in the rate
of technological change across industries and the age of retirement is ambiguous, but if there is a net positive
correlation between on-the-job training and technological change, industries that are characterized by higher rates
of technological change will have later retirement ages.
Unexpected changes in the industry rate of technological change can also influence retirement decisions. For
example, an unexpected increase in the rate of technological change will produce an increase in the depreciation
rate of the human capital stock, leading to a revised rate of investment in human capital. If older workers are
unlikely to revise their planned investments in human capital, it can be shown that the higher depreciation rate will
induce earlier retirement.
In our empirical work using the 1966-83 National Longitudinal Surveys of Older Men, we find that it is important to
distinguish between long-run variations and unexpected changes in industry rates of technological change. Our two
main findings are that 1) workers in industries with higher average rates of technological change retire later than
workers in industries with lower rates of technological change, and 2) an unexpected increase in the rate of
technological change induces earlier retirement, especially for workers 65 and older.
Technological Change and the Skill Acquisition of Young Workers
Observed investments in training are the outcome of a supply and demand interaction of employers and workers,
and technological change will influence the incentives of both parties. One argument is that technological change
makes formal education and previously acquired skills obsolete. As a result, both workers and firms will find it
optimal to invest in on-the-job training in order to match the specific requirements of each wave of innovation. The
alternative view is that general education enables workers to adjust to and benefit from technological change.
Workers who expect to experience higher rates of technological change on the job should therefore invest more in
schooling and rely less on acquiring specific training on the job. Hence it is impossible to predict a priori the sign of
the relationship between technological change and investments in formal company training.
We use the 1987-92 National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth to assess the relative importance of the competing
effects. This dataset is particularly well suited to this task because it contains detailed information on all formal
training spells experienced by the individual. Our findings indicate that production workers in manufacturing
industries with higher rates of technological change are significantly more likely to receive formal company training,
which is consistent with the notion that technological change makes previously acquired skills obsolete, thereby
inducing workers and firms to invest in training to match the specific requirements of the latest innovation.
Technological change is also likely to affect the relationship between education and training. In general, more
educated workers receive more training, either because human capital is an input in the production of new human
capital or because individuals who are better "learners" invest more in both schooling and training. At higher rates of
technological change, however, the training gap between the more and less educated narrows. In addition, we find
that the proportion of individuals receiving training increases, and firms are more likely to train individuals who have
not received training in the prior period rather than those who were previously trained.
Technological Change and the Interindustry Wage Structure
Previous studies have found positive correlations between technological change and industry wages(5) and between
technological change and the ratio of the earnings of more educated relative to less educated workers.(6) Using the
1979-93 National Longitudinal Surveys of Youth, we examine the role played by observed and unobserved
heterogeneity in explaining these positive relationships.
We show that wages in industries with higher rates of technological change are higher even after controlling for a
variety of individual characteristics using the AFQT score. This result could reflect wage premiums that owe to 1)
industry effects such as compensating wage differentials or efficiency wages, 2) labor mobility constraints that cause
the effects of demand shocks to persist, or 3) continuous shocks in the industry. Alternatively, it could reflect the
sorting of more skilled workers into industries with higher rates of technological change. We use a number of
econometric procedures, based on fixed-effects models, to conclude that sorting is the dominant explanation for
higher wages in industries with higher rates of technological change. Although, like other researchers,(7) we find
evidence of an industry wage premium after controlling for individual fixed effects, we show that this premium is not
correlated with the industry rate of technological change. In addition, we also document higher returns to education
in high-tech industries and show that this education premium also results from greater selectivity on individual
unobserved characteristics.
These individual unobserved characteristics could reflect innate ability, the home environment and the skills learned
there, or school curriculum and school quality. The implications of our findings for wage inequality and its
persistence depend on the relative importance of these factors. For example, if the unobserved characteristics
largely reflect individuals' innate abilities, then the wage differentials associated with technological change would be
expected to persist over time. Similarly, if these unobserved characteristics capture the home environment, which is
also exogenous to the individual, then there also will be a limited role for public policy intervention. However, if the
unobservable characteristics largely reflect school curriculum or school quality, then public policy or individual
choice could shape the allocation of these resources and thereby mitigate the effects of higher rates of technological
change on wage inequality.
The time is ripe for new thinking in the labour market. The current system feels broken. It seems ill-suited to the
structural changes that are occurring at an increasing pace. As a result, we see high unemployment with unfilled
jobs, rising productivity with stagnant wages, and economic recovery with declining upward mobility for many.
