Food Sci. Technol. Res.

, ++ (+), +,1ῌ+--, ,**/

Milkfish (Chanos chanos Forskaal) Consumption in the Philippines and the Docosahex-
aenoic Acid Level of the Cooked Fish

Cecile Leah P. Tiangson-BAYAGA῍ and Genevieve F. DEVEZA

College of Home Economics, University of the Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City

Received June ,+, ,**. ; Accepted January ,2, ,**/

Milkfish consumption and the e#ects on the proximate composition and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)
level of three cooking methods (Paksiw, Sinigang and fried) used to prepare milkfish were determined.
Total moisture content, crude fat, crude protein and the total ash of the dishes were analyzed. Fatty acid
methyl esters (FAMEs) were analyzed through gas chromatography. Results showed that milkfish is eaten
once to twice a week by Filipino households. Proximate analysis revealed that Paksiw had the highest
moisture content, and Sinigang had the highest crude fat content. Sinigang had a significantly lower crude
protein content compared to raw fish, fried fish had the highest crude protein on a wet basis and Paksiw on
a dry basis. The DHA level for Paksiw was not significantly di#erent from raw milkfish, but DHA level for
Sinigang and fried milkfish were significantly di#erent from the raw sample. Di#erent cooking methods
can thus cause changes in the proximate composition and DHA content of milkfish.

Keywords : Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA), Milkfish, proximate composition, fatty acid composition, milkfish consump-
tion