Fortunately, the present dysfunction and apparent contradictions are spurring changes. Rather than returning to
business as usual after the recession, the labour market is settling into a new normal. If we chart our course well we
can navigate the changing world of work and unleash new employment opportunities and economic growth for the
Fourth Industrial Revolution.
At ManpowerGroup, we call this new era the Human Age, where talent becomes the key differentiator for
organizations and countries alike. This shift is evident in four global forces currently reshaping the world of work:
demographic change, greater individual choice, the ongoing technological revolution and increasing client
sophistication.
1. Shifting demographics, dynamic workforces
Trends like aging and declining birth rates mean the days of abundant labour are drawing to an end in much of the
world. Sixty percent of people now live in countries with stagnant or shrinking workforces. China’s working age
population peaked in 2010; by 2050 more than a quarter of its people will be over 65, up from eight percent today.
In Germany, the labour force will shrink by six million workers over the next 15 years—this is one reason their
politicians are more open to migrants.
Faced with labour shortages, employers and policymakers are being forced to think differently about talent sourcing.
In Japan, where a quarter of the population is over age 65 (compared to 15 percent in the U.S.) there has been a
major push, championed by Prime Minister Abe, to get more women and older workers into the labour market. As a
result of these and other efforts, the labour force has declined by just one percent over the past decade even though
Japan’s “working age” population (traditionally defined as ages 15-64) has dropped by eight percent. Policymakers
elsewhere should take note - the UN estimates that by 2050, 33 countries will have an older population than Japan
does today.
A more intense search for talent is beginning, and we are already seeing interesting people practices emerge.
Aerospace companies, faced with graying workforces, have pioneered flexible working, phased retirements, “encore
careers,” and a slew of knowledge transfer programs to train the next generation. Companies that can’t find the
talent they need in one country use remote working to employ people elsewhere. Around the world, employers are
experimenting with new policies to better appeal to underrepresented groups—women, young people, minorities,
people with disabilities, migrants, etc.
2. The rise of individual choice
With millions of job postings just a click away, it is easier to shop around for work; most millennials expect to pursue
multiple careers and change directions a few times over their working lives. Theirs is a new mindset. Rather than
hanging on to a job for life, the goal today is to be employable: to develop the skills, experience and expertise
necessary to move on or up, regardless of your employer. Ideally, this gives people greater choice and flexibility to
ride career waves or slow down at different stages of their longer working lives.
As employers adapt to this workforce trend, wages and opportunities will increasingly be dictated by skills, not
tenure. The “haves”, with sought after talent, find themselves in a better bargaining position today; they are able to
manage their own careers and command higher salaries. The “have-nots”, those without in-demand skills, are
struggling and feel increasingly disposable. Helping this group to upskill is the defining labour challenge of our time,
and requires extraordinary efforts from educators, policymakers and most of all employers.
In the near term, individual choice is causing problems in the labour market. Companies understandably ask: why
should I train you if you’ll leave and work for my competitor? However, with talent shortages looming, the need to
retain employees may soon tip the balance back towards greater investment in development programs. By providing
learning opportunities, employers become a talent destination.
Policy makers too will need to explore new ways of delivering social benefits that suit non-traditional work. Focusing
on employment for life, rather than protecting specific jobs in companies, will increase workforce mobility, protect
the individual and encourage lifelong learning and development.
3. The technological revolution
As a result of rapid technological change, companies today face shorter business cycles and truly global competition.
Few industries are safe from disruption. Automation, facilitated by better artificial intelligence, is poised to have a
major impact on jobs. Up to 47 percent of U.S. jobs in 2010 were rated as highly likely to become computerized in
the next 10-20 years. If history is a guide, the new industries and opportunities created should ultimately surpass
those that disappear, but the transition will be painful and may last decades.
Still, there is reason to be optimistic. Even as old roles are swept away, technology is facilitating the emergence of
new work models that may help solve some of the current labour market issues. PwC estimates the five main sectors
of the sharing economy—peer-to-peer finance, online staffing, peer-to-peer accommodation, car sharing and music
video streaming—have the potential to grow from around $15 billion in revenue today to $335 billion by 2025. True,
the industry is still small and may never be a panacea, but it has unleashed a torrent of creativity focused on the
basic question of how to better align labour supply and demand in a faster-paced world. It is one of many solutions
emerging and, as in times past, human ingenuity enabled by new technologies will make our world more prosperous
for all.
4. Client sophistication and the dawn of data
Talent management has gone from an art to a science as organizations start applying big data and supply chain
sophistication to recruiting and retention. The goal is greater efficiency and productivity, and it is transforming how
companies think about talent. With the proliferation of so-called “people analytics”—behavioral and intelligence
tests, digital performance scorecards and better human resource information systems—companies know their
people like never before. It is easier to see where the best talent resides within a company, or where the gaps might
be.
With all this data at their fingertips, companies are starting to think more strategically about where they source
talent. For example, given the difficulty of staying up to speed with changing technology, firms are increasingly
outsourcing IT management to third party experts. This in turn creates new efficiencies, allowing cyber security
providers to monitor attacks against a wide range of clients around the world and share preventive solutions. In our
industry, we see the rapid growth of recruitment process outsourcing as companies seek out expertise and
efficiency.
So I’m an optimist. Yes, labour markets are struggling today and the business environment is harder to predict, but
this churning, difficult period will lead to new solutions and opportunities for growth. The realization that this is the
future of work should spur us to solve today’s challenges in ways that benefit and support everyone. This will require
forward thinking workforce strategies that explore new talent sources, people practices and work models. An
uncertain transition state is never easy, but we will ultimately emerge stronger for it.
Q NO: 5
(a) Explicate the role and responsibility of school parents and local bodies in community development?
While parents, family, and community members may assume specific roles as they become involved in the
education of children, for example as volunteers in the classroom (see Epstein and Connors' typology, 1993), a
synthesis of the literature reveals three overarching roles that are created in the development and implementation
of parent and community involvement programs (Lyons, Robbins and Smith, l983; Lynn, l994). Each of these roles is
actualized in very different ways in relationships in classrooms, schools, and school districts:
• Parents as the primary resource in the education of their children is best exemplified in home learning.
Home learning is the activity, or set of activities, that parents and family members may engage in to help
their children succeed academically. This partnership role between parents and/or family members and
schools may have the greatest impact on achievement.
• Parents and community members as supporters and advocates for the education of their children is
facilitated through site-based school restructuring. Restructuring schools to create parent and community
partnerships with schools focuses on organizational structure. Changing activities; creating new relationships
between parents, families, communities, and schools; and implementing innovative strategies are ways that
schools can restructure to facilitate parent and community involvement in this role.
• Parents and community members as participants in the education of all children incorporates a broader
vision in the partnership between schools and the populations they serve. Districtwide programs provide
the vehicle for parents and community members to be involved in roles that reach beyond the immediate
impact of an individual child to the impact on all children in the district.
There are key program elements and strategies that are specific to those programs that are designed and
implemented to enhance the partnership roles of parents, families, communities, and schools. Successful initiatives
consider these program elements and strategies in design, development, and implementation.
• The key program elements specific to home learning are: well-developed local practices; a willingness of
teachers to build on parent strengths; ongoing recruitment using multiple methods; effective strategies that
promote home learning; and the home learning environment.
• School restructuring activities focus on the following key program elements: an emphasis on quality
education; family participation; and site-based management.
• Key program elements for districtwide programs include: development and implementation of policy;
embracing the diversity of families and communities; and a focus on the linkages with the community and
other agencies.
This literature reveals that several key program elements cut across all levels of the education system:
• Communication is a primary building block that takes into account the equal participation by all the
partners.
• Key players including students, parents, families, and community members are the primary focus in the
development and implementation of parent and community involvement programs. Other key players may
be teachers and administrators.
• Resources such as funding, personnel, etc. are essential in the development and implementation of parent
and community involvement programs.
The roles of parents, families, and communities and the partnerships that are created with schools speak to
programs that are designed, developed, and implemented at any grade level. Research literature on middle
grade parent involvement will be highlighted.
Overarching Roles Of Parents, Families, and Community Members in the Development and Implementation of
Programs
Parents as a Primary Resource in the Education of their Children
The research literature on enhancing parental roles in this regard generally focuses on how parents can help their
children through home learning activities and the ways in which such activities can be optimized.
Home Learning
Involving parents in home learning activities vastly improves students' productivity (Rich, l987a; Epstein, l99lb;
Walberg, l984) Programs and activities that may be called "home learning" take many forms, but most commonly
include homework, leisure reading, family discussions, educational games, and enrichment activities (Moles, 1991).
Key Element: Well-developed local practices. Dauber and Epstein (1991:11) asserted that "regardless of parent
education, family size, student ability, or school level (elementary or middle school), parents are more likely to
become partners in their children's education if they perceive that the schools have strong practices to involve
parents at school, at home on homework, and at home on reading activities." Districts and schools play a key role in
developing effective school-parent partnerships to encourage home learning (Birman, l987; Hamilton and Cochran,
l988; Comer, l988b).