Introduction Mexico (Bagarinao, +333). Milkfish is considered to be a

The nutritional status of the breast-fed infant is highly
dependent on the mother. Therefore, if the mother is
malnourished, then it is likely that the infant will have a
poor nutritional status. Infants acquire the nourishment
needed from mother’s milk and it has been established
that the breast milk composition is influenced by mater-
nal diet. One of the dietary constituents that has been
gaining recognition for good infant nutrition is long
chain (,*- and ,,- carbon) polyunsaturated fatty acids
(LCPUFAs). Recently, interest has grown in fish and fish
products as sources of LCPUFAs, particularly docosa-
hexaenoic acid (DHA), because of its role in brain and
retinal development (Makrides et al., +33/ ; Innis et al.,
+33. ; Carlson et al., +33-). DHA have also been recogni-
zed in helping to lower blood pressure, improving anti-
oxidant levels and preventing lipid peroxidation, decreas-
ing the rate platelet aggregation, and reducing plasma
lipid concentrations (Frenoux et al., ,**+).
A recent study showed that the level of DHA in the
breast milk of lactating Filipino women (nῌ+**) was
significantly associated with frequency of milkfish
(bangus) consumption (Tiangson et al., ,**-). Further-
more, Tiangson (,**-) concluded that the frequency of
milkfish consumption among families was not sig-
nificantly associated with annual income, implying that
the consumption of milkfish is not limited to the low-,
middle-, or high-income families.
Milkfish is consumed in the Philippines, Indonesia,
Taiwan, Malaysia, Thailand, Southern Vietnam, Japan,
Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Southern India, Iraq, Hawaii and
E-mail : cecile_leah.tiangson@up.edu.ph
“fatty” fish because it has more than /ῌ fat in relation to
its body weight. However, the fatty acids present in fish
are primarily unsaturated, whereas saturated fatty acids
are predominant in other meat. The precursor of essen-
tial fatty acids like DHA and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA),
a-linolenic acid, is prevalent in fishes (Kinsella, +320).
DHA, being a polyunsaturated fatty acid (C,, : 0w--), is
highly susceptible to oxidation. Cooking at high temper-
atures, changes in pH and other factors may cause
changes in DHA structure, resulting in decreased levels
(Nawar, +33*). It is therefore essential to determine
which cooking methods result in minimal DHA loss. The
main objective of this study is to determine the e#ects of
di#erent conventional cooking methods on DHA levels in
milkfish.
Methods
Survey An interview was conducted in four areas of
the University of the Philippines’ Diliman Community.
A random sample of ,,* households was interviewed.
The survey questionnaire was designed to obtain demo-
graphic information, and assess milkfish consumption
and the common cooking method for milkfish. Detailed
recipes and cooking methodologies of the respondents
were also obtained.
The survey was encoded and analyzed using the soft-
ware Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The
frequency of the types of fish commonly eaten, common
cooking methods for milkfish and the vegetables used for
the dishes were noted. Only the top ten most commonly
eaten fish, most common ingredients, and most common
cooking procedures were considered in the analysis. The
128
top three cooking methods were standardized.
Standardization of Recipes The three most common
cooking methods for milkfish were Paksiw, milkfish
boiled in water and vinegar ; Sinigang milkfish boiled in
water with a tamarind soup base ; and fried. These were
standardized based on the recipes and methodology
described by the respondents of the survey. The amount
and kind of each ingredient, cooking time and tempera-
ture used per recipe was set such that the resulting prod-
uct was consistent in flavor, texture and doneness.
For Paksiw, the milkfish was first thawed at room
temperature for + hour and -* minutes. Then it was
sliced into three and iodized salt was added. The thawed
milkfish and the other ingredients (i.e., eggplant, onion,
ginger, garlic, jalapeno, iodized salt, black pepper, vinegar
and water) were placed in a covered pot. The ingredients
were allowed to boil for . minutes or until the mixture
reached +*+῎. The dish was then allowed to simmer for
+* minutes.
For Sinigang, the milkfish was thawed for + hour and -*
minutes. The scales were removed and the fish sliced
into three. In a pot, tomatoes, onions, radish, and salt
were boiled for / minutes at 33῎. Then, the fish were
added and allowed to simmer for 0 minutes. Swamp cab-
bage and jalapeno were added and the dish was allowed
to simmer again for . minutes, after which the swamp
cabbage was removed from the pot and set aside. Tama-