The most successful schools design adult-child learning programs with parents (Crispeels, l99la) to fit the needs and
expectations of families who intend to participate (Zeldin, 1989; Epstein, 1989; Rich, l985; Slaughter and Epps, l987).
Training to work with families adds to the success. (Zeldin, 1989; Chrispeels, 1991a; Dauber and Epstein, 1991).
Epstein (1991a) has concluded that for teachers, parent involvement in students' home learning is largely an
organizational problem. "Teachers must have clear, easy, and reliable ways to (a) distribute learning activities (b)
receive and process messages from parents (c) evaluate the help students obtain at home, and (d) continue to
manage and evaluate the parent involvement practices" (Epstein, 1991a:4).
Key Element: A willingness of teachers to build on parent strengths. Effective programs respect and utilize the
strengths of all parents, regardless of parental income, education, or social status (Zeldin, 1989) to form a strong
partnership. Further, successful programs view even minor involvement as the basis for later, more active
involvement (Eastman, 1988).
Research from the Johns Hopkins Surveys of Schools and Family Connections (Epstein and Becker, 1987) showed that
teachers believe that parents' help is necessary if schools are to solve problems. Teachers mainly requested that
parents review or practice activities that were taught in class. Some researchers have focused on how to increase
teachers' understandings of the literacy practices that go on in any home (Brice-Heath, 1983; Cochran, 1987;
Slaughter, 1988) which understanding have been shown to enhance teachers' effectiveness.
Key Element: Ongoing recruitment using multiple methods. Schools need to use such strategies as home visits,
community agencies and word-of-mouth for the "hard to reach" parents (Zeldin, l989). School-generated print
materials usually work with middle class parents (Pickarts and Fargo, l975; McLaughlin and Shields, l987). Rich (l985)
offered suggestions for recruiting bilingual parents such as bilingual hotline, bilingual media campaign, etc. In her
review of Thompson's Family Math, and Epstein's Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork, Chrispeels (1991a) found
that home learning activities were most effective when there was personal communication between parents,
families, and teachers (for example, receiving invitations to visit in the school and phone calls about student
progress), and when the school provided translation, transportation, and child care.
Key Element: Effective strategies for promoting home learning. Many researchers found that parents need specific
advice and strategies to enable them to engage in home learning activities. Successful programs have some of the
following components: l) prescriptive component (Rich, l986a); 2) flexible program to fit parents' time (Zeldin, l989;
Barber, l987); 3) meaningful and interesting (Brown, l989); 4) on-going projects (Brown, l989; Epstein and Herrick,
l99l); 5) parents can ask questions and listen (Epstein, l99la and l99la:5); 6) personal support of parents by teachers
(Lightfoot, l975; Crispeels, l987b); and 7) teachers encourage parental involvement (Dauber and Epstein, l99l:l3).
Key Element: The home learning environment. Several researchers pointed to the importance of the home learning
environment (Clark, 1983; Walberg, 1984; Henderson, 1987; de Kanter, et al., 1986; Zeldin, 1989; Chrispeels, 1991a):
overt modeling of the importance of education, provision of youth enrichment activities, appropriate household
chores, and including children in family decision making . In general, to promote student motivation to learn, family
and school structures need to be designed to support the developmental demands created by biological, cognitive,
personal, and social growth of the child as he/she matures (Lipsitz, 1984; Epstein, l986b; Rich, l985).
Home learning in the middle grades. The major emphasis of activities that may be termed "home learning" in grades
four through eight include helping parents:
• become partners with teachers in encouraging children with their schoolwork;
• interact with their children at home to support school goals and programs;
• understand early adolescence and middle grade programs; and
• assist children with decisions that affect their own and the families' futures (Epstein and Salinas, 1990).
Epstein and Herrick (1991) developed and evaluated a number of specific practices that teachers could use to
increase parent involvement in the home. One such practice was the use of home learning packets in math and
language arts in the first year to which they added science and health in the second year. These were used during
the summer by parents of students who would enter grades seven and eight. Evaluations showed that students who
worked with their parents completed a greater number of activities in the packets and that the packets had a
moderate effect on student performance for some students, especially those who had marginal skills.
Parents and Community Members as Supporters and Advocates for the Education of their Children
The focus of the review in this area is on practices that are implemented at the school building level to encourage
the role of parents as supporters of their children's education: to promote contacts with all parents, to help parents
learn more about their children's school programs and progress, and to help them gain information on home
learning activities and home supports for education. The larger community must also be given options for
involvement (USED, l994).
Key Element: A focus on quality education for all students. The research literature for Effective Schools emphasizes
the importance of developing the abilities of all children regardless of their current achievement level or their
cultural, ethnic, or socioeconomic background. The concept of teaching the whole child has extended upward from
the elementary level. Educators must consider the social, emotional, physical as well as the academic development
of the middle grade student (Davies, 1991).
The changing structure of the family and its related needs must be considered in relationship to the school and its
available resources (Epstein, 1988). Schools and families must work together to form high, yet realistic expectations
that lead to success for all students as they restructure the school to meet their local needs (American Indian Science
and Engineering Society, 1989; Bliss, 1986; Davies, 1991).
Key Element: Family participation in their children's education. Davies (1991) recommended that we change from
parent involvement to family involvement because for some children, it is the grandparents, aunts and uncles,
brothers and sisters or even neighbors who make the most significant contribution in supporting the child's
educational development outside of the school. Schools must take the lead in helping families have the knowledge
and skills to provide support to their children (Bliss, 1986; Moles, 1990; Slaughter and Epps, 1987). Principals need to
take the lead to ensure that parent and community involvement is a high priority for the school staff, parents, and
the community (Purnell and Gotts, 1985).
Specific learning activities can be promoted by specific school practices: providing homework hotlines, after-school
homework tutoring sessions, or assigning interactive projects that require parents' assistance (Chrispeels, 1991a).
Homework must be clear, of an appropriate quantity, and integrated into the classroom (Walberg, 1984; Chrispeels,
1991a). Researchers also suggested that the school provide surrogate family members for students whose parents
cannot participate (Davies, 1988).
Key Element: Site-based management. Site-based management has emphasized the importance of appropriate
policies and local decision making as it relates to the development of effective schools where parents are involved.
The Effective Schools research highlighted the importance of involvement of the school staff and parents in the
development and implementation of comprehensive school improvement plans. Without such staff and community
involvement from the grass roots level both commitment and motivation to carry out these plans was often lacking
(Taylor and Levine, l99l; Smith and O'Day, 1991). In 1987, the Committee for Economic Development issued a
report, Children In Need: Investment Strategies for the Educationally Disadvantaged, that argued for this grassroots
strategy for school improvement.
(b) Develop yearly plan for the collaboration among community school and local bodies.
What Is Collaboration?
Collaboration — a widely used term — means different things to different people. Collaboration can mean
coordination, integrated services, school-linked and school-based services, any focus on non-educational or
supportive services, public-private partnerships with businesses and community groups, parental or family
involvement. Collaboration also can be defined through existing educational programs that emphasize and utilize
partnerships, such as school-to-work, service learning, extended learning, and before- and after-school programs.
Collaborative programs that have been studied show positive results on higher academic achievement, behaviors
and attitudes of students, reduced incidence of vandalism, and other destructive behaviors, higher aspirations and
credits earned, more positive mental health, reduce the school dropout rate, prevent teen pregnancies and births,
and increase the number of youth who go on to a job or college.
Starting School–Community Collaboration?
Several formal models integrate the steps for starting a school–community collaboration into a series of specific
training activities. This is not a one-size-fits-all endeavor, but the steps, although they differ among the various
models, are very similar.
Once understood, these steps allow a community to tailor its own approach to addressing the needs of at-risk
students in its schools. Winer and Ray (1994) outline four steps for developing and sustaining collaborations:
1. Envisioning Results
Criteria for membership are decided and people are brought together to get to know one another. Sharing
knowledge, disclosing self-interests, enhances trust among the participants, ensuring that all stakeholders’ needs are
met and letting people feel their participation is justified by producing visible results. A shared vision statement is
developed that indicates where the group wants to go. Desired results are specified in the form of goals and
objectives that are jointly developed.
2. Empowering the Effort
Authority for the group to act is obtained, roles are clarified, and commitments are secured, and each agency knows
what contribution it is expected to make. Conflict is expected and addressed by having a conflict resolution process
in place to clarify issues, focus on goals and explore alternatives. The effort is organized by:
• Forming a structure that determines roles and staffing and secures resources.
• Establishing a decision-making protocol and communications plan.
• Recognizing and rewarding participant’s supports members.