rind mix was added to the dish and the swamp cabbage
was placed back in the pot immediately prior to serving.
For the frying treatment, milkfish was thawed for +
hour and then sliced into three. Iodized salt was then
rubbed all over the fish that was then allowed to stand at
room temperature for + hour. In a frying pan, the cook-
ing oil was heated to ,**ῌ,+*῎ before immersing each fish
slice. Each slice was cooked for 3 minutes.
The fish samples used in the three dishes were acquired
from the Lingayen Public Market, Lingayen, Pangasinan.
The size of the milkfish used ranged from ,3*ῌ-+* mm and
weighed -**ῌ--* grams. The fishes were cultivated in
freshwater fishponds and fed using filamentous green
algae.
Sensory evaluation was conducted to determine accept-
ability of the dishes. A nine-point hedonic scale was
used to rate acceptability. A rating of 1 or above, similar
to moderate, meant that the characteristic of the product
being examined was acceptable. The fishes were
harvested on March ,**, for the sensory evaluation.
Sample Preparation Samples were obtained from
each of the standardized dishes for chemical analysis.
Samples were consisted of the cooked fish meat and other
ingredients like the vegetables and broth (for the Paksiw
and Sinigang dishes). The cooked fish meat was flaked
prior to homogenization with the other ingredients. Ali-
quots of the resulting homogenates were then subjected
to proximate and fatty acid analysis.
Proximate Analysis The standardized formulation of
Paksiw, Sinigang and fried milkfish together with a raw
sample were subjected to proximate analysis. Total
moisture content was analyzed using Vacuum Oven
C. BAYAGA & G. DEVEZA
Method (AOAC Method 30*.+2), crude fat was determined
using Soxhlet Extraction Method (AOAC Method 3,*.-3
C). The Kjeldahl Method (AOAC Method 3//.*.) was
employed to determine crude protein and Dry Ashing
(AOAC Method 3,-.*-) was performed to check total ash
of the samples.
Analyses were performed in triplicate for statistical
validity. Identification and exclusion of outliers was de-
termined using a Q-test. Results are expressed using the
mean and standard error of the mean (SEM). Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA) was used to determine significant
di#erence among treatments at a῍*.*/. Duncan’s Multi-
ple Range Test was used to detect which treatment is
significantly di#erent from the others.
Fatty Acid Analysis The raw and cooked milkfish
samples were brought to the Standards and Testing Divi-
sion of Industrial Technology Development Institute
(STD-ITDI) in the Department of Science and Technology
(DOST) Complex, Taguig, Metro Manila for fatty acid
profiling. The amount of DHA in the samples was deter-
mined based on the results of the fatty acid profile.
Samples of fresh and used oil in frying were also sub-
mitted for analysis.
Fat was extracted from raw, Paksiw, Sinigang and fried
milkfish using the Soxhlet Method. Fatty acids were
liberated and esterified using the AOAC (+33*) Method
303.-- (Boron Trifluoride Method).
Fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) were analyzed by gas
chromatography using a DB-WAX column (-* mῌ*.,/
mm i.d., with *.,/ mm film thickness) in a Shimadzu GC +.
A equipped with flame ionization detector. The injection
temperature was set at ,/*῎ and initial column tempera-
ture was set at ./῎ for , minutes and programmed to rise
at +*῎ per minute until the final ,/*῎ was achieved.
Detection temperature was set at -**῎. Helium was
used as the carrier gas with an initial injection volume of
*., ml. FAMEs were identified on the basis of their reten-
tion time versus authentic lipid standard obtained from
Nuchek Prep Inc (Elysian, MN).
The significant di#erences in the DHA contents of the
four samples were analyzed using Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) at /ῌ level of significance. Duncan’s Multiple
Range Test was also performed to detect which samples
are significantly di#erent. Student’s t-test was used to
determine whether there were any significant di#erences
in the fatty acid profiles of fresh and used cooking oils.
Results and Discussion
Survey The respondents (n῍,,*) were classified ac-
cording to their annual income in order to show whether
there are certain di#erences between households falling
into di#erent income groups and their attitude towards
fish consumption. When the respondents were asked to
list the kind of fish they usually eat, milkfish ranked first,
followed by tilapia and then by round scad. Figure +
shows the top ten most commonly consumed fish as
determined by the survey.
The respondents were also asked to indicate the three
most convenient ways of cooking milkfish. The top
Consumption and DHA Levels in Milkfish (Paper #*.*0,) 129

Fig. +. Top ten most commonly consumed fish in Filipino households (nῌ,,*)ῌ

Fig. ,. Top ten common cooking methods for milkfish in Filipino households (nῌ,,*)ῌ
130
three cooking methods were Sinigang, Paksiw and frying.
Figure , shows the top ten responses.
Table + shows the relationship between frequency at
which each household eats milkfish and classification of
the household with regards to annual family income.
Income was classified into - groups. Group A earns ῏
2*,*** PHP/year ; group B earns 2*,***ῌ+,*,*** PHP/year ;
and, group C earnsῐ +,*,*** PHP/year. Of the ,,* house-
holds, //./ῌ belonged to group A ; -*.3ῌ belonged to
group B ; and, +-.0ῌ had annual incomes belonging to
group C.
It can be inferred from the table that the frequencies at
which families eat milkfish is generally similar in the total
population. The category ῌ+ῌ, times a week” has the
highest frequency (n῎+,2), followed by “-ῌ. times a
week” (n῎..) and “,ῌ- times a month” (n῎-,).
Proximate Analysis The proximate compositions of
raw, Paksiw, Sinigang and fried milkfish are summarized
in Table , (wet basis) and Table - (dry basis). Results are
expressed as mean῍standard error of the mean (SEM).
Mai, et al., (+312) reported that when data are expressed
as dry weight, the changes indicate real weight changes
more accurately. This has the advantage of relating
more accurately to the actual gain or loss of lipids and
thus aids comparison between sample treatments. The
assumption is made that changes in protein, carbohy-
drates and other components are minor. Since food is
Table +. Frequency of milkfish consumption per income group of the Filipino households surveyed (nῌ,,*).
Table ,. Proximate composition on a wet basis for raw, Paksiw, Sinigang and fried
milkfish*ῌ
Table -. Proximate composition on a dry basis for raw, Paksiw, Sinigang and fried
milkfish*ῌ
C. BAYAGA & G. DEVEZA
consumed in a wet form, its importance in nutrient intake
calculations should be acknowledged (Mai, et al.+312).
Moisture The moisture content of the milkfish
sample was lower than that reported in the Philippine
Food Composition Table (FCT) (FNRI, +331). This may
be because the samples were harvested during the dry
season of March, after the eggs were fertilized in January
during the wet or rainy season in the Philippines. In the
study of Mustafa and Medeiros (+32/), the moisture con-
tent of catfish fillets was lower in samples harvested in
August (summer season) than those harvested in Decem-
ber and April. This shows that harvesting season a#ects
the moisture content of fishes.
Paksiw had the highest moisture content among the
four treatments (00.0ῌ), but this was not significantly
di#erent from that observed for raw milkfish at /ῌ level
of significance. The moisture content of raw milkfish
was also not significantly related to Sinigang (0,.-ῌ).
Since Paksiw and Sinigang involve boiling in water, no
major moisture loss or gain occurred.
The moisture content of Paksiw was significantly
di#erent from that of Sinigang with the lower moisture
content possibly attributed to the proportional increase in
the crude fat content.
The moisture content of fried milkfish (//.,ῌ) is sig-
nificantly lower than the other treatments and is compa-
rable to the FCT value of /0.2ῌ. This is because frying
Consumption and DHA Levels in Milkfish (Paper #*.*0,)
has a dehydrating e#ect on food.
Crude Fat There were no significant di#erences in
crude fat content between raw (+*.3ῌ) and Paksiw (3.+,ῌ),
and between Sinigang (+0.3ῌ) and fried (+0.1ῌ) milkfish
at /ῌ levels of confidence. However, the crude fat of raw
and Paksiw was significantly di#erent from Sinigang and
fried milkfish.
On a dry basis, the crude fat content of raw, Paksiw,
fried and Sinigang milkfish are not significantly di#erent.
However, the crude fat content of Paksiw and Sinigang
were significantly di#erent. The crude fat content of
Sinigang is also not significantly di#erent from fried milk-
fish, but fried milkfish was significantly di#erent from
Paksiw and raw milkfish.
The crude fat in the fried sample (+0.1ῌ) was higher
than the value given in the Philippine Food Composition
Table (+*..ῌ). The increased crude fat percentage of
fried milkfish is due to oil absorption associated with
Table .. Fatty acid profile of raw, Paksiw, Sigang and fried milkfish as percent
weight of total fatty acids.
131
frying. Since milkfish can be categorized as a fatty fish,
it has a greater tendency to absorb oil during cooking
compared to non-fatty fish (Mai, et al., +312).
The high crude fat content of Sinigang may be
attributed to the proportional increase due to lower mois-
ture content compared to Paksiw and raw milkfish.
Sinigang also has lower moisture and crude protein con-
tent that contributes to a proportional increase in the
crude fat content.
Crude Protein Sinigang has significantly lower levels
of crude protein (+3.*ῌ) compared to raw (,,.0ῌ), Paksiw
(,,.0ῌ) and fried milkfish (,/.1ῌ). Sinigang is cooked in
more water that may cause leaching out of water-soluble
proteins during cooking. The collagen from milkfish is
hydrolyzed and this causes gel formation. This can be
observed in Sinigang after being kept in cold storage.
The protein content of raw, Paksiw and fried milkfish
were not significantly di#erent from each other on a wet
132
basis.
On dry weight basis, the crude protein content of
Paksiw (01.0ῌ) and raw milkfish (0-.3ῌ) were not sig-
nificantly di#erent from each other. The protein content
of raw and fried milkfish (/1./ῌ), as well as Sinigang
(/*..ῌ) and fried milkfish were also not significant from
each other. However, Paksiw and fried milkfish were
significantly di#erent from each other and the protein
content of Sinigang was significantly di#erent from
Paksiw and raw milkfish. This was also due to the pro-
portional increase in crude fat content.
Total Ash There were no significant di#erences in
the total ash content among the raw, Paksiw, Sinigang
and fried milkfish treatments at /ῌ confidence levels of
confidence for wet and dry bases.
The slight increase in the ash content of fried milkfish
can be attributed to the addition of salt directly to the fish
prior to frying. The slight decrease in Paksiw and
Sinigang samples may be due to the leaching out of min-
erals during cooking (IFT, +31.). Both cooking methods
involve boiling in water.
DHA Content of Milkfish Fatty acid profiles of raw,
Paksiw, Sinigang and fried milkfish are shown in Table .
and are expressed as ῌw/w of total fatty acids. The
significant gains or losses of each fatty acid using the
three cooking methods were compared to the profile of
the raw milkfish sample.
Considering the focus of the study, the DHA level of
raw milkfish (+.0-ῌ) is lower than that reported by
Bautista, del Valle and Orejana (+33+) for freshwater
reared milkfish, which was ,.+3ῌ. The DHA level of
Paksiw (+.,1ῌ) was not significantly di#erent to the raw
milkfish ; those of the Sinigang (*.1-ῌ) and fried milkfish
(*./*ῌ) are significantly di#erent to the raw sample.
Fish meat absorbs large quantities of oil during cook-
ing. Although the lipids in fish meat are oxidized, the
influence of oxidation is limited. Thus, the fatty acid
composition of fried fish meat is strongly influenced by
the absorption of cooking oil, and the decrease in the DHA
content of the fried milkfish is due to the absorption of
fried oil. The decrease in DHA, especially in the fried
milkfish sample is due to cooking at very high tempera-
tures (+3*ῌ,+*ῌ) that may lead to oxidation. Exposure to
air and metal also contributed to oxidation.
The significant loss of DHA in Sinigang compared to the
raw sample may be attributed to some air exposure
during occasional stirring. The flavonoids present in
black pepper, which was added to Paksiw, may have
served as an antioxidant (Skibsted, Mikkelsen and
Bertelsen, +332). However, the DHA levels of the three
cooking methods are not significantly di#erent from each
other.
Other Fatty Acids In Milkfish Bautista, et al. (+33+),
studied the fatty acid profile of milkfish grown in brack-
ish water and freshwater. The study showed that the
most abundant fatty acid in milkfish grown in freshwater
was C+2 : * (+0./.ῌ), followed by C+0 : + (+/.2*ῌ), C+2 : +
(+,.30ῌ), C+0 : * (2.2/ῌ) and C+2 : - (1.21ῌ). The DHA
level was ,.,ῌ. In the fatty acid profile obtained, the
C. BAYAGA & G. DEVEZA
most predominant was C+2 : + (-+./-ῌ), followed by C+0 : *
(-*./.ῌ), C+2 : , (1.1*ῌ). The abundance of fatty acids is
almost the same but the quantities of these fatty acids
vary.
In another study by Cabling et al. (+32,), some di#er-
ences in the fatty acid composition of milkfish were ob-
served. The levels of C+0 : +, C+2 : *, C+2 : +, and C,* : / of
the milkfish in their study were higher compared to the
values obtained in the present study. Many factors may
have contributed to the di#erences and may involve the
place of origin. The milkfish used in this study were
obtained in Lingayen, Pangasinan Gulf, while that of
Cabling’s study were from Laguna Lake. Other factors
may also include the spawning and harvesting seasons,
fish diet, and moisture content of the fish, which may
influence the fat and lipid levels of the milkfish.
For the Paksiw sample, the most abundant fatty acids
were C+0 (--.0,ῌ) and C+2 : + (-*.1+ῌ). This cooking
method brought about significant gains in C+0 : + (,.,2ῌ),
C,* : - (+.+1ῌ) fatty acids. However, significant deceases
in C+/ (*..2ῌ), C,* : , (+.,+ῌ) and C,* : . (*.0+ῌ) were
observed and C,* : - and C,* : / decreased markedly.
The most predominant fatty acids in Sinigang are the
same as those of Paksiw ; C+0 and C+2 : +. This may be
attributed to the similarity of cooking methods of the two
recipes. Significant gains in C,* (*./0ῌ), C,, : + (*.-3ῌ)
and C,, : , (+.*2ῌ) fatty acids were observed. There were
significant decreases in C,* : , (+.0,ῌ), C,* : - (+.,/ῌ) and C
,* : . (*.**ῌ).
For the fried milkfish, the most prevalent fatty acids
were C2 (+1.,+ῌ), C+, (,-.+,ῌ), C+. (3.3*ῌ), C+0 (+1.03ῌ),
and C+2 : + (+-.3/ῌ). The abundance of lauric acid (C+,)
was due to the absorption of coconut oil by the milkfish
that occurred during frying as lauric acid is the most
abundant fatty acid in coconut oil. Significant gains
were observed in C2 (+1.,+ῌ), C+* (-.31ῌ), C+, (,-.+,ῌ), C
+. (3.3*ῌ), C,* : - (*../ῌ) and C,, : , (*...). Decreases
were significant in C+0 (+1.03ῌ), C+2 (,.2/ῌ), C+2 : +
(+-.3/ῌ), C+2 : , (+.//ῌ), C,* : + (+.+0ῌ), C,* : , (*./-ῌ), C,* :
- (*../ῌ) and C,* : . (*.**ῌ). Decreases in unsaturated
and polyunsaturated fatty acids may be attributed to
oxidation during cooking at very high temperatures (,**ῌ
,+*῍).
Fatty acid profile was also determined in the fresh and
used oils. In the Philippines, coconut oil is generally
used for frying food. It is marketed as refined, bleached,
and scented coconut oil. Fatty acid analysis of the oils
was done to determine possible fatty acid transfer be-
tween the milkfish sample and the oil used for frying.
Using Student’s t-test, the di#erences between the fresh
and used oils were determined. Significant di#erences
were observed only in gamma linolenic acid (C+2 : -) ;
fresh oil had *.+0ῌ and used oil had *.+*ῌ. The di#er-
ence may be attributed to the oxidation of the fatty acid
during cooking at high temperatures (,**ῌ,+*῍).
Summary and Recommendations
Milkfish is a common food commodity for Filipinos.
Among the cooking methods used to prepare it, Paksiw is
Consumption and DHA Levels in Milkfish (Paper #*.*0,)
the method that has the least e#ect on the proximate
composition on its wet and dry bases compared to raw
fish samples. It also exhibits the least DHA decrease
among the three cooking methods.
Further studies on the e#ect of di#erent seasons, water
type and other cooking methods on milkfish should be
undertaken. The amount of each fatty acid per total fat
or per gram of sample (mg fatty acid/g sample) would also
help in preparing baseline data for recommendations for
pregnant and lactating mothers. Measurement of fatty
acid profiles, especially DHA, of other fish and seafood
would be useful for comparing which fish or seafood
would be more beneficial to human beings.
Acknowledgement The authors acknowledge with thanks the
O$ce of the Vice-Chancellor for Research and Development
(OVCRD), University of the Philippines, Diliman for providing
the funds for this research and Dr. Victor C. Gavino of the
University of Montréal, Canada for his comments and sugges-
tions on the research methods.
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