3. Ensuring Success
Work is managed by establishing an action plan based on vision and goals, developing collaborative work habits, and
determining accountability for all activities. Where necessary, collaborating agencies make necessary policy and
procedural changes to ensure responsiveness to the other agencies and support the collaborative. Multiple methods
of assessment are used to evaluate and continuously improve the effort. The collaborative remains flexible and
adaptable to changing conditions.
4. Endowing Continuity
The collaborative is made visible by publicizing and promoting results, and involving the media. Participation is
sought from the wider community, including youth groups, businesses, and grassroots community organizations.
Periodically reassessing the mission and vision, involving new leadership, and securing diverse funding sustain the
effort.
Conclusion
Community collaboration is not an option. It is the driving force for developing the supports that enable children and
youth to learn and succeed and help families and communities thrive. Collaboration is a difficult task, with many
barriers to overcome. However, the resulting communication among community agencies and schools, unity of
vision within the community, integration and enhancement of agency services, and community support of common
goals are well worth the effort. School–community collaboration is essential to providing the comprehensive
academic and social services needed for youth at risk of dropping out of school to succeed academically and in later
life.
Step 1: Expand Your Vision of School to Include Community
Ryan Bretag writes, "Educators shouldn't be the only ones contributing. The community should be creating
questions, puzzles, quotes, mind benders, trivia, philosophical and ethical challenges, thought provoking videos,
"graffiti walls," brainstorming spaces, and play areas."
There are so many opportunities for experiential learning to happen out in the community surrounding the school.
We just need to find ways to connect core curriculum beyond the classroom by attracting the right people and
asking the right questions.
Step 2: Reach Out to All Stakeholders
One of the best ways to connect and create an authentic bond is to go to the people who matter most, and meet
them on their own turf. A series of community walks are a great way to start.
Get your teachers, some local businesses on board and go and knock on people's doors, visit local businesses and
senior homes and talk with them. Try the same approach with groups of students. This time let the students
communicate what they hope and wish for their school and encourage them to ask for mentoring and support.
Share your dreams for enhanced community-school partnerships, ask people what matters to them, ask them how
they might help, and show them your passion. Deliver them an open invitation to reconnect, collaborate and share
their experience, skills and time to make a difference.
Step 3: Create a Community Resource Map
A visual representation of your community and the various skills people have to offer is a super way to understand
what community resources are available. If you build one, also point out the materials people can supply at cost or
for free, the time they can invest in projects, and how they can connect to curriculum, and classroom activities.
Include the networks they can utilize to raise awareness of the needs of local children and families, and always
promote and foster resource-sharing and collaboration.
Use libraries to advocate for school-community partnerships and student learning. Libraries are important hubs and
can provide meaningful connection points outside the school gates.
A community resource map can come in the form of a hand-drawn map (use a graphic facilitator), Google Map, Mind
Map or even a spreadsheet with some visual outputs.
Step 4: Connect with Curriculum
Much of what we learn as children and adults happens outside the classroom through real world experiences and
from our peers, mentors or on the job.
How might we connect today's core curriculum with the real world? That is an important question that is in urgent
need of answers. Kids today are asking far to often for relevance in what they are learning. "Why am I learning this?
I'll never use this!" is a response far too often heard form the mouths of young people today.
Let's find ways to work with local businesses and subject matter experts to connect core curriculum to the outside
world and design engaging learning experiences in and out of the classroom. Check out Chapter 4 "Asking the
Experts" from Kathleen Cushman's wonderful book Fires in the Mind: What Kids Can Tell Us About Motivation and
Mastery.
Please consider using project-based learning. Try using a matching technique to match students with subject matter
experts, businesses and community organisations. Here is a great book on the subject by Suzie Boss. Reinventing
Project-Based Learning: Your Field Guide to Real-World Projects in the Digital Age.
Let's not forget the largely untapped wealth of experience and knowledge that resides with retires, grandparents
and millions of socially isolated senior citizens in aged care facilities.
Step 5: A Design Challenge for the Community
Here is an example of a community challenge to reinvent the school experience. I created the Reinventing School
Challenge earlier this year to encourage discussion, empower youth, teachers and communities to design and
facilitate change locally.
Reinventing school can mean lots of things such as redesigning classrooms, creating a community garden, creating
an open and shared learning space, designing a course, changing the way students participate in decision making,
you name it!

8606 2 PDF

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

8606 2 PDF

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

To get Assignments through E-Mail or Whatsapp contact:- masters.academy2000@gmail.

Q NO: 2(a) Analyze the effect of school on community in a progressive society.

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen