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Argon Other
0.93% 0.04%
Oxygen
20.95%
Nitrogen
78.08%
Iron Calcium
5.63% 4.15%
Other
7.69%
Aluminum
8.23%
Oxygen
46.10%
Silicon
28.20%
Elements Dissolved in
Earth’s Oceans
Other
Sulfur 1.50%
2.70% Calcium
Magnesium 1.20%
3.90%
Sodium Chlorine
32.40% 58.30%
Table of Contents
How This Handbook Is Organized The Elements Handbook is divided into
10 sections: hydrogen and groups 1, 2, 3–12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18. You will discover
physical and atomic properties, common reactions, analytical tests, and real-world
applications of the elements in each section. Questions at the end of each section will
assess your understanding of the elements.
Strontium Element
Atomic number 38
State of matter
Symbol Sr
[Kr]5s2 Electron configuration
Gas
Metal
Liquid
Metalloid
Solid
Nonmetal Synthetic
When you read the Elements Handbook, you need to read for information. Here
are some tools that the Elements Handbook has to help you find that information.
See how a group fits in Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals Element Facts
the Periodic Table. Beryllium
4
Physical Properties Atomic Properties Atomic
radius
Ionic
radius
• Most of the alkaline earth metals have a silvery-white, metallic • Each element in group 2 has two valence electrons and an electron
Be appearance. When exposed to oxygen, a thin oxide coating forms configuration ending with ns 2.
(pm) (pm)
[He]2s2
on the surface. • Alkaline earth metals often lose their two valence electrons to form Be Be2+
112 31
Magnesium • The alkaline earth metals are harder, denser, and stronger than many ions with a 2+ charge.
12 of the group 1 elements, but are still relatively soft compared to other • Atomic radii and ionic radii increase moving down the group but are Mg Mg2+
Mg metals. 160 72
smaller than the corresponding alkali metal.
[Ne]3s2
• Most alkaline earth metals have higher melting points and boiling
Be
1287
Be 1.848
Be 900 Be 1.57
Strontium 2469 Ba Ba2+
222 135
Properties of the
38 Mg
650
Mg 1.738 Mg 738 Mg 1.31
Sr 1090 MP
[Kr]5s2 842 BP Ca Ca 1.00
Ca Ca 1.550 590 Ra
1484
220
elements in a group.
Barium Sr
777
Sr 2.630 Sr 550 Sr 0.95
1382
56
Ba Ba
727
Ba 3.510 Ba 503 Ba 0.89
1870
[Xe]6s2
Ra
700 Ra 5.000 Ra 509 Ra 0.90
1737
Radium
0 1000 2000 3000 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 200 400 600 800 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
88
Ra Temperature (ºC) g/mL kJ/mol Pauling units
[Rn]7s2
Common Reactions • Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with oxygen to Analytical Tests
Summarize Common
form oxides, such as magnesium oxide.
• Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with Three of the alkaline earth metals can be
halogens to form salts, such as Example: 2Mg(s) + O 2(g) → 2MgO(s) identified by flame tests. Calcium produces a
magnesium chloride, and • Sr and Ba react with oxygen to form scarlet color, while strontium produces a crimson
Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals Real-World Applications Learn how elements are
Calcium
20
Gypsum
Drywall is made from gypsum, which is a soft
Radium
88
used every day in Real-
mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate
Ca
[Ar]4s2 A layer of plaster of paris protects
fossils during shipment.
(CaSO 4·2H 2O). Drywall boards are used in build-
ing construction because the gypsum provides fire
Ra
[Rn]7s2
World Applications.
protection. Gypsum contains large amounts of
water in its crystal form, which vaporizes when The Discovery of Radioactivity
heated. The boards remain at 100°C until all of the Marie Curie’s discovery of the atomic property she called
water evaporates, protecting the wood frame of the radioactivity paved the way for present-day advancements
building. Gypsum that has had most of its water in science and medicine. Curie and her husband, Pierre,
removed is known as plaster of paris. Most unveiled the characteristics and capabilities of radiation,
minerals form pastes when mixed with water. revolutionizing scientific thinking and laying the ground-
When plaster of paris is mixed with water, it forms work for present-day cancer treatments, genetics, and
a rigid crystal structure, so it is often used for casts nuclear energy. Today, many cancers are treated with
to set broken bones and for molds. radiation therapy.
Marie Curie died at the age of 67 from aplastic anemia,
probably caused by her exposure to massive amounts
of radiation. Today, the effects of radiation on health
Crystals formed from strontium chloride Toothpaste containing are well known, and suitable safety precautions are
Strontium and saliva fill in pores in the root of a strontium chloride Vent pipe taken when using radioactive materials.
38 tooth and block access to the nerve.
Sr Crystals Fan
Nerve
[Kr]5s2
Pore to root canal
and nerves Radon Gas
Sensitive Teeth Dentine Decay of radium-226 in soil and rock produces radon gas.
Almost 40 million people in the United States Root canal The radioactive radon gas can seep through cracks in a home’s
have teeth that are hypersensitive to touch and Root
foundation or can be dissolved in water pumped into the house
Hydrogen
1
H
1s1
Assessment
1. Compare and contrast hydrogen isotopes. 5. Infer Hydrogen can gain one electron to reach a
2. Write the balanced equation for the reaction between stable electron configuration. Why isn’t hydrogen
hydrogen gas and oxygen gas in a fuel cell. placed with the group 17 elements that share this
behavior?
3. Explain what happens when hydrogen reacts with a
nonmetal element. 6. Apply A solution’s hydrogen ion concentration is
3.2 × 10 -4 mol/L. Refer to Chapter 19 to determine if
4. Evaluate at least one advantage and one possible this solution is an acid or a base. What is the pH of this
disadvantage of hydrogen fuel cells compared to con- solution?
ventional petroleum engines.
Cesium 28 Cs 1.879
Cs
671
55
Cs 0 500 1000 1500 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
[Xe]6s1
Temperature (°C) g/mL
Francium
87
Fr
[Rn]7s1
Common Reactions
• Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs react vigorously with halogens to form salts,
such as lithium chloride.
Example: 2Li(s) + Cl 2(g) → 2LiCl(s)
• Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs react with oxygen to form oxides, such as
sodium oxide.
Example: 4Na(s) + O 2(g) → 2Na 2O(s)
• Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs react
vigorously with water to form
metal hydroxides, such as
potassium hydroxide, and
hydrogen gas.
Example: 2K(s) + 2H 2O(l) →
2KOH(aq) + H 2(g)
• All the alkali metals have at least one radioactive isotope. 248 152
• Because francium is rare and decays rapidly, its properties are not
Cs1
+
Cs
well known. 265 167
First Ionization Energies Electronegativities
Li Fr
Li 520 0.98
270
Na 496 Na 0.93
K 419 K 0.82
Rb 403 Rb 0.82
Cs 376 Cs 0.79
Fr 380 Fr 0.70
Analytical Tests
Alkali metals can be qualitatively identified by flame tests. Lithium
produces a red flame. Sodium produces an orange flame. Potassium,
rubidium, and cesium produce violet flames.
Sodium Rubidium
Na+ K+ Sodium-potassium
Sodium Outside cell
pumps
11 Na+
Na
K+
[Ne]3s1 Na+
Na+
K+
Na+
Potassium
Na+ K+
19 Inside cell
K
[Ar]4s1 The sodium-potassium pump brings two K + ions into a cell for every three Na + ions it
moves out of a cell.
Assessment
7. Describe the trend in density of the alkali metals as 11. Analyze Lithium’s properties are more like
atomic number increases. magnesium in group 2 than sodium. Use what you
learned about atomic sizes to explain this behavior.
8. Compare lithium-ion batteries and lead-acid batteries.
12. Organize Make a table to summarize the data for
9. Write a balanced equation for the reaction between physical and atomic properties of the group 1 elements
lithium and water. according to their trends with increasing atomic
10. Predict the reactivity of lithium metal with water. number.
Barium 777
Sr Sr 2.630
1382
56
727
Ba Ba Ba 3.510
1870
[Xe]6s2
700 Ra 5.000
Ra
1737
Radium
0 1000 2000 3000 0 1 2 3 4 5
88
Ra Temperature (ºC) g/mL
[Rn]7s2
Common Reactions
• Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with
halogens to form salts, such as
magnesium chloride, and
hydrogen gas.
Example: Mg(s) + 2HCl (g) →
MgCl 2(s) + H 2(g)
• Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with
hydrogen to form hydrides,
such as barium hydride.
Example: Ba(s) + H 2(g) →
BaH 2(s)
• Be, Mg, Sr, and Ca react with
nitrogen to form nitrides, such
as magnesium nitride.
Example: 3Mg(s) + N 2(g) →
Mg 3N 2(s)
A ribbon of magnesium reacts with HCl in an
aqueous solution to produce Mg 2+ ions, Cl -
ions, and hydrogen gas.
Sr2
+
Sr
First Ionization Energies Electronegativities 215 118
Be 900 Be 1.57
Ba2
+
Ba
222 135
Mg 738 Mg 1.31
Ca 590 Ca 1.00 Ra
220
Sr 550 Sr 0.95
Ba 503 Ba 0.89
Ra 509 Ra 0.90
Beryllium
Beryllium plates
4
Be
[He]2s2
Space Telescopes
Beryllium and beryllium alloys have properties
that make them useful for applications in space:
they are hard, they are lighter than aluminum, and
they are stable over a wide temperature range. The
Hubble Space Telescope’s reaction plate is made of
lightweight beryllium. The reaction plate carries The JWST’s large mirror is composed of 18 hexagonal
heaters that keep the main mirror at a constant beryllium plates.
temperature. Beryllium is also being used in the
Hubble’s replacement—the James Webb Space
Telescope (JWST).
Emerald beryl
▲
Precious Gems
Emerald (Be 3Al 2Si 6O 18), one of the world’s most
valuable gemstones, belongs to a family of gem-
stones known as beryls. Pure beryls are clear,
colorless crystals. Beryls tinted with other elements
form gems such as aquamarine, morganite, and
emerald. Trace amounts of chromium or vanadium
give emeralds their unique green color.
Oranges 25 molecule
O
H3C
Peanuts 27
N N CO2 CH3
Rice 15 Mg
N N H H
Soybeans 27 H2C — CH
CH2 CH2 CO2 CH2 CH — C (CH2 CH2 CH2 CH)3 CH3
Tomatoes 40
CH3 H CH3 CH3 CH3
Wheat 20
Calcium
Gypsum
20 Drywall is made from gypsum, which is a soft
Ca mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate
[Ar]4s2 A layer of plaster of paris protects (CaSO 4·2H 2O). Drywall boards are used in build-
fossils during shipment. ing construction because the gypsum provides fire
protection. Gypsum contains large amounts of
water in its crystal form, which vaporizes when
heated. The boards remain at 100°C until all of the
water evaporates, protecting the wood frame of the
building. Gypsum that has had most of its water
removed is known as plaster of paris. Most
minerals form pastes when mixed with water.
When plaster of paris is mixed with water, it forms
a rigid crystal structure, so it is often used for casts
to set broken bones and for molds.
Medical X Rays
Barium is used by medical professionals to exam-
ine a person’s gastrointestinal tract. Patients drink
barium liquid, which coats the tract, and are then
X-rayed. Barium is almost completely insoluble in
water and acids and appears as a bright white
color in X rays. This allows doctors and radiolo-
gists to locate tumors, ulcers, areas of reflux, and
other abnormalities in the digestive tract.
Radium
88
Ra
[Rn]7s2
Fan
Radon Gas
Decay of radium-226 in soil and rock produces radon gas.
The radioactive radon gas can seep through cracks in a home’s
foundation or can be dissolved in water pumped into the house
from a well. High concentrations of radon can increase the risk
of cancer. In many homes, installing a radon-reduction system
reduces the concentration of radon gas by using a fan to draw
the gas through pipes that vent to the outside of the home.
Assessment
13. Describe the general trend in first ionization energies 18. Infer The alkaline earth metals are usually found
in group 2, and explain why this trend occurs. combined with oxygen and other nonmetals in Earth’s
14. Explain What is the charge on alkaline earth metal crust. Based on the atomic properties of this group,
ions? Explain your answer. explain why alkaline earth metals are so reactive.
15. Compare and contrast the physical properties 19. Calculate Calcium makes up about 1.5% of a
of the alkaline earth metals and the alkali metals. human’s body mass. Calculate the amount of calcium
found in a person who weighs 68 kg.
16. Evaluate why magnesium is used in emergency flares
instead of other alkaline earth metals. 20. Calculate Radium-226 has a half-life of 1600 years.
After 8000 years, how much of a 500.0-g sample of
17. Analyze Use the atomic properties of the alkali radium-226 would be left?
metals and alkaline earth metals to explain why
calcium is less reactive than potassium.
Physical Properties
• The main transition elements include four series of d-block elements
with atomic numbers between 21–30, 39–48, 72–80, and 104–109. The
inner transition elements include the f-block (rare earth) elements in
the lanthanide series (atomic numbers 57–71) and actinide series
(atomic numbers 89–103.) All are metals.
• As metals, transition elements are generally good conductors of
electricity and heat. They are ductile, which means they can be pulled
into wires. Transition metals are also malleable, which means they
can be hammered into thin sheets. For example, 1 g of gold can be
hammered into a 1 m 2-sheet that is 0.1 µ thick .
• In general, the transition elements have high densities, high melting
points, and low vapor pressure. Except for mercury, which is a liquid,
all are solids at room temperature.
• High density and resistance to corrosion make transition elements,
such as iron, good structural materials.
• Most transition elements can form colored compounds.
• Transition elements are often paramagnetic, which means they are
attracted to an applied magnetic field. Three transition elements—iron,
cobalt, and nickel—are ferromagnetic. That means these elements can
form their own magnetic fields.
Common Reactions
• Most transition elements can form stable • Transition elements and their compounds are
complex ions and coordinate covalent com- often useful as catalysts.
pounds. A complex ion is an ion in which Example: Nickel is used as a catalyst in
a central metal ion is surrounded by weakly converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats.
bound molecules or ions called ligands.
• Transition elements can react with oxygen to
Example: Prussian blue, an intense blue pigment form oxides.
used in paints, is a coordinate compound made
Example: In the presence of water, iron reacts
of iron(III) and an iron(II) cyanide complex:
with oxygen to form rust. The overall reaction is:
Fe 4[Fe(CN) 6] 3.
4Fe + 3O 2 → 2Fe 2O 3.
• Transition elements can often combine to form
• Some transition elements are important in
alloys.
biochemical reactions.
Examples:
Example: In the protein hemoglobin, iron binds
• Brass is a mixture of copper and zinc. to O 2 to transport oxygen from the lungs to the
• Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin. rest of the body.
Atomic Properties
• The main transition elements have incomplete d sublevels.
• Inner transition elements include the lanthanide series and actinide series. Elements in these
series have incomplete f sublevels.
• The electronic structures of the transition elements give rise to their physical properties.
The more unpaired electrons in the d sublevel, the greater the hardness and the higher the
melting and boiling points.
• Unpaired d and f electrons produce paramagnetism in the transition elements.
• The tendency of transition elements to form colored compounds also derives from their
electron configurations. Compounds with unpaired d electrons can absorb visible light.
• For transition elements, there is little variation in atomic size, electronegativity, and ioniza-
tion energy across a period.
• Transition metals can typically form ions in more than one oxidation state.
Oxidation Numbers of the First Row of Transition Elements
Sc +3
Ti +1 +2 +3 +4
V +1 +2 +3 +4 +5
Cr 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6
Mn 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7
Fe 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6
Co 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5
Ni +1 +2 +3 +4
Cu +1 +2 +3
Zn +2
Analytical Tests
Notice in the photo the colorful compounds
of transition metals. When placed in solutions,
these compounds absorb different wavelengths
of light. Visible spectroscopy uses light absorp-
tion at specific wavelengths to measure the con-
centration of colored compounds in solution.
This method of analysis uses the interaction
of valence electrons of transition elements and
visible light. Because many transition element
compounds are colored, this technique can be
used in transition element analysis.
Titanium
22
[Ar]3d24s2
France Japan
Canada Manganese Cadmium
Nickel Gallium
Copper China
Gallium Jamaica Antimony
Tantalum Aluminum Cadmium
Zinc Copper
India
Cesium Tin
Cadmium
Cobalt Gabon Manganese
Chromium
Platinum Manganese Tantalum
Manganese
Vanadium Vanadium
Indonesia
Bolivia Tin
Antimony Brazil
Tin Manganese Gold
Mexico Aluminum Tin South Africa
Zinc Copper Chromium Platinum Australia
Cadmium Manganese Manganese Antimony Copper Aluminum Platinum Tin
Strontium Vanadium Gold Nickel Manganese Tantalum Zinc
The United States now imports more than 60 materials that are classified as “strategic
and critical” because industry and the military are dependent on these materials.
Copper
Copper Microchips
29 For many years, aluminum was used to make computer
Cu microchips. Although copper is a better electrical conductor
[Ar]3d104s1 than aluminum, it was not until the late 1990s that the tech-
nology existed to use copper in microchips. Combined with
the extremely small size of copper wires, this allows copper
microchips to be smaller and to operate 25 to 30 times faster
than other kinds of microchips. To make wires this small, the
copper must be between 99.999 and 99.9999% pure.
Paint Pigments
Paints are a mixture of particles of pigment in a liquid
base. Once the liquid evaporates, the pigment particles
coat a painted surface. Transition elements and their
compounds are often used as paint pigments. Iron oxides
are used as red, yellow, and brown pigments. Chromium,
copper, and cobalt compounds produce green and blue Artists can create their own paints by mixing dry pigments
pigments. Titanium dioxide is often used for white paint. in a liquid base such as oil, latex, or even egg yolk.
Gold
Gilding
79 Covering an ordinary object with gold foil or gold leaf can
Au make the object look like it is made of solid gold. The process,
[Xe]4f145d106s1 which is called gilding, has been used for more than 5000
years. To create gold foil, gold is hammered until it is very
thin. The thinnest sheets are called gold leaf. They can be as
thin as 0.1 mm thick. It takes skill and a special gilder’s brush
to handle sheets this thin, but the results can be spectacular.
Cadmium Gold
48 79 Plastic sheet
Cd Au
[Kr]4d105s2 [Xe]4f145d106s1
Au
Au (10 nm)
Touch Sensors for Robot Fingers
Imagine a surgeon using a robot for microsurgery. In the
future, it might be possible for the surgeon to feel what is CdS
(3 nm)
happening as the robot makes a microsuture. Future robots
might use thin, film sensors to mimic the human sense of Glass
touch. These sensors are built on a glass base from alternating
layers of nanoparticles of gold and cadmium sulfide separated
by layers of plastic. The entire sensor is only 100 nm thick and This touch sensor is made from nanoparticles
of gold and cadmium sulfide.
works by transmitting an electro-luminescent signal and
electric current when regions of the sensor are touched.
Gadolinium
64
Gd
[Xe]4f75d16s2
Assessment
21. Compare the electron configurations of the main 25. Calculate A particular copper-chip manufacturing
transition elements and the inner transition elements. process specifies that the copper must be 99.999 to
22. Explain how some transition metals can form ions 99.9999% pure. Calculate the maximum limit for
with more than one charge. impurities in the copper in parts per million (ppm).
23. Identify countries that export only one “strategic and 26. Hypothesize Silver is the best conductor of
critical” transition metal to the United States. electricity. Hypothesize why silver is not used for
electric wires if it is such a good conductor of
24. Predict Which elements would you expect to have electricity.
properties most closely related to gold?
Common Reactions
• B, Al, Ga, In, and Tl react with oxygen to form metal(III) oxides,
such as aluminum(III) oxide.
Example: 4Al(s) + 3O 2(g) → 2Al 2O 3(s)
• B and Al react with nitrogen to form nitrides, such as boron nitride.
Example: 2B(s) + N 2(g) → 2BN(s)
• Al, Ga, In, and Tl react with halogens to form metal(III) halides,
such as gallium(III) fluoride.
Example: 2Ga(s) + 3F 2(g) → 2GaF 3(g)
• Tl reacts with halogens to form metal(I) halides, such as thallium(I)
fluoride.
Example: 2Tl(s) + F 2(g) → 2TlF(s)
• B reacts with halogens to form covalent compounds, such as boron
trichloride.
Example: 2B(s) + 3Cl 2(g) → 2BCl 3(g)
• Tl reacts with water to form thallium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Example: 2Tl(s) + 2H 2O(l) → 2TlOH(aq) + H 2(g)
Al 578 Al 1.61
Ga 579 Ga 1.81
In 558 In 1.78
Tl 589 Tl 1.62
indium
Indium was named after
its distinct indigo blue
spectral line.
Boron
Detergent
5 Sodium perborate (NaBO 3·H 2O or NaBO 3·4H 2O) is one of the
B key ingredients in powdered laundry detergent. The hydrate,
[He]2s22p1 formed by combining borax pentahydrate (Na 2B 4O 7·5H 2O)
with hydrogen peroxide and sodium hydroxide, releases
oxygen during the laundering process to help make clothes
whiter and brighter. Sodium perborate is the chemical of
choice because it remains stable over long periods of time,
helps maintain wash water pH, and increases the solubility
of detergent ingredients.
Gallium
HD DVDs
31 Videos in high-definition (HD) have higher quality sound
Ga and pictures than regular DVDs. However, HD technology
[Ar]4s23d104p1 requires more information than can be stored on regular
DVDs. A red laser is used to read and write data on a regular
DVD. Blue lasers made from gallium nitride (GaN) are used
to read and write data on HD DVDs. Blue light has a shorter
wavelength than red light, so a blue laser can read more
densely packed information, allowing more information to be
stored in the same amount of space.
Indium
Flat-Screen Televisions
49 Known as ITO in the electronics industry,
In indium-tin oxide has proven to be the cornerstone
[Kr]5s24d105p1 of liquid crystal display (LCD) technology. During
production, a thin layer of indium-tin oxide
(a mixture of In 2O 3 and SnO 2) is used to coat the
glass contained within an LCD flat-screen panel.
This allows the glass to be both conductive and
transparent. About half of the world’s indium is
used to make LCDs.
Thallium
81
Tl
[Xe]6s24f145d106p1
Cardiac Scans
Thallium-201 is a radioisotope used by medical pro-
fessionals to determine the health of a person’s heart.
During a thallium-201 scan, also called a heart stress
test, a patient performs physical activity and is injected
with thallium-201 one to two minutes before stopping
the activity. The isotope emits gamma rays that are
recorded by a detector to display a two-dimensional
image of the heart and its blood supply. If gamma rays The dark blue areas in this thallium-201 scan
are areas with low blood supply.
are not detected in certain areas in and around the
heart, the areas are considered “cold.” This means that
the blood supply has been impeded or blocked, a con-
dition that often leads to heart attack or stroke.
Assessment
27. Describe how the properties of boron are different 30. Explain why HD DVDs can store more information
from the other group 13 elements. than regular DVDs.
28. Identify what an unknown element would be if it 31. Summarize how “cold” areas in thallium-201 scans
produced a green flash of color at the beginning of could correspond to artery blockages.
a flame test. 32. Calculate It is estimated that 123,000 aluminum
29. Describe any trends in the first ionization energies of cans are recycled each minute. Assume that each can
the group 13 elements. has a mass of 14 g. Determine how much aluminum
(kg) is recycled during the month of September.
Common Reactions
At room temperature, carbon group ele-
ments are generally unreactive. Reactions
do occur under elevated temperature
conditions.
• C, Si, Ge, and Sn react with oxygen to
form oxides, such as carbon dioxide.
Example: C(s) + O 2(g) → CO 2(g)
• C, Si, Ge, and Sn react with halogens to
form halides, such as silicon chloride.
Example: Si(s) + 2Cl 2(l) → SiCl 4(g)
• Sn and Pb react with bases to form
hydroxo ions and hydrogen gas.
Example: Silicon chloride (SiCl4) reacts with
Sn(s) + KOH(aq) + 2H 2O(l) → water to form silicon dioxide and
hydrochloric acid, which turns lit-
K +(aq) + Sn(OH) 3 -(aq) + H 2(g) mus paper pink.
Pb4
+
Pb
146 84
C 1087 C 2.55
Si 787 Si 1.90
Ge 762 Ge 2.01
Sn 709 Sn 1.96
Pb 716 Pb 2.33
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
kJ/mol Pauling units
Carbon
6
C
[He]2s22p2
Diamond Cutting
The way a diamond is cut is one of the “4 Cs” that
gemologists use to determine a diamond’s value. If
diamond is the hardest mineral on Earth, then how
is it possible to cut a diamond? Diamond cutters use
other diamonds and lasers to create facets that reflect
and refract light. The more precisely the cuts are
Too deep Ideal Too shallow
made, the greater the gem’s brilliance. If a diamond
The way a diamond is cut determines how well light is cut is too shallow or too deep, light escapes from the
reflected and refracted within the gemstone. diamond without traveling back to the eye, resulting
in a lackluster appearance.
Nanotubes
Fullernes form a group of carbon allotropes. There are
spherical fullerenes nicknamed buckyballs and cylindrical
fullerenes known as buckytubes or nanotubes. Fullerenes
have yet to display all of their capabilities to scientists. One
of the most promising areas of fullerene research involves the
creation of nanotubes. Nanotubes are sheets of carbon that
are rolled up into cylinders. These cylinders are strong—due
to the hexagonal structure of the carbon atoms—and have
unique conducting properties. Fullerene nano-technology on
the horizon includes the development of faster computer
chips, smaller electronic components, and more advanced
space-exploration vehicles.
The hexagonal structure of carbon atoms gives
extraordinary strength to carbon nanotubes.
Computer Chips
Computer chips are everywhere. From pet-identification Step 2 A layer of
systems to laptop computers—any device that can be silicon dioxide is
added to each
programmed contains a computer chip. Silicon’s abundance wafer.
and ability as a semiconductor make it an ideal material for
the production of computer chips. The first step in making a
computer chip involves cutting pure silicon into wafer-like
pieces. Silicon dioxide (SiO 2) is then cultivated on each wafer. More than 250 steps are needed to create
one computer chip.
Layers upon layers of silicon dioxide and other chemicals are
used to create chips for specific functions.
Glass
Almost 40% of the sand produced in the United States is used for glass production. Glass is creat-
ed by first melting silicon dioxide (SiO 2) obtained from sand with sodium carbonate and then
supercooling the mixture. This results in a solid whose structure resembles a liquid and whose
physical properties make it ideal for glassmaking. For manufacturing purposes, sand that yields at
least 95% SiO 2 with no impurities is required for making glass products, such as exterior panels
on buildings, automotive windshields, and commercial beverage containers. Manufacturers of
high precision optical instruments, such as telescopes and microscopes, require sand that con-
tains more than 99.5% SiO 2.
Sand dunes in Michigan
provide millions of metric Sand Production in Michigan
tons of sand each year.
2,500,000
Sand produced (metric tons)
2,000,000
1,500,000
1,000,000
500,000
0
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
Year
Germanium
32
Ge
[Ar]4s23d104p2
Night Vision
Lenses that contain germanium are found in an array of night vision
equipment including goggles, binoculars, and cameras. Unlike ordi-
nary glass lenses, germanium-containing lenses are transparent to
infrared radiation. Infrared radiation is emitted by objects that radiate
heat. Infrared radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, a
region distinct from the visible spectrum, so special equipment is
needed to detect it. Night vision is used for military and security appli-
cations, to monitor wildlife, to navigate roads, and to locate objects The germanium lens in night vision
that have been hidden by criminals. goggles focuses infrared radiation emit-
ted from living things.
Tin
50
Sn
[Kr]5s24d105p2
Food Packaging
A quick trip to the grocery store reveals that many dif-
ferent foods are stored in cans. Soft drinks, fruits, veg-
etables, and even meats can be stored in cans. Cans are
made from sheets of steel that are coated on both sides
with pure tin. Known as tinplate, the metal is both
durable and resistant to rusting and corrosion. These
properties allow foods to stay fresh on the shelf for
long periods of time, and to be transported long dis-
tances. More than 200 million cans are used per day in
the United States alone. More than 2500 different products are packaged in cans.
Lead
82
Pb
[Xe]6s24f145d106p2
Leaded or Unleaded?
In the early 1900s, the automotive industry needed to solve a
problem that people complained about when they drove their
cars—knocking in the engine. At the time, little was known about
the chemistry of fuels and fuel additives. Researchers spent seven
years searching for a gasoline additive that effectively reduced
knocking before discovering tetraethyl lead (Pb(C 2H 5) 4). Further
research revealed the health and environmental risks posed by
lead, leading to the development of unleaded fuels that reduce
knocking.
Batteries
Anode (+)
A car battery is composed of three main parts: one elec-
Cathode (-)
trode made of lead, one electrode made of lead dioxide
(PbO 2), and an electrolytic solution made with sulfuric acid
(H 2SO 4). That is why car batteries are also called lead-acid
Lead batteries. The battery’s energy comes from the chemical
Lead dioxide reactions occurring between the electrodes and the
electrolyte. During the chemical reaction, electrons are pro-
duced that accumulate on the lead electrode. When a wire
connects the electrodes, electrons flow freely from the lead
Electrolytic electrode to the lead-dioxide electrode, and the battery
solution
discharges. Applying a current reverses the reaction,
Eighty-five percent of the lead used in the United recharging the battery.
States goes into making lead-acid batteries.
Assessment
33. Write the electron configuration of tin. 37. Consider why graphite is the most suitable carbon
34. Summarize the physical properties of the elements in allotrope for golf clubs.
group 14. 38. Calculate Pure diamond has a density of 3.52 g/cm 3,
35. Compare and contrast the atomic properties of the while graphite has a density of 2.20 g/cm 3. Recall that
group 13 and group 14 elements. density = mass/volume. Samples of diamond and
graphite each displace 4.60 mL of water. What is the
36. Predict what product or products will be formed if mass of each sample?
bromine gas reacts with solid carbon under elevated
temperature conditions.
Common Reactions
• At high temperatures are increased, nitrogen reacts with oxygen to
form nitric oxide.
Example: N 2(g) + O 2(g) → 2NO(g)
• At high temperature and pressure, nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to
form ammonia.
Example: N 2(g) + 3H 2(g) → 2NH 3(g)
• P reacts with an excess of oxygen to form phosphorus(V) oxide.
Example: P 4(s) + 5O 2(g) → P 4O 10(s)
• P, As, Sb, and Bi react with oxygen to form element(III) oxides.
Example: P 4(s) + 3O 2(g) → P 4O 6(s)
• P, As, Sb, and Bi react with halogens to form trihalides.
Example: 2Sb(s) + 3Cl 2(g) → 2SbCl 3(s)
P 1012 P 2.19
As 947 As 2.18
Sb 834 Sb 2.05
Bi 703 Bi 2.02
Analytical Tests
Because group 15 elements bond covalently and most
are nonmetallic in nature, they do not lend themselves
to identification through flame tests. The exceptions
are antimony and bismuth. Antimony produces a faint
green or blue color when placed in a flame, while
bismuth produces a light purple-blue color.
The nitrogen group elements can be identified
through analysis of their physical properties (melting
point, boiling point, density), emission spectra, or
reactions with other chemicals. For example, bismuth
ions precipitate when added to tin(II) hydroxide and
sodium hydroxide. Another example is the test for
ammonium compounds. These compounds, which
contain nitrogen, can be identified by their distinct
smell when added to sodium hydroxide and by the
color change observed when red litmus paper is
placed at the opening of the test tube.
The ammonia vapor produced by mixing
ammonium compounds (NH 4 +) with sodium
hydroxide changes red litmus paper to blue.
Nitrogen
7
N
[He]2s22p3
Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria
Although nitrogen makes up about 78% of Earth’s atmosphere,
it occurs in a form that plants cannot use. Some bacteria in the
soil convert nitrogen gas (N 2) from the air into a usable form
by breaking the molecule’s triple bond. This creates a form of
nitrogen that plants uptake into their root systems. Plants need
nitrogen to build cellular components, to participate in photo-
synthesis, and to transfer energy effectively. Commercial
fertilizers mimic the action of nitrogen-fixing bacteria by
providing nitrogen and other nutrients in forms that are easily Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are found in
incorporated into the plant system. protective nodules along plant roots.
Phosphorus
15
P
[Ne]3s23p3
Safety Matches
Safety matches consist of two main parts: the tip and the
textured strip on the side of the box. The tip contains potassium
chlorate, and the textured strip contains red phosphorus.
When these two chemicals come in contact, a chemical
reaction occurs, and fire is produced. In safety matches, the
chemicals needed for reaction are separate from each other. In
strike-anywhere matches, both chemicals are contained in the The strike of a match initiates a chemical
matchstick so that ignition can occur using almost any surface. reaction that produces a flame.
Bismuth
83
Bi
[Xe]6s24f145d106p3
Assessment
39. Identify which elements in the nitrogen group are 43. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction
metals, nonmetals, or metalloids. between potassium chlorate (KClO 3) and red phospho-
40. Explain why nitrogen does not react with other rus (P 4). The reaction produces potassium chloride
elements under normal temperature conditions. (KCl) and phosphorus pentoxide (P 4O 10).
41. Explain why a compound of antimony is used in 44. Predict what product will be formed when bismuth is
flame retardants that protect plastic products. combined with chlorine.
42. Describe how fertilizers mimic the action of nitrogen- 45. Calculate A 35-kg bag of fertilizer contains 5.25 kg of
fixing bacteria. nitrogen. What percentage of the fertilizer is nitrogen?
Te
450 Te 6.240
988
254 Po 9.196
Po
962
Common Reactions
• S, Se, Te, and Po react with oxygen Oxides of Main Group Elements
to form oxides, such as selenium H H 2O,H 2O 2
oxide.
Li 2O, Na 2O, K 2O, Rb 2O,
Example: Se(s) + O 2(g) → SeO 2(s) 1
Cs 2O, Fr 2O
• Oxygen also reacts with hydrogen 2 BeO, MgO, CaO, SrO, BaO, RaO
and most of the elements in
B 2O 3, Al 2O 3, Ga 2O 3, In 2O 3,
groups 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, and 17 to 13
form oxides, such as silicon oxide In 2O, Ti 2O
and magnesium oxide. CO 2, SiO 2, GeO 2, SnO 2, SnO,
14
Examples: Si + O 2 → SiO 2 PbO 2, PbO
2Mg + O 2 → 2MgO N 2O 5, N 2O 3, N 2O, NO, NO 2,
• O, S, Se, Te, and Po react with 15 P 4O 10, P 4O 6, As 2O 5, As 4O 6,
halogens to form halides, such Sb 2O 5, Sb 4O 6, Bi 2O 3
as sulfur(VI) fluoride. 17 Cl 2O 7, Cl 2O, Br 2O, I 2O 5
Example: S(s) + 3F 2(g) → SF 6(l)
Po
168
O 1314 O 3.44
S 1000 S 2.58
Se 941 Se 2.55
Te 869 Te 2.10
Po 812 Po 2.00
Oxygen
8
O
[He]2s22p4
$ Billions
30 Chemical sales
300
An Economic Indicator 20 Ammonia
200
Sulfuric acid is one of the world’s most impor-
tant industrial raw materials. In the United 10 Chlorine 100
States, more sulfuric acid is produced than any
0 0
other industrial chemical. Most sulfuric acid is 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
used in the production of phosphate fertilizers. Year
Sulfuric acid is also important in extracting Data obtained from: Chemical & Engineering News 83 (2005) and 84 (2006).
metals from ore, oil refining, waste treatment,
Sulfuric acid production in the United States is
chemical synthesis, and as a component in used to track chemical economic trends.
lead-acid batteries. Sulfuric acid is so impor-
tant that economists use its production as a
measure of a nation’s industrial development.
Selenium Photocopies
34 Gray selenium is a photoconductor, which means it conducts
Se electricity more efficiently in the presence of light than in the
[Ar]4s23d104p4 dark. Some photocopiers use this property to copy images.
In a photocopier, a bright light shines on the original. Mirrors
reflect the dark and light areas onto a drum coated with a
thin layer of selenium. Because selenium is a photoconductor,
the light areas conduct electricity, while the dark areas do not.
As current flows through the drum, the light areas develop
a negative charge and the dark areas develop a positive
charge. Negatively charged toner particles are attracted to the
positively charged dark areas to create a copy of the original
image. Some of this same technology has been applied in
developing new high-resolution digital detectors that use
selenium as a photoconductor.
Gray selenium is a key component in many
photocopiers.
Assessment
46. Identify the molecule that is the source of oxygen 49. Apply Coal and petroleum products are sometimes
atoms for O 2 production during photosynthesis. contaminated with sulfur. When coal or petroleum con-
47. Explain why high ozone concentrations are harmful at taining sulfur is burned, sulfur dioxide (SO 2) can be
ground level but beneficial in the upper atmosphere. released into the atmosphere. Use the information
about the reactions involved in industrial sulfuric-acid
48. Calculate Approximately 90% of the sulfur used in production to infer how atmospheric sulfur dioxide
the United States is used to make sulfuric acid. In 2004, contributes to acid precipitation.
38.0 million metric tons of sulfuric acid were produced.
How much sulfur did the United States use in 2004?
Common Reactions
• The halogens react with alkali metals and alkaline earth metals to
form salts, such as potassium bromide and calcium chloride.
Examples: 2K(s) + Br 2(g) → 2KBr(s) and Ca(s) + Cl 2(g) → CaCl 2(s)
• The halogens can form acids, such as hydrochloric acid, by hydroly-
sis in water.
Example: Cl 2(g) + H 2O(l) → HClO(aq) + HCl(aq)
• Several important plastic polymers, including nonstick coatings and
polyvinyl chloride, contain group 17 elements.
Example: Polyvinyl chloride (vinyl) is made by a three-step process.
1) Ethene reacts with chlorine to form dichloroethane.
C 2H 4(g) + Cl 2(g) → C 2H 4Cl 2(l)
2) At high temperature and pressure, dichloroethane is converted to
vinyl chloride and HCl gas.
C 2H 4Cl 2(l) → C 2H 3Cl(l) + HCl(g)
3) Vinyl chloride polymerizes to form polyvinyl chloride.
2n(C 2H 3Cl)(l) → (—CH 2–CHCl–CH 2–CHCl—) n(l)
• Fluorine is the most active of all the elements and reacts with every
element except helium, neon, and argon.
Example: 2Al(s) + 3F 2(g) → 2AlF 3(s)
133 220
F 1681 F 3.98
Cl 1251 Cl 3.16
Br 1140 Br 2.96
I 1008 I 2.66
At 920 At 2.20
Analytical Tests
Three of the halogens can be identified through
precipitation reactions. Chlorine, bromine, and
iodine react with silver nitrate, forming distinc-
tive precipitates. Silver chloride is a white
precipitate, silver bromide is a cream-colored
precipitate, and silver iodide is a yellow
precipitate.
Chlorine, bromine, and iodine can also be
identified when they dissolve in cyclohexane.
As shown in the photo, when these halogens
are dissolved in cyclohexane, the solution turns
yellow for chlorine, orange for bromine, and
violet for iodine.
Fluorine
9
F
[He]2s22p5
Fluoridation
Fluorine compounds added to toothpaste and public
drinking-water supplies have greatly reduced the incidence
of cavities. Fluoride protects teeth in two ways. As teeth
form, fluoride from food and drink is incorporated into Many brands of toothpaste contain either
the enamel layer. The fluoride makes the enamel stronger stannous fluoride or sodium fluoride, which,
like fluoridated water, strengthen teeth and
and more resistant to decay. Once teeth are present in the provide protection from cavities.
mouth, fluoride in saliva bonds to teeth and strengthens
the surface enamel. This surface fluoride attracts calcium,
which helps to fill in areas where decay has begun.
Tungsten
Halogen Lightbulbs Bromine filament
Halogen lightbulbs include a halogen gas, such as iodine or bromine.
Compared to standard lightbulbs, halogen bulbs are brighter and last
longer and can be more energy efficient. During the operation of a
normal lightbulb, some of the tungsten in the filament evaporates and
is deposited on the inside surface of the bulb. In a halogen lamp, the
evaporated tungsten reacts with the halogen gas and is redeposited
back on the filament. This extends the life of the filament.
Severe deficiency (<20 µg/L) Mild deficiency (50–99 µg/L) Risk of iodine-induced hyperthyroidism (200–299 µg/L)
Moderate deficiency (20–49 µg/L) Optimal (100–199 µg/L) Risk of adverse health consequences (>300 µg/L)
No data
A significant percentage of the world’s population was at risk for iodine deficiency in 2004. In 2005,
the World Health Organization launched a program to eliminate iodine deficiency worldwide.
Assessment
50. Compare the risks for iodine deficiency in Europe, 53. Calculate Household bleach is typically a 5.25%
Africa, and the United States. solution of sodium hypochlorite in water. How many
51. Explain why fluorine is the most reactive of all the grams of sodium hypochlorite would there be in
elements. 300 mL of bleach?
52. Evaluate Why does a tungsten filament last longer in 54. Hypothesize In 1962, Neil Bartlett synthesized the
a halogen lightbulb than in a normal lightbulb? first noble gas compound using PtF 6. Hypothesize why
Bartlett used a fluorine compound for this synthesis.
Helium
2 Physical Melting Points and Boiling Points
He
1s2
Properties He
-270
-269
• The group 18 elements are Ne
-249
colorless, odorless gases. -246 MP
Neon
10 -189 BP
• They are all nonmetals. Ar -186
Ne
[He]2s22p6 • Their melting points and Kr
-157
-153
boiling points increase going
-112
Argon down the group, but are much Xe
-108
18 lower than those of the other
-71
Ar groups in the periodic table. Rn -62
[Ne]3s23p6
-300 -200 -100 0
Analytical Tests
Because the noble gases are odorless, colorless and generally unreactive,
many of the common analytical tests used for identifying elements
are not useful. However, the noble gases do emit light of certain colors
Common when exposed to an electric current and have characteristic emission
line spectra.
Reactions
Although the noble
gases are also known
as inert gases, a few
compounds can be
formed if conditions
are favorable. Generally,
however, noble gases
are nonreactive.
When an electric current passes through
xenon, it exhibits a characteristic color
(blue) and line spectrum.
Helium
2
He
1s2
The Sun
Only 150 million km away (considered close in astronomi-
cal terms), the Sun provides the energy needed to support
life on Earth. The Sun makes its energy through the fusion
of hydrogen to make helium. Scientists have determined
that the core of the Sun is composed of approximately
50% helium, leaving enough hydrogen for the Sun to burn The Sun’s energy comes from a nuclear reaction that
for another 5 billion years. produces helium.
Lighting
Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are all
used in different lighting applications. Neon
signs are found in many businesses to
advertise products or display the name of
the business. Although true neon signs glow
with a red-orange color, the term neon sign
has also come to represent the collection of
gas tubes that contain gases that display
other colors. Argon is found in everyday
lightbulbs such as those in lamps. Because
The noble gases are found in many different light sources.
argon is inert, it provides an ideal atmo-
sphere for the filament. Krypton and xenon
bulbs produce whiter, sharper light and last
longer than traditional argon bulbs. These
bulbs are commonly found in chandeliers,
flashlights, and luxury car headlights.
Assessment
55. Describe three physical properties of the noble gases. 58. Hypothesize why argon is used in everyday lighting
56. Write the reaction for the production of xenon even though krypton and xenon produce whiter light
tetroxide. and last longer.
57. Analyze why the noble gases have the highest 59. Calculate If the Sun is 150 million km away and light
first ionization energies compared to the rest of travels at 3.00 x 105 m/s, how long does it take for
the elements on the periodic table. sunlight to reach Earth?
Scientific Notation
Scientists must use extremely small and extremely large numbers to
describe the objects in Figure 1. The mass of the proton at the center of
a hydrogen atom is 0.000000000000000000000000001673 kg. HIV, the
virus that causes AIDS, is about 0.00000011 m. The temperature at the
center of the Sun reaches 15,000,000 K. Such small and large numbers
are difficult to read and hard to work with in calculations. Scientists
have adopted a method of writing exponential numbers called scientific
notation. It is easier than writing numerous zeros when numbers are
very large or very small. It is also easier to compare the relative size of
numbers when they are written in scientific notation.
A number written in scientific notation has two parts.
N × 10 n
The first part (N) is a number in which only one digit is placed to the
left of the decimal point and all remaining digits are placed to the right
of the decimal point. The second part is an exponent of ten (10 n) by
which the decimal portion is multiplied. For example, the number
2.53 × 10 6 is written in scientific notation.
2.53 × 10 6
Number between Exponent
one and ten of ten
Proton
Positive exponents
When scientists discuss the physical properties of the Moon, shown in
Figure 2, the numbers are enormously large. A positive exponent of
10 (n) tells how many times a number must be multiplied by 10 to give
the long form of the number.
2.53 × 10 6
= 2.53 × 10 ×10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10
= 2,530,000
You can also think of the positive exponent of 10 as the number of
places you move the decimal to the left until only one nonzero digit
is to the left of the decimal point. ■Figure 2 The mass of the
The decimal point moves six places Moon is 7.349 × 10 22 kg.
2,530,000.
to the left.
6.43 × 10 −4 = __
6.43
= 0.000643
10 × 10 × 10 × 10
A negative exponent of 10 is the number of places you move the deci-
mal to the right until it is just past the first nonzero digit.
When converting a number that requires the decimal to be moved
to the right, the exponent is decreased by the appropriate number. For
example, the expression of 0.0098 in scientific notation is as follows:
0.0098 × 10 0
0 0098 × 10 0 − 3 The decimal point moves three places
to the right.
9.8 × 10 -3
2. Multiplication
When numbers in scientific notation are multiplied, only the decimal
portion is multiplied. The exponents are added.
(2.00 × 10 3)(4.00 × 10 4) = (2.00)(4.00) × 10 3 + 4
= 8.00 × 10 7
3. Division
When numbers in scientific notation are divided, only the decimal
portion is divided, while the exponents are subtracted as follows:
9.60 × 10 7 _
_ = 9.60 × 10 7 − 4
1.60 × 10 4 1.60
= 6.00 × 10 3
PRACTICE Problems
1. Express the following numbers in scientific notation.
a. 5800 c. 0.0005877
b. 453,000 d. 0.0036
2. Perform the following operations.
a. (5.0 × 10 6 ) + (3.0 × 10 7 ) c. (3.89 × 10 12 ) − (1.9 × 10 11)
9
b. (1.8 × 10 ) + (2.0 × 10 ) 8 d. (6.0 × 10 -8 ) − (4.0 × 10 −9 )
3. Perform the following operations.
9.6 × 10 8
a. (6.0 × 10 -4 ) × (4.0 × 10 -6 ) d. _ -6 1.6 × 10
(2.5 ×10 6 )(7.2 × 10 4 )
b. (4.5 × 10 9 ) × (6.0 × 10 -10 ) e. __ -5
1.8 × 10
4.5 × 10 -8 (6.2 × 10 12 )(6.0 × 10 -7 )
c. _ -4
f. __
1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10 6
2 × 2 = 4 3 × 3 = 9 4 × 4 = 16
2 = 4 3 = 9 4 = 16
a b c
4 = √
√ 2×2=2
This equation is read “the square root of 4 equals 2.” What is the square
root of 9, shown in Figure 4b?
There can be more than two identical factors of a number. You know
that 2 × 4 = 8. Are there any other factors of the number 8? It is the
product of 2 × 2 × 2. A cube root is one of three identical factors of
a number. Thus, what is the cube root of 8? It is 2. A cube root is also
indicated by a radical.
3 3
√ 8 = √
2×2×2=2
Check your calculator handbook for more information on finding roots.
Significant Figures
Accuracy reflects how close the measurements you make in the labora-
tory come to the real value. Precision describes the degree of exactness
of your measurements. Which ruler in Figure 5 would give you the
most precise length? The top ruler, with the millimeter markings, would
allow your measurements to come closer to the actual length of the
pencil. The measurement would be more precise.
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 cm
Measuring tools are never perfect, nor are the people doing the
measuring. Therefore, whenever you measure a physical quantity, there
will always be some amount of uncertainty in the measurement. The
24 25 26 27 28 number of significant figures in the measurement indicates the uncer-
tainty of the measuring tool.
The number of significant figures in a measured quantity is all of the
certain digits plus the first uncertain digit. For example, the pencil in
■ Figure 6 If you determine Figure 6 has a length that is between 27.6 and 27.7 cm. You can read
that the length of this pencil is the ruler to the nearest millimeter (27.6 cm), but after that you must
27.65 cm, that measurement has
four significant figures.
estimate the next digit in the measurement. If you estimate that the
next digit is 5, you would report the measured length of the pencil as
27.65 cm. Your measurement has four significant figures. The first
three are certain, and the last is uncertain. The ruler used to measure
the pencil has precision to the nearest tenth of a millimeter.
How many significant figures?
When a measurement is provided, the following series of rules will
help you to determine how many significant figures there are in that
measurement.
1. All nonzero figures are significant.
2. When a zero falls between nonzero digits, the zero is also significant.
3. When a zero falls after the decimal point and after a significant figure,
that zero is significant.
4. When a zero is used merely to indicate the position of the decimal,
it is not significant.
5. All counting numbers and exact numbers are treated as if they have
an infinite number of significant figures.
Examine each of the following measurements. Use the rules above to
check that all of them have three significant figures.
245 K Rule 1
18.0 L Rule 3
308 km Rule 2
0.00623 g Rule 4
186,000 m Rule 4
EXAMPLE Problem 1
Significant Figures How many significant figures are in the
measurement 0.00302 g? 60 min? 5.620 m? 9.80 × 10 2 m/s 2?
5.620 m
Significant
(Rules 1 and 3)
PRACTICE Problems
4. Determine the number of significant figures in each measurement:
a. 35 g m. 0.157 kg
b. 3.57 m n. 28.0 mL
c. 3.507 km o. 2500 m
d. 0.035 kg p. 0.070 mol
e. 0.246 L q. 30.07 nm
f. 0.004 m 3 r. 0.106 cm
g. 24.068 kPa s. 0.0076 g
h. 268 K t. 0.0230 cm 3
i. 20.04080 g u. 26.509 cm
j. 20 dozen v. 54.52 cm 3
k. 730,000 kg w. 2.40 × 10 6 kg
l. 6.751 g x. 4.07 × 10 16 m
Rounding
Arithmetic operations that involve measurements are done the same
way as operations involving any other numbers. However, the results
must correctly indicate the uncertainty in the calculated quantities.
Perform all of the calculations, and then round the result to the least
number of significant figures in any of the measurements used in the
calculations. To round a number, use the following rules.
1. When the leftmost digit to be dropped is less than 5, that digit and any
digits that follow are dropped. Then, the last digit in the rounded num-
ber remains unchanged. For example, when rounding the number
8.7645 to three significant figures, the leftmost digit to be dropped
is 4. Therefore, the rounded number is 8.76.
2. When the leftmost digit to be dropped is greater than 5, that digit and
any digits that follow are dropped, and the last digit in the rounded
number is increased by one. For example, when rounding the num-
ber 8.7676 to three significant figures, the leftmost digit to be
dropped is 7. Therefore, the rounded number is 8.77.
3. When the leftmost digit to be dropped is 5 followed by a nonzero
number, that digit and any digits that follow are dropped. The last
digit in the rounded number increases by one. For example, 8.7519
rounded to two significant figures equals 8.8.
4. If the digit to the right of the last significant figure is equal to 5 and is
not followed by a nonzero digit, look at the last significant figure. If
it is odd, increase it by one; if even, do not round up. For example,
92.350 rounded to three significant figures equals 92.4, and 92.25
equals 92.2.
EXAMPLE Problem 2
Calculating with Significant Figures Air contains oxygen (O 2),
nitrogen (N 2), carbon dioxide (CO 2), and trace amounts of other
gases. Use the known pressures in Table 1 to calculate the partial
pressure of oxygen.
PRACTICE Problems
5. Round off the following measurements to the number of significant
figures indicated in parentheses.
a. 2.7518 g (3)
b. 8.6439 m (2)
c. 13.841 g (2)
d. 186.499 m (5)
e. 634,892.34 (4)
f. 355,500 g (2)
6. Perform the following operations.
a. (2.475 m) + (3.5 m) + (4.65 m)
b. (3.45 m) + (3.658 m) + (47 m)
c. (5.36 × 10 −4 g) − (6.381 × 10 −5 g)
d. (6.46 × 10 12 m) − (6.32 × 10 11 m)
e. (6.6 × 10 12 m) × (5.34 × 10 18 m)
5.634 × 10 11 m
f. __ 12
3.0 × 10 m
4.765 × 10 11 m)(5.3 × 10 -4 m)
(___
g.
7.0 × 10 -5 m
EXAMPLE Problem 3
Order of Operations The temperature on a cold day was 25°F.
What was the temperature on the Celsius scale?
°F = _°C + 32
9
5
°F − 32 = _°C + 32 − 32
9 Rearrange the equation to isolate °C.
5 Begin by subtracting 32 from both sides.
°F − 32 = _°C
9
5
5 × ( °F − 32) = 5 × _°C
9
Then, multiply both sides by 5.
5
5 × ( °F − 32) = 9°C
5__
× ( °F − 32)
=_
9°C
Finally, divide both sides by 9.
9 9
°C = _( °F − 32)
5
9
_
5
= (25 − 32) Substitute the known Fahrenheit
9 temperature.
= −3.9°C
PRACTICE Problems
Isolate the indicated variable in each equation.
7. PV = nRT for R
8. 3 = 4(x + y) for y
9. z = x(4 + 2y) for y
10. _
2
x = 3 + y for x
11. _ = 6 for x
2x + 1
3
Dimensional Analysis
The dimensions of a measurement refer to the type of units attached
to a quantity. For example, length is a dimensional quantity that can be
measured in meters, centimeters, and kilometers. Dimensional analysis
is the process of solving algebraic equations for units as well as num-
bers. It is a way of checking to ensure that you have used the correct
equation, and that you have correctly applied the rules of algebra when
solving the equation. It can also help you to choose and set up the cor-
rect equation, as shown on the next page, when you learn how to do
unit conversions. It is good practice to make dimensional analysis a
habit by always stating the units as well as the numerical values whenever
substituting values into an equation.
EXAMPLE Problem 4
Dimensional Analysis The sculpture in Figure 9 is made from
aluminum. The density (D) of aluminum is 2700 kg/m 3. Determine
■ Figure 9 Aluminum is a metal
the mass (m) of a piece of aluminum of volume (V ) 0.20 m 3.
that is useful from the kitchen to
the sculpture garden.
1 Analyze the Problem
The facts of the problem are density (2700 kg/m 3 ), volume (0.20 m 3 ),
and the density equation, D = m/V.
PRACTICE Problems
Determine whether the following equations are dimensionally correct.
Explain.
12. v = s × t where v = 24 m/s, s = 12 m, and t = 2 s.
13. R = _nT
where R is in L·atm/mol·K, n is in mol, T is in K, P is in atm,
PV
and V is in L.
14. t = _vs where t is in seconds, v is in m/s, and s is in m.
at 2
15. s = _ where s is in m, a is in m/s 2, and t is in s.
2
Unit Conversion
Recall from Chapter 2 that the universal unit system used by scientists
is called Le Système Internationale d’Unités, or SI. It is a metric system
based on seven base units—meter, second, kilogram, kelvin, mole,
ampere, and candela—from which all other units are derived. The size
of a unit in the metric system is indicated by a prefix related to the dif-
ference between that unit and the base unit. For example, the base unit
for length in the metric system is the meter. One-tenth of a meter is a
decimeter, where the prefix deci- means one-tenth. One thousand
meters is a kilometer, where the prefix kilo- means one thousand.
You can use the information in Table 2 to express a measured quantity
in different units. For example, how is 65 m expressed in centimeters?
Table 2 indicates one centimeter and one-hundredth meter are equivalent,
that is, 1 cm = 10 −2 m. This information can be used to form a conversion
factor. A conversion factor is a ratio equal to one that relates two units. You
can make the following conversion factors from the relationship between
meters and centimeters. Be sure when you set up a conversion factor that
the measurement in the numerator (the top of the ratio) is equivalent to
the measurement in the denominator (the bottom of the ratio).
−2
1=_
1 cm
and 1 = _
10 m
−210 m 1 cm
Recall that the value of a quantity does not change when it is multiplied
by 1. To convert 65 m to centimeters, multiply 65 m by the conversion
factor for centimeters.
65 m × _
1 cm
−2
10 m
= 65 × 10 2 cm
= 6.5 × 10 3 cm
Note the conversion factor is set up so that the unit meters cancels
and the answer is in centimeters as required. When setting up a unit
conversion, use dimensional analysis to check that the units cancel to
give an answer in the desired units. Always check your answer to be
certain the units make sense.
You make unit conversions every day when you determine how
many quarters are needed to make a dollar or how many feet are in a
yard. One unit that is often used in calculations in chemistry is the
mole. Chapter 10 shows you equivalent relationships among moles,
grams, and the number of representative particles (atoms, molecules,
formula units, or ions). For example, 1 mol of a substance contains
6.02 × 10 23 representative particles. Try the next Example Problem to
see how this information can be used in a conversion factor to deter-
mine the number of atoms in a sample of manganese.
EXAMPLE Problem 5
Unit Conversions One mole of manganese (Mn), shown in
Figure 10, has a mass of 54.94 g. How many atoms are in 2.0 mol
of manganese?
PRACTICE Problems
16. Convert the following measurements as indicated.
a. 4 m = ____cm i. 2.7 × 10 2 L = ____mL
b. 50.0 cm = ____m j. 7.3 × 10 5 mL = ____L
c. 15 cm = ____mm k. 8.4 × 10 10 m = ____km
d. 567 mg = ____g l. 3.8 × 10 4 m 2 = ____mm 2
e. 324 mL = ____L m. 6.9 × 10 12 cm 2 = ____m 2
f. 28 L = ____mL n. 6.3 × 10 21 mm 3 = ____cm 3
3
g. 4.6 × 10 m = ____mm o. 9.4 × 10 12 cm 3 = ____m 3
h. 8.3 × 10 4 g = ____kg p. 5.7 × 10 20 cm 3 = ____km 3
(x, y)
x-axis
0
Origin 0 Independent variable
This research scientist might use graphs to analyze the Any graph of your data should include labeled
data she collects on ultrapure water. x- and y-axes, a suitable scale, and a title.
Mass (g)
Mass (g)
data points, as shown in the Experimental A (x, y) 40
40
Data graph.
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Determining a scale
An important part of graphing is the selection of a scale. Scales should
be easy to plot and easy to read. First, examine the data to determine the
highest and lowest values. Assign each division on the axis (the square
on the graph paper) with an equal value so that all data can be plotted
along the axis. Scales divided into multiples of 1, 2, 5, or 10, or decimal
values, are often the most convenient. It is not necessary to start at zero,
nor is it necessary to plot both variables to the same scale. Scales must,
however, be labeled clearly with the appropriate numbers and units.
Plotting data
The values of the independent and dependent variables form ordered
pairs of numbers, called the x-coordinate and the y-coordinate (x,y),
that correspond to points on the graph. The first number in an ordered
pair always corresponds to the x-axis; the second number always
corresponds to the y-axis. The ordered pair (0,0) is always the origin.
Sometimes, the points are named by using a letter. In Figure 12,
Point A on the Density of Water graph corresponds to Point (x,y).
After the scales are chosen, plot the data. To graph or plot an ordered
pair means to place a dot at the point that corresponds to the values in
the ordered pair. The x-coordinate indicates how many units to move
right (if the number is positive) or left (if the number is negative). The
y-coordinate indicates how many units to move up or down. Which
direction is positive on the y-axis? Negative? Locate each pair of x- and
y-coordinates by placing a dot, as shown in Figure 12 in the Density of
Water graph. Sometimes, a pair of rulers, one extending from the x-axis
and the other from the y-axis, can ensure that data are plotted correctly.
Drawing a curve
Once the data is plotted, a straight line or a curve is drawn. It is not
necessary to make it go through every point plotted, or even any of
the points, as shown in the Experimental Data graph in Figure 12.
Graphing data is an averaging process. If the points do not fall along a
line, the best-fit line or most-probable smooth curve through the points
is drawn. Note that curves do not always go through the origin (0,0).
Naming a graph
Last but not least, give each graph a title that describes what is being
graphed. The title should be placed at the top of the page, or in a box
on a clear area of the graph. It should not cross the data curve.
Mass (g)
40
Rise
30
20 (x1, y1)
10 Run
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Volume (mL)
y = mx + b
mass = (2.7 g/cm 3)(volume) + 0
mass = (2.7 g/cm 3)(volume)
Once the data from the graph in Figure 15 has been placed in the
general equation for a straight line, this equation verifies the direct rela-
tionship between mass and volume. For any increase in volume, the
mass also increases.
Interpolation and extrapolation
Graphs also serve functions other than determining the relationship
between variables. They permit interpolation, the prediction of values of
the independent and dependent variables. For example, you can see in
the table in Figure 15 that the mass of 40.0 cm 3 of aluminum was not
measured. However, you can interpolate from the graph that the mass
would be 108 g.
Graphs also permit extrapolation, which is the determination of
points beyond the measured points. To extrapolate, draw a broken
line to extend the curve to the desired point. In Figure 15, you can
determine that the mass at 10.0 cm 3 equals 27 g. One caution regarding
extrapolation—some straight-line curves do not remain straight indefi-
nitely. So, extrapolation should only be done where there is a reasonable
likelihood that the curve does not change.
PRACTICE Problems
17. Plot the data in each table. Explain whether the graphs represent direct
or inverse relationships.
■ Figure 17 In a crystal of table Notice that the ratio 1:16 is the smallest integer (whole number) ratio.
salt (sodium chloride), each sodium It is obtained by dividing both numbers in the ratio by the smaller num-
ion is surrounded by chloride ions, ber, and then rounding the larger number to remove the digits after the
yet the ratio of sodium ions to decimal. The ratio of the molar masses is 1 to 16. In other words, the
chloride ions is 1:1. The formula
ratio indicates that the molar mass of diatomic hydrogen gas is 16 times
for sodium chloride is NaCl.
smaller than the molar mass of diatomic oxygen gas.
Fractions
Ratios are often expressed as fractions in simplest form. A fraction is a
quotient of two numbers. To express the comparison of the molar masses
as a fraction, place the molar mass of hydrogen over the molar mass of
oxygen as follows.
molar mass H 2
__
molar mass O 2
2.0 g/mol
=_
32.00 g/mol
=_2.00
32.00
=_1
16
In this case, the simplified fraction is calculated by dividing both the
numerator (top of the fraction) and the denominator (bottom of the
fraction) by 2.00. This fraction yields the same information as the ratio.
That is, diatomic hydrogen gas has one-sixteenth the mass of diatomic
oxygen gas.
Percents
A percent is a ratio that compares a number to 100. The symbol for
percent is %. You also are used to working with percents in your daily
life. The number of correct answers on an exam can be expressed as a
percent. If you answered 90 out of 100 questions correctly, you would
receive a grade of 90%. Signs like the one in Figure 18 indicate a reduc-
tion in price. If the item’s regular price is $100, how many dollars would
you save? Sixty percent means 60 of every 100, so you would save $60.
How much would you save if the sign said 75% off?
The comparison between molar mass of hydrogen gas and the
molar mass of oxygen gas described on the previous page can also be
expressed as a percent by taking the fraction, converting it to decimal
form, and multiplying by 100 as follows.
molar mass H 2
__ 2.00 g/mol
× 100 = _ × 100 = 0.0625 × 100 = 6.25%
molar mass O 2 32.00 g/mol ■ Figure 18 Stores often use
percentages when advertising sales.
Diatomic hydrogen gas has 6.25% of the mass of diatomic oxygen gas. Analyze Would the savings be
large at this sale? How would
Operations Involving Fractions you determine the sale price?
Fractions are subject to the same type of operations as other numbers.
Remember that the number on the top of a fraction is the numerator
and the number on the bottom is the denominator. Figure 19 shows an
example of a fraction.
1. Addition and subtraction
Before two fractions can be added or subtracted, they must have a
common denominator. Common denominators are found by finding
the least common multiple of the two denominators. Finding the least ■ Figure 19 When two numbers
are divided, the one on top is the
common multiple is often as easy as multiplying the two denominators numerator and the one on the
together. For example, the least common multiple of the denominators bottom is the denominator. The
of the fractions _
1
and _
1
is 2 × 3 or 6. result is called the quotient. When
2 3 you perform calculations with
_1 + _1 = _3 × _1 + _2 × _1 = _3 + _2 = _5
2 3 3 ( 2 2 ) (3 6 ) 6 6
fractions, the quotient can be
expressed as a fraction or a decimal.
Sometimes, one of the denominators will divide into the other, which
Dividend
makes the larger of the two denominators the least common multiple. (numerator)
For example, the fractions _
1
and _
1
have 6 as the least common multiple
2 6
denominator.
Quotient = 9 × 10-4
8
_1 + _1 = _3 × _1 + _1 = _3 + _1 = _4 3 × 10
2 6 (
3 2 ) 6 6 6 6
In other situations, both denominators will divide into a number that is Divisor
not the product of the two. For example, the fractions _
1
and _
1
have the (denominator)
4 6
number 12 as their least common multiple denominator, rather than 24,
the product of the two denominators.
The least common denominator can be deduced as follows:
_1 + _1 = _4 × _1 + _6 × _1 = _ +_ =_ +_ =_
6 4 4( 6 6) ( 4
4
24
6
24 )2
12
3
12
5
12
Because both fractions can be simplified by dividing numerator and
denominator by 2, the least common multiple must be 12.
PRACTICE Problems
18. Perform the indicated operation:
a. _ + _ e. _ × _
2 3 1 3
3 4 3 4
_
4
b. + _
3
f. _ × _
3 2
5 10 5 7
c. _ − _ _ _
1 1 5
g. ÷ 1
4 6 8 4
d. _ − _ h. _ ÷ _
7 5 4 3
8 6 9 8
PRACTICE Problems
19. Find the log of each of the following numbers.
a. 367 b. 4078 c. X n
20. Find the antilog of each of the following logs.
a. 4.663 b. 2.367 c. 0.371 d. −1.588
Sodium/
Carbon Bromine
Other metals
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Actinium Ac 89 [227] 1050 3300 10.07 --- 499 (3+)-2.13 14 0.120 400 --- 3+
Aluminum Al 13 26.981539 660.32 2519 2.7 143 577.5 (3+)-1.68 10.789 0.897 294 8.2 3+
Americium Am 95 [243] 1176 2607 13.67 --- 578 (3+)-2.07 14.39 0.110 --- --- 2+, 3+, 4+
Antimony Sb 51 121.760 630.6 1587 6.697 140 834 (3+)+0.15 19.79 0.207 68 2 × 10 -5 3+, 5+
Argon Ar 18 39.948 -189.3 -185.8 0.001784 98 1521 --- 1.18 0.520 6.43 1.5 × 10 -4 ---
Arsenic As 33 74.92160 817 614 5.727 120 947 (3+)+0.24 24.44 0.329 32.4 2.1 × 10 -4 3+, 5+
Astatine At 85 [210] 302 --- --- 140 920 (1-)+0.2 6 --- 40 --- 1-, 5+
Barium Ba 56 137.327 727 1870 3.51 222 502.9 (2+)-2.92 7.12 0.204 140 0.034 2+
Berkelium Bk 97 [247] 986 --- 14.78 --- 601 (3+)-2.01 --- --- --- --- 3+, 4+
Beryllium Be 4 9.012182 1287 2469 1.848 112 899.5 (2+)-1.97 7.895 1.825 297 2 × 10 -4 2+
Bismuth Bi 83 208.98040 271.3 1564 9.78 150 703 (3+)+0.317 11.145 0.122 151 3 × 10 -7 3+, 5+
Bohrium Bh 107 [264] --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Boron B 5 10.811 2076 3927 2.46 85 800.6 (3+)-0.89 50.2 1.026 480 9 × 10 -4 3+
Bromine Br 35 79.904 –7.3 59 3.119 114 1139.9 (1-)+1.065 10.57 0.474 29.96 3 × 10 -4 1-, 1+, 3+, 5+
Cadmium Cd 48 112.411 321.07 767 8.65 151 867.8 (2+)-0.4025 6.21 0.232 99.87 1.5 × 10 -5 2+
Calcium Ca 20 40.078 842 1484 1.55 197 589.8 (2+)-2.84 8.54 0.647 155 5.00 2+
Californium Cf 98 [251] 900 --- 15.1 --- 608 (3+)-1.93 --- --- --- --- 3+, 4+
Carbon C 6 12.0107 3527 4027 2.267 77 1086.5 (4-)+0.132 117 0.709 715 0.018 4-, 2+, 4+
Cerium Ce 58 140.116 795 3360 6.689 --- 534.4 (3+)-2.34 5.46 0.192 350 0.006 3+, 4+
Cesium Cs 55 132.905451 28.4 671 1.879 265 375.7 (1+)-2.923 2.09 0.242 65 1.9 × 10 -4 1+
Chlorine Cl 17 35.453 -101.5 -34 0.003 100 1251.2 (1-)+1.358 6.40 0.479 20.41 0.017 1-, 1+, 3+, 5+
Chromium Cr 24 51.9961 1907 2671 7.14 128 652.9 (3+)-0.74 21.0 0.449 339 0.014 2+, 3+, 6+
Cobalt Co 27 58.9332 1495 2927 8.9 125 760.4 (2+)-0.28 16.06 0.421 375 0.003 2+, 3+
Copper Cu 29 63.546 1084.62 2927 8.92 128 745.5 (2+)+0.34 12.93 0.385 300 0.0068 1+, 2+
Curium Cm 96 [247] 1340 3110 13.51 --- 581 (3+)-2.06 --- --- --- --- 3+, 4+
Darmstadtium Ds 110 [281] --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Dubnium Db 105 [262] --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.5 1407 2567 8.551 --- 573 (3+)-2.29 11.06 0.173 280 6 × 10 -4 2+, 3+
Einsteinium Es 99 [252] 860 --- --- --- 619 (3+)-2 --- --- --- --- 3+
Erbium Er 68 167.259 1497 2868 9.066 --- 589.3 (3+)-2.32 19.9 0.168 285 3 × 10 -4 3+
Europium Eu 63 151.964 826 1527 5.244 --- 547.1 (3+)-1.99 9.21 0.182 175 1.8 × 10 -4 2+, 3+
Fermium Fm 100 [257] 1527 --- --- --- 627 (3+)-1.96 --- --- --- --- 2+, 3+
Fluorine F 9 18.9984032 -219.62 -188.12 0.001696 71 1681 (1-)+2.87 0.51 0.824 6.62 0.054 1-
Francium Fr 87 [223] --- --- --- 270 380 (1+)-2.92 2 --- 65 --- 1+
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25 1312 3250 7.901 --- 593.4 (3+)-2.28 10.0 0.236 305 5.2 × 10 -4 3+
Gallium Ga 31 69.723 29.76 2204 5.904 135 578.8 (3+)-0.53 5.576 0.373 254 0.0019 1+, 3+
Germanium Ge 32 72.64 938.3 2820 5.323 122 762 (4+)+0.124 36.94 0.320 334 1.4 × 10 -4 2+, 4+
Gold Au 79 196.966569 1064 2856 19.3 144 890.1 (3+)+1.52 12.72 0.129 324 3 × 10 -7 1+, 3+
*[ ] indicates mass of longest-lived isotope
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Reference Tables
i
h
a
O
ic Ra
in
d
(°C) int
d
ng P
t
ific H
rizat
ic Nu
r
y (kJ ion
(°C) int
Ioniz
i
(pm) dius
m
l
(amu ass*
h’s C
s
Stat ation
Sym
oxid
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e
Elem
En
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d
l
of Fu lpy
Enth
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ajor
Melt
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Bo
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Ato
Spec
Atom
Vapo lpy of
Abun
Dens
Eart ance in
First
Atom
M
En
a
or to ments fr
Stan
s t
(for tential
Hafnium Hf 72 178.49 2233 4603 13.31 159 658.5 (4+)-1.70 27.2 0.144 630 3 × 10 -4 4+
Hassium Hs 108 [277] -272.2 --- 0.0001785 --- 2372.3 --- --- --- 0.083 5.5 × 10 -4 ---
-269.7
Helium He 2 4.002602 -268.93 0.00017847 31 2372 --- 0.021 5.193 0.08 --- ---
(2536 kPa)
Holmium Ho 67 164.93032 1461 2720 8.795 --- 581 (3+)-2.33 17.0 0.165 265 1.2 × 10 -4 3+
Hydrogen H I 1.00794 -259.14 -252.87 0.0000899 37 1312 (1+)0.000 0.12 14.304 0.90 0.15 1-, 1+
Indium In 49 114.818 156.6 2072 7.31 167 558.3 (3+)-0.3382 3.281 0.233 230 1.6 × 10 -5 1+, 3+
Iodine I 53 126.90447 113.7 184.3 4.94 133 1008.4 (1-)+0.535 15.52 0.214 41.57 4.9 × 10 -5 1-, 1+, 5+, 7+
Iridium Ir 77 192.217 2466 4428 22.65 136 880 (4+)+0.926 41.12 0.131 560 4 × 10 -7 3+, 4+, 5+
Iron Fe 26 55.845 1538 2861 7.874 126 762.5 (3+)-0.04 13.81 0.449 347 6.3 2+, 3+
Krypton Kr 36 83.798 -157.36 -153.22 0.0037493 112 1350.8 --- 1.64 0.248 9.08 1.5 × 10 -7 ---
Lanthanum La 57 138.9055 920 3470 6.146 187 538.1 (3+)-2.38 6.20 0.195 400 0.0034 3+
Lawrencium Lr 103 [262] 1627 --- --- --- --- (3+)-2 --- --- --- --- 3+
Lead Pb 82 207.2 327.46 1749 11.34 146 715.6 (2+)-0.1251 4.782 0.130 179.5 0.001 2+, 4+
Lithium Li 3 6.941 180.54 1342 0.535 152 520.2 (1+)-3.040 3.00 3.582 147 0.0017 1+
Lutetium Lu 71 174.967 1652 3402 9.841 160 523.5 (3+)-2.3 22 0.154 415 5.6 × 10 -5 3+
Magnesium Mg 12 24.305 650 1090 1.738 160 737.7 (2+)-2.356 8.48 1.023 128 2.9 2+
Manganese Mn 25 54.938045 1246 2061 7.47 127 717.3 (2+)-1.18 12.91 0.479 220 0.11 2+, 3+, 4+, 6+, 7+
Meitnerium Mt 109 [268] --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Mendelevium Md 101 [258] 827 --- --- --- 635 (3+)-1.7 --- --- --- --- 2+, 3+
Mercury Hg 80 200.59 -38.83 356.73 13.6 151 1007.1 (2+)+0.8535 2.29 0.140 59.11 6.7 × 10 -6 1+, 2+
Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94 2623 4639 10.28 139 684.3 (6+)+0.114 37.48 0.251 600 1.1 × 10 -4 4+, 5+, 6+
Neodymium Nd 60 144.24 1024 3100 6.8 --- 533.1 (3+)-2.32 7.14 0.190 285 0.0033 2+,3+
Neon Ne 10 20.1797 -248.59 -246.08 0.0008999 71 2080.7 --- 0.328 1.030 1.71 --- ---
Neptunium Np 93 [237] 637 4000 20.45 --- 604.5 (4+)-1.30 3.20 0.120 335 --- 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+
Nickel Ni 28 58.6934 1455 2913 8.908 124 737.1 (2+)-0.257 17.04 0.444 378 0.009 2+, 3+, 4+
Niobium Nb 41 92.90638 2477 4744 8.57 146 652.1 (5+)-0.65 30 0.265 690 0.0017 4+, 5+
3-, 2-, 1-, 1+, 2+,
Nitrogen N 7 14.0067 -210.1 -195.79 0.0012506 75 1402.3 (2-)-0.23 0.71 1.040 5.57 0.002
3+, 4+, 5+
Nobelium No 102 [259] 827 --- --- --- 642 (2+)-2.5 --- --- --- --- 2+, 3+
Osmium Os 76 190.23 3033 5012 22.61 135 840 (4+)+0.687 57.85 0.130 630 1.8 × 10 -7 4+, 6+, 8+
Oxygen 0 8 15.9994 -218.3 -182.9 0.001429 73 1313.9 (2-)+1.23 0.44 0.918 6.82 46.0 2-, 1-
Palladium Pd 46 106.42 1554.9 2963 12.023 137 804.4 (2+)+0.915 16.74 0.246 380 6.3 × 10 -7 2+, 4+
Phosphorus P 15 30.973462 44.2 277 1.823 110 1011.8 (3-)-0.063 0.66 0.769 12.4 0.10 3-, 3+, 5+
Platinum Pt 78 195.078 1768.3 3825 21.09 138 870 (4+)+1.15 22.17 0.133 490 3.7 × 10 -7 2+, 4+
Plutonium Pu 94 [244] 639.4 3230 19.816 --- 584.7 (4+)-1.25 2.82 0.130 325 --- 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+
Polonium Po 84 [209] 254 962 9.196 168 812.1 (4+)+0.73 13 --- 100 --- 2-, 2+, 4+, 6+
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Aluminum S S — S S — I S S I S I S D
Ammonium S S S S S S S S S — S S S S
Barium S S P S S I S S S S S I I D
Calcium S S P S S S S S S P S P P P
Copper(II) S S — S S — I — S I S I S I
Hydrogen S S — S S — — S S S S S S S
Iron(II) — S P S S — I S S I S I S I
Iron(III) — S — S S I I S S I S P P D
Lead(II) S S — S S I P P S P S I P I
Lithium S S S S S ? S S S S S P S S
Magnesium S S P S S S I S S I S P S D
Manganese(II) S S P S S — I S S I S P S I
Mercury(I) P I I S I P — I S I S I P I
Mercury(II) S S — S S P I P S P S I D I
Potassium S S S S S S S S S S S S S S
Silver P I I S I P — I S P S I P I
Sodium S S S S S S S S S D S S S S
Strontium S S P S S P S S S S S I P S
Tin(II) D S — S S O S D I S I S I
Tin(IV) S S — — S S I D — I S — S I
Zinc S S P S S P P S S P S I S I
S – soluble P – partially soluble I – insoluble D – decomposes
Section 2.3 9. Three measurements of 34.5 m, 38.4 m, and 35.3 m are taken. If the
accepted value of the measurement is 36.7 m, what is the percent error for
each measurement?
10. Three measurements of 12.3 mL, 12.5 mL, and 13.1 mL are taken. The
accepted value for each measurement is 12.8 mL. Calculate the percent
error for each measurement.
15. Complete the following calculations. Round off the answers to the correct
number of significant figures.
a. 34.3 cm × 12 cm d. 45.5 g ÷ 15.5 mL
b. 0.054 mm × 0.3804 mm e. 35.43 g ÷ 24.84 mL
c. 45.1 km × 13.4 km f. 0.0482 g ÷ 0.003146 mL
Chapter 3
Section 3.2 1. A 3.5-kg iron shovel is left outside through the winter. The shovel, now
orange with rust, is rediscovered in the spring. Its mass is 3.7 kg. How
much oxygen combined with the iron?
2. When 5.0 g of tin reacts with hydrochloric acid, the mass of the products,
tin chloride and hydrogen, totals 8.1 g. How many grams of hydrochloric
acid were used?
Section 3.4 3. A compound is analyzed and found to be 50.0% sulfur and 50.0% oxygen.
If the total amount of the sulfur oxide compound is 12.5 g, how many
grams of sulfur are there?
4. Two unknown compounds are analyzed. Compound I contains 5.63 g of
tin and 3.37 g of chlorine, while Compound II contains 2.5 g of tin and
2.98 g of chlorine. Are the compounds the same?
Chapter 4
Section 4.3 1. How many protons and electrons are in each of the following atoms?
a. gallium d. calcium
b. silicon e. molybdenum
c. cesium f. titanium
3. Use the periodic table to write the name and the symbol for each element
identified in Question 2.
4. An isotope of copper contains 29 electrons, 29 protons, and 36 neutrons.
What is the mass number of this isotope?
5. An isotope of uranium contains 92 electrons and 144 neutrons. What is the
mass number of this isotope?
6. Use the periodic table to write the symbols for each of the following
elements. Then, determine the number of electrons, protons, and neutrons
each contains.
a. yttrium-88 d. bromine-79
b. arsenic-75 e. gold-197
c. xenon-129 f. helium-4
7. An element has two naturally occurring isotopes: 14X and 15X. 14X has a
mass of 14.00307 amu and a relative abundance of 99.63%. 15X has a mass
of 15.00011 amu and a relative abundance of 0.37%. Identify the unknown
element.
8. Silver has two naturally occurring isotopes. Ag-107 has an abundance of
51.82% and a mass of 106.9 amu. Ag-109 has a relative abundance of
48.18% and a mass of 108.9 amu. Calculate the atomic mass of silver.
Chapter 5
Section 5.1 1. What is the frequency of an electromagnetic wave that has a wavelength of
4.55 × 10 −3 m? 1.00 × 10 −12 m?
2. Calculate the wavelength of an electromagnetic wave with a frequency of
8.68 × 10 16 Hz; 5.0 × 10 14 Hz; and 1.00 × 10 6 Hz.
3. What is the energy of a quantum of visible light having a frequency of
5.45 × 10 14 s −1?
4. An X ray has a frequency of 1.28 × 10 18 s −1. What is the energy of a quan-
tum of the X ray?
Section 5.3 5. Write the ground-state electron configuration for the following.
a. nickel c. boron
b. cesium d. krypton
Chapter 6
Section 6.2 1. Identify the group, period, and block of an atom with the following elec-
tron configurations.
a. [He]2s 22p 1 b. [Kr]5s 24d 5 c. [Xe]6s 25f 146d 5
2. Write the electron configuration for the element fitting each of the following
descriptions.
a. a noble gas in the first period
b. a group 4 element in the fifth period
c. a group 14 element in the sixth period
d. a group 1 element in the seventh period
Section 6.3 3. Using the periodic table, rank each group of elements in order of
increasing size.
a. calcium, magnesium, and strontium
b. oxygen, lithium, and fluorine
c. fluorine, cesium, and calcium
d. selenium, chlorine, and tellurium
e. iodine, krypton, and beryllium
Chapter 7
Section 7.2 1. Explain the formation of an ionic compound from zinc and chlorine.
Section 7.3 3. Write the chemical formula of an ionic compound composed of the follow-
ing pairs of ions.
a. calcium and arsenide
b. iron(III) and chloride
c. magnesium and sulfide
d. barium and iodide
e. gallium and phosphide
Chapter 8
Section 8.1 1. Draw the Lewis structure for each of the following molecules.
a. CCl 2H 2 b. HF c. PCl 3 d. CH 4
Section 8.3 4. Draw the Lewis structure for each of the following.
a. CO c. N 2O e. SiO 2
b. CH 2O d. OCl 2 f. AlBr 3
Section 8.4 8. Determine the molecular geometry, bond angles, and hybrid of each
molecule in Question 4.
Section 8.5 9. Determine whether each of the following molecules is polar or nonpolar.
a. CH 2O b. BF 3 c. SiH 4 d. H 2S
Chapter 9
Section 9.1 Write skeleton equations for the following reactions.
1. Solid barium and oxygen gas react to produce solid barium oxide.
2. Solid iron and aqueous hydrogen sulfate react to produce aqueous iron(III)
sulfate and gaseous hydrogen.
Write balanced chemical equations for the following reactions.
3. Liquid bromine reacts with solid phosphorus (P 4) to produce solid
diphosphorus pentabromide.
4. Aqueous lead(II) nitrate reacts with aqueous potassium iodide to produce
solid lead(II) iodide and aqueous potassium nitrate.
5. Solid carbon reacts with gaseous fluorine to produce gaseous carbon
tetrafluoride.
6. Aqueous carbonic acid reacts to produce liquid water and gaseous carbon
dioxide.
7. Gaseous hydrogen chloride reacts with gaseous ammonia to produce solid
ammonium chloride.
8. Solid copper(II) sulfide reacts with aqueous nitric acid to produce aqueous
copper(II) sulfate, liquid water, and nitrogen dioxide gas.
Section 9.2 Classify each of the following reactions into as many types as possible.
9. 2Mo(s) + 3O 2(g) → 2MoO 3(s)
10. N 2H 4(l) + 3O 2(g) → 2NO 2(g) + 2H 2O(l)
Chapter 10
Section 10.1 1. Determine the number of atoms in 3.75 mol of Fe.
Section 10.3 15. How many moles of each element are in 0.0250 mol of K 2CrO 4?
16. How many moles of ammonium ions are in 4.50 mol of (NH 4) 2CO 3?
19. Determine the mass of 8.57 mol of sodium dichromate (Na 2Cr 2O 7).
23. Calculate the number of each atom in 40.0 g of methanol (CH 3OH).
Section 10.4 25. What is the percent by mass of each element in sucrose (C 12H 22O 11)?
Chapter 11
Section 11.1 Interpret the following balanced chemical equations in terms of particles,
moles, and mass.
1. Mg + 2HCl → MgCl 2 + H 2
5. Write and balance the equation for the formation of magnesium hydroxide
and hydrogen from magnesium and water. Determine the possible mole
ratios.
Section 11.2 6. Some antacid tablets contain aluminum hydroxide. The aluminum
hydroxide reacts with stomach acid according to the equation:
Al(OH) 3 + 3HCl → AlCl 3 + 3H 2O. Determine the moles of acid
neutralized if a tablet contains 0.200 mol of Al(OH) 3.
7. Chromium reacts with oxygen according to the equation:
4Cr + 3O 2 → 2Cr 2O 3. Determine the moles of chromium(III) oxide
produced when 4.58 mol of chromium is allowed to react.
8. Space vehicles use solid lithium hydroxide to remove exhaled carbon
dioxide according to the equation: 2LiOH + CO 2 → Li 2CO 3 + H 2O.
Determine the mass of carbon dioxide removed if the space vehicle carries
42.0 mol of LiOH.
9. Some of the sulfur dioxide released into the atmosphere is converted to
sulfuric acid according to the equation: 2SO 2 + 2H 2O + O 2 → 2H 2SO 4.
Determine the mass of sulfuric acid formed from 3.20 mol of sulfur
dioxide.
10. How many grams of carbon dioxide are produced when 2.50 g of sodium
hydrogen carbonate reacts with excess citric acid according to the equa-
tion: 3NaHCO 3 + H 3C 6H 5O 7 → Na 3C 6H 5O 7 + 3CO 2 + 3H 2O?
11. Aspirin (C 9H 8O 4) is produced when salicylic acid (C 7H 6O 3) reacts with
acetic anhydride (C 4H 6O 3) according to the equation:
C 7H 6O 3 + C 4H 6O 3 → C 9H 8O 4 + HC 2H 3O 2. Determine the mass of aspi-
rin produced when 150.0 g of salicylic acid reacts with an excess of acetic
anhydride.
Section 11.3 12. Chlorine reacts with benzene to produce chlorobenzene and hydrogen
chloride, Cl 2 + C 6H 6 → C 6H 5Cl + HCl. Determine the limiting reactant
if 45.0 g of benzene reacts with 45.0 g of chlorine, the mass of the excess
reactant after the reaction is complete, and the mass of chlorobenzene
produced.
13. Nickel reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce nickel(II) chloride and
hydrogen according to the equation: Ni + 2HCl → NiCl 2 + H 2. If 5.00 g
of Ni and 2.50 g of HCl react, determine the limiting reactant, the mass of
the excess reactant after the reaction is complete, and the mass of nickel(II)
chloride produced.
Section 11.4 14. Tin(IV) iodide is prepared by reacting tin with iodine. Write the balanced
chemical equation for the reaction. Determine the theoretical yield if a
5.00-g sample of tin reacts in an excess of iodine. Determine the percent
yield if 25.0 g of SnI 4 was recovered.
15. Gold is extracted from gold-bearing rock by adding sodium cyanide in
the presence of oxygen and water, according to the reaction: 4Au(s) +
8NaCN(aq) + O 2(g) + 2H 2O(l) → 4NaAu(CN) 2(aq) + NaOH(aq).
Determine the theoretical yield of NaAu(CN) 2 if 1000.0 g of gold-bearing
rock is used, which contains 3.00% gold by mass. Determine the percent
yield of NaAu(CN) 2 if 38.790 g of NaAu(CN) 2 is recovered.
Chapter 12
Section 12.1 1. Calculate the ratio of effusion rates for methane (CH 4) and nitrogen.
2. Calculate the molar mass of butane. Butane’s rate of diffusion is 3.8 times
slower than that of helium.
3. What is the total pressure in a canister that contains oxygen gas at a partial
pressure of 804 mm Hg, nitrogen at a partial pressure of 220 mm Hg, and
hydrogen at a partial pressure of 445 mm Hg?
4. Calculate the partial pressure of neon in a flask that has a total pressure of
1.87 atm. The flask contains krypton at a partial pressure of 0.77 atm and
helium at a partial pressure of 0.62 atm.
Chapter 13
Section 13.1 1. The pressure of air in a 2.25-L container is 1.20 atm. What is the new
pressure if the sample is transferred to a 6.50-L container? Temperature
is constant.
2. The volume of a sample of hydrogen gas at 0.997 atm is 5.00 L. What will
be the new volume if the pressure is decreased to 0.977 atm? Temperature
is constant.
3. A gas at 55.0°C occupies a volume of 3.60 L. What volume will it occupy
at 30.0°C? Pressure is constant.
4. The volume of a gas is 0.668 L at 66.8°C. At what Celsius temperature will
the gas have a volume of 0.942 L, assuming pressure remains constant?
5. The pressure in a bicycle tire is 1.34 atm at 33.0°C. At what temperature
will the pressure inside the tire be 1.60 atm? Volume is constant.
6. If a sample of oxygen gas has a pressure of 810 torr at 298 K, what will be
its pressure if its temperature is raised to 330 K?
7. Air in a tightly sealed bottle has a pressure of 0.978 atm at 25.5°C. What
will be its pressure if the temperature is raised to 46.0°C?
8. Hydrogen gas at a temperature of 22.0°C that is confined in a 5.00-L
cylinder exerts a pressure of 4.20 atm. If the gas is released into a 10.0-L
reaction vessel at a temperature of 33.6°C, what will be the pressure inside
the reaction vessel?
9. A sample of neon gas at a pressure of 1.08 atm fills a flask with a volume of
250 mL at a temperature of 24.0°C. If the gas is transferred to another flask
at 37.2°C and a pressure of 2.25 atm, what is the volume of the new flask?
Section 13.2 10. What volume of beaker contains exactly 2.23 × 10 -2 mol of nitrogen gas
at STP?
11. How many moles of air are in a 6.06-L tire at STP?
15. Calculate the number of moles of gas that occupy a 3.45-L container at
a pressure of 150 kPa and a temperature of 45.6°C.
16. What is the pressure in torr that a 0.44-g sample of carbon dioxide gas will
exert at a temperature of 46.2°C when it occupies a volume of 5.00 L?
17. What is the molar mass of a gas that has a density of 1.02 g/L at 0.990 atm
pressure and 37°C?
18. Calculate the grams of oxygen gas present in a 2.50-L sample kept at
1.66 atm pressure and a temperature of 10.0°C.
Section 13.3 19. What volume of oxygen gas is needed to completely combust 0.202 L
of butane gas (C 4H 10)?
20. Determine the volume of methane gas (CH 4) needed to react completely
with 0.660 L of O 2 gas to form methanol (CH 3OH).
21. Calculate the mass of hydrogen peroxide needed to obtain 0.460 L of
oxygen gas at STP. 2H 2O 2(aq) → 2H 2O(l) + O 2(g)
22. When potassium chlorate is heated in the presence of a catalyst such as
manganese dioxide, it decomposes to form solid potassium chloride and
oxygen gas: 2KClO 3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O 2(g). How many liters of oxygen
will be produced at STP if 1.25 kg of potassium chlorate decomposes
completely?
Chapter 14
Section 14.2 1. What is the percent by mass of a sample of ocean water that is found to
contain 1.36 g of magnesium ions per 1000 g?
2. What is the percent by mass of iced tea containing 0.75 g of aspartame in
250 g of water?
3. A bottle of hydrogen peroxide is labeled 3%. If you pour out 50 mL of
hydrogen peroxide solution, what volume is hydrogen peroxide?
4. If 50 mL of pure acetone is mixed with 450 mL of water, what is the per-
cent volume?
5. Calculate the molarity of 1270 g of K 3PO 4 in 4.0 L aqueous solution.
Chapter 15
Section 15.1 1. What is the equivalent in joules of 126 Calories?
Section 15.4 9. Calculate ∆H rxn for the reaction 2C(s) + 2H 2(g) → C 2H 4(g), given the
following thermochemical equations:
2CO 2(g) + 2H 2O(l) → C 2H 4(g) + 3O 2(g) ∆H = 1411 kJ
C(s) + O 2(g) → CO 2(g) ∆H = −393.5 kJ
2H 2(g) + O 2(g) → 2H 2O(l) ∆H = −572 kJ
10. Calculate ∆H rxn for the reaction HCl(g) + NH 3(g) → NH 4Cl(s), given the
following thermochemical equations:
H 2(g) + Cl 2(g) → 2HCl(g) ∆H = −184 kJ
N 2(g) + 3H 2(g) → 2NH 3(g) ∆H = −92 kJ
N 2(g) + 4H 2(g) + Cl 2(g) → 2NH 4Cl(s) ∆H = −628 kJ
Use standard enthalpies of formation from Table 15.5 and Table R-11 to
calculate ∆H° rxn for each of the following reactions.
11. 2HF(g) → H 2(g) + F 2(g)
Section 15.5 Predict the sign of ∆S system for each reaction or process.
13. FeS(s) → Fe 2+(aq) + S 2−(aq)
Chapter 16
Section 16.1 1. In the reaction A → 2B, suppose that [A] changes from 1.20 mol/L
at time = 0 to 0.60 mol/L at time = 3.00 min and that [B] = 0.00 mol/L
at time = 0.
a. What is the average rate at which A is consumed in mol/(L∙min)?
b. What is the average rate at which B is produced in mol/(L∙min)?
Section 16.3 2. What are the overall reaction orders in Practice Problems 19 to 22 on
page 577?
3. If halving [A] in the reaction A → B causes the initial rate to decrease to
one-fourth its original value, what is the probable rate law for the reaction?
4. Use the data below and the method of initial rates to determine the rate
law for the reaction 2NO(g) + O 2(g) → 2NO 2(g).
Formation of NO 2 Data
Initial [NO] Initial [O 2] Initial Rate
Trial
(M) (M) (mol/(L·s))
1 0.030 0.020 0.0041
2 0.060 0.020 0.0164
3 0.030 0.040 0.0082
Section 16.4 5. The rate law for the reaction in which 1 mol of cyclobutane (C 4H 8)
decomposes to 2 mol of ethylene (C 2H 4) at 1273 K is Rate = (87 s −1)
[C 4H 8]. What is the instantaneous rate of this reaction when
a. [C 4H 8] = 0.0100 mol/L?
b. [C 4H 8] = 0.200 mol/L?
Chapter 17
Section 17.1 Write equilibrium constant expressions for the following equilibria.
1. N 2(g) + O 2(g) ⇌ 2NO
2. 3O 2(g) ⇌ 2O 3(g)
Chapter 18
Section 18.1 1. Write the balanced formula equation for the reaction between zinc and
nitric acid.
2. Write the balanced formula equation for the reaction between magnesium
carbonate and sulfuric acid.
3. Identify the base in the reaction
H 2O(l) + CH 3NH 2(aq) → OH -(aq) + CH 3NH 3 +(aq).
4. Identify the conjugate base described in the reaction in Practice Problems
1 and 2.
5. Write the steps in the complete ionization of hydrosulfuric acid.
Section 18.2 7. Write the acid ionization equation and ionization constant expression for
formic acid (HCOOH).
8. Write the acid ionization equation and ionization constant expression for
the hydrogen carbonate ion (HCO 3−).
9. Write the base ionization constant expression for ammonia.
10. Write the base ionization expression for aniline (C 6H 5NH 2).
Section 18.3 11. Is a solution in which [H +] = 1.0 × 10 −5M acidic, basic, or neutral?
14. Calculate the pH and pOH of a solution in which [OH -] = 8.8 × 10 −3M.
Section 18.4 22. Write the formula equation for the reaction between hydriodic acid and
beryllium hydroxide.
23. Write the formula equation for the reaction between perchloric acid and
lithium hydroxide.
24. In a titration, 15.73 mL of 0.2346M HI solution neutralizes 20.00 mL of a
LiOH solution. What is the molarity of the LiOH?
25. What is the molarity of a caustic soda (NaOH) solution if 35.00 mL of
solution is neutralized by 68.30 mL of 1.250M HCl?
26. Write the chemical equation for the hydrolysis reaction that occurs when
sodium hydrogen carbonate is dissolved in water. Is the resulting solution
acidic, basic, or neutral?
27. Write the chemical equation for any hydrolysis reaction that occurs when
cesium chloride is dissolved in water. Is the resulting solution acidic, basic,
or neutral?
Chapter 19
Section 19.1 Identify the following information for each problem. What element is
oxidized? Reduced? What is the oxidizing agent? Reducing agent?
1. 2P + 3Cl 2 → 2PCl 3
2. C + H 2O → CO + H 2
Section 19.2 6. How many electrons will be lost or gained in each of the following half-
reactions? Identify whether each is an oxidation or reduction.
a. Cr → Cr 3+
b. O 2 → O 2−
c. Fe +2 → Fe 3+
Chapter 20
Section 20.1 1. Calculate the cell potential for each of the following.
a. Co 2+(aq) + Al(s) → Co(s) + Al 3+(aq)
b. Hg 2+(aq) + Cu(s) → Cu 2+(aq) + Hg(s)
c. Zn(s) + Br 2(l) → Br 1−(aq) + Zn 2+(aq)
2. Calculate the cell potential to determine whether the reaction will occur
spontaneously or not spontaneously. For each reaction that is not
spontaneous, correct the reactants or products so that a reaction would
occur spontaneously.
a. Ni 2+(aq) + Al(s) → Ni(s) + Al 3+(aq)
b. Ag +(aq) + H 2(g) → Ag(s) + H +(aq)
c. Fe 2+(aq) + Cu(s) → Fe(s) + Cu 2+(aq)
Chapter 21
Section 21.2 1. Draw the structure of the following branched alkanes.
a. 2,2,4-trimethylheptane
b. 4-isopropyl-2-methylnonane
Chapter 22
Section 22.1 1. Draw the structures of the following alkyl halides.
a. chloroethane d. 1,3-dibromocyclohexane
b. chloromethane e. 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane
c. 1-fluoropentane
Chapter 24
Section 24.2 1. Write balanced equations for each of the following decay processes.
244 210
a. alpha emission of 96 Cm c. beta emission of 83 Bi
70 116
b. positron emission of 33 As d. electron capture by 51 Sb
47
2. 20 Ca → β + ?
240 243
3. 95 Am + ? → 97 Bk + n
4. How much time has passed if 1/8 of an original sample of radon-222 is
left? Use Table 24.5 for half-life information.
5. If a basement air sample contains 3.64 μg of radon-222, how much radon
will remain after 19 days?
6. Cobalt-60, with a half-life of 5 years, is used in cancer radiation treatments.
If a hospital purchases 30.0 g, how much would be left after 15 years?
c. _
25 m _
; 1s
1 s 25 m
Chapter 3
19. a. 360 s × _ = 360,000 ms
1000 ms
1s
5. amount of bromine that reacted = 100.0 - 8.5 = 91.5 g
_ 1 kg
b. 4800 g × = 4.8 kg amount of compound formed = 100.0 + 10.3 - 8.5
1000 g
= 101.8 g
c. 5600 dm × _ = 560 m
1m
10 dm 7. mass reactants = mass products
1000 mg
d. 72 g × _ = 72,000 mg mass sodium + mass chlorine = mass sodium chloride
1g
mass sodium = 15.6 g
e. 2.45 × 10 ms × _ = 0.245 s
2 1s
1000 ms masssodium chloride = 39.7 g
f. 5 μm × _ × _ × _
1 mm 1m 1 km Substituting and solving for mass chlorine yields
1000 μm 1000 mm 1000 m 15.6 g + mass chlorine = 39.7 g
= 5 × 10 −9 km mass chlorine = 39.7 g - 15.6 g = 24.1 g used in the
g. 6.800 × 10 3 cm × _ × _
1m 1 km
100 cm 1000 m
reaction.
= 6.800 × 10 -2 km Because the sodium reacts with excess chlorine,
1 Mg all of the sodium is used in the reaction; that is,
h. 2.5 × 10 1 kg × __ = 0.025 Mg 15.6 g of sodium are used in the reaction.
1000 kg
65 mi × _ 9. 157.5 g - 106.5 g = 51.0 g
21. _
1 km
= 105 km/h
1h 0.62 mi Yes. Mass of reactants equals mass of products.
23. mass = (volume)(density) = (185 mL)(1.02 g/mL) mass hydrogen
mass = 189 g vinegar 19. percent by mass hydrogen = _
mass × 100
compound
12.4 g
(
5.00 g acetic acid
)
(189 g vinegar) __ = 9.45 g acetic acid
100 g vinegar
percent by mass hydrogen = _ × 100 = 15.9%
78.0 g
5. a. E photon = λν = (6.626 × 10 -34 J·s)(6.32 × 10 20 s -1) 11. Three group 1 atoms lose 1 e-, forming 1+ ions.
= 4.19 × 10 -13 J One group 15 atom gains 3 e-, forming a 3- ion. The
b. E photon = λν = (6.626 × 10 -34 J·s)(9.50 × 10 13 s -1) ions attract, forming X 3Y, where X represents a group
= 6.29 × 10 -20 J 1 atom and Y represents a group 15 atom.
c. E photon = λν = (6.626 × 10 -34 J·s)(1.05 × 10 16 s -1) 19. KI 21. AlBr 3
= 6.96 × 10 -18 J
23. The general formula is XY 2, where X represents the
7. E photon = hc / λ group 2 element and Y represents the group 17 element.
(6.626 × 10 -34 J·s)(3.00 × 10 8 m/s)
E photon = ___ 25. Ca(ClO 3) 2
1.25 × 10 -1 m
= 1.59 × 10 -24 J 27. MgCO 3; answers will vary
21. a. bromine (35 electrons): [Ar]4s 23d 104p 5 29. calcium chloride 31. copper(II) nitrate
b. strontium (38 electrons): [Kr]5s 2 33. ammonium perchlorate
c. antimony (51 electrons): [Kr]5s 24d 105p 3
d. rhenium (75 electrons): [Xe]6s 24f 145d 5
e. terbium (65 electrons): [Xe]6s 24f 9 Chapter 8
f. titanium (22 electrons): [Ar]4s 23d 2
1. H
23. Sulfur (15 electrons) has the electron configuration
— —
—
PbC 2O 4(s) + 2NaNO 3(aq)
H + H + H + H + Si → H — Si — H
—
35. chemical equation: KI(aq) + AgNO 3(aq) →
H
KNO 3(aq) + AgI(s)
15. sulfur dioxide complete ionic equation:
17. carbon tetrachloride K +(aq) + I -(aq) + Ag +(aq) + NO 3 -(aq) →
K +(aq) + NO 3 -(aq) + AgI(s)
19. hydroiodic acid
net ionic equation: I -(aq) + Ag +(aq) → AgI(s)
21. chlorous acid
23. hydrosulfuric acid 37. chemical equation: AlCl 3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) →
Al(OH)3(s) + 3NaCl(aq)
25. AgCl 27. ClF 3
complete ionic equation:
29. strontium acetate is ionic, not molecular: Sr(C 2H 3O 2) 2 Al 3+(aq) + 3Cl -(aq) + 3Na +(aq) + 3OH 2(aq) →
37. H 39. H H Al(OH) 3(s) + 3Na +(aq) + 3Cl -(aq)
—
—
2 mol Cl -
complete ionic equation: 29. 2.50 mol ZnCl 2 × _ = 5.00 mol Cl -
1 mol ZnCl 2
2H +(aq) + 2Br -(aq) + 2NH 4 +(aq) + CO 3 2-(aq) →
3 mol SO 4 2-
H 2O(l) + CO 2(g) + 2NH 4 +(aq) + 2Br -(aq) 31. 3.00 mol Fe 2(SO 4) 3 ×__ = 9.00 mol SO 4 2-
1 mol Fe 2(SO 4) 3
net ionic equation: 2H +(aq) + CO 3 2-(aq) →
33. 1.15 × 10 1 mol H 2O × _ = 23.0 mol H
2 mol H
H 2O(l) + CO 2(g) 1 mol H 2O
= 2.30 × 10 1 mol H
49. chemical equation: 2KI(aq) + Pb(NO 3) 2(aq) →
12.01 g C
2KNO 3(aq) + PbI 2(s) 35. a. 2 mol C × _ = 24.02 g
complete ionic equation: 1 mol C
1.008 gH
2K +(aq) + 2I -(aq) + Pb 2+(aq) + 2NO 3 -(aq) → 6 mol H × _ = 6.048 g
1 mol H
2K +(aq) + 2NO 3 -(aq) + PbI 2(s)
16.00 g O
net ionic equation: Pb 2+(aq) + 2I -(aq) → PbI 2(s) 1 mol O × _ = 16.00 g
1 mol O
molar mass C 2H 5OH = 46.07 g/mol
Chapter 10 1.008 g H
b. 1 mol H × _ = 1.008 g
10 23 1 mol H
1. 2.50 mol Zn × __
6.02 × atoms
12.01 gC
1 mol 1 mol C × _ = 12.01 g
= 1.51 × 10 24 atoms of Zn 1 mol C
14.01 g N
6.02 × 10 23 formula units 1 mol N × _ = 14.01 g
3. 3.25 mol AgNO 3 × __ 1 mol N
1 mol molar mass HCN = 27.03 g/mol
= 1.96 × 10 24 formula units of AgNO 3 12.01 g C
c. 1 mol C × _ = 12.01 g
1 mol C
5. a. 5.75 × 10 24 atoms Al × __
1 mol
6.02 × 10 23 atoms 35.45 g Cl
= 9.55 mol Al 4 mol Cl × _ = 141.80 g
1 mol Cl
b. 2.50 × 10 20 atoms Fe × __
1 mol molar mass CCl 4 = 153.81 g/mol
6.02 × 10 23 atoms
= 4.15 × 10 -4 mol Fe 37. Step 1: Find the molar mass of H 2SO 4.
1.008 g H
26.98 g Al
15. a. 3.57 mol Al × _ = 96.3 g Al 2 mol H × _ = 2.016 g
1 mol Al 1 mol H
32.07 gS
28.09 g Si
b. 42.6 mol Si × _ = 1.20 × 10 3 g Si 1 mol S × _ = 32.07 g
1 mol Si 1 mol S
16.00 g O
1 mol Ag
17. a. 25.5 g Ag × _ = 0.236 mol Ag 4 mol O × _ = 64.00 g
107.9 g Ag 1 mol O
molar mass H 2SO 4 = 98.09 g/mol
b. 300.0 g S × _ = 9.355 mol S
1 mol S
32.07 g S Step 2: Make mole → mass conversion.
6.02 × 10 23 atoms
19. a. 55.2 g Li × _ × __
1 mol Li 98.09 g H 2SO 4
6.94 g Li 1 mol 3.25 mol H 2SO 4 × __ = 319 g H 2SO 4
1 mol H 2SO 4
= 4.79 × 10 24 atoms Li
6.02 × 10 23 atoms 39. Potassium permanganate has a formula of KMnO 4.
b. 0.230 g Pb × _ × __
1 mol Pb
6.94 g Pb 1 mol Step 1: Find the molar mass of KMnO 4.
= 6.68 × 10 20 atoms Pb 39.10 g K
1 mol Hg 1 mol K × _ = 39.10 g
6.02 × 10 23 atoms
c. 11.5 g Hg × _ × __ 1 mol K
200.6 g Hg 1 mol 54.94 g Mn
= 3.45 × 10 22 atoms Hg 1 mol Mn × _ = 54.94 g
1 mol Mn
6.02 × 10 23 atoms 16.00 g O
21. a. 4.56 × 10 3 g Si × _ × __ 4 mol O × _
1 mol Si
= 64.00 g
28.09 g Si 1 mol 1 mol O
= 9.77 × 10 25 atoms Si molar mass KMnO 4 = 158.04 g/mol
1000 g Ti
b. 0.120 kg Ti × _ × _
1 mol Ti Step 2: Make mole → mass conversion.
1 kg Ti 47.87 g Ti 158.04 g KMnO 4
6.02 × 10 23 atoms 2.55 mol KMnO 4 × __ = 403 g KMnO 4
× __ = 1.51 × 10 24 atoms Ti 1 mol KMnO 4
1 mol
41. a. ionic compound 45. Step 1: Find the number of moles of NaCl.
4.59 × 10 24 formula units NaCl ×
Step 1: Find the molar mass of Fe 2O 3.
55.85 g Fe ___
1 mol NaCl
2 mol Fe × _ = 111.70 g 6.02 × 10 23 formula unit NaCl
1 mol Fe
= 7.62 mol NaCl 2
16.00 gO
3 mol O × _ = 48.00 g Step 2: Find the molar mass of NaCl.
1 mol O
molar mass Fe 2O 3 = 159.70 g/mol
_
1 mol Na × 22.99 g Na
= 22.99 g
1 mol Na
Step 2: Make mass → mole conversion. 35.45 g Cl
1 mol Cl × _ = 35.45 g
1 mol Fe O 1 mol Cl
2500 g Fe2O3 × __
2 3
= 15.7 × 101 mol Fe2O3 molar mass NaCl = 58.44 g/mol
159.70 g Fe 2O 3
b. ionic compound Step 3: Make mole → mass conversion.
58.44 g NaCl
Step 1: Find the molar mass of PbCl 4. 7.62 mol NaCl × _ = 445 g NaCl
1 mol NaCl
207.2 g Pb
1 mol Pb × _ = 207.2 g 55. Steps 1 and 2: Assume 1 mole; calculate molar mass of
1 mol Pb
H 2SO 3.
35.45 g Cl
4 mol Cl × _ = 141.80 g
1.008 g H
1 mol Cl 2 mol H × _ = 2.016 g
1 mol H
molar mass PbCl 4 = 349.0 g/mol 32.06 g S
1 mol S × _ = 32.06 g
1 mol S
Step 2: Make mass → mole conversion. 16.00 g O
3 mol O × _ = 48.00 g
1 mol PbCl
254 g PbCl 4 × __4
= 0.728 mol PbCl 4 1 mol O
349.0 g PbCl 4
molar mass H 2SO 3 = 82.08 g/mol
43. a. Step 1: Find the molar mass of Na 2SO 3 Step 3: Determine percent by mass of S.
22.99 g Na 32.06 g S
2 mol Na × _ = 45.98 g percent S = __ × 100 = 39.06% S
1 mol Na 82.08 g H 2SO 3
32.07 g S
_ Repeat steps 1 and 2 for H 2S 2O 8. Assume 1 mole;
1 mol S × = 32.07 g
1 mol S calculate molar mass of H 2S 2O 8.
16.00 g O 1.008 g H
3 mol O × _ = 48.00 g 2 mol H × _ = 2.016 g
1 mol O 1 mol H
molar mass Na 2SO 3 = 126.05 g/mol 32.06 gS
2 mol S × _ = 64.12 g
1 mol S
Step 2: Make mass → mole conversion.
16.00 g O
2.25 g Na 2SO 3 × __
2 31 mol Na SO 8 mol O × _ = 128.00 g
126.05 g Na 2SO 3 1 mol O
= 0.0179 mol Na 2SO 3 molar mass H 2S 2O 8 = 194.14 g/mol
Step 3: Determine percent by mass of S.
Step 3: Make mole → formula unit conversion. 64.12 g S
23 percent S = __ × 100 = 33.03% S
0.0179 mol Na 2SO 3 × __
6.02 × 10 formula units 194.14 g H 2S 2O 8
1 mol Na 2SO 3 H 2SO 3 has a larger percent by mass of S.
= 1.08 × 10 22 formula units Na 2SO 3
57. a. sodium, sulfur, and oxygen; Na 2SO 4
Step 4: Determine the number of Na + ions. b. ionic
1.08 × 10 22 formula units Na 2SO 3 × c. Steps 1 and 2: Assume 1 mole; calculate molar
2 Na + ions
__ mass of Na 2SO 4.
= 2.16 × 10 22 Na + ions
1 formula unit Na 2SO 3 22.99 g Na
2 mol Na × _ = 45.98 g
b. 1.08 × 10 22formula units Na 2SO 3 × 1 mol Na
32.07 gS
__ 1 SO 3 2- ion
= 1.08 × 10 22 SO 3 2- ions 1 mol S × _ = 32.07 g
1 formula unit Na 2SO 3 1 mol S
16.00 g O
126.08 g Na 2SO 3 ___
1 mol Na 2SO 3 4 mol O × _ = 64.00 g
c. __ × 1 mol O
1 mol Na 2SO 3 6.02 × 10 23 formula unit Na 2SO 3 molar mass Na 2SO 4 = 142.05 g/mol
= 2.09 × 10 -22 g Na 2SO 3/formula unit
Step 3: Determine percent by mass of each element. The simplest ratio is 1 mol N: 1 mol O.
45.98 g Na The empirical formula is NO.
percent Na = __ × 100 = 32.37% Na
142.05 g Na 2SO 4 Step 3: Calculate the molar mass of the empirical
32.07 g S
percent S = __ × 100 = 22.58% S formula.
14.01 g N
142.05 g Na 2SO 4
1 mol N × _ = 14.01 g
64.00 g O 1 mol N
percent O = __ × 100 = 45.05% O 16.00 gO
142.05 g Na 2SO 4 1 mol O × _ = 16.00 g
1 mol O
59. Step 1: Assume 100 g sample; calculate moles of each
molar mass NO = 30.01 g/mol
element.
Step 4: Determine whole number multiplier.
35.98 g Al × _
1 mol Al
= 1.334 mol Al
26.98 g Al 60.01 g/mol
_ = 2.000
64.02 g S × _
1 mol S
= 1.996 mol S 30.01 g/mol
32.06 g S The molecular formula is N 2O 2.
Step 2: Calculate mole ratios.
1.334 mol Al = _
_ 1.000 mol Al _ 65. Step 1: Assume 100 g sample; calculate moles of each
= 1 mol Al element.
1.334 mol Al 1.000 mol Al 1 mol Al
_
1.996 mol S
= _
1.500 mol S _
= 1.5 mol S 65.45 g C × _
1 mol C
= 5.450 mol C
1.334 mol Al 1.000 mol Al 1 mol Al 12.01 g C
The simplest ratio is 1 mol Al: 1.5 mol S. 5.45 g H × _
1 mol H
= 5.41 mol H
1.008 g H
Step 3: Convert decimal fraction to whole number.
29.09 g O × _1 mol O
= 1.818 mol O
In this case, multiply by 2 because 1.5 × 2 = 3. 16.00 g O
Therefore, the empirical formula is Al 2S 3. Step 2: Calculate mole ratios.
61. Step 1: Assume 100 g sample; calculate moles of each
_
5.450 mol C
=_
3.000 mol C
=_
3 mol C
1.818 mol O 1.000 mol O 1 mol O
element. 5.41 mol H = _ = _
_ 2.97 mol H 3 mol H
60.00 g C × _
1 mol C
= 5.00 mol C 1.818 mol O 1.00 mol O 1 mol O
12.01 g C
_=_=_
1.818 mol O 1.000 mol O 1 mol O
4.44 g H × _1 mol H
= 4.40 mol H 1.818 mol O 1.000 mol O 1 mol O
1.008 g H
The simplest ratio is 3 mol C: 3 mol H: 1 mol O.
35.56 g O × _1 mol O
= 2.22 mol O
16.00 g O Therefore, the empirical formula is C 3H 3O.
Step 2: Calculate mole ratios. Step 3: Calculate the molar mass of the empirical
formula.
_
5.00 mol C
=_
2.25 mol C
=_
2.25 mol C
12.01 g C
2.22 mol O 1.00 mol O 1 mol O 3 mol C × _ = 36.03 g
4.40 mol H = _
_ 1.98 mol H _ 1 mol C
= 2 mol H
2.22 mol O 1.00 mol O 1 mol O 1.008 gH
3 mol H × _ = 3.024 g
2.22 mol O _
_ = 1.00 mol O = _
1 mol O 1 mol H
2.22 mol O 1.00 mol O 1 mol O 16.00 g O
1 mol O × _ = 16.00 g
The simplest ratio is 2.25 mol C: 2 mol H: 1 mol O. 1 mol O
Step 3: Convert decimal fraction to whole number. molar mass C 3H 3O = 55.05 g/mol
In this case, multiply by 4 because 2.25 × 4 = 9. Step 4: Determine whole number multiplier.
Therefore, the empirical formula is C 9H 8O 4. 110.00 g/mol
__ = 1.998, or 2
55.05 g/mol
63. Step 1: Assume 100 g sample; calculate moles of each
element. The molecular formula is C 6H 6O 2.
46.68 g N × _
1 mol N
= 3.332 mol N 75. Step 1: Calculate the mass of CoCl 2 remaining.
14.01 g N
129.83 g CoCl 2
_
53.32 g O × 1 mol O = 3.333 mol O 0.0712 mol CoCl 2 × __ = 9.24 g CoCl 2
16.00 g O 1 mol CoCl 2
Step 2: Calculate mole ratios. Step 2: Calculate the mass of water driven off.
3.332 mol N = _
_ 1.000 mol N _
= 1 mol N mass of hydrated compound - mass of anhydrous
3.332 mol N 1.000 mol N 1 mol N compound remaining
3.333 mol O _
_ = 1.000 mol O = _
1 mol O
= 11.75 g CoCl 2·xH 2O - 9.24 g CoCl 2 = 2.51 g H 2O
3.332 mol N 1.000 mol N 1 mol N
Step 3: Calculate moles of each component. 13. Step 1: Balance the chemical equation.
1 mol CoCl 2
9.24 g CoCl 2 × __ 2NaCl(s) → 2Na(s) + Cl 2(g)
129.83 g CoCl 2 Step 2: Make mole → mole conversion.
= 0.0712 mol CoCl 2 1 mol Cl
1 mol H 2O 2.50 mol NaCl × _2
= 1.25 mol Cl 2
2.51 g H 2O × _ = 0.139 mol H 2O 2 mol NaCl
18.02 g H 2O Step 3: Make mole → mass conversion.
Step 4: Calculate mole ratios. 70.9 g Cl 2
0.0712 mol CoCl 2 1.00 mol CoCl 1 mol CoCl 1.25 mol Cl 2 × _ = 88.6 g Cl 2
__ = __2 = _2 1 mol Cl 2
0.0712 mol CoCl 2 1.00 mol CoCl 2 1 mol CoCl 2
15. 2NaN 3(s) → 2Na(s) + 3N 2(g)
0.139 mol H O 1.95 mol H O 2 mol H 2O
__ 2
= __ 2
=_ Step 1: Make mass → mole conversion.
0.0712 mol CoCl 2 1.00 mol CoCl 2 1 mol CoCl 2
1 mol NaN
The formula of the hydrate is CoCl 2·2H 2O. Its name 100.0 g NaN 3 × _3
= 1.538 mol NaN 3
65.02 g NaN 3
is cobalt(II) chloride dehydrate.
Step 2: Make mole → mole conversion.
3 mol N
1.538 mol NaN 3 × _2
= 2.307 mol N 2
Chapter 11 2 mol NaN 3
Step 3: Make mole → mass conversion.
1. a. 1 molecule N 2 + 3 molecules H 2 → 28.02 g N 2
2 molecules NH 3 2.307 mol N 2 × _ = 64.64 g N 2
1 mol N 2
1 mole N 2 + 3 moles H 2 → 2 moles NH 3
23. Step 1: Make mass → mole conversion.
28.02 g N 2 + 6.06 g H 2 → 34.08 g NH 3
100.0 g Na × _ 1 mol Na
= 4.350 mol Na
b. 1 molecule HCl + 1 formula unit KOH → 22.99 g Na
1 formula unit KCl + 1 molecule H 2O 1 mol Fe 2O 3
100.0 g Fe 2O 3 × __ = 0.6261 mol Fe 2O 3
1 mole HCl + 1 mole KOH → 159.7 g Fe 2O 3
1 mole KCl + 1 mole H 2O Step 2: Make mole ratio comparison.
36.46 g HCl + 56.11 g KOH → 0.6261 mol Fe 2O 3 1 mol Fe 2O 3
__ compared to _
74.55 g KCl + 18.02 g H 2O 4.350 mol Na 6 mol Na
c. 2 atoms Mg + 1 molecule O2 → 0.1439 compared to 0.1667
2 formula units MgO
a. The actual ratio is less than the needed ratio, so
2 moles Mg + 1 mole O 2 → 2 moles MgO
iron(III) oxide is the limiting reactant.
48.62 g Mg + 32.00 g O 2 → 80.62 g MgO
b. Sodium is the excess reactant.
4 mol Al 3 mol O 2 2 mol Al 2O 3
3. a. _ _ _
3 mol O 2 2 mol Al 2O 3 4 mol Al c. Step 1: Make mole → mole conversion.
3 mol O 2 _
_ 2 mol Al 2O 3 _ 4 mol Al 0.6261 mol Fe 2O 3 × _ 2 mol Fe
= 1.252 mol Fe
4 mol Al 3 mol O 2 2 mol Al 2O 3 1 mol Fe 2O 3
Step 2: Make mole → mass conversion.
b. _ _ _
3 mol Fe 3 mol Fe 3 mol Fe
55.85 g Fe
4 mol H 2O 4 mol H 2 1 mol Fe 3O 4
1.252 mol Fe × _ = 69.92 g Fe
4 mol H 2O _
_ 4 mol H 2 _1 mol Fe 3O 4 1 mol Fe
3 mol Fe 3 mol Fe 3 mol Fe d. Step 1: Make mole → mole conversion.
1 mol Fe 3O 4 _
_ 1 mol Fe 3O 4 _
4 mol H 2O 0.6261 mol Fe 2O 3 × _ 6 mol Na
4 mol H 2 4 mol H 2O 4 mol H 2 1 mol Fe 2O 3
4 mol H 2 _ 4 mol H 2O _ 4 mol H 2 = 3.757 mol Na needed
_
1 mol Fe 3O 4 1 mol Fe 3O 4 4 mol H 2O Step 2: Make mole → mass conversion.
22.9 g Na
2 mol HgO 1 mol O 2 1 mol O 2
c. _ _ _ 3.757 mol Na × _ = 86.37 g Na needed
2 mol Hg 2 mol Hg 2 mol HgO 1 mol Na
2 mol Hg _ 2 mol Hg _ 2 mol HgO 100.0 g Na given - 86.37 g Na needed
_
2 mol HgO 1 mol O 2 1 mol O 2 = 13.6 g Na in excess
11. a. 2CH 4(g) + S 8(s) → 2CS 2(l) + 4H 2S(g) 29. a. Step 1: Write the balanced chemical equation.
2 mol CS 2 Zn(s) + I 2(s) → ZnI 2(s)
b. 1.50 mol S 8 × _ = 3.00 mol CS 2
1 mol S 8 Step 2: Make mass → mole conversion.
4 mol H 2S
c. 1.50 mol S 8 × _ = 6.00 mol H 2S 125.0 g Zn × _
1 mol Zn
= 1.912 mol Zn
1 mol S 8 65.38 g Zn
Chapter 14 = 0.118
The mole fraction of NaOH is 0.118.
9. 600.0 mL H 2O × 1.0 g/mL = 600.0 g H 2O
1.5 g
___ 20.0 g NaHCO 3
× 100 = 3% 37. S 2 = _ = 1.5 g/L
1.0 L
600.0 g H 2O + 20.0 g NaHCO 3 S 1.5 g/L
P 2 = P 1 × _2 = 10.0 atm × _ = 23 atm
11. 1500.0 g - 54.3 g = 1445.7 g solvent S1 0.66 g/L
__
35 mL 45. ∆T b = 0.512°C/m × 0.625m = 0.320°C
13. × 100 = 18%
155 mL + 35 mL T b = 100°C + 0.320°C = 100.320°C
15. 15% = __ × 100 = 120 mL
18 mL ∆T f = 1.86°C/m × 0.625m = 1.16°C
x mL solution
T f = 0.0°C − 1.16°C = −1.16°C
17. mol KBr = 1.55 g × _ = 0.0130 mol KBr
1 mol
119.0 g ∆T f
47. K f = _m
molarity = __ mol KBr
=_ 0.0130 mol
1.60 L solution 1.60 L =_0.080°C
0.045 m
= 8.13 × 10 -3M
= 1.8°C/m
x mol Ca(OH)
19. 0.25M = __2 It is most likely water because the calculated value is
1.5 L solution
x = 0.38 mol Ca(OH) 2 closest to 1.86°C/m.
74.08 g
0.38 mol Ca(OH) 2 × _
1 mol Chapter 15
= 28 g Ca(OH) 2
1. 142 Calories = 142 kcal
21. mol CaCl 2 = 500.0 mL × _ × 0.20M
1L
1000 mL 142 kcal × _
1000 cal
= 142,000 cal
1 kcal
= 500.0 mL × _ 1L
×_0.20 mol
= 0.10 mol 3. Unit X = 0.1 cal
1000 mL 1L
110.98 g
mass CaCl 2 = 0.10 mol CaCl 2 × _ 1 cal = 4.184 J
1 mol X = (0.1 cal)(4.184 J/cal) = 0.4184 J
=11 g
46 g ethanol 1 cal = 0.001 Calorie
23. 100 mL × _ × __ × __
1L 0.15 mol ethanol
1000 mL 1 L solution 1 mol ethanol X = (0.1 cal)(1 Cal/1000 cal) = 0.0001 Calorie
× __1 mL ethanol
= 0.87 mL 5. q = c × m × ∆T
0.7893 g ethanol
5696 J = c × 155 g × 15.0°C
25. (5.0M)V 1 = (0.25M)(100.0 mL) c = 2.45 J/(g·°C)
(0.25M)(100.0 mL)
V 1 = __ = 5.0 mL The specific heat is very close to the value for ethanol.
5.0M
13. q = c × m × ∆T
27. mol Na 2SO 4 = 10.0 g Na 2SO 4 × __
1 mol
142.04 g Na 2SO 4 5650 J = 4.184 J/(g·°C) × m × 26.6°C
= 0.0704 mol Na 2SO 4 m = 50.8 g
0.0704 mol Na SO
molality = __
2 4
= 0.0704m 15. q = c × m × ∆T
1.0000 kg H 2O
9750 J = 4.184 J/(g·ºC) × 335 g × ∆T
29. 22.8% = __ × 100
mass NaOH
mass NaOH + mass H 2O ∆T = 6.96°C
Assume 100.0 g sample. Because the water lost heat, let ∆T = −6.96°C.
Then, mass NaOH = 22.8 g ∆T = −6.96°C = T f − 65.5°C
mass H 2O = 100.0 g - (mass NaOH) = 77.2 g T f = 58.5°C
mol NaOH = 22.8 g × _
1 mol
= 0.570 mol NaOH 1 mol CH 3OH
23. 25.7 g CH 3OH × __ × __
3.22 kJ
40.00 g
32.04 g CH 3OH 1 mol CH 3OH
mol H 2O = 77.2 g × _1 mol
= 4.28 mol H 2O = 2.58 kJ
18.02 g
1 mol CH 4 891 kJ
mol fraction NaOH = __ mol NaOH 25. 12,880 kJ = m × _ × _
mol NaOH + mol H 2O 16.04 g CH 4 1 mol CH 4
16.04 g CH 4
= ___ =_
1 mol CH
m = 12,880 kJ × _ × _4
0.570 mol NaOH 0.570
0.570 mol NaOH + 4.28 mol H 2O 4.85 1 mol CH 4 891 kJ
(0.150)(0.150) [C H NH +][OH -]
__ = 8.2 × 10 -2 K b = __
6 13 3
[COCl 2] [C 6H 13NH 2]
(0.150)(0.150)
[COCl 2] = __
-2
= 0.28M b. C 3H 7NH 2(aq) + H 2O(l) ⇌
8.2 × 10 C 3H 7NH 3 -(aq) + OH-(aq)
19. According to the stoichiometry of the equation, the [C H NH +][OH -]
K b = __
3 7 3
concentration of B is 0.450M; C and D are 1.00 - [C 3H 7NH 2]
0.450 = 0.550M. c. CO 3 2-(aq) + H 2O(l) ⇌ HCO 3 -(aq) + OH -(aq)
(0.550)(0.550)
K eq = __ = 1.49 [HCO 3 -][OH -]
K b = __
(0.450)(0.450) [CO 3 2-]
21. K sp = [Pb 2+][CO 3 2-] = 7.40 × 10 -14 d. HSO 3 -(aq) + H 2O(l) ⇌ H 2SO 3(aq) + OH -(aq)
(s)(s) = 7.40 × 10 -14 [H SO -][OH -]
K b = __
2 3
s = √
7.40 × 10 -14 = 2.72 × 10 -7M -
[HSO 3 ]
s = 2.72 × 10 -7 mol/L × 267.2 g/mol 23. At 298 K, [H +] = [OH −] = 1.0 × 10 −7M
= 7.27 × 10 -5 g/L −7
Mol H + = __
1.0 × 10 mol _
× 1 L × 300 mL =
1L 1000 mL
23. K sp = [Ag +] 3[PO 4 3-] = 2.6 × 10 -18 3.0 × 10 −8 mol
[PO 4 3-] = s, [Ag +] = 3s 23 +
3.0 × 10 −8 mol H + ions × __
6.02 × 10 H ions
=
(3s) 3(s) = (27s 3)(s) = 27s 4 = 2.6 × 10 −18 1 mol
1.8 × 10 16 H + ions
4
s = _ 2.6 × 10 -18
= 1.8 × 10 -5 mol/L Number of H + = number of OH − = 1.8 × 10 16 ions
27
1 mol NH
2.944 × 10 −2 mol HCl × _3 = 2.944 × 23. 2I -(aq) → I 2(s) + 2e - (oxidation)
1 mol HCl
10 −2 mol NH 3 14H +(aq) + 6e - + Cr 2O 7 2-(aq) →
2.944 × 1 0 −2 mol N H
M NH 3 = __3 = 1.178M 2Cr 3+(aq) + 7H 2O(l) (reduction)
0.02500 L NH 3
Multiply oxidation half-reaction by 3 and add to
47. a. NH 4 +(aq) + H 2O(l) NH 3(aq) + H 3O +(aq) reduction half-reaction.
The solution is acidic. 14H +(aq) + 6e - + CrO 7 2-(aq) + 6I -(aq) →
b. SO 4 2−(aq) + H 2O(l) HSO 4 −(aq) + OH −(aq) 3I 2(s) + 2Cr 3+(aq) + 7H 2O(l) + 6e -
The solution is neutral. 14H (aq) + CrO 7 2-(aq) + 6I -(aq) →
+
c. CH 3COO −(aq) + H 2O(l) 3I 2(s) + 2Cr 3+(aq) + 7H 2O(l)
CH 3COOH(aq) + OH −(aq)
25. 6OH -(aq) + N 2O(g) →
The solution is basic.
2NO 2 -(aq) + 4e - + 3H 2O(l) (oxidation)
d. CO 3 2−(aq) + H 2O(l) HCO 3 −(aq) + OH −(aq)
The solution is basic. ClO -(aq) + 2e - + H 2O(l) →
Cl -(aq) + 2OH -(aq) (reduction)
CH3CHCHCH2CH(CH2)4CH3
27
19. + n → 24 4
—
110
CH3CH2CHCHCHCH2CH2CH3 n + T = I and I = β + 48Cd
—
Pronunciation Key
Use the following key to help you sound out words in the glossary.
a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . back (BAK) ew . . . . . . . . . . . . . food (FEWD)
ay . . . . . . . . . . . . . day (DAY) yoo . . . . . . . . . . . . pure (PYOOR)
ah . . . . . . . . . . . . . father (FAH thur) yew . . . . . . . . . . . . few (FYEW)
ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . flower (FLOW ur) uh . . . . . . . . . . . . . comma (CAHM uh)
ar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . car (CAR) u (+con) . . . . . . . . rub (RUB)
e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . less (LES) sh . . . . . . . . . . . . . shelf (SHELF)
ee . . . . . . . . . . . . . leaf (LEEF) ch . . . . . . . . . . . . . nature (NAY chur)
ih. . . . . . . . . . . . . . trip (TRIHP) g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gift (GIHFT)
i (i+con+e). . . . . . idea, life (i DEE uh, life) j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gem (JEM)
oh . . . . . . . . . . . . . go (GOH) ing . . . . . . . . . . . . sing (SING)
aw . . . . . . . . . . . . . soft (SAWFT) zh . . . . . . . . . . . . . vision (VIHZH un)
or . . . . . . . . . . . . . orbit (OR but) k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cake (KAYK)
oy . . . . . . . . . . . . . coin (COYN) s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . seed, cent (SEED, SENT)
oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . foot (FOOT) z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zone, raise (ZOHN, RAYZ)
English Español
absolute zero (p. 445) Zero on the Kelvin scale which repre- cero absoluto (pág. 445) Equivale a cero grados en la escala
sents the lowest possible theoretical temperature; atoms de Kelvin y representa la temperatura teórica más fría
are all in the lowest possible energy state. posible; a esta temperatura todos los átomos se encuen-
tran en el menor estado energético posible.
accuracy (p. 47) Refers to how close a measured value is to exactitud (pág. 47) Se refiere a la cercanía entre un valor
an accepted value. medido y el valor aceptado.
acid-base indicator (p. 662) A chemical dye whose color is indicador ácido-base (pág. 662) tinción química cuyo color
affected by acidic and basic solutions. cambia al entrar en contacto con soluciones ácidas y
básicas.
acidic solution (p. 636) Contains more hydrogen ions than solución ácida (pág. 636) Solución que contiene más iones
hydroxide ions. hidrógeno que iones hidróxido.
acid ionization constant (p. 647) The value of the equilib- constante ácida de ionización (pág. 647) Valor de la expre-
rium constant expression for the ionization of a weak sión de la constante de equilibrio para la ionización de
acid. un ácido débil.
actinide series (p. 180) In the periodic table, the f-block ele- serie de actínidos (pág. 180) Elementos del bloque F del
ments from period 7 that follow the element actinium. período 7 de la tabla periódica que aparecen después del
elemento actinio.
activated complex (p. 564) A short-lived, unstable arrange- complejo activado (pág. 564) Complejo efímero e inestable
ment of atoms that can break apart and re-form the reac- de átomos que se puede romper para volver a formar los
tants or can form products; also sometimes referred to as reactivos o para formar los productos; a veces también se
the transition state. le llama estado de transición.
activation energy (p. 564) The minimum amount of energy energía de activación (pág. 564) La cantidad mínima de
required by reacting particles in order to form the acti- energía que requieren las partículas de una reacción para
vated complex and lead to a reaction. formar el complejo activado y producir la reacción.
active site (p. 830) The pocket or crevice to which a sub- sitio activo (pág. 830) Saliente o hendidura a la que se enlaza
strate binds in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction. un sustrato durante una reacción catalizada por enzimas.
Glossary/Glosario 1005
Glossary/Glosario
actual yield (p. 385) The amount of product produced when rendimiento real (pág. 385) Cantidad de producto que se
a chemical reaction is carried out. obtiene al realizar una reacción química.
addition polymerization (p. 811) Occurs when all the atoms polimerización de adición (pág. 811) Ocurre cuando todos
present in the monomers are retained in the polymer los átomos presentes en los monómeros forman parte del
product. producto polimérico.
addition reaction (p. 804) A reaction that occurs when other reacción de adición (pág. 804) Reacción que ocurre cuando
atoms bond to each of two atoms bonded by double or dos átomos unidos entre sí por enlaces covalentes dobles
triple covalent bonds. o triples se unen con otros átomos.
alcohol (p. 792) An organic compound in which a hydroxyl alcohol (pág. 792) Compuesto orgánico en el que un grupo
group replaces a hydrogen atom of a hydrocarbon. hidroxilo reemplaza a un átomo de hidrógeno de un
hidrocarburo.
aldehyde (p. 796) An organic compound containing the aldehído (pág. 796) Compuesto orgánico que contiene una
structure in which a carbonyl group at the end of a car- estructura en la que un grupo carbonilo, situado al final de
bon chain is bonded to a carbon atom on one side and a una cadena de carbonos, se une a un átomo de carbono por
hydrogen atom on the other side. un lado y a un átomo de hidrógeno por el lado opuesto.
aliphatic compounds (a luh FA tihk • KAHM pownd) compuestos alifáticos (pág. 771) Hidrocarburos no aromáti-
(p. 771) Nonaromatic hydrocarbons, such as the alkanes, cos como los alcanos, los alquenos y los alquinos.
alkenes, and alkynes.
alkali metals (p. 177) Group 1 elements, except for hydro- metales alcalinos (pág. 177) Incluyen los elementos del
gen, they are reactive and usually exist as compounds grupo 1, a excepción del hidrógeno. Son reactivos y gene-
with other elements. ralmente existen como compuestos con otros elementos.
alkaline earth metals (p. 177) Group 2 elements in the mod- metales alcalinotérreos (pág. 177) Elementos altamente
ern periodic table and are highly reactive. reactivos del grupo 2 de la tabla periódica moderna.
alkane (p. 750) Hydrocarbon that contains only single alcano (pág. 750) Hidrocarburo que sólo contiene enlaces
bonds between atoms. sencillos entre sus átomos.
alkene (p. 759) An unsaturated hydrocarbon, such as eth- alqueno (pág. 759) Hidrocarburo no saturado, como el
ene (C 2H 4), with one or more double covalent bonds eteno (C 2H 4), que tiene uno o más enlaces covalentes
between carbon atoms in a chain. dobles entre los átomos de carbono en una cadena.
alkyl halide (p. 787) An organic compound containing a haluro de alquilo (pág. 787) Compuesto orgánico que con-
halogen atom covalently bonded to an aliphatic carbon tiene un átomo de halógeno enlazado covalentemente a
atom. un átomo de carbono alifático.
alkyne (p. 763) An unsaturated hydrocarbon, such as alquino (pág. 763) Hidrocarburo no saturado, como el ace-
ethyne (C 2H 2), with one or more triple bonds between tileno (C 2H 2), que tiene uno o más enlaces triples entre
carbon atoms in a chain. los átomos de carbono en una cadena.
allotrope (p. 422) One of two or more forms of an element alótropos (pág. 422) Formas de un elemento que tienen
with different structures and properties when they are in estructura y propiedades distintas cuando están en el
the same state—solid, liquid, or gas. mismo estado: sólido, líquido o gaseoso.
alloy (p. 227) A mixture of elements that has metallic prop- aleación (pág. 227) Mezcla de elementos que posee propie-
erties; most commonly forms when the elements are dades metálicas; en general se forman cuando los elemen-
either similar in size (substitutional alloy) or the atoms tos tienen un tamaño similar (aleación de sustitución)
of one element are much smaller than the atoms of the o cuando los átomos de un elemento son mucho más
other (interstitial alloy). pequeños que los átomos del otro (aleación intersticial).
alpha particle (p. 123) A particle with two protons and two partícula alfa (pág. 123) Partícula con dos protones y dos
neutrons, with a 2+ charge; is equivalent to a helium-4 neutrones que tiene una carga 2+ ; equivale a un núcleo
nucleus, can be represented as α; and is emitted during de helio 4, se puede representar como α y es emitida
radioactive decay. durante la desintegración radiactiva.
alpha radiation (p. 123) Radiation that is made up of alpha radiación alfa (pág. 123) Radiación compuesta de partículas
particles; is deflected toward a negatively charged plate alfa; si la radiación proveniente de una fuente radiactiva es
when radiation from a radioactive source is directed dirigida hacia dos placas cargadas eléctricamente, este tipo
between two electrically charged plates. de radiación se desvía hacia la placa con carga negativa.
amide (AM ide) (p. 800) An organic compound in which amida (pág. 800) Compuesto orgánico en el que el grupo
the -H group of a carboxylic acid is replaced by a nitro- -H de un ácido carboxílico es sustituido por un átomo
gen atom bonded to other atoms. de nitrógeno unido a otros átomos.
amines (A meen) (p. 795) Organic compounds that con- aminas (pág. 795) Compuestos orgánicos que contienen
tain nitrogen atoms bonded to carbon atoms in aliphatic átomos de nitrógeno unidos a átomos de carbono en
chains or aromatic rings and have the general formula cadenas alifáticas o anillos aromáticos; su fórmula gene-
RNH 2. ral es RNH 2.
amino acid (p. 826) An organic molecule that has both an amino ácido (pág. 826) Molécula orgánica que posee un
amino group (-NH 2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH). grupo amino (-NH 2) y un grupo carboxilo (-COOH).
1006 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
amorphous solid (p. 424) A solid in which particles are sólido amorfo (pág. 424) Sólido cuyas partículas no están
not arranged in a regular, repeating pattern that often is ordenadas de modo que formen un patrón regular repe-
formed when molten material cools too quickly to form titivo; a menudo se forma cuando el material fundido se
crystals. enfría demasiado rápido como para formar cristales.
amphoteric (AM foh TAR ihk) (p. 639) Describes water anfotérico (pág. 639) Término que describe al agua y otras
and other substances that can act as both acids and bases. sustancias que pueden actuar como ácidos y bases.
amplitude (p. 137) The height of a wave from the origin to amplitud (pág. 137) Altura de una onda desde el origen
a crest, or from the origin to a trough. hasta una cresta o desde el origen hasta un valle.
anabolism (ah NAB oh lih zum) (p. 844) Refers to the anabolismo (pág. 844) Reacciones metabólicas en las que
metabolic reactions through which cells use energy and las células usan energía y pequeñas unidades básicas para
small building blocks to build large, complex molecules formar las moléculas grandes y complejas que requieren
needed to carry out cell functions and for cell structures. para realizar sus funciones celulares y para construir sus
estructuras.
anion (AN i ahn) (p. 209) An ion that has a negative anión (pág. 209) Ion con carga negativa.
charge.
anode (p. 710) In an electrochemical cell, the electrode ánodo (pág. 710) Electrodo donde sucede la oxidación en
where oxidation takes place. una celda electroquímica.
applied research (p. 17) A type of scientific investigation investigación aplicada (pág. 17) Tipo de investigación cientí-
that is undertaken to solve a specific problem. fica que se realiza para resolver un problema concreto.
aqueous solution (p. 299) A solution in which the solvent is solución acuosa (pág. 299) Solución en la que el agua fun-
water. ciona como disolvente.
aromatic compounds (p. 771) Organic compounds that con- compuestos aromáticos (pág. 771) Compuestos orgánicos
tain one or more benzene rings as part of their molecular que contienen uno o más anillos de benceno como parte
structure. de su estructura molecular.
Arrhenius model (ah REE nee us • MAH dul) (p. 637) modelo de Arrhenius (pág. 637) Modelo de ácidos y bases;
A model of acids and bases; states that an acid is a sub- establece que un ácido es una sustancia que contiene
stance that contains hydrogen and ionizes to produce hidrógeno y se ioniza para producir iones hidrógeno en
hydrogen ions in aqueous solution and a base is a sub- solución acuosa, y que una base es una sustancia que
stance that contains a hydroxide group and dissociates to contiene un grupo hidróxido y se disocia para producir
produce a hydroxide ion in aqueous solution. un ion hidróxido en solución acuosa.
aryl halide (p. 788) An organic compound that contains a haluro de arilo (pág. 788) Compuesto orgánico que con-
halogen atom bonded to a benzene ring or another aro- tiene un átomo de halógeno unido a un anillo de ben-
matic group ceno u otro grupo aromático.
asymmetric carbon (p. 768) A carbon atom that has four carbono asimétrico (pág. 768) Átomo de carbono que está
different atoms or groups of atoms attached to it; occurs unido a cuatro átomos o grupos de átomos diferentes; se
in chiral compounds. hallan en compuestos quirales.
atmosphere (p. 407) The unit that is often used to report air atmósfera (pág. 407) Unidad que a menudo se usa para
pressure. reportar la presión atmosférica.
atom (p. 106) The smallest particle of an element that átomo (pág. 106) La partícula más pequeña de un elemento
retains all the properties of that element; is electrically que retiene todas las propiedades de ese elemento; es
neutral, spherically shaped, and composed of electrons, eléctricamente neutro, de forma esférica y está com-
protons, and neutrons. puesto de electrones, protones y neutrones.
atomic emission spectrum (p. 144) A set of frequencies of espectro de emisión atómica (pág. 144) Conjunto de fre-
electromagnetic waves given off by atoms of an element; cuencias de ondas electromagnéticas que emiten los áto-
consists of a series of fine lines of individual colors. mos de un elemento; consta de una serie de líneas finas
de distintos colores.
atomic mass (p. 119) The weighted average mass of the iso- masa atómica (pág. 119) La masa promedio ponderada de
topes of that element. los isótopos de un elemento.
atomic mass unit (amu) (p. 119) One-twelfth the mass of a unidad de masa atómica (uma) (pág. 119) La doceava parte
carbon-12 atom. de la masa de un átomo de carbono 12.
atomic number (p. 115) The number of protons in an atom. número atómico (pág. 115) El número de protones en un
átomo.
atomic orbital (p. 152) A three-dimensional region around orbital atómico (pág. 152) Región tridimensional alrededor
the nucleus of an atom that describes an electron’s prob- del núcleo de un átomo que describe la ubicación proba-
able location. ble de un electrón.
ATP (p. 845) Adenosine triphosphate—a nucleotide that ATP (pág. 845) Trifosfato de adenosina; nucleótido que
functions as the universal energy-storage molecule in sirve como la molécula universal de almacenamiento de
living cells. energía en las células vivas.
Glossary/Glosario 1007
Glossary/Glosario
aufbau principle (p. 156) States that each electron occupies principio de aufbau (pág. 156) Establece que cada electrón
the lowest energy orbital available. ocupa el orbital de energía más bajo disponible.
Avogadro’s number (p. 321) The number 6.0221367 × 10 23, número de Avogadro (pág. 321) Equivale al número
which is the number of representative particles in 6.0221367 × 10 23; es el número de partículas representa-
a mole, and can be rounded to three significant digits tivas en un mol; se puede redondear a tres dígitos signifi-
6.02 × 10 23. cativos: 6.02 × 10 23.
Avogadro’s principle (p. 452) States that equal volumes of principio de Avogadro (pág. 452) Establece que los
gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal volúmenes iguales de gases, a la misma temperatura y
numbers of particles. presión, contienen igual número de partículas.
B
band of stability (p. 866) The region on a graph within banda de estabilidad (pág. 866) Región de una gráfica en la
which all stable nuclei are found when plotting the num- que se hallan todos los núcleos estables cuando se grafica
ber of neutrons versus the number of protons. el número de neutrones contra el número de protones.
barometer (p. 407) An instrument that is used to measure barómetro (pág. 407) Instrumento que se utiliza para medir
atmospheric pressure. la presión atmosférica.
base ionization constant (p. 649) The value of the equilib- constante de ionización básica (pág. 649) El valor de la
rium constant expression for the ionization of a base. expresión de la constante de equilibrio para la ionización
de una base.
base unit (p. 33) A defined unit in a system of measurement unidad básica (pág. 33) Unidad definida en un sistema de
that is based on an object or event in the physical world medidas; está basada en un objeto o evento del mundo
and is independent of other units. físico y es independiente de otras unidades.
basic solution (p. 636) Contains more hydroxide ions than solución básica (pág. 636) Solución que contiene más iones
hydrogen ions. hidróxido que iones hidrógeno.
battery (p. 718) One or more electrochemical cells in a batería (pág. 718) Una o más celdas electroquímicas con-
single package that generates electrical current. tenidas en una sola unidad que genera corriente eléctrica.
beta particle (p. 123) A high-speed electron with a 1− partícula beta (pág. 123) Electrón de alta velocidad con
charge that is emitted during radioactive decay. una carga 1− que es emitido durante la desintegración
radiactiva.
beta radiation (p. 123) Radiation that is made up of beta radiación beta (pág. 123) Radiación compuesta de partículas
particles; is deflected toward a positively charged plate beta; si la radiación proveniente de una fuente radiactiva es
when radiation from a radioactive source is directed dirigida hacia dos placas cargadas eléctricamente, este tipo
between two electrically charged plates. de radiación se desvía hacia la placa con carga positiva.
boiling point (p. 427) The temperature at which a liquid’s punto de ebullición (pág. 427) Temperatura a la cual la pre-
vapor pressure is equal to the external or atmospheric sión de vapor de un líquido es igual a la presión externa
pressure. o atmosférica.
boiling-point elevation (p. 500) The temperature difference elevación del punto de ebullición (pág. 500) Diferencia de
between a solution’s boiling point and a pure solvent’s temperatura entre el punto de ebullición de una solución
boiling point. y el punto de ebullición de un disolvente puro.
Boyle’s law (p. 442) States that the volume of a fixed amount ley de Boyle (pág. 442) Establece que el volumen de una
of gas held at a constant temperature varies inversely cantidad dada de gas a temperatura constante varía
with the pressure. inversamente según la presión.
breeder reactor (p. 882) A nuclear reactor that is able to reactor generador (pág. 882) Reactor nuclear capaz de pro-
produce more fuel than it uses. ducir más combustible del que utiliza.
Brønsted-Lowry model (p. 638) A model of acids and bases modelo de Brønsted-Lowry (pág. 638) Modelo de áci-
in which an acid is a hydrogen-ion donor and a base is a dos y bases en el que un ácido es un donante de iones
hydrogen-ion acceptor. hidrógeno y una base es un receptor de iones hidrógeno.
Brownian motion (p. 477) The erratic, random, movements movimiento browniano (pág. 477) Movimientos erráticos,
of colloid particles that results from collisions of particles aleatorios de las partículas coloidales, producidos por el
of the dispersion medium with the dispersed particles. choque entre las partículas del medio de dispersión con
las partículas dispersas.
buffer (p. 666) A solution that resists changes in pH when amortiguador (pág. 666) Solución que resiste los cambios
limited amounts of acid or base are added. de pH cuando se agregan cantidades moderadas del
ácido o la base.
buffer capacity (p. 667) The amount of acid or base a buffer capacidad amortiguadora (pág. 667) Cantidad de ácido o
solution can absorb without a significant change in pH. base que una solución amortiguadora puede absorber sin
sufrir un cambio significativo en el pH.
1008 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
C
calorie (p. 518) The amount of heat required to raise the caloría (pág. 518) Cantidad de calor que se requiere para
temperature of one gram of pure water by one degree elevar un grado centígrado la temperatura de un gramo
Celsius. de agua pura.
calorimeter (p. 523) An insulated device that is used to calorímetro (pág. 523) Dispositivo aislado que sirve para
measure the amount of heat released or absorbed during medir la cantidad de calor liberada o absorbida durante
a physical or chemical process. un proceso físico o químico.
carbohydrates (p. 832) Compounds that contain multiple carbohidratos (pág. 832) Compuestos que contienen múlti-
hydroxyl groups, plus an aldehyde or a ketone functional ples grupos hidroxilo, además de un grupo funcional
group, and function in living things to provide immedi- aldehído o cetona, cuya función en los seres vivos es pro-
ate and stored energy. porcionar energía inmediata o almacenada.
carbonyl group (p. 796) Arrangement in which an oxygen grupo carbonilo (pág. 796) Grupo formado por un átomo
atom is double-bonded to a carbon atom. de oxígeno unido por un enlace doble a un átomo de
carbono.
carboxyl group (p. 798) Consists of a carbonyl group grupo carboxilo (pág. 798) Consiste en un grupo carbonilo
bonded to a hydroxyl group. unido a un grupo hidroxilo.
carboxylic acid (p. 798) An organic compound that contains ácido carboxílico (pág. 798) Compuesto orgánico que con-
a carboxyl group and is polar and reactive. tiene un grupo carboxilo; es polar y reactivo.
catabolism (kuh TAB oh lih zum) (p. 844) Refers to meta- catabolismo (pág. 844) Reacciones metabólicas en las
bolic reactions that break down complex biological mol- que se desdoblan moléculas biológicas complejas para
ecules for the purpose of forming smaller building blocks obtener unidades básicas más pequeñas y energía.
and extracting energy.
catalyst (p. 571) A substance that increases the rate of a catalizador (pág. 571) Sustancia que aumenta la velocidad de
chemical reaction by lowering activation energies but is una reacción química al reducir su energía de activación;
not itself consumed in the reaction. el catalizador no es consumido durante la reacción.
cathode (p. 710) In an electrochemical cell, the electrode cátodo (pág. 710) Electrodo donde sucede la reducción en
where reduction takes place. una celda electroquímica.
cathode ray (p. 108) Radiation that originates from the rayo catódico (pág. 108) Radiación que se origina en el
cathode and travels to the anode of a cathode-ray tube. cátodo y viaja hacia el ánodo de un tubo de rayos catódicos.
cation (KAT i ahn) (p. 207) An ion that has a positive catión (pág. 207) Ion con carga positiva.
charge.
cellular respiration (p. 846) The process in which glucose is respiración celular (pág. 846) Proceso en el cual la glucosa
broken down in the presence of oxygen gas to produce es desdoblada en presencia del gas oxígeno para producir
carbon dioxide, water, and energy. dióxido de carbono, agua y energía.
Charles’s law (p. 445) States that the volume of a given mass Ley de Charles (pág. 445) Establece que el volumen de una
of gas is directly proportional to its kelvin temperature at masa dada de gas es directamente proporcional a su tem-
constant pressure. peratura Kelvin a presión constante.
chemical bond (p. 206) The force that holds two atoms enlace químico (pág. 206) La fuerza que mantiene a dos áto-
together; may form by the attraction of a positive ion for mos unidos; puede formarse por la atracción de un ion
a negative ion or by sharing electrons. positivo por un ion negativo compartiendo electrones.
chemical change (p. 77) A process involving one or more cambio químico (pág. 77) Proceso que involucra una o más
substances changing into new substances; also called a sustancias que se transforman en sustancias nuevas; tam-
chemical reaction. bién se conoce como reacción química.
chemical equation (p. 285) A statement using chemical ecuación química (pág. 285) Expresión que utiliza fórmu-
formulas to describe the identities and relative amounts las químicas para describir las identidades y cantidades
of the reactants and products involved in the chemical relativas de los reactivos y productos presentes en una
reaction. reacción química.
chemical equilibrium (p. 596) The state in which forward equilibrio químico (pág. 596) Estado en el que se equilibran
and reverse reactions balance each other because they mutuamente las reacciones en sentido directo e inverso de
occur at equal rates. una reacción química debido a que suceden a tasas iguales.
chemical potential energy (p. 517) The energy stored in a energía potencial química (pág. 517) La energía almacenada
substance because of its composition; most is released or en una sustancia debido a su composición; la mayoría
absorbed as heat during chemical reactions or processes. es liberada o absorbida como calor durante reacciones o
procesos químicos.
chemical property (p. 74) The ability or inability of a sub- propiedad química (pág. 74) La capacidad de una sustancia
stance to combine with or change into one or more new de combinarse con una o más sustancias nuevas o de
substances. transformarse en una o más sustancias nuevas.
Glossary/Glosario 1009
Glossary/Glosario
chemical reaction (p. 282) The process by which the atoms reacción química (pág. 282) Proceso por el cual los átomos
of one or more substances are rearranged to form differ- de una o más sustancias se reordenan para formar sus-
ent substances; occurrence can be indicated by changes tancias diferentes; su pueden identificar cuando suceden
in temperature, color, odor, and physical state. cambios en temperatura, color, olor o estado físico.
chemistry (p. 4) The study of matter and the changes that it química (pág. 4) El estudio de la materia y los cambios que
undergoes. ésta experimenta.
chirality (p. 767) A property of a compound to exist in both quiralidad (pág. 767) Propiedad de un compuesto para
left (l-) and right (d-) forms; occurs whenever a com- existir en forma levógira (i-) o dextrógira (d-); ocurre
pound contains an asymmetric carbon. cuando un compuesto contiene un carbono asimétrico.
chromatography (p. 83) A technique that is used to separate cromatografía (pág. 83) Técnica que sirve para separar los
the components of a mixture based on the tendency of componentes de una mezcla según la tendencia de cada
each component to travel or be drawn across the surface componente a desplazarse o ser atraído a lo largo de la
of another material. superficie de otro material.
coefficient (p. 285) In a chemical equation, the number coeficiente (pág. 285) Número que precede a un reactivo o
written in front of a reactant or product; in a balanced un producto en una ecuación química; en una ecuación
equation describes the lowest whole-number ratio of the equilibrada, indica la razón más pequeña expresada en
amounts of all reactants and products. números enteros de las cantidades de reactivos y produc-
tos en dicha reacción.
colligative property (kol LIHG uh tihv • PRAH pur tee) propiedad coligativa (pág. 498) Propiedad física de una
(p. 498) A physical property of a solution that depends solución que depende del número, pero no de la identi-
on the number, but not the identity, of the dissolved sol- dad, de las partículas de soluto disueltas.
ute particles.
collision theory (p. 563) States that atoms, ions, and mol- teoría de colisión (pág. 563) Establece que los átomos, iones
ecules must collide in order to react. y moléculas deben chocar para reaccionar.
colloids (p. 477) A heterogeneous mixture of intermediate- coloides (pág. 477) Mezcla heterogénea de partículas de
sized particles (between atomic-size of solution particles tamaño intermedio (entre el tamaño atómico de partícu-
and the size of suspension particles). las en solución y el de partículas en suspensión).
combined gas law (p. 449) A single law combining Boyle’s, ley combinada de los gases (pág. 449) Ley que combina
Charles’s, and Gay-Lussac’s laws that states the relation- las leyes de Boyle, Charles y de Gay-Lussac; indica la
ship among pressure, volume, and temperature of a fixed relación entre la presión, el volumen y la temperatura de
amount of gas. una cantidad constante de gas.
combustion reaction (p. 290) A chemical reaction that reacción de combustión (pág. 290) Reacción química que
occurs when a substance reacts with oxygen, releasing ocurre al reaccionar una sustancia con el oxígeno, libe-
energy in the form of heat and light. rando energía en forma de calor y luz.
common ion (p. 620) An ion that is common to two or more ion común (pág. 620) Ion común a dos o más compuestos
ionic compounds. iónicos.
common ion effect (p. 620) The lowering of the solubility of efecto del ion común (pág. 620) Disminución de la solu-
a substance by the presence of a common ion. bilidad de una sustancia debida a la presencia de un ion
común.
complete ionic equation (p. 301) An ionic equation that ecuación iónica total (pág. 301) Ecuación iónica que mues-
shows all the particles in a solution as they realistically tra cómo existen realmente todas las partículas en una
exist. solución.
complex reaction (p. 580) A chemical reaction that consists reacción compleja (pág. 580) Reacción química que consiste
of two or more elementary steps. en dos o más pasos elementales.
compound (p. 85) A chemical combination of two or more compuesto (pág. 85) Combinación química de dos o más
different elements; can be broken down into simpler sub- elementos diferentes; puede ser separado en sustancias
stances by chemical means and has properties different más sencillas por medios químicos y exhibe propiedades
from those of its component elements. que difieren de los elementos que lo componen.
concentration (p. 480) A measure of how much solute is concentración (pág. 480) Medida de la cantidad de soluto que
dissolved in a specific amount of solvent or solution. se disuelve en una cantidad dada de disolvente o solución.
conclusion (p. 15) A judgment based on the information conclusión (pág. 15) Juicio basado en la información
obtained. obtenida.
condensation (p. 428) The energy-releasing process by condensación (pág. 428) El proceso de liberación de energía
which a gas or vapor becomes a liquid. mediante el cual un gas o vapor se convierte en líquido.
condensation polymerization (p. 811) Occurs when mono- polimerización por condensación (pág. 811) Ocurre cuando
mers containing at least two functional groups combine monómeros que contienen al menos dos grupos funcio-
with the loss of a small by-product, usually water. nales se combinan y pierden un producto secundario
pequeño, generalmente agua.
1010 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
condensation reaction (p. 801) Occurs when two smaller reacción de condensación (pág. 801) Ocurre cuando dos
organic molecules combine to form a more complex moléculas orgánicas pequeñas se combinan para formar
molecule, accompanied by the loss of a small molecule una molécula más compleja; esta reacción es acompañada
such as water. de la pérdida de una molécula pequeña como el agua.
conjugate acid (p. 638) The species produced when a base ácido conjugado (pág. 638) Especie que se produce cuando
accepts a hydrogen ion from an acid. una base acepta un ion hidrógeno de un ácido.
conjugate acid-base pair (p. 638) Consists of two substances par ácido-base conjugado (pág. 638) Consiste en dos sus-
related to each other by the donating and accepting of a tancias que se relacionan entre sí mediante la donación y
single hydrogen ion. aceptación de un solo ion hidrógeno.
conjugate base (p. 638) The species produced when an acid base conjugada (pág. 638) Especie que se produce cuando
donates a hydrogen ion to a base. un ácido dona un ion hidrógeno a una base.
control (p. 14) In an experiment, the standard that is used control (pág. 14) Estándar de comparación en un experi-
for comparison. mento.
conversion factor (p. 44) A ratio of equivalent values used factor de conversión (pág. 44) Razón de valores equivalentes
to express the same quantity in different units; is always que sirve para expresar una misma cantidad en unidades
equal to 1 and changes the units of a quantity without diferentes; siempre es igual a 1 y cambia las unidades de
changing its value. una cantidad sin cambiar su valor.
coordinate covalent bond (p. 259) Forms when one atom enlace covalente coordinado (pág. 259) Se forma cuando
donates a pair of electrons to be shared with an atom or un átomo dona un par de electrones para compartirlos
ion that needs two electrons to become stable. con un átomo o un ion que requieren dos electrones para
adquirir estabilidad.
corrosion (p. 724) The loss of metal that results from an oxi- corrosión (pág. 724) Pérdida de metal producida por una
dation-reduction reaction of the metal with substances in reacción de óxido-reducción del metal con sustancias en
the environment. el ambiente.
covalent bond (p. 241) A chemical bond that results from enlace covalente (pág. 241) Enlace químico que se produce
the sharing of valence electrons. al compartir electrones de valencia.
cracking (p. 748) The process by which heavier fractions cracking (pág. 748) Proceso por el cual las fracciones más
of petroleum are converted to gasoline by breaking their pesadas de petróleo son convertidas en gasolina al romper
large molecules into smaller molecules. las moléculas grandes en moléculas más pequeñas.
critical mass (p. 880) The minimum mass of a sample of masa crítica (pág. 880) La masa mínima de una muestra
fissionable material necessary to sustain a nuclear chain de material fisionable que se necesita para sostener una
reaction. reacción nuclear en cadena.
crystal lattice (p. 214) A three-dimensional geometric red cristalina (pág. 214) Ordenamiento geométrico tri-
arrangement of particles in which each positive ion is dimensional de partículas en el que cada ion positivo
surrounded by negative ions and each negative ion is queda rodeado de iones negativos y cada ion negativo
surrounded by positive ions; vary in shape due to sizes queda rodeado de iones positivos; su forma varía según
and relative numbers of the ions bonded. el tamaño y número de iones enlazados.
crystalline solid (p. 420) A solid whose atoms, ions, or sólido cristalino (pág. 420) Sólido cuyos átomos, iones o
molecules are arranged in an orderly, geometric, three- moléculas forman una estructura tridimensional, orde-
dimensional structure. nada y geométrica.
crystallization (p. 83) A separation technique that produces cristalización (pág. 83) Técnica de separación que produce
pure solid particles of a substance from a solution that partículas sólidas puras de una sustancia a partir de una
contains the dissolved substance. solución que contiene dicha sustancia en solución.
cyclic hydrocarbon (p. 755) An organic compound that con- hidrocarburo cíclico (pág. 755) Compuesto orgánico que
tains a hydrocarbon ring. contiene un anillo de hidrocarburos.
cycloalkane (p. 755) Cyclic hydrocarbons that contain cicloalcano (pág. 755) Hidrocarburos cíclicos que sólo con-
single bonds only and can have rings with three, four, tienen enlaces simples; pueden formar anillos con tres,
five, six, or more carbon atoms. cuatro, cinco, seis o más átomos de carbono.
Dalton’s law of partial pressures/ley de Dalton de las presiones parciales elastic collision/choque elástico
Dalton’s law of partial pressures (p. 408) States that the total ley de Dalton de las presiones parciales (pág. 408) Establece
pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the que la presión total de una mezcla de gases es igual a la
pressures of all the gases in the mixture. suma de las presiones de todos los gases en la mezcla.
de Broglie equation (p. 150) Predicts that all moving par- ecuación de deBroglie (pág. 150) Predice que todas las
ticles have wave characteristics and relates each particle’s partículas móviles tienen características ondulatorias y
wavelength to its frequency, its mass, and Planck’s con- relaciona la longitud de onda de cada partícula con su
stant. frecuencia, su masa y la constante de Planck.
decomposition reaction (p. 292) A chemical reaction that reacción de descomposición (pág. 292) Reacción química
occurs when a single compound breaks down into two or que ocurre cuando un solo compuesto se divide en dos o
more elements or new compounds. más elementos o nuevos compuestos.
dehydration reaction (p. 803) An elimination reaction in reacción de deshidratación (pág. 803) Una reacción de elimi-
which the atoms removed form water. nación en la que los átomos que se pierden forman agua.
dehydrogenation reaction (p. 803) A reaction that elimi- reacción de deshidrogenación (pág. 803) Reacción orgánica
nates two hydrogen atoms, which form a hydrogen mol- en la que se pierden dos átomos de hidrógeno, los cuales
ecule of gas. se unen y forman una molécula de hidrógeno.
delocalized electrons (p. 225) The electrons involved in electrones deslocalizados (pág. 225) Los electrones que
metallic bonding that are free to move easily from one forman un enlace metálico; estos electrones pasan fácil-
atom to the next throughout the metal and are not mente de un átomo a otro a través del metal y no están
attached to a particular atom. unidos a ningún átomo en particular.
denaturation (p. 829) The process in which a protein’s natu- desnaturalización (pág. 829) Proceso que afecta la estruc-
ral, intricate three-dimensional structure is disrupted. tura tridimensional, compleja y natural de una proteína.
denatured alcohol (p. 793) Ethanol to which noxious sub- alcohol desnaturalizado (pág. 793) Etanol al cual se añaden
stances have been added in order to make it unfit to drink. sustancias nocivas para evitar que se pueda beber.
density (p. 36) The amount of mass per unit volume; a densidad (pág. 36) La cantidad de masa por unidad de
physical property. volumen; una propiedad física.
dependent variable (p. 14) In an experiment, the variable variable dependiente (pág. 14) Es la variable de un experi-
whose value depends on the independent variable. mento cuyo valor depende de la variable independiente.
deposition (p. 429) The energy-releasing process by which a depositación (pág. 429) Proceso de liberación de energía
substance changes from a gas or vapor to a solid without por el cual una sustancia cambia de gas o vapor a sólido
first becoming a liquid. sin antes convertirse en un líquido.
derived unit (p. 35) A unit defined by a combination of base unidad derivada (pág. 35) Unidad definida por una combi-
units. nación de unidades básicas.
diffusion (p. 404) The movement of one material through difusión (pág. 404) El movimiento de un material a través
another from an area of higher concentration to an area de otro en dirección al área de menor concentración.
of lower concentration.
dimensional analysis (p. 44) A systematic approach to prob- análisis dimensional (pág. 44) Un enfoque sistemático para
lem solving that uses conversion factors to move from resolver un problema en el que se usan factores de con-
one unit to another. versión para pasar de una unidad a otra.
dipole-dipole forces (p. 412) The attractions between oppo- fuerzas dipolo-dipolo (pág. 412) La atracción entre regiones
sitely charged regions of polar molecules. con cargas opuestas de moléculas polares.
disaccharide (p. 833) Forms when two monosaccharides disacárido (pág. 833) Se forma a partir de la unión de dos
bond together. monosacáridos.
dispersion forces (p. 412) The weak forces resulting from fuerzas de dispersión (pág. 412) Fuerzas débiles causadas
temporary shifts in the density of electrons in electron por los cambios temporales en la densidad de electrones
clouds. en las nubes electrónicas.
disaccharide (p. 82) A technique that can be used to physi- destilación (pág. 82) Técnica que se usa para separar física-
cally separate most homogeneous mixtures based on the mente la mayoría de las mezclas homogéneas según las
differences in the boiling points of the substances. diferencias en los puntos de ebullición de las sustancias.
double-replacement reaction (p. 296) A chemical reaction reacción de sustitución doble (pág. 296) Reacción química
that involves the exchange of ions between two com- en la que dos compuestos intercambian iones positivos,
pounds and produces either a precipitate, a gas, or water. produciendo un precipitado, un gas o agua.
dry cell (p. 718) An electrochemical cell that contains a pila seca (pág. 718) Celda electroquímica que contiene una
moist electrolytic paste inside a zinc shell. pasta electrolítica húmeda dentro de un armazón de zinc.
E
elastic collision (p. 403) Collision in which no kinetic choque elástico (pág. 403) Colisión en que no se pierde
energy is lost; kinetic energy can be transferred between energía cinética; la energía cinética es transferida entre
the colliding particles, but the total kinetic energy of the las partículas en choque, pero la energía cinética total de
two particles remains the same. las dos partículas permanece igual.
1012 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
electrochemical cell (p. 709) An apparatus that uses a redox celda electroquímica (pág. 709) Aparato que usa una reac-
reaction to produce electrical energy or uses electrical ción redox para producir energía eléctrica o que utiliza
energy to cause a chemical reaction. energía eléctrica para causar una reacción química.
electrolysis (p. 728) The process that uses electrical energy electrólisis (pág. 728) Proceso que emplea energía eléctrica
to bring about a chemical reaction. para producir una reacción química.
electrolyte (p. 215) An ionic compound whose aqueous electrolito (pág. 215) Compuesto iónico cuya solución
solution conducts an electric current. acuosa conduce una corriente eléctrica.
electrolytic cell (p. 728) An electrochemical cell in which celda electrolítica (pág. 728) Celda electroquímica en donde
electrolysis occurs. ocurre la electrólisis.
electromagnetic radiation (p. 137) A form of energy exhib- radiación electromagnética (pág. 137) Forma de energía que
iting wavelike behavior as it travels through space; can exhibe un comportamiento ondulatorio al viajar por el
be described by wavelength, frequency, amplitude, and espacio; se puede describir por su longitud de onda, su
speed. frecuencia, su amplitud y su rapidez.
electromagnetic spectrum (p. 139) Includes all forms of espectro electromagnético (pág. 139) Incluye toda forma
electromagnetic radiation; the types of radiation differ in de radiación electromagnética; los distintos tipos de
their frequencies and wavelengths. radiación difirien en sus frecuencias y sus longitudes de
onda.
electron (p. 108) A negatively charged, fast-moving particle electrón (pág. 108) Partícula móvil rápida, de carga negativa
with an extremely small mass that is found in all forms of y con una masa extremadamente pequeña. que se encuen-
matter and moves through the empty space surrounding tra en todas las formas de materia y que se mueve a través
an atom’s nucleus. del espacio vacío que rodea el núcleo de un átomo.
electron capture (p. 868) A radioactive decay process that captura electrónica (pág. 868) Proceso de desintegración
occurs when an atom’s nucleus draws in a surrounding radiactiva que ocurre cuando el núcleo de un átomo
electron, which combines with a proton to form a neu- atrae un electrón circundante, que luego se combina con
tron, resulting in an X-ray photon being emitted. un protón para formar un neutrón, provocando la emi-
sión de un fotón de rayos X.
electron configuration (p. 156) The arrangement of elec- configuración electrónica (pág. 156) El ordenamiento de los
trons in an atom, which is prescribed by three rules— electrones en un átomo; está determinado por tres reglas:
the aufbau principle, the Pauli exclusion principle, and el principio de Aufbau, el principio de exclusión de Pauli
Hund’s rule. y la regla de Hund.
electron-dot structure (p. 161) Consists of an element’s estructura de puntos de electrones (pág. 161) Consiste en el
symbol, representing the atomic nucleus and inner-level símbolo del elemento, que representa al núcleo atómico y
electrons, that is surrounded by dots, representing the los electrones de los niveles internos, rodeado por puntos
atom’s valence electrons. que representan los electrones de valencia del átomo.
electron sea model (p. 225) Proposes that all metal atoms in modelo del mar de electrones (pág. 225) Propone que todos
a metallic solid contribute their valence electrons to form los átomos de metal en un sólido metálico contribuyen
a “sea” of electrons, and can explain properties of metal- con sus electrones de valencia para formar un “mar” de
lic solids such as malleability, conduction, and ductility. electrones.
electronegativity (p. 194) Indicates the relative ability of an electronegatividad (pág. 194) Indica la capacidad relativa
element’s atoms to attract electrons in a chemical bond. de los átomos de un elemento para atraer electrones en
element (p. 84) A pure substance that cannot be broken un enlace químico.
down into simpler substances by physical or chemical elemento (pág. 84) Sustancia pura que no puede separarse
means. en sustancias más sencillas por medios físicos ni quími-
elimination reaction (p. 802) A reaction of organic com- cos.
pounds that occurs when a combination of atoms is reacción de eliminación (pág. 802) Reacción de compuestos
removed from two adjacent carbon atoms forming an orgánicos que ocurre cuando se pierden un conjunto de
additional bond between the atoms. átomos en dos átomos adyacentes de carbono, al for-
empirical formula (p. 344) A formula that shows the small- marse un enlace entre dichos átomos de carbono.
est whole-number mole ratio of the elements of a com- fórmula empírica (pág. 344) Fórmula que muestra la pro-
pound, and may or may not be the same as the actual porción molar más pequeña expresada en números ente-
molecular formula. ros de los elementos de un compuesto; puede ser distinta
de la fórmula molecular real.
endothermic (p. 247) A chemical reaction or process in endotérmica (pág. 247) Reacción o proceso químico que
which a greater amount of energy is required to break requiere una mayor cantidad de energía para romper los
the existing bonds in the reactants than is released when enlaces existentes en los reactivos, que la que se se libera al
the new bonds form in the product molecules. formarse los enlaces nuevos en las moléculas del producto.
end point (p. 663) The point at which the indicator that is punto final (pág. 663) Punto en el que el indicador que se
used in a titration changes color. utiliza en una titulación cambia de color.
Glossary/Glosario 1013
Glossary/Glosario
energy (p. 516) The capacity to do work or produce heat; energía (pág. 516) Capacidad de realizar trabajo o producir
exists as potential energy, which is stored in an object calor; existe como energía potencial (almacenada en
due to its composition or position, and kinetic energy, un objeto debido a su composición o posición) o como
which is the energy of motion. energía cinética (energía del movimiento).
energy sublevels (p. 153) The energy levels contained subniveles de energía (pág. 153) Los niveles de energía den-
within a principal energy level. tro de un nivel principal de energía.
enthalpy (p. 527) The heat content of a system at constant entalpía (pág. 527) El contenido de calor en un sistema a
pressure. presión constante.
enthalpy (heat) of combustion (p. 529) The enthalpy change entalpía (calor) de combustión (pág. 529) El cambio de
for the complete burning of one mole of a given sub- entalpía causado por la combustión completa de un mol
stance. de una sustancia dada.
enthalpy (heat) of reaction (p. 527) The change in enthalpy entalpía (calor) de reacción (pág. 527) El cambio en la
for a reaction—the difference between the enthalpy of entalpía que ocurre en una reacción; es decir, la diferen-
the substances that exist at the end of the reaction and cia entre la entalpía de las sustancias que existen al final
the enthalpy of the substances present at the start de la reacción y la entalpía de las sustancias presentes al
comienzo de la misma.
entropy (p. 543) A measure of the number of possible ways entropía (pág. 543) Una medida de las formas posibles en
that the energy of a system can be distributed; related que se puede distribuir la energía de un sistema; está
to the freedom of the system’s particles to move and the relacionada con la libertad de movimiento de las partícu-
number of ways they can be arranged. las del sistema y el número de maneras en que éstas se
pueden ordenar.
enzyme (p. 829) A biological catalyst. enzima (pág. 829) Catalizador biológico.
equilibrium constant (p. 599) K eq is the numerical value that constante de equilibrio (pág. 599) K eq es el valor numérico
describes the ratio of product concentrations to reactant que describe la razón de las concentraciones de los pro-
concentrations, with each raised to the power corre- ductos con respecto a las concentraciones de los reac-
sponding to its coefficient in the balanced equation. tivos, cada una de ellas elevada a la potencia correspon-
diente a su coeficiente en la ecuación equilibrada.
equivalence point (p. 661) The point at which the moles of punto de equivalencia (pág. 661) Punto en el cual los moles
H + ions from the acid equals moles of OH - ions from de iones H + del ácido equivalen a los moles de iones
the base. OH - de la base.
error (p. 48) The difference between an experimental value error (pág. 48) La diferencia entre el valor experimental y el
and an accepted value valor aceptado.
ester (p. 799) An organic compound with a carboxyl group éster (pág. 799) Compuesto orgánico con un grupo car-
in which the hydrogen of the hydroxyl group is replaced boxilo en el que el hidrógeno del grupo de hidroxilo es
by an alkyl group; may be volatile and sweet-smelling reemplazado por un grupo alquilo; es polar y puede ser
and is polar. volátil y de olor dulce.
ether (p. 794) An organic compound that contains an oxy- éter (pág. 794) Compuesto orgánico que contiene un
gen atom bonded to two carbon atoms. átomo de oxígeno unido a dos átomos de carbono.
evaporation (p. 426) The process in which vaporization evaporación (pág. 426) Proceso en el cual la vaporización
occurs only at the surface of a liquid. ocurre sólo en la superficie de un líquido.
excess reactant (p. 379) A reactant that remains after a reactivo en exceso (pág. 379) Reactivo que sobra luego de
chemical reaction stops. finalizar una reacción química.
exothermic (p. 247) A chemical reaction or process in exotérmica (pág. 247) Reacción o proceso químico en el
which more energy is released than is required to break que se libera más energía que la requerida para romper
bonds in the initial reactants. los enlaces en los reactivos iniciales.
experiment (p. 14) A set of controlled observations that test experimento (pág. 14) Conjunto de observaciones controla-
a hypothesis. das que se realizan para probar una hipótesis.
extensive property (p. 73) A physical property, such as propiedad extensiva (pág. 73) Propiedades físicas, como la
mass, length, and volume, that is dependent upon the masa, la longitud y el volumen, que dependen de la can-
amount of substance present. tidad de sustancia presente.
F
fatty acid (p. 835) A long-chain carboxylic acid that usually ácido graso (pág. 835) Ácido carboxílico de cadena larga
has between 12 and 24 carbon atoms and can be satu- que tiene generalmente entre 12 y 24 átomos de carbono;
rated (no double bonds), or unsaturated (one or more puede ser saturado (sin enlaces dobles) o insaturado o no
double bonds). saturado (con uno o más enlaces dobles).
1014 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
fermentation/fermentación group/grupo
fermentation (p. 847) The process in which glucose is bro- fermentación (pág. 847) Proceso en el cual la glucosa es
ken down in the absence of oxygen, producing either desdoblada en ausencia de oxígeno produciendo etanol,
ethanol, carbon dioxide, and energy (alcoholic fermenta- dióxido de carbono y energía (fermentación alcohólica)
tion) or lactic acid and energy (lactic acid fermentation). o ácido láctico y energía (fermentación del ácido láctico).
filtration (p. 82) A technique that uses a porous barrier to filtración (pág. 82) Técnica que utiliza una barrera porosa
separate a solid from a liquid. para separar un sólido de un líquido.
formula unit (p. 218) The simplest ratio of ions represented fórmula unitaria (pág. 218) La razón más simple de iones
in an ionic compound. representados en un compuesto iónico.
fractional distillation (p. 747) The process by which petro- destilación fraccionaria (pág. 747) Proceso mediante el cual
leum can be separated into simpler components, called se separa el petróleo en componentes más simples llama-
fractions, as they condense at different temperatures. dos fracciones, las cuales se condensan a temperaturas
diferentes.
free energy (p. 546) The energy available to do work—the energía libre (pág. 546) Energía disponible para hacer tra-
difference between the change in enthalpy and the prod- bajo: la diferencia entre el cambio en la entalpía y el pro-
uct of the entropy change and the kelvin temperature. ducto del cambio de entropía por la temperatura kelvin.
freezing point (p. 428) The temperature at which a liquid is punto de congelación (pág. 428) La temperatura a la cual un
converted into a crystalline solid. líquido se convierte en un sólido cristalino.
freezing-point depression (p. 502) The difference in temper- depresión del punto de congelación (pág. 502) Diferencia de
ature between a solution’s freezing point and the freezing temperatura entre el punto de congelación de una solu-
point of its pure solvent. ción y el punto de congelación de su disolvente puro.
frequency (p. 137) The number of waves that pass a given frecuencia (pág. 137) Número de ondas que pasan por un
point per second. punto dado en un segundo.
fuel cell (p. 722) A voltaic cell in which the oxidation of a celda de combustible (pág. 722) Celda voltaica en la cual la
fuel, such as hydrogen gas, is used to produce electric oxidación de un combustible, como el gas hidrógeno, se
energy. utiliza para producir energía eléctrica.
functional group (p. 786) An atom or group of atoms that grupo funcional (pág. 786) Átomo o grupo de átomos que
always reacts in a certain way in an organic molecule. siempre reaccionan de cierta manera en una molécula
orgánica.
G
galvanization (p. 727) The process in which an iron object galvanizado (pág. 727) Proceso en el cual un objeto de
is dipped into molten zinc or electroplated with zinc to hierro en sumergido o galvanizado en zinc para aumen-
make the iron more resistant to corrosion. tar la resistencia del hierro a la corrosión.
gamma rays (p. 124) High-energy radiation that has no rayos gamma (pág. 124) Radiación de alta energía sin carga
electrical charge and no mass, is not deflected by electric eléctrica ni masa; no es desviada por campos eléctricos ni
or magnetic fields, usually accompanies alpha and beta magnéticos; acompaña generalmente a la radiación alfa y
radiation, and accounts for most of the energy lost dur- beta; representa la mayor parte de la energía perdida
ing radioactive decay. durante la desintegración radiactiva.
gas (p. 72) A form of matter that flows to conform to the gas (pág. 72) Forma de la materia que fluye para adaptarse
shape of its container, fills the container’s entire volume, a la forma de su contenedor, llena el volumen entero del
and is easily compressed. recipiente y se comprime fácilmente.
Gay-Lussac’s law (p. 447) States that the pressure of a fixed ley de Gay-Lussac (pág. 447) Establece que la presión de una
mass of gas varies directly with the kelvin temperature masa dada de gas varía directamente con la temperatura
when the volume remains constant. en grados Kelvin cuando el volumen permanece cons-
tante.
geometric isomers (p. 766) A category of stereoisomers that isómeros geométricos (pág. 766) Categoría de este-
results from different arrangements of groups around a reoisómeros originada por los diversos ordenamientos
double bond. posibles de grupos alrededor de un enlace doble.
Graham’s law of effusion (p. 404) States that the rate of effu- ley de efusión de Graham (pág. 404) Establece que la tasa de
sion for a gas is inversely proportional to the square root efusión de un gas es inversamente proporcional a la raíz
of its molar mass. cuadrada de su masa molar.
graph (p. 55) A visual display of data. gráfica (pág. 55) Representación visual de datos.
ground state (p. 146) The lowest allowable energy state of estado base (pág. 146) Estado de energía más bajo posible
an atom. de un átomo.
group (p. 177) A vertical column of elements in the peri- grupo (pág. 177) Columna vertical de los elementos en la
odic table arranged in order of increasing atomic num- tabla periódica ordenados en sentido creciente según su
ber; also called a family. número atómico; llamado también familia.
Glossary/Glosario 1015
Glossary/Glosario
H
half-cells (p. 710) The two parts of an electrochemical cell semiceldas (pág. 710) Las dos partes de una celda electro-
in which the separate oxidation and reduction reactions química en las que ocurren las reacciones separadas de
occur. oxidación y reducción.
half-life (p. 870) The time required for one-half of a radio- vida media (pág. 870) Tiempo requerido para que la mitad
isotope’s nuclei to decay into its products. de los núcleos de un radioisótopo se desintegren en sus
productos.
half-reaction (p. 693) One of two parts of a redox reac- semirreacción (pág. 693) Una de dos partes de una reac-
tion—the oxidation half, which shows the number of ción redox: la correspondiente a la oxidación muestra el
electrons lost when a species is oxidized, or the reduction número de electrones que se pierden al oxidarse una espe-
half, which shows the number of electrons gained when a cie y la correspondiente a la reducción muestra el número
species is reduced. de electrones que se ganan al reducirse una especie.
halocarbon (p. 787) Any organic compound containing a halocarbono (pág. 787) Cualquier compuesto orgánico que
halogen substituent. contiene un sustituyente halógeno.
halogen (p. 180) A highly reactive group 17 element. halógeno (pág. 180) Elemento sumamente reactivo del
grupo 17.
halogenation (p. 790) A process by which hydrogen atoms halogenación (pág. 790) Proceso mediante el cual se reem-
are replaced by halogen atoms. plazan átomos de hidrógeno por átomos de halógeno.
heat (p. 518) A form of energy that flows from a warmer calor (pág. 518) Forma de energía que fluye hacia cuerpos
object to a cooler object. más fríos.
heat of solution (p. 492) The overall energy change that calor de solución (pág. 492) El cambio global de energía que
occurs during the solution formation process. ocurre durante el proceso de formación de una solución.
Heisenberg uncertainty principle (p. 151) States that it is not principio de incertidumbre de Heisenberg (pág. 151) Establece
possible to know precisely both the velocity and the posi- que no es posible saber con precisión y al mismo
tion of a particle at the same time. tiempo la velocidad y la posición de una partícula.
Henry’s law (p. 496) States that at a given temperature, the ley de Henry (pág. 496) Establece que a una temperatura
solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to dada, la solubilidad de un gas en un líquido es directa-
the pressure of the gas above the liquid. mente proporcional a la presión del gas sobre el líquido.
Hess’s law (p. 534) States that if two or more thermochemi- ley de Hess (pág. 534) Establece que si para producir la ecua-
cal equations can be added to produce a final equation ción final para una reacción se pueden sumar dos o más
for a reaction, then the sum of the enthalpy changes for ecuaciones termoquímicas, entonces la suma de los cam-
the individual reactions is the enthalpy change for the bios de entalpía para las reacciones individuales equivale
final reaction. al cambio de entalpía de la reacción final.
heterogeneous catalyst (p. 573) A catalyst that exists in a catalizador heterogéneo (pág. 573) Catalizador que existe en
different physical state than the reaction it catalyzes. un estado físico diferente al de la reacción que cataliza.
heterogeneous equilibrium (p. 602) A state of equilibrium equilibrio heterogéneo (pág. 602) Estado de equilibrio que
that occurs when the reactants and products of a reaction ocurre cuando los reactivos y los productos de una reac-
are present in more than one physical state. ción están presentes en más de un estado físico.
heterogeneous mixture (p. 81) One that does not have a mezcla heterogénea (pág. 81) Aquella que no tiene una
uniform composition and in which the individual sub- composición uniforme y en la que las sustancias indi-
stances remain distinct. viduales permanecen separadas.
homogeneous catalyst (p. 573) A catalyst that exists in the catalizador homogéneo (pág. 573) Catalizador que existe en
same physical state as the reaction it catalyzes. el mismo estado físico de la reacción que cataliza.
homogeneous equilibrium (p. 600) A state of equilibrium equilibrio homogéneo (pág. 600) Estado de equilibrio que
that occurs when all the reactants and products of a reac- ocurre cuando todos los reactivos y productos de una
tion are in the same physical state. reacción están en el mismo estado físico.
homogeneous mixture (p. 81) One that has a uniform com- mezcla homogénea (pág. 81) Aquella que tiene una com-
position throughout and always has a single phase; also posición uniforme y siempre tiene una sola fase; también
called a solution. llamada solución.
homologous series (p. 751) Describes a series of compounds serie homóloga (pág. 751) Describe una serie de compues-
that differ from one another by a repeating unit. tos que difieren entre sí por una unidad repetitiva.
Hund’s rule (p. 157) States that single electrons with the regla de Hund (pág. 157) Establece que los electrones indi-
same spin must occupy each equal-energy orbital before viduales con igual rotación deben ocupar cada uno orbi-
additional electrons with opposite spins can occupy the tales distintos con la misma energía, antes de que elec-
same orbitals. trones adicionales con rotación opuesta puedan ocupar
los mismos orbitales.
1016 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
hybridization/hibridación intermediate/intermediario
hybridization (p. 262) A process in which atomic orbitals hibridación (pág. 262) Proceso mediante el cual se mezclan
are mixed to form new, identical hybrid orbitals. los orbitales atómicos para formar orbitales híbridos
nuevos e idénticos.
hydrate (p. 351) A compound that has a specific number of hidrato (pág. 351) Compuesto que tiene un número especí-
water molecules bound to its atoms. fico de moléculas de agua unidas a sus átomos.
hydration reaction (p. 804) An addition reaction in which a reacción de hidratación (pág. 804) Reacción de adición en
hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl group from a water mol- la que se añaden el átomo de hidrógeno y el grupo hidro-
ecule add to a double or triple bond. xilo de una molécula de agua a un enlace doble o triple.
hydrocarbon (p. 745) Simplest organic compound com- hidrocarburo (pág. 745) El compuesto orgánico más simple;
posed only of the elements carbon and hydrogen. está formado sólo por los elementos carbono e hidrógeno.
hydrogenation reaction (p. 804) An addition reaction in reacción de hidrogenación (pág. 804) Reacción de adición
which hydrogen is added to atoms in a double or triple en la que se agrega hidrógeno a los átomos que forman
bond; usually requires a catalyst. un enlace doble o triple; requiere generalmente de un
catalizador.
hydrogen bond (p. 413) A strong dipole-dipole attraction enlace de hidrógeno (pág. 413) Fuerte atracción dipolo-
between molecules that contain a hydrogen atom bonded dipolo entre moléculas que contienen un átomo de
to a small, highly electronegative atom. hidrógeno unido a un átomo pequeño, sumamente elec-
tronegativo.
hydroxyl group (p. 792) An oxygen-hydrogen group cova- grupo hidroxilo (pág. 792) Un grupo hidrógeno-oxígeno
lently bonded to a carbon atom. unido covalentemente a un átomo de carbono.
hypothesis (p. 13) A tentative, testable statement or predic- hipótesis (pág. 13) Enunciado tentativo y comprobable o
tion about what has been observed. predicción acerca de lo que ha sido observado.
I
ideal gas constant (R) (p. 454) An experimentally deter- constante de los gases ideales (R) (pág. 454) Constante
mined constant whose value in the ideal gas equation determinada experimentalmente cuyo valor en la ecua-
depends on the units that are used for pressure. ción de los gases ideales depende de las unidades en las
que se expresa la presión.
ideal gas law (p. 454) Describes the physical behavior of an ley de los gases ideales (pág. 454) Describe el comporta-
ideal gas in terms of pressure, volume, temperature, and miento físico de un gas ideal en términos de la presión, el
number of moles of gas. volumen, la temperatura y el número de moles del gas.
immiscible (ih MIHS ih bul) (p. 479) Describes two liquids inmiscible (pág. 479) Describe dos líquidos que se pueden
that can be mixed together but separate shortly after you mezclar entre sí, pero que se separan poco después de
cease mixing them. que se cesa de mezclarlos.
independent variable (p. 14) In an experiment, the variable variable independiente (pág. 14) La variable de un experi-
that the experimenter plans to change. mento que el experimentador piensa cambiar.
induced transmutation (p. 875) The process in which nuclei transmutación inducida (pág. 875) Proceso en cual se bom-
are bombarded with high-velocity charged particles in bardean núcleos con partículas cargadas de alta veloci-
order to create new elements. dad para crear elementos nuevos.
inhibitor (p. 571) A substance that slows down the reaction inhibidor (pág. 571) Sustancia que reduce la tasa de reac-
rate of a chemical reaction or prevents a reaction from ción de una reacción química o evita que ésta suceda.
happening.
inner transition metal (p. 180) A type of group B element metal de transición interna (pág. 180) Tipo de elemento
that is contained in the f-block of the periodic table and del grupo B contenido dentro del bloque F de la tabla
is characterized by a filled outermost orbital, and filled or periódica; se caracteriza por tener el orbital más externo
partially filled 4f and 5f orbitals. lleno y los orbitales 4f y 5f parcialmente llenos.
insoluble (p. 479) Describes a substance that cannot be dis- insoluble (pág. 479) Describe una sustancia que no se
solved in a given solvent. puede disolver en un disolvente dado.
instantaneous rate (p. 578) The rate of decomposition at a velocidad instantánea (pág. 578) La tasa de descomposición
specific time, calculated from the rate law, the specific en un tiempo dado, se calcula a partir de la ley de veloci-
rate constant, and the concentrations of all the reactants. dad de la reacción, la constante de velocidad de la reac-
ción y las concentraciones de los reactivos.
intensive property (p. 73) A physical property that remains propiedad intensiva (pág. 73) Propiedad física que perma-
the same no matter how much of a substance is present. nece igual sea cual sea la cantidad de sustancia presente.
intermediate (p. 580) A substance produced in one elemen- intermediario (pág. 580) Sustancia producida en un paso
tary step of a complex reaction and consumed in a subse- elemental de una reacción compleja y que es consumida
quent elementary step. en un paso elemental subsecuente.
Glossary/Glosario 1017
Glossary/Glosario
ion (p. 189) An atom or bonded group of atoms with a ion (pág. 189) Átomo o grupo de átomos unidos que tienen
positive or negative charge. carga positiva o negativa.
ionic bond (p. 210) The electrostatic force that holds oppo- enlace iónico (pág. 210) Fuerza electrostática que mantiene
sitely charged particles together in an ionic compound. unidas las partículas con carga opuesta en un compuesto
iónico.
ionic compounds (p. 210) Compounds that contain ionic compuestos iónicos (pág. 210) Compuestos que contienen
bonds enlaces iónicos.
ionization energy (p. 191) The energy required to remove energía de ionización (pág. 191) Energía que se requiere
an electron from a gaseous atom; generally increases in para separar un electrón de un átomo en estado gaseoso;
moving from left-to-right across a period and decreases generalmente aumenta al moverse de izquierda a derecha
in moving down a group a lo largo de un período de la tabla periódica y disminuye
al moverse hacia abajo a lo largo de un grupo.
ionizing radiation (p. 885) Radiation that is energetic radiación ionizante (pág. 885) Radiación que posee suficiente
enough to ionize matter it collides with. energía como para ionizar la materia con la que choca.
ion product constant for water (p. 650) The value of the constante del producto iónico del agua (pág. 650) Valor de
equilibrium constant expression for the self-ionization la expresión de la constante de equilibrio de la ionización
of water. del agua.
isomers (p. 765) Two or more compounds that have the isómeros (pág. 765) Dos o más compuestos que tienen
same molecular formula but have different molecular la misma fórmula molecular pero poseen estructuras
structures. moleculares diferentes.
isotopes (p. 117) Atoms of the same element with different isótopos (pág. 117) Átomos del mismo elemento con dife-
numbers of neutrons. rente número de neutrones.
J
joule (p. 518) The SI unit of heat and energy. julio (pág. 518) La unidad SI de medida del calor y la
energía.
K
kelvin (p. 35) The SI base unit of temperature. kelvin (pág. 35) Unidad básica de temperatura del SI.
ketone (p. 797) An organic compound in which the carbon cetona (pág. 797) Compuesto orgánico en el que el car-
of the carbonyl group is bonded to two other carbon bono del grupo carbonilo está unido a otros dos átomos
atoms. de carbono.
kilogram (p. 34) The SI base unit for mass. kilogramo (pág. 34) Unidad básica de masa del SI.
kinetic-molecular theory (p. 402) Describes the behavior teoría cinético-molecular (pág. 402) Explica el comporta-
of gases in terms of particles in motion; makes several miento de los gases en términos de partículas en movi-
assumptions about size, motion, and energy of gas par- miento; hace varias suposiciones acerca del tamaño,
ticles. movimiento y energía de las partículas de gas.
1018 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
law of definite proportions (p. 87) States that, regardless ley de las proporciones definidas (pág. 87) Establece que,
of the amount, a compound is always composed of the independientemente de la cantidad, un compuesto siem-
same elements in the same proportion by mass. pre se compone de los mismos elementos en la misma
proporción por masa.
law of multiple proportions (p. 89) States that when different ley de las proporciones múltiples (pág. 89) Establece que
compounds are formed by the combination of the same cuando la combinación de los mismos elementos forma
elements, different masses of one element combine with compuestos diferentes, una masa dada de uno de los
the same mass of the other element in a ratio of small elementos se combina con masas diferentes del otro
whole numbers. elemento de acuerdo con una razón que se expresa en
números enteros pequeños.
Le Châtelier’s principle (luh SHAHT uh lee yays • PRIHN Principio de Le Châtelier (pág. 607) Establece que si se aplica
sih puhl) (p. 607) States that if a stress is applied to a una perturbación a un sistema en equilibrio, el sistema
system at equilibrium, the system shifts in the direction cambia en la dirección que reduce la perturbación.
that relieves the stress.
Lewis model (p. 641) An acid is an electron-pair acceptor modelo de Lewis (pág. 641) Un ácido es un receptor de
and a base is an electro-pair donor. pares de electrones y una base es un donante de pares de
electrones.
Lewis structure (p. 242) A model that uses electron-dot estructura de Lewis (pág. 242) Modelo que utiliza diagramas
structures to show how electrons are arranged in mol- de puntos de electrones para mostrar la disposición de
ecules. Pairs of dots or lines represent bonding pairs. los electrones en las moléculas. Los pares de puntos o
líneas representan pares de electrones enlazados.
limiting reactant (p. 379) A reactant that is totally con- reactivo limitante (pág. 379) Reactivo que se consume com-
sumed during a chemical reaction, limits the extent of pletamente durante una reacción química, limita la dura-
the reaction, and determines the amount of product. ción de la reacción y determina la cantidad del producto.
lipids (p. 835) Large, nonpolar biological molecules that lípidos (pág. 835) Moléculas biológicas no polares de gran
vary in structure, store energy in living organisms, and tamaño que varían en estructura, almacenan energía en
make up most of the structure of cell membranes. los seres vivos y conforman la mayor parte de la estruc-
tura de las membranas celulares.
liquid (p. 71) A form of matter that flows, has constant vol- líquido (pág. 71) Forma de materia que fluye, tiene volu-
ume, and takes the shape of its container. men constante y toma la forma de su envase.
liter (p. 35) The metric unit for volume equal to one cubic litro (pág. 35) Unidad de volumen del sistema métrico;
decimeter. equivale a un decímetro cúbico.
M
mass (p. 9) A measure that reflects the amount of matter. masa (pág. 9) Medida que refleja la cantidad de materia.
mass defect (p. 877) The difference in mass between a defecto másico (pág. 877) La diferencia de masa entre un
nucleus and its component nucleons. núcleo y los nucleones que lo componen.
mass number (p. 117) The number after an element’s name, número de masa (pág. 117) El número que va después del
representing the sum of its protons and neutrons. nombre de un elemento; representa la suma de sus pro-
tones y neutrones.
matter (p. 4) Anything that has mass and takes up space. materia (pág. 4) Cualquier cosa que tiene masa y ocupa
espacio.
melting point (p. 426) For a crystalline solid, the tempera- punto de fusión (pág. 426) Para un sólido cristalino, es la
ture at which the forces holding a crystal lattice together temperatura a la que se rompen las fuerzas que mantienen
are broken and it becomes a liquid. unida la red cristalina y el sólido se convierte en líquido.
metabolism (p. 844) The sum of the many chemical reac- metabolismo (pág. 844) El conjunto de las numerosas reac-
tions that occur in living cells. ciones químicas que ocurren en las células vivas.
metal (p. 177) An element that is solid at room tempera- metal (pág. 177) Elemento sólido a temperatura ambiente,
ture, a good conductor of heat and electricity, and gener- es buen conductor de calor y electricidad y generalmente
ally is shiny; most metals are ductile and malleable. es brillante; la mayoría de los metales son dúctiles y
maleables.
metallic bond (p. 225) The attraction of a metallic cation for enlace metálico (pág. 225) Atracción de un catión metálico
delocalized electrons. por los electrones deslocalizados.
metalloid (p. 181) An element that has physical and chemi- metaloide (pág. 181) Elementos que tienen las propiedades
cal properties of both metals and nonmetals. físicas y químicas de metales y de no metales.
meter (p. 33) The SI base unit for length. metro (pág. 33) Unidad básica de longitud del SI.
Glossary/Glosario 1019
Glossary/Glosario
method of initial rates (p. 576) Determines the reaction método de las velocidades iniciales (pág. 576) Determina el
order by comparing the initial rates of a reaction carried orden de la reacción al comparar las velocidades iniciales
out with varying reactant concentrations. de una reacción realizada con diversas concentraciones
de reactivo.
miscible (p. 479) Describes two liquids that are soluble in miscible (pág. 479) Describe dos líquidos que son solubles
each other. entre sí.
mixture (p. 80) A physical blend of two or more pure mezcla (pág. 80) Combinación física de dos o más sustan-
substances in any proportion in which each substance cias puras en cualquier proporción en la que cada sustan-
retains its individual properties; can be separated by cia retiene sus propiedades individuales; las sustancias se
physical means. pueden separar por medios físicos.
model (p. 10) A visual, verbal, and/or mathematical expla- modelo (pág. 10) Explicación matemática, verbal o visual
nation of data collected from many experiments. de datos recolectados en muchos experimentos.
molality (p. 487) The ratio of the number of moles of sol- molalidad (pág. 487) La razón del número de moles de
ute dissolved in one kilogram of solvent; also known as soluto disueltos en un kilogramo de disolvente; también
molal concentration. se conoce como concentración molal.
molar enthalpy (heat) of fusion (p. 530) The amount of heat entalpía (calor) molar de fusión (pág. 530) Cantidad
required to melt one mole of a solid substance. requerida de calor para fundir un mol de una sustancia
sólida.
molar enthalpy (heat) of vaporization (p. 530) The amount entalpía (calor) molar de vaporización (pág. 530) Cantidad
of heat required to vaporize one mole of a liquid. requerida de calor para vaporizar un mol de un líquido.
molarity (p. 482) The number of moles of solute dissolved molaridad (pág. 482) Número de moles de soluto disueltos
per liter of solution; also known as molar concentration. por litro de solución; también se conoce como concen-
tración molar.
molar mass (p. 326) The mass in grams of one mole of any masa molar (pág. 326) Masa en gramos de un mol de
pure substance. cualquier sustancia pura.
molar volume (p. 452) For a gas, the volume that one mole volumen molar (pág. 452) Para un gas, es el volumen que
occupies at 0.00°C and 1.00 atm pressure. ocupa un mol a 0.00°C y una presión de 1.00 atm.
mole (p. 321) The SI base unit used to measure the amount mol (pág. 321) Unidad básica del SI para medir la cantidad
of a substance, abbreviated mol; the number of carbon de una sustancia, se abrevia mol; el número de átomos
atoms in exactly 12 g of pure carbon; one mole is the de carbono en 12 g exactos de carbono puro; un mol es
amount of a pure substance that contains 6.02 × 10 23 rep- la cantidad de sustancia pura que contiene 6.02 × 10 23
resentative particles. partículas representativas.
molecular formula (p. 346) A formula that specifies the fórmula molecular (pág. 346) Fórmula que especifica
actual number of atoms of each element in one molecule el número real de átomos de cada elemento en una
of a substance. molécula de la sustancia.
molecule (p. 241) Forms when two or more atoms cova- molécula (pág. 241) Se forma cuando dos o más átomos se
lently bond and is lower in potential energy than its con- unen covalentemente y posee menor energía potencial
stituent atoms. que los átomos que la conforman.
mole fraction (p. 488) The ratio of the number of moles of fracción molar (pág. 488) La razón del número de moles de
solute in solution to the total number of moles of solute soluto en solución al número total de moles de soluto y
and solvent. disolvente.
mole ratio (p. 371) In a balanced equation, the ratio razón molar (pág. 371) En una ecuación equilibrada, se
between the numbers of moles of any two substances. refiere a la razón entre el número de moles de dos sus-
tancias cualesquiera.
monatomic ion (p. 218) An ion formed from only one atom. ion poliatómico (pág. 218) Ion formado de un sólo átomo.
monomer (p. 810) A molecule from which a polymer is monómero (pág. 810) Molécula a partir de la cual se forma
made. un polímero.
monosaccharides (p. 832) The simplest carbohydrates, also monosacáridos (pág. 832) Los carbohidratos más simples;
called simple sugars. se llaman también azúcares simples.
N
net ionic equation (p. 301) An ionic equation that includes ecuación iónica neta (pág. 301) Ecuación iónica que incluye
only the particles that participate in the reaction. sólo las partículas que participan en la reacción.
neutralization reaction (p. 659) A reaction in which an acid reacción de neutralización (pág. 659) Reacción en la que un
and a base react in aqueous solution to produce a salt ácido y una base reaccionan en una solución acuosa para
and water. producir sal y agua.
1020 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
neutron (p. 113) A neutral, subatomic particle in an atom’s neutrón (pág. 113) Partícula subatómica neutral en el
nucleus that has a mass nearly equal to that of a proton. núcleo de un átomo que tiene una masa casi igual a la de
un protón.
noble gas (p. 180) An extremely unreactive group 18 ele- gas noble (pág. 180) Elemento extremadamente no reactivo
ment. del grupo 18.
nonmetals (p. 180) Elements that are generally gases or no metales (pág. 180) Elementos que generalmente son
dull, brittle solids that are poor conductors of heat and gases o sólidos quebradizos, sin brillo y malos conducto-
electricity. res de calor y electricidad.
nuclear equation (p. 123) A type of equation that shows ecuación nuclear (pág. 123) Tipo de ecuación que muestra
the atomic number and mass number of the particles el número atómico y el número de masa de las partículas
involved. involucradas.
nuclear fission (p. 883) The splitting of a nucleus into fisión nuclear (pág. 883) Ruptura de un núcleo en fragmen-
smaller, more stable fragments, accompanied by a large tos más pequeños y más estables; se acompaña de una
release of energy. gran liberación de energía.
nuclear fusion (p. 878) The process of binding smaller fusión nuclear (pág. 878) Proceso de unión de núcleos
atomic nuclei into a single, larger, and more stable atómicos pequeños en un solo núcleo más grande y más
nucleus. estable.
nuclear reaction (p. 122) A reaction that involves a change reacción nuclear (pág. 122) Reacción que implica un cam-
in the nucleus of an atom. bio en el núcleo de un átomo.
nucleic acid (p. 840) A nitrogen-containing biological poly- ácido nucleico (pág. 840) Polímero biológico que contiene
mer that is involved in the storage and transmission of nitrógeno y que participa en el almacenamiento y trans-
genetic information. misión de información genética.
nucleons (p. 865) The positively charged protons and neu- nucleones (pág. 865) Los protones de carga positiva y los
tral neutrons contained in an atom’s nucleus. neutrones sin carga que contiene el núcleo de un átomo.
nucleotide (p. 840) The monomer that makes up a nucleic nucleótido (pág. 840) Monómeros que forman los ácidos
acid; consists of a nitrogen base, an inorganic phosphate nucleicos; consisten de una base nitrogenada, un grupo
group, and a five-carbon monosaccharide sugar. fosfato inorgánico y un azúcar monosacárido de cinco
carbonos.
nucleus (p. 112) The extremely small, positively charged, núcleo (pág. 112) El diminuto y denso centro con carga
dense center of an atom that contains positively charged positiva de un átomo; contiene protones con su carga
protons and neutral neutrons. positiva y neutrones sin carga.
O
octet rule (p. 193) States that atoms lose, gain, or share elec- regla del octeto (pág. 193) Establece que los átomos
trons in order to acquire the stable electron configuration pierden, ganan o comparten electrones para adquirir la
of a noble gas. configuración electrónica estable de un gas noble.
optical isomers (p. 768) Result from different arrangements isómeros ópticos (pág. 768) Son resultado de los distin-
of four different groups around the same carbon atom tos ordenamientos que adquieren los cuatro grupos
and have the same physical and chemical properties diferentes que rodean a un mismo átomo de carbono;
except in chemical reactions where chirality is important. todos poseen las mismas propiedades químicas y físicas,
excepto en las reacciones químicas donde la quiralidad es
importante.
optical rotation (p. 769) An effect that occurs when polar- rotación óptica (pág. 769) Efecto que ocurre cuando la
ized light passes through a solution containing an optical luz polarizada atraviesa una solución que contiene un
isomer and the plane of polarization is rotated to the isómero óptico y el plano de polarización rota a la dere-
right by a d-isomer or to the left by an l-isomer. cha en los isómeros dextrógiros (-d) y a la izquierda en
los isómeros levógiros (-l).
organic compounds (p. 745) All compounds that contain compuestos orgánicos (pág. 745) Todo compuesto que con-
carbon with the primary exceptions of carbon oxides, tiene carbono; las excepciones más importantes son los
carbides, and carbonates, all of which are considered óxidos de carbono, los carburos y los carbonatos, todos
inorganic. los cuales se consideran inorgánicos.
osmosis (p. 504) The diffusion of solvent particles across a osmosis (pág. 504) Difusión de partículas de disolvente a
semipermeable membrane from an area of higher solvent través de una membrana semipermeable hacia el área
concentration to an area of lower solvent concentration. donde la concentración del disolvente es menor.
osmotic pressure (p. 504) The pressure caused when water presión osmótica (pág. 504) La presión que causan las
molecules move into or out of a solution. moléculas de agua al entrar o salir de una solución.
Glossary/Glosario 1021
Glossary/Glosario
oxidation (p. 681) The loss of electrons from the atoms of a oxidación (pág. 681) Pérdida de electrones de los átomos
substance; increases an atom’s oxidation number. de una sustancia; aumenta el número de oxidación de un
átomo.
oxidation number (p. 219) The positive or negative charge número de oxidación (pág. 219) La carga positiva o negativa
of a monatomic ion. de un ion monoatómico.
oxidation-number method (p. 689) The technique that can método del número de oxidación (pág. 689) Técnica que
be used to balance more difficult redox reactions, based sirve para equilibrar las reacciones redox más difíciles;
on the fact that the number of electrons transferred from se basa en el hecho de que el número de electrones trans-
atoms must equal the number of electrons accepted by feridos por los átomos debe ser igual al número de elec-
other atoms. trones aceptados por otros átomos.
oxidation-reduction reaction (p. 680) Any chemical reac- reacción de oxidación-reducción (pág. 680) Toda reacción
tion in which electrons are transferred from one atom to química en la que sucede transferencia de electrones de
another; also called a redox reaction. un átomo a otro; también se llama reacción redox.
oxidizing agent (p. 683) The substance that oxidizes another agente oxidante (pág. 683) Sustancia que oxida otra sustan-
substance by accepting its electrons. cia al aceptar sus electrones.
oxyacid (p. 250) Any acid that contains hydrogen and an oxiácido (pág. 250) Todo ácido que contiene hidrógeno y
oxyanion. un oxianión.
oxyanion (ahk see AN i ahn) (p. 222) A polyatomic ion oxianión (pág. 222) Ion poliatómico compuesto de un ele-
composed of an element, usually a nonmetal, bonded to mento, generalmente un no metal, unido a uno o a más
one or more oxygen atoms. átomos de oxígeno.
P
parent chain (p. 753) The longest continuous chain of car- cadena principal (pág. 753) La cadena continua más larga
bon atoms in a branched-chain alkane, alkene, or alkyne. de átomos de carbono en un alcano, un alqueno o un
alquino ramificados.
pascal (p. 407) The SI unit of pressure; one pascal (Pa) is pascal (pág. 407) La unidad SI de presión; un pascal (Pa) es
equal to a force of one newton per square meter. igual a una fuerza de un newton por metro cuadrado.
Pauli exclusion principle (p. 157) States that a maximum of principio de exclusión de Pauli (pág. 157) Establece que cada
two electrons can occupy a single atomic orbital but only orbital atómico sólo puede ser ocupado por un máximo
if the electrons have opposite spins. de dos electrones, pero sólo si los electrones tienen giros
opuestos.
penetrating power (p. 864) The ability of radiation to pass poder de penetración (pág. 864) La capacidad de la radia-
through matter. ción de atravesar la materia.
peptide (p. 828) A chain of two or more amino acids linked péptido (pág. 828) Cadena de dos o más aminoácidos uni-
by peptide bonds. dos por enlaces peptídicos.
peptide bond (p. 828) The amide bond that joins two amino enlace peptídico (pág. 828) Enlace amida que une dos ami-
acids. noácidos.
percent by mass (p. 87) A percentage determined by the porcentaje en masa (pág. 87) Porcentaje determinado por
ratio of the mass of each element to the total mass of the la razón de la masa de cada elemento respecto a la masa
compound. total del compuesto.
percent composition (p. 342) The percent by mass of each composición porcentual (pág. 342) Porcentaje en masa de
element in a compound. cada elemento en un compuesto.
percent error (p. 48) The ratio of an error to an accepted porcentaje de error (pág. 48) La razón del error al valor
value. aceptado.
percent yield (p. 386) The ratio of actual yield (from an porcentaje de rendimiento (pág. 386) Razón del rendimiento
experiment) to theoretical yield (from stoichiometric real (de un experimento) al rendimiento teórico (de cál-
calculations) expressed as a percent. culos estequiométricos) expresada como porcentaje.
period (p. 177) A horizontal row of elements in the modern período (pág. 177) Fila horizontal de elementos en la tabla
periodic table. periódica moderna.
periodic law (p. 176) States that when the elements are ley periódica (pág. 176) Establece que al ordenar los ele-
arranged by increasing atomic number, there is a peri- mentos por número atómico en sentido ascendente,
odic repetition of their properties. existe una repetición periódica de sus propiedades.
periodic table (p. 85) A chart that organizes all known ele- tabla periódica (pág. 85) Tabla en la que se organizan
ments into a grid of horizontal rows (periods) and verti- todos los elementos conocidos en una cuadrícula de filas
cal columns (groups or families) arranged by increasing horizontales (períodos) y columnas verticales (grupos o
atomic number. familias), ordenados según su número atómico en sen-
tido ascendente.
1022 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
pH (p. 652) The negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion pH (pág. 652) El logaritmo negativo de la concentración de
concentration of a solution; acidic solutions have pH val- iones hidrógeno de una solución; las soluciones ácidas
ues between 0 and 7, basic solutions have values between poseen valores de pH entre 0 y 7, las soluciones básicas
7 and 14, and a solution with a pH of 7.0 is neutral. tienen valores entre 7 y 14 y una solución con un pH de
7.0 es neutra.
phase change (p. 76) A transition of matter from one state cambio de fase (pág. 76) La transición de la materia de un
to another. estado a otro.
phase diagram (p. 429) A graph of pressure versus tempera- diagrama de fase (pág. 429) Gráfica de presión contra tem-
ture that shows which phase a substance exists in under peratura que muestra la fase en la que se encuentra una
different conditions of temperature and pressure. sustancia bajo distintas condiciones de temperatura y
presión.
phospholipid (p. 838) A triglyceride in which one of the fosfolípido (pág. 838) Triglicérido en el que uno de los áci-
fatty acids is replaced by a polar phosphate group dos grasos es sustituido por un grupo fosfato polar.
photoelectric effect (p. 142) A phenomenon in which pho- efecto fotoeléctrico (pág. 142) Fenómeno en el cual la
toelectrons are emitted from a metal’s surface when light superficie de un metal emiten fotoelectrones cuando una
of a certain frequency shines on the surface. luz de cierta frecuencia ilumina su superficie.
photon (p. 143) A particle of electromagnetic radiation fotón (pág. 143) Partícula de radiación electromagnética
with no mass that carries a quantum of energy. sin masa que transporta un cuanto de energía.
photosynthesis (p. 846) The complex process that converts fotosíntesis (pág. 846) Proceso complejo que convierte
energy from sunlight to chemical energy in the bonds of la energía de la luz solar en la energía química de los
carbohydrates. enlaces en carbohidratos.
physical change (p. 76) A type of change that alters the cambio físico (pág. 76) Tipo de cambio que altera las
physical properties of a substance but does not change its propiedades físicas de una sustancia pero no cambia su
composition. composición.
physical property (p. 73) A characteristic of matter that can propiedad física (pág. 73) Característica de la materia que
be observed or measured without changing the sample’s se puede observar o medir sin cambiar la composición
composition—or example, density, color, taste, hardness, de una muestra de la materia; por ejemplo, la densidad,
and melting point. el color, el sabor, la dureza y el punto de fusión.
pi bond (p. 245) A bond that is formed when parallel orbit- enlace pi (pág. 245) Enlace que se forma cuando orbitales
als overlap to share electrons. paralelos se superponen para compartir electrones.
Planck’s constant (h) (p. 142) 6.626 × 10 -34 J·s, where J is constante de Planck (h) (pág. 142) 6.626 × 10 -34 J·s, donde
the symbol for the joule. J es el símbolo de julios.
plastic (p. 789) A polymer that can be heated and molded plástico (pág. 789) Polímero que se puede calentar y mol-
while relatively soft. dear mientras esté relativamente suave.
pOH (p. 652) The negative logarithm of the hydroxide ion pOH (pág. 652) El logaritmo negativo de la concentración
concentration of a solution; a solution with a pOH above de iones hidróxido de una solución; una solución con un
7.0 is acidic, a solution with a pOH below 7.0 is basic, pOH mayor que 7.0 es ácida, una solución con un pOH
and a solution with a pOH of 7.0 is neutral. menor que 7.0 es básica y una solución con un pOH de
7.0 es neutra.
polar covalent bond (p. 266) A type of bond that forms enlace covalente polar (pág. 266) Tipo de enlace que se
when electrons are not shared equally. forma cuando los electrones no se comparten de manera
equitativa.
polyatomic ion (p. 221) An ion made up of two or more ion poliatómico (pág. 221) Ion compuesto de dos o más
atoms bonded together that acts as a single unit with a átomos unidos entre sí que actúan como una unidad con
net charge. carga neta.
polymerization reaction (p. 810) A reaction in which mono- reacción de polimerización (pág. 810) Reacción en la cual los
mer units are bonded together to form a polymer. monómeros se unen para formar un polímero.
polymers (p. 809) Large molecules formed by combining polímeros (pág. 809) Moléculas grandes formadas por
many repeating structural units (monomers); are synthe- la unión de muchas unidades estructurales repetidas
sized through addition or condensation reactions. (monómeros); se sintetizan a través de reacciones de
adición o de condensación.
polysaccharide (p. 833) A complex carbohydrate, which polisacárido (pág. 833) Carbohidrato complejo; es un
is a polymer of simple sugars that contains 12 or more polímero de azúcares simples que contiene 12 ó más
monomer units. monómeros.
positron (p. 868) A particle that has the same mass as an positrón (pág. 868) Partícula que tiene la misma masa que
electron but an opposite charge. un electrón pero carga opuesta.
positron emission (p. 868) A radioactive decay process in emisión de positrones (pág. 868) Proceso de desintegración
which a proton in the nucleus is converted into a neutron radiactiva en el que un protón del núcleo se convierte en
and a positron, and then the positron is emitted from the un neutrón y un positrón y luego el positrón es emitido
nucleus. del núcleo.
Glossary/Glosario 1023
Glossary/Glosario
precipitate (p. 296) A solid produced during a chemical precipitado (pág. 296) Sólido que se produce durante una
reaction in a solution. reacción química en una solución.
precision (p. 47) Refers to how close a series of measure- precisión (pág. 47) Se refiere a la cercanía de una serie de
ments are to one another; precise measurements show medidas entre sí; las medidas precisas muestran poca
little variation over a series of trials but might not be variación durante una serie de pruebas, incluso si no son
accurate. exactas.
pressure (p. 406) Force applied per unit area. presión (pág. 406) Fuerza aplicada por unidad de área.
primary battery (p. 720) A type of battery that produces batería primaria (pág. 720) Tipo de batería que produce
electric energy by redox reactions that are not easily energía eléctrica por reacciones redox que no son fácil-
reversed, delivers current until the reactants are gone, mente reversibles, produce corriente hasta que se agotan
and then is discarded. los reactivos y luego se desecha.
principal energy levels (p. 153) The major energy levels of niveles energéticos principales (pág. 153) Los niveles ener-
an atom. géticos más importantes de un átomo.
principal quantum number (n) (p. 153) Assigned by the número cuántico principal (pág. 153) Asignado por el
quantum mechanical model to indicate the relative sizes modelo mecánico cuántico para indicar el tamaño y la
and energies of atomic orbitals. energía relativas de los orbitales atómicos.
product (p. 283) A substance formed during a chemical producto (pág. 283) Sustancia que se forma durante una
reaction. reacción química.
protein (p. 826) An organic polymer made up of animo proteína (pág. 826) Polímero orgánico compuesto de ami-
acids linked together by peptide bonds that can function noácidos unidos por enlaces peptídicos; puede funcionar
as an enzyme, transport important chemical substances, como enzima, transportar sustancias químicas impor-
or provide structure in organisms. tantes o ser parte de la estructura en los organismos.
proton (p. 113) A subatomic particle in an atom’s nucleus protón (pág. 113) Partícula subatómica en el núcleo de un
that has a positive charge of 1+. átomo con carga positiva 1+.
pure research (p. 17) A type of scientific investigation that investigación pura (pág. 17) Tipo de investigación científica
seeks to gain knowledge for the sake of knowledge itself. que busca obtener conocimiento sin otro interés que
satisfacer el interés científico.
Q
qualitative data (p. 13) Information describing color, odor, datos cualitativos (pág. 13) Información que describe el
shape, or some other physical characteristic. color, el olor, la forma o alguna otra característica física.
quantitative data (p. 13) Numerical information describing datos cuantitativos (pág. 13) Información numérica que
how much, how little, how big, how tall, or how fast. describe cantidad, tamaño o rapidez.
quantum (p. 141) The minimum amount of energy that can cuanto (pág. 141) La cantidad mínima de energía que
be gained or lost by an atom. puede ganar o perder un átomo.
quantum mechanical model of the atom (p. 152) An atomic modelo mecánico cuántico del átomo (pág. 152) Modelo
model in which electrons are treated as waves; also called atómico en el cual los electrones se estudian como si
the wave mechanical model of the atom. fueran ondas; también se denomina modelo mecánico
ondulatorio del átomo.
quantum number (p. 146) The number assigned to each número cuántico (pág. 146) Número que se asigna a cada
orbit of an electron. órbita de un electrón.
R
radiation (p. 122) The rays and particles—alpha and beta radiación (pág. 122) Los rayos y partículas que emiten
particles and gamma rays—that are emitted by radioac- los materiales radiactivos (partículas alfa y beta y rayos
tive materials. gamma).
radioactive decay (p. 122) A spontaneous process in which desintegración radiactiva (pág. 122) Proceso espontáneo
unstable nuclei lose energy by emitting radiation. en el que los núcleos inestables pierden energía al emitir
radiación.
radioactive decay series (p. 870) A series of nuclear reac- serie de desintegración radiactiva (pág. 870) Serie de reac-
tions that starts with an unstable nucleus and results in ciones nucleares que empieza con un núcleo inestable y
the formation of a stable nucleus. produce la formación de un núcleo estable.
radioactivity (p. 122) The process in which some substances radiactividad (pág. 122) Proceso en el que algunas sustan-
spontaneously emit radiation. cias emiten radiación espontáneamente.
radiochemical dating (p. 873) The process that is used to datación radioquímica (pág. 873) Proceso que sirve para
determine the age of an object by measuring the amount determinar la edad de un objeto al medir la cantidad res-
of a certain radioisotope remaining in that object. tante de cierto radioisótopo en dicho objeto.
1024 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
radioisotopes (p. 861) Isotopes of atoms that have unstable radioisótopos (pág. 861) Isótopos de átomos que poseen
nuclei and emit radiation to attain more stable atomic núcleos inestables y emiten radiación para obtener una
configurations. configuración atómica más estable.
radiotracer (p. 887) An isotope that emits non-ionizing radiolocalizador (pág. 887) Isótopo que emite radiación
radiation and is used to signal the presence of an element no ionizante y se utiliza para señalar la presencia de un
or specific substance; can be used to analyze complex elemento o sustancia específica; se usan para analizar los
chemical reactions mechanisms and to diagnose disease. mecanismos de reacciones químicas complejas y para
diagnosticar enfermedades.
rate-determining step (p. 581) The slowest elementary step paso determinante de la velocidad de reacción (pág. 581)
in a complex reaction; limits the instantaneous rate of the El paso elemental más lento en una reacción compleja;
overall reaction. limita la velocidad instantánea de la reacción general.
rate law (p. 574) The mathematical relationship between ley de velocidad de la reacción (pág. 574) Relación
the rate of a chemical reaction at a given temperature matemática entre la velocidad de una reacción química
and the concentrations of reactants. a una temperatura dada y las concentraciones de los
reactivos.
reactant (p. 283) The starting substance in a chemical reac- reactivo (pág. 283) Sustancia inicial en una reacción
tion. química.
reaction mechanism (p. 580) The complete sequence of mecanismo de reacción (pág. 580) Sucesión completa de
elementary steps that make up a complex reaction. pasos elementales que componen una reacción compleja.
reaction order (p. 575) For a reactant, describes how the orden de la reacción (pág. 575) Describe cómo la concen-
rate is affected by the concentration of that reactant. tración de un reactivo afecta la velocidad de la reacción
para dicho reactivo.
reaction rate (p. 561) The change in concentration of a tasa de reacción (pág. 561) Cambio en la concentración de
reactant or product per unit time, generally calculated un reactivo o producto por unidad de tiempo, general-
and expressed in moles per liter per second. mente se calcula y expresa en moles por litro por segundo.
redox reaction (p. 680) An oxidation-reduction reaction. reacción redox (pág. 680) Una reacción de oxidorreducción.
reducing agent (p. 683) The substance that reduces another agente reductor (pág. 683) Sustancia que reduce otra sus-
substance by losing electrons. tancia al perder electrones.
reduction (p. 681) The gain of electrons by the atoms of a reducción (pág. 681) Ganancia de electrones por los átomos
substance; decreases an atom’s oxidation number. de una sustancia; reduce el número de oxidación de los
átomos.
reduction potential (p. 711) The tendency of a substance to potencial de reducción (pág. 711) Tendencia de una sustan-
gain electrons. cia a ganar electrones.
representative elements (p. 177) Elements from groups 1, elementos representativos (pág. 177) Elementos de los gru-
2, and 13–18 in the modern periodic table, possessing a pos 1, 2 y 13 a 18 de la tabla periódica moderna; poseen
wide range of chemical and physical properties. una gran variedad de propiedades químicas y físicas.
resonance (p. 258) Condition that occurs when more than resonancia (pág. 258) Condición que ocurre cuando existe
one valid Lewis structure exists for the same molecule. más de una estructura válida de Lewis para una misma
molécula.
reversible reaction (p. 595) A reaction that can take place in reacción reversible (pág. 595) Reacción que puede
both the forward and reverse directions; leads to an equi- ocurrir en direcciones normal e inversa; produce un
librium state where the forward and reverse reactions estado de equilibrio donde las reacciones en sentido nor-
occur at equal rates and the concentrations of reactants mal e inverso ocurren a tasas iguales, ocasionando que
and products remain constant. la concentración de reactivos y productos permanezcan
constantes.
S
salt (p. 659) An ionic compound made up of a cation from sal (pág. 659) Compuesto iónico formado por un catión pro-
a base and an anion from an acid. veniente de una base y un anión proveniente de un ácido.
salt bridge (p. 709) A pathway constructed to allow positive puente salino (pág. 709) Medio que permite el movimiento
and negative ions to move from one solution to another. de iones positivos y negativos de una solución a otra.
salt hydrolysis (p. 665) The process in which anions of the hidrólisis de sales (pág. 665) Proceso en el que los aniones
dissociated salt accept hydrogen ions from water, or the de una sal disociada aceptan iones hidrógeno del agua
cations of the dissociated salt donate hydrogen ions to o en el que los cationes de la sal disociada donan iones
water. hidrógeno al agua.
Glossary/Glosario 1025
Glossary/Glosario
saponification/saponificación species/especie
saponification (suh pahn ih fih KAY shuhn) (p. 837) The saponificación (pág. 837) La hidrólisis de los enlaces éster
hydrolysis of the ester bonds of a triglyceride using an de un triglicérido, usando una solución acuosa de una
aqueous solution of a strong base to form carboxylate base fuerte, para formar sales de carboxilato y glicerol.
salts and glycerol.
saturated hydrocarbon (p. 746) A hydrocarbon that contains hidrocarburo saturado (pág. 746) Hidrocarburo que sólo
only single bonds. contiene enlaces sencillos.
saturated solution (p. 493) Contains the maximum amount solución saturada (pág. 493) Solución que contiene la can-
of dissolved solute for a given amount of solvent at a spe- tidad máxima de soluto disuelto para una cantidad dada
cific temperature and pressure. de disolvente a una temperatura y presión específicas.
scientific law (p. 16) Describes a relationship in nature that ley científica (pág. 16) Describe una relación natural
is supported by many experiments. demostrada en muchos experimentos.
scientific methods (p. 12) A systematic approach used in métodos científicos (pág. 12) Enfoque sistemático que se
scientific study; an organized process used by scientists usa en los estudios científicos; proceso organizado que
to do research and to verify the work of others. siguen los científicos para realizar sus investigaciones y
verificar el trabajo realizado por otros científicos.
scientific notation (p. 40) Expresses any number as a num- notación científica (pág. 40) Expresa cualquier número
ber between 1 and 10 (known as a coefficient) multiplied como un número entre 1 y 10 (conocido como coefi-
by 10 raised to a power (known as an exponent). ciente) multiplicado por 10 elevado a alguna potencia
(conocida como exponente).
second (p. 33) The SI base unit for time. segundo (pág. 33) Unidad básica de tiempo del SI.
second law of thermodynamics (p. 543) The spontaneous segunda ley de la termodinámica (pág. 543) Los pro-
processes always proceed in such a way that the entropy cesos espontáneos siempre proceden de una forma que
of the universe increases. aumenta la entropía del universo.
secondary battery (p. 720) A rechargeable battery that batería secundaria (pág. 720) Batería recargable que
depends on reversible redox reactions. depende de reacciones redox reversibles.
sigma bond (p. 244) A single covalent bond that is formed enlace sigma (pág. 244) Enlace covalente simple que se
when an electron pair is shared by the direct overlap of forma cuando se comparte un par de electrones mediante
bonding orbitals. la superposición directa de los orbitales del enlace.
significant figures (p. 50) The number of all known digits cifras significativas (pág. 50) El número de dígitos conoci-
reported in measurements plus one estimated digit. dos que se reportan en medidas, más un dígito estimado.
single-replacement reaction (p. 293) A chemical reaction reacción de sustitución simple (pág. 293) Reacción química
that occurs when the atoms of one element replace the que ocurre cuando los átomos de un elemento reempla-
atoms of another element in a compound. zan a los átomos de otro elemento en un compuesto.
solid (p. 71) A form of matter that has its own definite sólido (pág. 71) Forma de la materia que tiene su propia
shape and volume, is incompressible, and expands only forma y volumen, es incompresible y sólo se expande
slightly when heated. levemente cuando se calienta.
solubility (p. 614) The maximum amount of solute that will solubilidad (pág. 614) Cantidad máxima de soluto que se
dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a specific tem- disolverá en una cantidad dada de disolvente a una tem-
perature and pressure. peratura y presión específicas.
solubility product constant (p. 614) K sp, which is an equi- constante de producto de solubilidad (pág. 614) Se repre-
librium constant for the dissolving of a sparingly soluble senta como K sp; es la constante de equilibrio para la diso-
ionic compound in water. lución de un compuesto iónico moderadamente soluble
en agua.
soluble (p. 479) Describes a substance that can be dissolved soluble (pág. 479) Describe una sustancia que se puede
in a given solvent. disolver en un disolvente dado.
solute (p. 299) One or more substances dissolved in a solu- soluto (pág. 299) Una o más sustancias disueltas en una
tion. solución.
solution (p. 81) A uniform mixture that can contain solids, solución (pág. 81) Mezcla uniforme que puede contener sóli-
liquids, or gases; also called a homogeneous mixture. dos, líquidos o gases; llamada también mezcla homogénea.
solvation (p. 489) The process of surrounding solute parti- solvatación (pág. 489) Proceso de rodear las partículas de
cles with solvent particles to form a solution; occurs only soluto con partículas del disolvente para formar una solu-
where and when the solute and solvent particles come in ción; ocurre sólo en los lugares y en el momento en que
contact with each other. las partículas de soluto y disolvente entran en contacto.
solvent (p. 299) The substance that dissolves a solute disolvente (pág. 299) Sustancia que disuelve un soluto para
to form a solution; the most plentiful substance in the formar una solución; la sustancia más abundante en la
solution. solución.
species (p. 693) Any kind of chemical unit involved in a especie (pág. 693) Cualquier clase de unidad química que
process. participa en un proceso.
1026 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
specific heat (p. 519) The amount of heat required to raise calor específico (pág. 519) Cantidad de calor requerida para
the temperature of one gram of a given substance by one elevar la temperatura de un gramo de una sustancia dada
degree Celsius. en un grado centígrado (Celsius).
specific rate constant (p. 575) A numerical value that relates constante de velocidad de la reacción (pág. 575) Valor
reaction rate and concentration of reactant at a specific numérico que relaciona la velocidad de la reacción y la
temperature. concentración de reactivos a una temperatura específica.
spectator ion (p. 301) Ion that does not participate in a ion espectador (pág. 301) Ion que no participa en una
reaction. reacción.
spontaneous process (p. 542) A physical or chemical change proceso espontáneo (pág. 542) Cambio físico o químico que
that occurs without outside intervention and may require ocurre sin intervención externa; la iniciación del proceso
energy to be supplied to begin the process. puede requerir un suministro de energía.
standard enthalpy (heat) of formation (p. 537) The change entalpía (calor) estándar de formación (pág. 537) Cambio en
in enthalpy that accompanies the formation of one mole la entalpía que acompaña la formación de un mol de un
of a compound in its standard state from its constituent compuesto en su estado normal, a partir de sus elemen-
elements in their standard states. tos constituyentes en su estado normal.
standard hydrogen electrode (p. 711) The standard elec- electrodo normal de hidrógeno (pág. 711) Electrodo están-
trode against which the reduction potential of all elec- dar que sirve de referencia para medir el potencial de
trodes can be measured. reducción de todos los electrodos.
states of matter (p. 71) The physical forms in which all estados de la materia (pág. 71) Las formas físicas en las que
matter naturally exists on Earth—most commonly as a la materia existe naturalmente en la Tierra, más común-
solid, a liquid, or a gas. mente como sólido, líquido o gas.
stereoisomers (p. 766) A class of isomers whose atoms are estereoisómeros (pág. 766) Clase de isómeros cuyos átomos
bonded in the same order but are arranged differently in se unen en el mismo orden, pero con distinta disposición
space. espacial.
steroids (p. 839) Lipids that have multiple cyclic rings in esteroides (pág. 839) Lípidos con múltiples anillos en sus
their structures. estructuras.
stoichiometry (p. 368) The study of quantitative relation- estequiometría (pág. 368) El estudio de las relaciones cuan-
ships between the amounts of reactants used and prod- titativas entre las cantidades de reactivos utilizados y los
ucts formed by a chemical reaction; is based on the law productos formados durante una reacción química; se
of conservation of mass. basa en la ley de la conservación de la masa.
strong acid (p. 644) An acid that ionizes completely in ácido fuerte (pág. 644) Ácido que se ioniza completamente
aqueous solution. en solución acuosa.
strong base (p. 648) A base that dissociates entirely into base fuerte (pág. 648) Base que se disocia enteramente en
metal ions and hydroxide ions in aqueous solution. iones metálicos e iones hidróxido en solución acuosa.
strong nuclear force (p. 865) A force that acts on subatomic fuerza nuclear fuerte (pág. 865) Fuerza que actúa sólo en
particles that are extremely close together. las partículas subatómicas que se encuentran extremada-
mente cercanas.
structural formula (p. 253) A molecular model that uses fórmula estructural (pág. 253) Modelo molecular que usa
symbols and bonds to show relative positions of atoms; símbolos y enlaces para mostrar las posiciones relati-
can be predicted for many molecules by drawing the vas de los átomos; esta fórmula se puede predecir para
Lewis structure. muchas moléculas al trazar su estructura de Lewis.
structural isomers (p. 765) A class of isomers whose atoms isómeros estructurales (pág. 765) Clase de isómeros cuyos
are bonded in different orders with the result that they átomos están unidos en distinto orden, por lo que tienen
have different chemical and physical properties despite propiedades químicas y físicas diferentes a pesar de tener
having the same formula. la misma fórmula.
sublimation (p. 83) The energy-requiring process by which sublimación (pág. 83) Proceso que requiere de energía en el
a solid changes directly to a gas without first becoming a que un sólido se convierte directamente en gas, sin con-
liquid. vertirse primero en un líquido.
substance (p. 5) Matter that has a definite composition; also sustancia (pág. 5) Materia con una composición definida;
known as a chemical. también se conoce como sustancia química.
substituent groups (p. 753) The side branches that extend grupos sustituyentes (pág. 753) Las ramas laterales que se
from the parent chain; they appear to substitute for a extienden desde la cadena principal y parecen sustituir
hydrogen atom in the straight chain. un átomo de hidrógeno de la cadena recta.
substitution reaction (p. 790) A reaction of organic com- reacción de sustitución (pág. 790) Reacción de compuestos
pounds in which one atom or group of atoms in a mol- orgánicos en la cual un átomo o un grupo de átomos en
ecule is replaced by another atom or group of atoms. una molécula son sustituidos por otro átomo o grupo de
átomos.
Glossary/Glosario 1027
Glossary/Glosario
substrate/sustrato titration/titulación
substrate (p. 830) A reactant in an enzyme-catalyzed reac- sustrato (pág. 830) Reactivo en una reacción catalizada por
tion that binds to specific sites on enzyme molecules. enzimas que se enlaza a sitios específicos en las molécu-
las de la enzima.
supersaturated solution (p. 494) Contains more dissolved solución sobresaturada (pág. 494) Aquella que contiene más
solute than a saturated solution at the same temperature. soluto disuelto que una solución saturada a la misma
temperatura.
surface tension (p. 418) The energy required to increase the tensión superficial (pág. 418) Energía requerida para
surface area of a liquid by a given amount; results from aumentar el área superficial de un líquido en una canti-
an uneven distribution of attractive forces. dad dada; es producida por una distribución desigual de
las fuerzas de atracción.
surfactant (p. 419) A compound, such as soap, that low- surfactante (pág. 419) Compuesto, como el jabón, que
ers the surface tension of water by disrupting hydrogen reduce la tensión superficial del agua al romper los
bonds between water molecules; also called a surface enlaces de hidrógeno entre las moléculas de agua; lla-
active agent. mado también agente tensioactivo.
surroundings (p. 526) In thermochemistry, includes every- alrededores (pág. 526) En termoquímica, incluye todo el
thing in the universe except the system. universo a excepción del sistema.
suspension (p. 476) A type of heterogeneous mixture whose suspensión (pág. 476) Tipo de mezcla heterogénea cuyas
particles settle out over time and can be separated from partículas se asientan con el tiempo y pueden separarse
the mixture by filtration. de la mezcla por filtración.
synthesis reaction (p. 289) A chemical reaction in which reacción de síntesis (pág. 289) Reacción química en la que
two or more substances react to yield a single product. dos o más sustancias reaccionan para generar un solo
producto.
system (p. 526) In thermochemistry, the specific part of sistema (pág. 526) En termoquímica, se refiere a la parte
the universe containing the reaction or process being específica del universo que contiene la reacción o el pro-
studied. ceso en estudio.
T
technology (p. 9) The practical use of scientific information. tecnología (pág. 9) Uso práctico de la información científica.
temperature (p. 403) A measure of the average kinetic temperatura (pág. 403) Medida de la energía cinética pro-
energy of the particles in a sample of matter. medio de las partículas en una muestra de materia.
theoretical yield (p. 385) In a chemical reaction, the maxi- rendimiento teórico (pág. 385) La cantidad máxima de
mum amount of product that can be produced from a producto que se puede producir a partir de una cantidad
given amount of reactant. dada de reactivo, durante una reacción química.
theory (p. 16) An explanation supported by many experi- teoría (pág. 16) Explicación respaldada por muchos experi-
ments; is still subject to new experimental data, can be mentos; está sujeta a los resultados obtenidos en nuevos
modified, and is considered valid it if can be used to experimentos, se puede modificar y se considera válida si
make predictions that are proven true. permite hacer predicciones verdaderas.
thermochemical equation (p. 529) A balanced chemical ecuación termoquímica (pág. 529) Ecuación química equili-
equation that includes the physical states of all the reac- brada que incluye el estado físico de todos los reactivos y
tants and the energy change, usually expressed as the the el cambio de energía, este último usualmente expresado
change in enthalpy. como el cambio en entalpía.
thermochemistry (p. 525) The study of heat changes that termoquímica (pág. 525) El estudio de los cambios de calor
accompany chemical reactions and phase changes. que acompañan a las reacciones químicas y a los cambios
de fase.
thermonuclear reaction (p. 883) A nuclear fusion reaction. reacción termonuclear (pág. 883) Reacción de fusión nuclear.
thermoplastic (p. 813) A type of polymer that can be melted termoplástico (pág. 813) Tipo de polímero que se puede
and molded repeatedly into shapes that are retained fundir y moldear repetidas veces en formas que el
when it is cooled. plástico mantiene al enfriarse.
thermosetting (p. 813) A type of polymer that can be fraguado (pág. 813) Tipo de polímero que se puede mol-
molded when it is first prepared but when cool cannot be dear la primera vez que es producido, pero que no puede
remelted. fundirse de nuevo una vez que se ha enfriado.
titrant (p. 661) A solution of known concentration used to solución tituladora (pág. 661) Solución de concentración
titrate a solution of unknown concentration; also called conocida que se usa para titular una solución de concen-
the standard solution. tración desconocida; también conocida como solución
estándar.
titration (p. 660) The process in which an acid-base neu- titulación (pág. 660) Proceso en el que se usa una reacción
tralization reaction is used to determine the concentra- de neutralización ácido-base para determinar la concen-
tion of a solution of unknown concentration. tración de una solución de concentración desconocida.
1028 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario
transition elements (p. 177) Elements in groups 3–12 of the elementos de transición (pág. 177) Elementos de los grupos
modern periodic table and are further divided into tran- 3 al 12 de la tabla periódica moderna; se subdividen en
sition metals and inner transition metals. metales de transición y metales de transición interna.
transition metal (p. 180) The elements in groups 3–12 that metal de transición (pág. 180) Elementos de los grupos 3 al
are contained in the d-block of the periodic table and, 12 del bloque d de la tabla periódica; con algunas excep-
with some exceptions, is characterized by a filled out- ciones, se caracterizan por tener lleno el orbital externo
ermost s orbital of energy level n, and filled or partially s del nivel de energía n y por tener orbitales d llenos o
filled d orbitals of energy level n −1. parcialmente llenos en el nivel de energía n −1.
transition state (p. 564) Term used to describe an activated estado de transición (pág. 564) Término que se usa para
complex because the activated complex is as likely to describir un complejo activado por su probabilidad de
form reactants as it is to form products. formar tanto reactivos como productos.
transmutation (p. 865) The conversion of an atom of one transmutación (pág. 865) Conversión de un átomo de un
element to an atom of another element. elemento a un átomo de otro elemento.
transuranium element (p. 876) An element with an atomic elemento transuránico (pág. 876) Elementos de la tabla
number of 93 or greater in the periodic table. periódica con un número atómico igual o mayor que 93.
triglyceride (p. 836) Forms when three fatty acids are triglicérido (pág. 836) Se forma cuando tres ácidos grasos
bonded to a glycerol backbone through ester bonds; can se enlazan a un cadena principal de glicerol por enlaces
be either solid or liquid at room temperature. éster; puede ser sólido o líquido a temperatura ambiente.
triple point (p. 429) The point on a phase diagram repre- punto triple (pág. 429) El punto en un diagrama de fase que
senting the temperature and pressure at which the three representa la temperatura y la presión en la que coexisten
phases of a substance (solid, liquid, and gas) can coexist. las tres fases de una sustancia (sólido, líquido y gas).
Tyndall effect (TIHN duhl • EE fekt) (p. 478) The scat- efecto Tyndall (pág. 478) Dispersión de la luz causada por
tering of light by colloidal particles. las partículas coloidales.
U
unit cell (p. 421) The smallest arrangement of atoms in a celda unitaria (pág. 421) El conjunto más pequeño de áto-
crystal lattice that has the symmetry as the whole crystal; mos en una red cristalina que posee la simetría de todo el
a small representative part of a larger whole. cristal; pequeña parte representativa de un entero mayor.
universe (p. 526) In thermochemistry, is the system plus the universo (pág. 526) En termoquímica, se refiere el sistema
surroundings. más los alrededores.
unsaturated hydrocarbon (p. 746) A hydrocarbon that con- hidrocarburo no saturado (pág. 746) Hidrocarburo que
tains at least one double or triple bond between carbon contiene por lo menos un enlace doble o triple entre sus
atoms. átomos de carbono.
unsaturated solution (p. 493) Contains less dissolved solute solución no saturada (pág. 493) Aquella que contiene menos
for a given temperature and pressure than a saturated soluto disuelto a una temperatura y presión dadas que
solution; has further capacity to hold more solute. una solución saturada; puede contener cantidades adi-
cionales del soluto.
V
valence electrons (p. 161) The electrons in an atom’s outer- electrones de valencia (pág. 161) Los electrones en el orbital
most orbitals; determine the chemical properties of an más externo de un átomo; determinan las propiedades
element. químicas de un elemento.
vapor (p. 72) Gaseous state of a substance that is a liquid or vapor (pág. 72) Estado gaseoso de una sustancia que es
a solid at room temperature. líquida o sólida a temperatura ambiente.
vaporization (p. 426) The energy-requiring process by vaporización (pág. 426) Proceso que requiere energía en el
which a liquid changes to a gas or vapor. que un líquido se convierte en gas o vapor.
vapor pressure (p. 427) The pressure exerted by a vapor presión de vapor (pág. 427) Presión que ejerce un vapor
over a liquid. sobre un líquido.
vapor pressure lowering (p. 499) The lowering of vapor disminución de la presión de vapor (pág. 499) Reducción de
pressure of a solvent by the addition of a nonvolatile sol- la presión de vapor de un disolvente por la adición de un
ute to the solvent. soluto no volátil al disolvente.
viscosity (p. 417) A measure of the resistance of a liquid to viscosidad (pág. 417) Medida de la resistencia de un líquido
flow, which is affected by the size and shape of particles, a fluir; es afectada por el tamaño y la forma de las partícu-
and generally increases as the temperature decreases and las y en general aumenta cuando disminuye temperatura
as intermolecular forces increase. y cuando aumentan las fuerzas intermoleculares.
Glossary/Glosario 1029
Glossary/Glosario
voltaic cell (p. 709) A type of electrochemical cell that con- pila voltaica (pág. 709) Tipo de celda electroquímica
verts chemical energy into electrical energy by a sponta- que convierte la energía química en energía eléctrica
neous redox reaction. mediante una reacción redox espontánea.
VSEPR model (p. 261) Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion modelo RPCEV (pág. 261) Modelo de Repulsión de los
model, which is based on an arrangement that minimizes Pares Electrónicos de la Capa de Valencia; se basa en un
the repulsion of shared and unshared pairs of electrons ordenamiento que minimiza la repulsión de los pares de
around the central atom. electrones compartidos y no compartidos alrededor del
átomo central.
W
wavelength (p. 137) The shortest distance between equiva- longitud de onda (pág. 137) La distancia más corta entre
lent points on a continuous wave; is usually expressed in puntos equivalentes en una onda continua; se expresa
meters, centimeters, or nanometers. generalmente en metros, centímetros o nanómetros.
wax (p. 838) A type of lipid that is formed by combining cera (pág. 838) Tipo de lípido que se forma al combinarse
a fatty acid with a long-chain alcohol; is made by both un ácido graso con un alcohol de cadena larga; son ela-
plants and animals. borados por plantas y animales.
weak acid (p. 645) An acid that ionizes only partially in ácido débil (pág. 645) Ácido que se ioniza parcialmente en
dilute aqueous solution. una solución acuosa diluida.
weak base (p. 648) A base that ionizes only partially in base débil (pág. 648) Base que se ioniza parcialmente en
dilute aqueous solution to form the conjugate acid of the una solución acuosa diluida para formar el ácido conju-
base and hydroxide ion. gado de la base y el ion hidróxido.
weight (p. 9) A measure of an amount of matter and also peso (pág. 9) Medida de la cantidad de materia y también
the effect of Earth’s gravitational pull on that matter. del efecto de la fuerza gravitatoria de la Tierra sobre esa
materia.
X
X ray (p. 864) A form of high-energy, penetrating electro- rayos X (pág. 864) Forma de radiación electromagnética
magnetic radiation emitted from some materials that are penetrante de alta energía que emiten algunos materiales
in an excited electron state. que se encuentran en un estado electrónico excitado.
1030 Glossary/Glosario
Absolute zero Anions
Index Key
Italic numbers = illustration/photo Bold numbers = vocabulary term
act. = activity prob. = problem
Index 1031
Index
Anodes Blood
Anodes, 107, 710 Atomic solids, 422, 422 table Base ionization constant (K b), 649, 649
Antacids, 659 Atomic structure: Bohr model of, table, 970 table
Antarctica, ozone hole over, 7, 20–21 146–148, 150 act.; Dalton’s model Bases. See also Acid-base chemistry;
Anthracene, 772 of, 104 table, 104–105; Democritus’ antacids, 659; Arrhenius, 637; base
Antilogarithms, 966–967 early idea of, 103; Greek philosophers’ ionization constant (K b), 649, 649
Antimony, 932, 933, 935 views of, 102–103, 103 table; mile- table; Brønsted-Lowry, 638–639;
Applied research, 17 stones in understanding, 110–111; chemical properties, 635; conjugate,
Aqueous solutions, 299–308. See also nuclear atomic model, 112–114, 136; 638; in household items, 633 act.;
Solutions; electrolytes in and colliga- plum pudding model, 110; quantum molarity and pH of strong, 656; phys-
tive properties, 498–499; ionic com- mechanical model, 149–152; try to ical properties, 634–635; strength of,
pounds in, 300; ionic equations and, determine, 135 act. 648–649; strong, 649; titration of. See
301, 302 prob.; molecular compounds Atomic weapons, 111 Titration; weak, 649
in, 299; nonelectrolytes in and colliga- Atoms, 10, 106–107; atom-to-mass Base units, 33, 35–37
tive properties, 499; overall equations conversions, 331 prob.; determining Basic solutions, 636
for reactions in, 307; reactions produc- structure of. See Atomic structure; Batteries, 717, 718–723; dry cells, 718–
ing water in, 303, 304 prob.; reactions excited state, 146, 147; ground state, 720; fuel cells, 722–723; lead-acid,
that form gases, 281 act., 304–305, 306 146; mass-to-atom conversions, 720–721, 930; lemon battery, 707 act.;
prob.; reactions that form precipitates 329–330, 330 prob.; size of, 106, 112; lithium, 721–722
in, 300, 301 act., 302 prob.; solvation of stability of, 240; subatomic particles, Becquerel, Henri, 860–861, 885
ionic compounds in, 490; solvation of 113–114, 114 table; viewing, 107 Beetles, bioluminescent, 309
molecular compounds in, 491 ATP (adenosine triphosphate), 845 Bent molecular shape, 263 table
Aragonite, 214 Aufbau diagram, 156–157, 157 table, Benzaldehyde, 796 table, 797
Archaeologist, 891
160 Benzene, 770–771; carcinogenic nature
Argon, 159 table, 185 table, 944, 945
Aufbau principle, 156, 157 table of, 774; naming of substituted,
Aristotle, 103, 103 table, 416
Automobile air safety bags, 292 772–773
Aromatic compounds, 771–774; ben-
Average rate of reaction, 560–562, 562 Benzopyrene, 774
zene, 770–771; carcinogenic, 774;
prob. Bernoulli, Daniel, 416
fused-ring systems, 772; naming,
772–773, 773 prob. Avogadro’s number, 321, 326 act., 969 Beryl, 214
Arrhenius model of acid-base chemis- table Beryllium, 158 table, 161 table, 910–
try, 637, 642 table Avogadro’s principle, 452 911, 912
Arrhenius, Svante, 636, 637 Beryls, 912
Arsenic, 932, 933
Arson investigator, 91
B Best-fit line, 56–57
Beta decay, 867, 868 table
Art restorer, 23 Bacteria, nitrogen-fixing, 934 Beta particles, 123, 861 table, 863, 864,
Aryl halides, 788 Bakelite, 809, 810, 813 888 table
Aspirin, 810 Baker, 847 Beta radiation, 123, 124 table, 861, 861
Astatine, 940, 941 Baking, acid-base chemistry and, 669 table, 862, 863, 888 table
Asymmetric carbon, 768 Baking powder, 669 Binary acids, 250, 252
Atmosphere (atm), 407, 407 table Baking soda, 378 act., 669 Binary ionic compounds, 210, 219
Atmosphere, Earth’s: cycling of carbon Balanced chemical equations: conserva- Binary molecular compounds, 248–250,
dioxide in, 505; elements in, 901; tion of mass and, 285, 288; deriving, 249 prob., 252
layers of, 5; ozone layer and, 5–8 285–286, 286 table, 287 prob., 288, Binding energy, 877, 878
Atomic bomb, 879 288. See also Stoichiometry; mole Biochemist, 308
Atomic distances, 113 act. ratios and, 371–372; particle and mole Biochemistry, 11 table
Atomic emission spectrum, 144–145, relationships in, 368–369; relation- Biofuel cells, 724 act.
164 act. ships derived from, 369 table Biofuels, 774 act., 775
Atomic Force Microscope, 291 Balanced forces, 597 Biogas, 775
Atomic mass, 119–120, 121 prob., 126 Ball-and-stick molecular models, 253, 746 Biological metabolism. See Metabolism
act. Balmer (visible) series, 147, 148, 150 act. Bioluminescence, 309, 693
Atomic mass unit (amu), 119, 325, 969 Band of stability, 866
Biomolecules: carbohydrates, 825 act.,
table Bar graphs, 56
832–834; lipids, 835–839; nucleic
Atomic nucleus, 112; discovery of, 112; Barite, 214
acids, 840–843; proteins, 826–831
nuclear model of mass and, 326 act. Barium, 226 table, 910–911, 913, 914
Bioremediation, 920
Atomic number, 115, 116 prob., 118 Barium carbonate, 302, 302 prob.
Bismuth, 932, 933, 935
prob. Barium chloride, 913
Bismuth subsalicylate, 935
Atomic orbitals, 152, 154, 262 Barium sulfate, 621
Blocks, periodic table, 183–185. See also
Atomic radii, trends in, 187, 188, 189 Barometers, 407, 416
Specific blocks
prob. Base hydrolysis, 665
Blood, pH of, 666, 668 act.
1032 Index
Index
Bloodstains, detecting, 697 Calcium chloride, 913 887; research chemist, 185; science
Body temperature, reaction rate and, 583 Calcium hydroxide, 287 writer, 604; spectroscopist, 139
Bohr atomic model, 146–148, 150 act. Calibration technician, 56 Cast iron, 228 table
Bohr, Niels, 110, 146 Calorie (cal), 518 Catabolism, 844–845
Boiling, 427 Calorimeter, 523–524, 525 prob., 532 prob. Catalysts, 571–573. See also Enzymes;
Boiling point, 77, 427; of alkanes, 758; Calx of mercury, 79 chemical equilibrium and, 611;
of covalent compounds, 270; of halo- Cancer, 163, 887 hydrogenation reactions and, 805;
carbons, 789; as physical property, 73 Canola oil, hydrogenation of, 805 act. temperature and, 850 act.
Boiling point elevation, 500–501, 503 Capillary action, 419 Catalytic converters, 573
prob. Caramide, 800 Cathode rays, 108
Boltzmann, Ludwig, 402 Carbohydrates, 832–834; disaccharides, Cathode-ray tubes, 107–108
Bond angles, 261 833; functions of, 832; monosaccha- Cathodes, 107, 710
Bond character, 266 rides, 832–833; polysaccharides, 833– Cations, 207–208
Bond dissociation energies, 247 834; test for simple sugars, 825 act. Cattle feed, 601
Bonding pairs, 242 Carbolic acid, 636 Cave formation, 643
Bonds. See Chemical bonds Carbon. See also Organic compounds; CDs, 924
Book preservation, 661 abundance of, 84; analytical tests for, Cell membrane, 838
Borates, 214 926–927; atomic properties, 158 table, Cell notation, 713
Boron, 158 table, 161 table, 184, 922, 161 table, 926–927; common reactions Cell potential: applications of, 716;
923, 924 involving, 926–927; in human body, calculate, 713–714, 715 prob., 717;
Boron group (Group 13), 922–925 195; organic compounds and, 745; measure, 734 act.
Bose-Einstein condensate, 417 physical properties, 926; uses of, 928 Cellular respiration, 846
Bose, Satyendra Nath, 417 Carbonated beverages, 495 Celluloid, 490
Boyle, Robert, 442 Carbonates, 214 Cellulose, 834
Boyle’s law, 442–443, 443 prob., 444 act., Carbon dating, 873–874, 883 Celsius scale, 34
451 table Carbon dioxide, 256 prob., 430, 505 Centrifuge, 490
Branched-chain alkanes, 752–753; Carbon group (Group 4A), 926–931, CERN, 111
alkyl groups, 752; naming, 752–753, 932–935 Cesium, 194, 906, 907, 909
754–755 prob., 760, 761 prob. Carbonic acid, 634 Cesium clock, 909
Brass, 228 table Carbon tetrachloride, 20, 267–268 CFCs. See Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Breathing, Boyle’s law and, 444 act. Carbonyl compounds, 796–801; alde- Chadwick, James, 110, 113
Breeder reactors, 882 hydes, 796–797; carboxylic acids, 798; Chain reactions, 859 act., 879, 880
Brine, electrolysis of, 730 ketones, 797 Chance, scientific discoveries and, 18
Bromate, 221 table Carbonyl group, 787 table, 796 Charles, Jacques, 444
Bromine, 120, 180, 940, 941, 942 Carboxyl group, 787 table, 798, 798 Charles’s law, 441 act., 444–445, 446
Brønsted, Johannes, 638 table, 826 prob., 451 table
Brønsted-Lowry model, 638–640, 642 Carboxylic acids, 798, 798 table; con- Chelation therapy, 229
table, 646 densation reactions, 801; functional Chemical bonds, 206; character of, 266;
Bronze, 228 table groups, 787 table; naming, 798; covalent. See Covalent bonds; elec-
Brownian motion, 477 organic compounds derived from, tron affinity and, 265; ionic. See Ionic
Brown, Robert, 477 799–800, 800 act.; properties, 798 bonds; melting point and, 242 act.;
Buckminsterfullerene, 928 Carcinogens, 774 metallic. See Metallic bonds; valence
Buckyballs, 928 Cardiac scans, 925 electrons and, 207
Buffer capacity, 667 Careers. See Careers in Chemistry; In Chemical changes, 69 act., 77, 92 act.,
Buffers, 666–667, 668 act.
the Field 281 act. See also Chemical reactions
Buffer systems, 666–667, 668 act.
Careers in Chemistry: alternative energy Chemical engineer, 580
Bufotoxin, 839
specialist, 729; baker, 847; biochemist, Chemical equations, 285. See also
Burner gas analysis, 776 act.
308; calibration technician, 56; chemi- Ionic equations; Nuclear equations;
Butane, 750, 751, 751 table
cal engineer, 580; chemistry teacher, Redox equations; Stoichiometry;
1-Butene, 759 table
2-Butene, 759 table 123; environmental chemist, 7; flavor Thermochemical equations; balanc-
Butyl group, 753 table chemist, 267; food scientist, 219; heat- ing, 285–286, 286 table, 287 prob.,
ing and cooling specialist, 527; materi- 288; coefficients in, 369; interpreta-
als scientist, 81; medicinal chemist, tion, 370 prob.; mole ratios and,
C 342; metallurgist, 423; meteorologist,
447; nursery worker, 646; petroleum
371–372; products, 283; reactants,
283; relationships derived from, 369;
Cadaverine, 795
Cadmium, 920 technician, 748; pharmacist, 381; phar- symbols used in, 283, 283 table
Calcium, 177, 195, 910–911, 913, 914 macy technician, 483; polymer chem- Chemical equilibrium, 596; addition
ist, 813; potter, 682; radiation therapist, of products and, 608; addition of
Index 1033
Index
reactants and, 607; catalysts and, 611; 92 act.; products of, predict, 298, 298 Chloromethane, 787
changes affecting, 593 act.; charac- table, 807–808; rates of. See Reaction Chlorophyll, 912
teristics of, 604; common ion effect rates; redox. See Redox reactions; Chocolate, 431
and, 620–621; concentration and, 607; replacement, 293–294, 295 prob., Chromatograms, polarity and, 269 act.
determine point of, 593 act.; dynamic 296–297; spontaneity of, 542–545, Chromatography, 82 act., 83, 269 act.
nature of, 597–598; equilibrium con- 546–547, 548 prob., 566–567; stoi- Chrome, 328
stant (K eq), 599–600, 604, 605 prob.; chiometry in. See Stoichiometry; Chromium, 160, 328, 918, 919
equilibrium expressions, 600, 601 substitution, 790–791; synthesis, 289; Cinnameldehyde, 796 table, 797
prob., 602, 603 prob.; hemoglobin- theoretical yield from, 385 Circle graphs, 55
oxygen equilibrium in body, 623; law Chemical symbols, 84 cis- isomers, 766
of, 599–600; Le Châtelier’s principle Chemistry, 4, 11; benefits of studying, Clay, 476
and, 606–611; moles of reactant v. 22; branches of, 11, 11 table; symbols Clay roofing tiles, 302
moles of product and, 609; removal and abbreviations used in, 968 table Clouds, 428
of products and, 608; reversible reac- Chemistry & Health: elements of the Cloud seeding, 495
tions and, 595–596; temperature and, body, 195; evolution and HIV, 389; Cobalt, 918, 919
609–610, 611 act.; volume and pres- hemoglobin-oxygen equilibrium, 623; Coefficients, 285; balancing equations
sure and, 608–609 hyperbaric oxygen therapy, 465; laser and, 285; scientific notation and, 40–41
Chemical formulas, 85; for binary ionic scissors, 163; PA-457 anti-HIV drug, Cohesion, 419
389; rate of reaction and body tem-
compounds, 219, 220 prob.; empirical. Cold-packs, 515 act., 528
perature, 583; toxicology, 59
See Empirical formula; for hydrates, Collagen, 831
Chemistry teacher, 123
351 table, 352, 353 prob., 356 act.; Colligative properties, 498–504; boiling
CHEMLABs, 228. See also Data Analysis
for ionic compounds, 218–219, 220 point elevation, 500–501; electrolytes
Labs; Launch Labs; MiniLabs; absorp-
prob., 221, 222 prob.; molecular. See and, 498–499; freezing point depres-
tion and emission spectra, 164 act.;
Molecular formulas; mole relation- sion, 501–502, 502 act., 503 prob.;
alcohols, properties of, 816 act.; atomic
ship to, 333–334, 334–335 prob.; for osmotic pressure, 504; vapor pressure
mass of unknown element, 126 act.;
monatomic ions, 218–219; name of burner gas analysis, 776 act.; calorim- lowering, 499–500
molecular compound from, 251; per- etry, 550 act.; density, dating coins Collision theory, 563–564, 564 table
cent composition from, 342, 343 prob.; by, 60 act.; descriptive chemistry, 196 Colloids, 477, 477 table, 478
for polyatomic ionic compounds, 221, act.; enzyme action and temperature, Color: change in as evidence of chemical
222 prob.; structural. See Structural 850 act.; evaporation, compare rates reaction, 283; as physical property, 73
formulas of, 432 act.; gas, identify an unknown, Combined gas law, 449, 450 prob., 451
Chemical potential energy, 517 466 act.; hydrate, determine formula table, 454
Chemical properties, 74 for, 356 act.; hydrocarbon burner gas Combustion engines, 290
Chemical reaction rates. See Reaction analysis, 776 act.; ionic compounds, Combustion reactions, 290–291, 532
rates formation of, 230 act.; metals, reactiv- prob., 533
Chemical reactions, 77, 282–288; actual ity of, 310 act.; molar solubility, calcu- Common ion, 620
yield from, 385; addition, 804–805; late and compare, 624 act.; molecular Common ion effect, 620–621
in aqueous solutions, 299–301, 302 shape, 272 act.; mole ratios, determine, Complementary base pairs, 841, 842
prob., 303–305, 306 prob., 307–308; 390 act.; products of chemical reaction, Complete ionic equations, 301, 302
classification of, 291 prob.; com- identify, 92 act.; reaction rate, affect of prob., 304 prob.
bustion, 290–291, 532 prob., 533; concentration on, 584 act.; redox and Complex carbohydrates. See
condensation, 801; conservation of the damaging dumper, 698 act.; solu- Polysaccharides
mass and, 77, 78 prob., 79, 285, 288; bility rate, factors affecting, 506 act.; Complex reactions, 580
decomposition, 292, 292 prob.; dehy- vapor pressure and popcorn popping, Compounds, 85–87; compare melt-
dration, 803; dehydrogenation, 803; 466 act.; voltaic cell potentials, mea- ing points of, 242 act.; formulas for.
elimination, 802; endothermic, 216, sure, 734 act.; water analysis, 24 act. See Formulas; ionic. See Ionic com-
247; equations for, 283 table, 283–285; Chernobyl, 880, 883, 889 act. pounds; law of definite proportions
evidence of, 69 act., 77, 282–283, 367 Chewing gum, percent composition, and, 87–88; law of multiple propor-
act.; excess reactants in, 379, 384; 342 act. tions and, 89–90; mass-to-mole
exothermic, 216, 247; heat from. See Chimney soot, 774 conversions, 337, 337 prob.; molar
Thermochemistry; limiting reactants, Chirality, 767, 768 mass of, 335, 335 prob.; mole-to-mass
379–381, 382–383 prob.; milestones in Chlorate, 221 table conversions, 336, 336 prob.; percent
understanding, 290–291; neutraliza- Chlorine, 89–90, 119–120, 159 table, composition and. See Percent com-
tion, 659–660; nuclear reactions v., 180, 940, 941, 942 position; properties of, 86; separating
860 table; organic. See Organic reac- Chlorine bleach, 942 components of, 86; stability of, 240
tions; oxidation reduction reactions, Chlorite, 221 table Computer chips, 181, 929
806–807; percent yield from, 386, Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 7–8, 17, Concentration, 475 act., 480–488. See
386 prob., 388; products of, identify, 20, 291, 788 Solution concentration; calculate from
1034 Index
Index
equilibrium constant expression, 612, Lewis structures for, 253–260, 255 prob., tion of canola oil, 805 act.; microbes,
613 prob.; chemical equilibrium and, 256 prob., 257 prob., 258 prob., 260 electric current from, 724 act.; oxida-
607; qualitative descriptions of, 480; prob.; melting points of, 242 act., 270; tion rate of dichloroethene isomers,
ratios of. See Concentration ratios; naming, 248–251, 249 prob., 252; polar- 768 act.; oxygen in moon rocks, 387
reaction rate and, 569, 574–576, 584 ity of and chromatograms, 269 act.; act.; ozone levels in Antarctica, 21
act. properties of, 270; shape of (VSEPR act.; polarity and chromatograms, 269
Concentration ratios: molality, 480 model), 261–262, 263 table, 264 prob. act.; redox reactions and space shuttle
table, 487, 487 prob.; molarity, 480 Covalent gases, 270 launch, 691 act.; turbidity and Tyndall
table, 482, 483 prob.; mole fraction, Covalent molecular solids, 270 effect, 478 act.
480 table, 488; percent by mass, 480 Covalent network solids, 270, 422, 422 d-block elements, 185, 916
table, 481, 481 prob.; percent by vol- table, 423 de Broglie equation, 150
ume, 480 table, 482 Cracking, 748 de Broglie, Louis, 149
Conclusions, 15 CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Decane, 751 table
Condensation, 76, 428 Physics, 75, 77 Decomposition reactions, 292, 292
Condensation polymerization, 811 Crick, Francis, 637, 841–842 prob., 566 act.
Condensation reactions, 801 Crime-scene investigator, 697 Deep sea diving, gas pressure and, 408
Condensed structural formulas, 751 Critical mass, 880 act.
Conductivity: among types of elements Critical point, 429 Dehydration reactions, 803
177–181; as physical property, 73; Crookes, Sir William, 108 Delocalized electrons, 225
explanation of, 226; of ionic com- Crude oil. See Petroleum Democritus, 103, 103 table, 416
pounds in solution, 215, 498–499 Crust, Earth’s, 901 Denaturation, 829
Conjugate acid-base pair, 638 Cryosurgery, 934 Denatured alcohol, 793
Conjugate acids, 638, 641 table Cryotherapy, 934 Density, 36–37; calculate, 37; date coins
Conjugate bases, 638, 641 table Crystal lattices, 214, 270, 420–421, 422 by, 60 act.; of gases, 403, 456, 457 act.;
Conservation of energy. See Law of con- act. identification of unknowns by, 37, 38
servation of energy Crystalline solids, 420–421, 422 table; prob., 39 act.; of liquids, 31 act., 415;
Conservation of mass. See Law of con- categories, 422 table, 422–423; crystal as physical property, 73; of solids, 420;
servation of mass unit cells, 421, 422 act. units of, 36
Constant, 14 Crystallization, 83 Dental amalgams, 228 table
Controls, 14 Cube root, 949 Deoxyribonucleic acid. See DNA
Conversion factors, 44–46, 46 prob., Cubic unit cells, 421 table (deoxyribonucleic acid)
319 act. Curie, Marie, 861, 882, 915 Deoxyribose sugar, 841
Coordinate covalent bonds, 259 Curie, Pierre, 861, 882 Dependent variables, 14, 56
Copper: acid mine waste, 920; electron Cyanide, 221 table Deposition, 429
configuration, 160; in fireworks, 913; Cyclic hydrocarbons, 755 Derived units, 35–36, 44
flame test for, 92 act.; law of multiple Cycloalkanes, 755–756, 756–757 prob. Desalination, 730
proportions and, 89–90; melting and Cyclohexane, 755 Descriptive chemistry, 196 act.
boiling point, 226 table; in microchip Cyclohexanol, 793 Dessicants, 354
wiring, 919; as paint pigment, 919; Cyclohyexylamine, 795 Detergents, 13 act., 419, 924
properties of, 74 table; purification of, Cysteine, 827 table Deuterium, 904
731–732 Cytosine (C), 841 Diamonds, 423, 928
Core, iron in Earth’s, 919 Diatomic molecules, 241
Dichloroethene, 768 act.
Corn oil, 31 act.
Corrosion, 724–727, 726 act. D Dietary salt, 908
Diffusion, 404, 405
Counting units, 320 Dalton, John, 417
Covalent bonds, 241–247; bond angle, Dalton’s atomic theory, 104 table, Dilute solutions, 485, 486 prob.
261, 263 table; coordinate, 259; double, 104–105, 109 Dimensional analysis, 44–46, 46 prob.,
245; electron affinity and, 265; electro- Dalton’s law of partial pressures, 408, 956, 956 prob.
negativity and, 266; energy in, 247; for- 409 prob., 410 Dinitrogen pentoxide, 565 act.
mation of, 241; hybridization and, 262; Data, 13 Dipeptides, 828
length of, 246; nonpolar, 266; pi bonds Data Analysis Labs. See also Dipole-dipole forces, 269, 411, 412–413
and, 245; polar, 266, 267–268; sigma CHEMLABs; Launch Labs; MiniLabs; Direct relationships, 961
bonds and, 244, 245; single, 242–244; Problem-Solving Labs; antimicrobial Disaccharides, 833
strength of, 246–247; super ball prop- properties of polymers, 216 act.; Dispersion forces, 269, 411, 412
erties, 239 act.; triple, 245 atomic distances in highly ordered Dispersion medium, 477 table
Covalent compounds: boiling points pyrolytic graphite (HOPG), 113 act.; Dissociation energy, 247
of, 270; formulas from names of, 251; biofuel cells, 724 act.; gas pressure and Dissociation equations, strong bases,
intermolecular forces in, 269–270; deep sea diving, 408 act.; hydrogena- 648, 648 table
Index 1035
Index
Distillation Entropy
Distillation, 82 Electrochemistry: batteries, 717, 718– photoelectric effect and, 142; proper-
Distilled water: electrical conductivity 723; biofuel cells, 724 act.; corrosion, ties of, 114 table; quantum mechanical
of, 205 act.; evaporation of, 432 act. 724–727; electrochemical cell poten- model of atom and, 150–152; valence,
Diving, gas pressure and, 408 act. tials, 711–714, 715 prob., 716–717; 161
Division operations, 54 electrochemical cells, 707 act., 709; Electron sea model, 225
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 841–842, electrolysis, 728–732; lemon battery, Electroplating, 732
842 act., 843 707 act.; redox reactions in, 708–709; Electrostatic force, 865
Dobson, G. M. B., 6 voltaic cell chemistry, 710–711 Elements, 10, 84–85, 87; abundance
Dobson units (DU), 6 Electrolysis, 86, 728–732; aluminum of various, 84; in atmosphere, 901;
d orbitals, 154 production, 730–731; desalination by, atomic number of, 115, 116 prob., 118
Dose of radiation, 889–890 730; electroplating and, 732; of mol- prob.; chemical symbols for, 84; color
Dose-response curve, 59 ten NaCl, 729; ore purification and, key, 968 table; in Earth’s atmosphere,
Double covalent bonds, 245, 246 731–732 901; in Earth’s core, 919; in Earth’s
Double helix, DNA, 841 Electrolytes, 215; colligative properties crust, 84, 901; in Earth’s oceans, 901;
Double-replacement reactions, 296– of aqueous solutions and, 498–499; emission spectra of, 164 act.; in the
297, 297 prob., 297 table strong, 498; weak, 498 human body, 195; isotopes, 117; law
Down’s cells, 729 Electrolytic cells, 728; aluminum pro- of definite proportions, 87–88; law of
Drake, Edwin, 749 duction and, 730–731; electrolysis of multiple proportions, 89–90; periodic
Dry cells, 718–720; alkaline batteries, brine and, 730; electrolysis of molten table of. See Periodic table; physical
719; primary batteries, 720; second- NaCl and, 729; electroplating and, states of, 84; properties of, 180 act.,
ary batteries, 720; silver batteries, 719; 732; purification of ores and, 731–732 196 act., 971–974 table; representa-
zinc-carbon, 718–719 Electromagnetic radiation, 137–139, tive, 177, 196 act.
Dry ice, 428 140 prob., 861 table, 863–864 Elimination reactions, 802
Drywall, 914 Electromagnetic (EM) spectrum, Emeralds, 912
Ductility, 226 138–139 Emission spectra, 164 act.
DVDs, 924 Electromagnetic wave relationship, 137, Empirical formulas, 344; from mass
150 data, 349–350 prob.; from percent
1036 Index
Index
544–545; reaction spontaneity and, Equivalence point, 661 equilibrium, 601 prob.; equilibrium
546–547, 548 prob.; second law of Error, 48 constants, value of, 605 prob.; formula
thermodynamics and, 543 Essential elements, 383 for polyatomic compound, 222 prob.;
Environmental chemist, 7 Essential oils, 770 formulas for ionic compound, 220
Environmental chemistry, 11 table Esterification, 806 table prob.; freezing point depression, 503
Enzymes, 826, 829–830. See also Esters, 787 table, 799, 799 table, 800 act. prob.; gas stoichiometry, 461 prob.;
Catalysts; Proteins; affect on reaction Ethanal, 796 Gay-Lussac’s law, 448 prob.; Graham’s
rate, 571; chirality and, 767, 768; tem- Ethanamide, 800 law of effusion, 405 prob.; half-reac-
perature and, 850 act. Ethane, 750, 751 table, 793 tion method, 695 prob.; heat absorbed,
Enzyme-substrate complex, 830 Ethanol, 432 act., 792–793, 816 act. calculate, 521 prob.; hydrates, deter-
Equations: algebraic, 954–955, 955 prob.; Ethene, 759 table, 762, 803 mine formula for, 353 prob.; ideal gas
atomic number, 115; average rate of Ether functional group, 787 table law, 455 prob.; induced transmutation
reaction, 562; boiling point elevation, Ethers, 787 table, 794, 794 table equations, 876 prob.; instantaneous
500; Boyle’s law, 443; cell potential, Ethylamine, 795 reaction rates, 579 prob.; ionic equa-
714; Charles’s law, 445; chemical. See Ethyl group, 753 table tions and precipitation reactions, 302
Chemical equations; Dalton’s law of Ethyne (acetylene), 762 act., 763, 763, prob.; ionic equations for aqueous
partial pressures, 409; density, 37; dilu- 764 solutions forming gases, 306 prob.;
tion, 485; Einstein’s (E=mc 2), 877; Evaporation, 426–427, 432 act., 816 act. ionic equations for aqueous solutions
electromagnetic wave relationship, 137, Everyday Chemistry: baking soda and forming water, 304 prob.; ion product
150; energy of a photon, 143; energy of baking powder and cooking, 669; constant, 651 prob.; ion product con-
a quantum, 142; error, 48; Gay-Lussac’s chocolate, manufacture of, 431; garlic stant Q sp, 619 prob.; Lewis structure
law, 447; general rate law, 575; Gibbs and pain receptors, 815; history in a for covalent compound with multiple
free energy, 515 act., 546; Graham’s glass of water, 355; killer fashion, 229 bonds, 256 prob.; Lewis structure for
law of effusion, 404; Henry’s law, 496; Example Problems: algebraic equations, covalent compound with single bond,
ideal gas law, 454; induced transmuta- 955 prob.; alkanes, naming, 754–755 255 prob.; Lewis structures, 244 prob.;
tion, 876 prob.; ionic, 301; ion-product
prob.; alkenes, naming, 761 prob.; limiting reactant, determine, 382–383
of water, 650; law of conservation of
aromatic compounds, naming, 773 prob.; mass number, 118 prob.; mass-
mass, 77; mass number, 117; molality,
prob.; atomic mass, 121 prob.; atomic to-atom conversions, 330 prob.; mass-
487; molarity, 482; mole fraction, 488;
number, 116 prob., 118 prob.; atomic to-mass stoichiometric conversion, 377
neutralization, 659–660; nuclear, 123,
radii trends, 189 prob.; atom-to-mass prob.; mass-to-mole conversions, 329
869, 869 prob.; overall, 307; percent by
mass, 87, 481; percent by mass from conversions, 330 prob.; average rate of prob.; mass-to-mole conversions for
the chemical formula, 342; percent by reaction, 562 prob.; balancing equa- compounds, 337 prob.; mass to moles
volume, 482; percent error, 48; percent tions, 287 prob.; boiling point eleva- to particles conversions, 338–339
yield, 386; pH, 652; pH and pOH, tion, 503 prob.; Boyle’s law, 443 prob.; prob.; molality, 487 prob.; molarity, 483
relationship between, 652; pOH, 652; branched-chain alkanes, naming, prob.; molarity from titration data, 664
quantum, energy of, 142; radiation, 754–755 prob.; cell potential, calculate, prob.; molar solubility, 616 prob.; molar
intensity and distance of, 890; radioac- 715 prob.; Charles’s law (gas tempera- volume, 453 prob.; molecular formula
tive element, remaining amount of, ture and volume relationship), 446 from percent composition, 348–349
871; rate law, 574; skeleton, 284; slope prob.; chemical equations, interpret, prob.; molecular shape, 264 prob.; mole
of a line, 57, 962; specific heat, 520; 370 prob.; combined gas law, 450 prob.; relationship from a chemical formula,
summation, 540; symbols used in, 283 combustion reactions, energy released 334 prob.; mole-to-mass conversion,
table; thermochemical, 529–533; word, by, 532 prob.; concentration from equi- 328 prob.; mole-to-mass conversions
284 librium constant expression, 613 prob.; for compounds, 336 prob.; mole-to-
Equilibrium. See Chemical equilibrium; conservation of mass, 78 prob.; conver- mass stoichiometric conversion, 376
Solubility equilibrium sion factors, 46 prob.; cycloalkanes, prob.; mole-to-mole stoichiometric
Equilibrium concentrations, calculate, naming, 756–757 prob.; density and conversion, 375 prob.; net ionic redox
612, 613 prob. volume to find mass, 38 prob.; dimen- equation, balance, 692; nuclear equa-
Equilibrium constant (K eq), 599–600, sional analysis, 956 prob.; electron tions, balancing, 869 prob.; oxidation
604, 605 prob. configuration and the periodic table, number, determine, 687 prob.; oxi-
Equilibrium constant expressions, 186 prob.; electron-dot structure, 162 dation-number method, 690 prob.;
599–600; calculate concentrations prob.; empirical formula from mass particles, convert to moles, 324 prob.;
from, 612, 613 prob.; for heteroge- data, 349–350 prob.; empirical formula percent by mass, 481; percent error,
neous equilibrium, 602, 603 prob.; for from percent composition, 345 prob.; 49 prob.; percent yield, 386 prob.; pH,
homogeneous equilibrium, 600, 601 energy of a photon, 143 prob.; energy calculate, 653 prob., 654 prob.; pOH,
prob.; Le Châtelier’s principle and, units, convert, 518 prob.; equilibrium calculate, 654 prob.; radioactive ele-
606–611; solubility product constant constant expression for heterogeneous ment, remaining amount of, 872 prob.;
expressions. See Solubility product equilibrium, 603 prob.; equilibrium reaction spontaneity, 548 prob.; redox
constant expressions constant expression for homogeneous reactions, identify, 685 prob.; scientific
Index 1037
Index
notation, 41 prob., 43 prob.; significant Fluorine: analytical tests for, 941; Free energy (G system), 546–547; calcu-
figures, 51 prob., 53 prob., 54 prob.; atomic properties, 941; common reac- late, 547, 548 prob.; sign of, 547, 547
significant figures and, 951 prob., 953 tions involving, 940; electron configu- table
prob.; single-replacement reactions, ration and orbital diagram, 158 table; Freezing, 428
295 prob.; standard enthalpy (heat) of electron-dot structure, 161 table; elec- Freezing point, 428
formation, 540 prob.; unit conversion, tronegativity of, 194, 265; isotopes, Freezing point depression, 501–502, 502
958 prob.; wavelength of EM wave, 140 120; physical properties, 940 act., 503 prob.
prob. Fluoroapatite, 622 act. Frequency, 137
Excess reactants, 379, 384 Fog, 428 Fructose, 832, 833
Exothermic reactions, 216, 247; activa- Foldables: acid-base chemistry, 633 act.; Fuel cells, 722–723, 905
tion energy and, 565; enthalpy and, atoms, 101 act.; biomolecules, 825 Fuel rods, nuclear reactor, 880–882
527, 528 table act.; bond character, 239 act.; chemi- Functional groups, 785 act., 786, 787
Expanded octets, 259 cal reactions, 281 act.; concentration table; amide group, 800; carbonyl
Experimental data, percent composition of solutions, 475 act.; electrochemical group, 796; carboxyl group, 798;
from, 341–342, 342 act. cells, 707 act.; electron configura- hydroxyl group, 792
Experiments, 14. See also CHEMLABs; tion, 135 act.; equilibrium, changes Fused-ring systems, 772
MiniLabs; Problem-Solving Labs; affecting, 593 act.; functional groups, Fusion, molar enthalpy (heat) of
laboratory safety and, 18, 19 table 785 act.; gas laws, 441 act.; Gibbs free (∆H fus), 530
Exponents, 40–41 energy equation, 515 act.; hydrocar- Fusion nuclear reactions, 883–884
Extensive properties, 73 bon compounds, 743 act.; hydrocar- Fusion (phase change), 425–426, See
Extrapolation, 57, 963 bons, 743 act.; ionic compounds, 205 also Melting
act.; mole conversion factors, 319 act.;
1038 Index
Index
Gasoline octane rating system, 748–749 Green fluorescent protein (GFP), 309 Halocarbons, 787 table, 787–789; alkyl
Gas particles, 403; kinetic energy of, Ground state, 146 halides, 787; aryl halides, 788; func-
403; motion of, 403; size of, 403 Ground-state electron configuration, tional group, 787, 787 table; naming,
Gas pressure, 406–410; air pressure and, 143 prob. 788; properties of, 789; substitution
406–407; Boyle’s law (pressure and Ground-state electron configurations, reactions forming, 790; uses of, 789
volume relationship), 442–443, 443 156–160; aufbau principle and, Halogenated hydrocarbons, 940
prob., 444 act.; Charles’s law (tempera- 156–157, 157 table; electron configu- Halogenation, 790
ture and volume), 441 act., 444–445, ration notation, 158–159; exceptions Halogen functional group, 787 table,
446 prob.; combined gas law, 449, 450 to predicted, 160; Hund’s rule and, 787–788
prob., 454; Dalton’s law of partial pres- 157; noble-gas notation, 159; orbital Halogen light bulbs, 942
sures and, 408, 409 prob., 410; deep diagrams of, 158; Pauli exclusion Halogens, 180
sea diving and, 408 act.; Gay-Lussac’s principle and, 157; problem-solving Halogens (Group 17 elements), 184, 207
law (temperature and pressure rela- strategy, 160 table, 209, 209 table, 218 table, 243,
tionship), 447, 448 prob.; ideal gas Group 1 elements (Alkali metals), 182 940–943
law, 454, 455 prob., 456 table, 182–184, 192, 207 table, 208, Halogens, 940–943; analytical tests for,
Gas stoichiometry, 460–464; industrial 208 table, 906, 906–909; (representa- 941; applications of, 942–943; atomic
applications of, 464; volume-mass tive elements), 177 properties, 941; common reactions
problems, 462, 462–463 prob.; volume- Group 2 elements (Alkaline earth involving, 940; covalent bonding in,
volume problems, 460–461, 461 prob. metals), 182, 183, 184, 207 table, 243; physical properties of, 940; predict
Gay-Lussac’s law, 447, 448 prob., 451 208, 208 table, 218 table, 219 table, reactivity of, 294 act.; single-replace-
table 910–915 ment reactions involving, 294, 294 act.
Geckos, grip of, 271 Group 13 elements (Boron group), 184, Halothane, 790, 791
Geiger counters, 885 207 table, 208, 208 table, 219 table, Hardness, as physical property, 73
Gemstones, 912 922–925 Hard water, 24 act.
Geometric isomers, 766 Group 14 elements (Carbon group), HD DVDs, 924
Germanium, 181, 926–927, 930 184, 207 table, 219 table, 243, 926–931 Heart stress test, 925
Germanium tetrachloride, 930 Group 15 elements (Nitrogen group), Heat (q), 518. See also
GFP (green fluorescent protein), 309 184, 207 table, 209, 209 table, 218 Thermochemistry; absorption of by
Gibbs free energy (G system), 515 act., table, 243, 932–935 chemical reactions. See Endothermic
546–547, 548 prob. Group 16 elements (Oxygen group), reactions; calorimetry and, 523–524,
Gibbs, J. Willard, 546 184, 207 table, 209 table, 218 table, 525 prob., 550 act.; release of by
Glass, 929 243, 936–939 chemical reactions. See Exothermic
Glucose, 532, 532 prob., 832, 833 Group 17 elements (Halogens), 184, 207 reactions; specific heat, 519–520, 521
Glutamic acid, 827 table table, 209, 209 table, 218 table, 243, prob., 522, 526 act.; thermochemical
Glutamine, 827 table 940–943 systems and, 523–524; units of, 518,
Glycerol, 31 act., 793 Group 18 elements (Noble gases), 180, 518 prob.
Glycine, 827 table, 828 184, 185 table, 192, 207 table, 944–945 Heating and cooling specialist, 527
Glycogen, 834. See also Polysaccharides Groups (families), periodic table, 177; Heating curves, 531 act.
Goiter, 943 atomic radii trends, 188, 189 prob.; Heat of combustion (∆H comb), 529,
Gold, 228 table, 920 electron configuration and position 529 table
Gold foil experiment, Rutherford’s, 110, on periodic table, 183; ionic radii Heat of reaction (∆H rxn), 527–528
111–112, 113, 862 trends, 191 Heat of solution, 475 act., 492
Gold leaf, 920 Grove, William, 722 Heat-pack reaction, 527, 542
Graduated cylinder, layers of liquids in, Guanine (G), 841 Heat-treated steel, 227 act.
31 act. Gypsum, 490, 491, 914 Heavy hydrogen (deuterium), 904
Graham’s law of effusion, 404–405, 405 Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 151
prob.
Graham, Thomas, 404 H Helium, 158 table, 159, 183, 185 table,
192, 944, 945
Grams (g), 34 Haber-Bosch process, 290 Hemoglobin, 623, 830
Graphite, 423 Hahn, Otto, 111 Henry’s law, 495–496, 497 prob.
Graphite golf shafts, 928 Half-cells, 710 Heptane, 751, 751 table
Graphs, 55–58; bar, 56; circle, 55; inter- Half-life, 870–871, 871 table Héroult, Paul L. T., 730
preting, 57–58; line, 56–57, 959–963 Half-reaction method, 693–694, 694 Hertz (Hz), 137
Gravimetric analysis, 341 table, 695 prob. Hess’s law, 534–536, 536 prob.
Gravitation, law of universal, 16 Half-reactions, 693 Heterogeneous catalysts, 573
Great Smog (London), 291 Halides, 214 Heterogeneous equilibrium, 602, 603
Greek philosophers, ideas on structure Hall, Charles Martin, 730 prob.
of matter, 102–103, 103 table Hall-Héroult process, 730–731 Heterogeneous mixtures, 81, 87,
Index 1039
Index
476–478; colloids, 477, 477 table; Hydrogenation reactions, 804 table, Intermediates, 580
separating components of, 82–83; 804–805, 805 act. Intermolecular forces, 411–414; cova-
suspensions, 476 Hydrogen bonds, 411, 413–414 lent compounds and, 269–270;
Hexagonal unit cells, 421 table, 422 act. Hydrogen carbonate, 221 table dipole-dipole, 411, 412–413; disper-
Hexane, 751 table Hydrogen cyanide, 647 sion, 411, 412; evaporation and, 432
HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons), 788 Hydrogen fluoride, 244, 244 prob., 639 act.; grip of a gecko and, 271; hydro-
Hill, Julian, 18 Hydrogen fuel cells, 905 gen bonds, 411, 413–414
HIV, 389 Hydrogen peroxide, 89 International Union of Pure and
Homogeneous catalysts, 573 Hydrometers, 37 Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), naming
Homogeneous equilibrium, 600, 601 Hydronium ions, 636, 652; calculate conventions. See Naming conventions
prob. concentration of from pH, 655 prob.; Interpolation, 57, 963
Homogeneous mixtures, 81, 82–83, 87, calculate concentrations from, 651, Interstitial alloys, 228
478–479 651 prob.; calculate pH from concen- In the Field: archaeologist, 891; arson
Homogenization, 490 tration of, 653 prob., 654 prob. investigator, 91; art restorer, 23;
Homologous series, 751 Hydroxide ions, 221 table, 636, 652; crime-scene investigator, 697; envi-
Hope Diamond, 40 calculate concentration of from pH, ronmental chemist, 505; molecular
HOPG, atomic distances in, 113 act. 655 prob.; calculate concentrations paleontologist, 849
Hormones, 831, 839 from, 651, 651 prob.; calculate pOH Intramolecular forces, comparison of,
Household items, acidity of, 633 act. from concentration of, 654 prob. 411 table
How It Works: bioluminescence, 309; Hydroxyl group, 787 table, 792, 816 act. Inverse relationships, 961
flexible-fuel vehicles (FFV), 549; Hyperbaric oxygen therapy, 465 Iodate, 221 table
gecko grip, 271; mass spectrometer, Hyperthermia, 583 Iodine, 86, 940, 941, 943
125; methane digester, 775; pace- Hypochlorite, 221 table Iodine-131, 887
maker, 733 Hypothermia, 583 Iodine deficiency, 943
Hubble Space Telescope, 912 Hypotheses, 13 Ion concentration: from K sp, 617 prob.,
Human body, elements in, 84, 195 618–619; from pH, 655, 655 prob.
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV),
389 I Ionic bonds, 210; electronegativity and,
266; energy in, 216–217, 217 table
Hund’s rule, 157 Ice, 420, 425–426 Ionic compounds, 210–215; in aqueous
Hybridization, 262 Ideal gas constant (R), 454, 969 table solutions, 300; binary, 210; formation
Hybrid orbitals, 262 Ideal gases, real versus, 457–459 of, 211–212, 212 prob., 216, 230 act.;
Hydrates, 351–354; formulas for, 351 Ideal gas law, 454, 455 prob., 456; formulas for, 218–219, 220 prob., 221,
table, 352, 353 prob., 356 act.; naming, density and, 456; derive other laws 221 prob., 222 prob.; lattice energies
351; uses for, 354 from, 458; exceptions to, 458–459; of, 216–217, 217 table; melting point
Hydration (solvation in water), 489 fire extinguishers and, 457 act.; molar of, 242 act.; milestones in understand-
Hydration reactions, 804, 804 table mass and, 456 ing, 212–213; naming, 222, 223–224;
Hydrocarbons, 291, 745–749. See also Immiscible, 479 oxidation number of, 219; physical
specific types; alkanes. see Alkanes; Independent variables, 14, 56 properties, 212, 214–215, 230 act.;
alkenes. See Alkenes; alkynes, 763–764; Indicators, acid-base, 658, 663, 664 physical structure, 212–214; poly-
aromatic. See Aromatic compounds; Indium, 922, 923, 925 atomic. See Polyatomic ions; solvation
burner gas analysis, 776 act.; chirality Indium-tin oxide, 925 of aqueous solutions of, 490; study
of, 767; Foldable, 743 act.; halogenated, Induced fit, 830 organizer, 205 act.
940; isomers of, 765–766, 768–769; Induced transmutation, 875, 882; equa- Ionic crystals, 215
models of, 743 act., 746; refinement of tions representing, 876 prob.; trans- Ionic equations, 301, 302 prob., 304
uranium elements, 876
petroleum, 747–748; saturated, 746; prob.; complete, 301; for reactions
Industrial chemistry, 11 table, 341, 464
substituted. See Substituted hydrocar- forming gases, 304–305, 306 prob.;
Infrared (Paschen) series, 147, 148, 150
bons; unsaturated, 746 for reactions forming water, 303, 304
act.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), 788 prob.; net, 301
Inhibitors, 571
Hydrogen, 904–905; abundance of, 84; Ionic liquids, 229
Initial rates, method of, 576, 577 prob.
atomic properties, 153–155, 158 table, Ionic radii, periodic table trends, 189–
Inner transition metals, 180, 185, 916,
904; Bohr model of, 146–148, 147 191, 189–191
917
table; emission spectrum, 144, 145, Ionic solids, 422, 422 table, 423
Inorganic chemistry, 11 table
147–148, 150 act.; in human body, Ionization constants. See Acid ioniza-
Insoluble, 479
195; isotopes of, 904; physical proper- tion constant; base ionization
Instantaneous reaction rates, 578–579,
ties, 904; single-replacement reactions constant
579 prob.
involving, 293; in stars, 905 Ionization energy, 191–194; chemical
Insulin, 831
Hydrogenated fats, 805 bonds and, 207; periodic table trends,
Intensive properties, 73, 77
Hydrogenation, 767, 836 193
1040 Index
Index
Ionizing radiation, 885, 886; biological expansion of gases and, 404; density of Lead, 229, 926–927, 930; poisoning, 229
effects of, 888–890; medical uses of, gases and, 403; diffusion and effusion Lead-acid storage batteries, 720–721,
886–887 of gases and, 404–405; liquids and, 415 930
Ion product constant (Q sp), 618–619, Knocking, 748 Lead shot, 228 table
619 prob. Krypton, 185 table, 944, 945 Le Châtelier, Henri-Louis, 607
Ion product constant for water, 650– Kwolek, Stephanie, 491 Le Châtelier’s principle, 607; chemical
651, 651 prob. equilibrium and, 606–611; common
Ions, 189; anion formation, 209; cation
formation, 207; formula for mona- L ion effect and, 620–621; ion-product
of water and, 650, 650 prob.; molar
tomic, 218–219; ionic radii periodic Lab activities. See CHEMLABs; solubility and, 624 act.
table trends, 189–191; metal, 208; Data Analysis Labs; Launch Labs; Lecithin, 431
monatomic. See Monatomic ions; MiniLabs; Problem-Solving Labs Lemon battery, 707 act.
naming, 222–223; oxidation number Laboratory safety, 18, 19 table Length, 33, 33 table
of, 219; polyatomic, 221, 222 prob.; Lactic acid fermentation, 848 LEO GER, 681
pseudo-noble gas configuration, 208; Lactose, 833 Lewis, G. N., 161, 212, 641
stability of, 240; transition metal, 208 Lanthanide series, 180, 185, 916 Lewis model, 641–643, 642 table
Iron: in acid mine waste, 920; Earth’s Large Hadron Collider, 111 Lewis structures, 242, 244 prob., 253–
core and, 919; as paint pigment, 919; Laser scissors, 163 260. See also Electron-dot structures;
redox reactions oxidizing, 693 table; Lattice energy, 216–217, 217 table covalent compound with multiple
rust formation, 74, 77, 679 act. Launch Labs: arrange items, 173 act.; bond, 256 prob.; covalent compound
Iron oxide. See Rusting atomic structure, 135 act.; chemical with single bond, 255 prob.; modeling,
Isobutane, 752 change, evidence of, 281 act.; chemi- 272 act.; octet rule exceptions and,
Isomers, 765; cis-, 766; geometric, 766; cal change, observe, 69 act.; chemical 258–259, 260 prob.; polyatomic ions,
optical, 768–769; stereoisomers, 766; cold pack, 515 act.; chemical reaction, 256, 257 prob.; resonance and, 258
structural, 765; trans-, 766; trans-fatty observe, 367 act.; covalent bond- Light: continuous spectrum of, 138;
acid, 767 ing (super ball properties), 239 act.; dual nature of, 143; electromagnetic
Isopropyl alcohol, 432 act. electrical conductivity of solutions, spectrum, 138–139; particle nature
Isopropyl group, 753 table 205 act.; electric charge, observe, of, 141–143; speed of (c), 137; visible
Isotopes, 117, 118 prob.. See also 101 act.; equilibrium point, 593 act.; spectrum of, 139; wave nature of,
Radioactivity; abundance of, 117, hydrocarbons, model, 743 act.; lemon 137–139, 140 prob., 143
120; atomic mass and, 117, 118 act., battery, 707 act.; liquids, layering of “Like dissolves like”, 489
119–120, 121 prob., 126 act.; mass of, (density), 31; liquids, properties of, Limestone, 635, 643
117; modeling, 120 act.; notation for, 401 act.; mole conversion factors, Limiting reactants, 379–381; calculat-
117; radioactive. See Radioisotopes 319 act.; nuclear chain reactions, 859 ing product with, 380–381, 382–383
IUPAC naming conventions. See act.; reaction rates, speeding, 559 act.; prob.; determining, 380
rust formation, 679 act.; slime, make,
Naming conventions Linear molecular shape, 261, 263 table
785 act.; solution formation, energy
Line graphs, 56–57, 58, 959–963
change and, 475 act.; sugars, test for
J simple, 825 act.; temperature and gas
volume (Charles’s Law), 441 act.; vis-
Line, slope of, 57, 962
Line spectra. See Emission spectra
James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), 912 Lipid bilayer, 838
cosity of liquids, 401 act.; Where is it?
Jin, Deborah S., 417 Lipids, 13 act., 830, 835–839; fatty
(conservation of matter), 3 act.
Joule (J), 142, 518 acids, 835–836, 837; phospholipids,
Lavoisier, Antoine, 79, 174, 174 table,
838; saponification of, 837, 837 act.;
184, 290
K Law, 16
Law of chemical equilibrium, 599–600
steroids, 839; triglycerides, 836–837;
waxes, 838
Kekule, Friedrich August, 771 Liquids, 71, 415–419; adhesion and
Law of conservation of energy, 517
Kelvin (K), 35, 451 cohesion of, 419; attractive forces in,
Law of conservation of mass, 77, 78
Kelvin scale, 35, 451 417; capillary action, 419; compres-
prob., 79; balancing equations and,
Ketones, 787 table, 797, 797 table sion of, 415; density of, 31 act., 415;
285, 288; Dalton’s experimental evi-
Kilns, 461 evaporation of, 426–427, 432 act.; flu-
dence of, 105; molar mass and, 335;
Kilocalorie (kcal), 518 idity of, 416; properties of, compare,
stoichiometry and, 368
Kilogram (kg), 34 401 act.; shape and size of particles in,
Law of definite proportions, 87–88
Kilometer (km), 33 417; surface tension, 418–419; viscos-
Law of multiple proportions, 89–90
Kinetic energy (KE), 516–517; kinetic- ity of, 401 act., 417, 418
Law of octaves, 175
molecular theory and, 402, 403, 517; Liter (L), 35
Law of universal gravitation, 16
voltaic cells and, 710 Lithium, 136, 158 table, 161 table, 177,
Lawrencium, 921
Kinetic-molecular theory, 402–403; 226 table, 906, 907, 913
LCD panels, 925
assumptions of, 403; compression and Lithium batteries, 721–722, 908
Index 1041
Index
Litmus paper, 633 act., 635, 658 77; chemical properties of, 74; Greek Methane, 243, 244, 245, 291, 745, 747,
Logarithms, 966–967 philosophers’ theories of, 102–103; 750, 751, 751 table
London forces. See Dispersion forces mixtures of. See Mixtures; physical Methane digester, 775
London, Fritz, 412 changes in, 76–77; physical properties Methanol, 793, 816 act.
Lowry, Thomas, 638 of, 73; properties of, observe, 74–75; Method of initial rates, 576, 577 prob.
LP (liquefied propane) gas, 750 pure substances. See Pure substances; Methylbenzene, 772
Luciferin, 309 states of. See States of matter; study of Methyl chloroform, 20
Luminol, 697 chemistry and, 4 Methyl group, 753 table
Lunar missions, oxygen in moon rocks, Maxwell, James, 402 Methyl red, 662
387 act. Measurement, 295; accuracy of, 47–48; Meyer, Lothar, 175, 176 table, 184
Lyman (ultraviolet) series, 147, 148, precision of, 47–48; significant figures Microbes, electric current from, 724 act.
150 act. and, 50–51; units of, 32–37 Microchips, 919
Lysine, 827 table Medicinal chemist, 342 Microwaves, 137, 140 prob.
Meitner, Lise, 111 Midgley, Thomas Jr., 7
Milligrams (mg), 34
M Melting, 425–426, 530
Melting point, 77, 426 Millikan, Robert, 109
Milliliters (ml), 33 table, 36
Magnesium, 159 table, 177, 910–911, Melting points: of alkanes, 758; bond
Millimeter (mm), 33, 33 table
912, 913 type and, 242 act.; of covalent com-
Mineralogists, 214
Magnesium oxide, 210, 217 table pounds, 270; of metals, 226, 226 table;
Minerals, 383; classification of, 214;
Magnetic resonance imaging, 921 as physical property, 73
crystal lattice structure, 214
Malleability, 226 Mendeleev, Dmitri, 85, 175, 176 table,
Mineral supplements, 220
Manganese, 918, 920 184 MiniLabs. See also CHEMLABs; Data
Manhattan Project, 882 Mercury, 73 table, 226 Analysis Labs; Problem-Solving Labs;
Manometers, 407 Mercury(II) oxide, 79 acid strengths, compare, 648 act.;
Mass, 9–10; determine from density Metabolism, 844–848; anabolism, bond type and melting point, 242
and volume, 38 prob.; identify an 844–845; ATP and, 845; catabolism, act.; chemical equilibrium, stress and,
unknown by, 50 act.; law of conserva- 844–845; cellular respiration, 846; 611 act.; corrosion, 726 act.; crystal
tion of, 77, 78 prob., 79, 105; mass- fermentation, 847–848; photosynthe- unit cells, model, 422 act.; density
to-atom conversions, 329–330, 330 sis, 846 of unknown objects, 39 act.; esters,
prob.; mass-to-mole conversions, 329 Metal alloys, 227–228 recognize, 800 act.; ethyne, synthesize
prob.; mass-to-mole conversions for Metal carbonates, 635 and observe, 762 act.; flame test, 144
compounds, 337, 337 prob.; mass-to- Metal ions: formation of, 208; mona- act.; freezing point depression, 502
moles-to-particles conversions, 338, tomic, 218, 219, 219 table act.; halogens, predict reactivity of,
338–339 prob.; molar. See Molar mass; Metallic bonds, 225 294 act.; heat-treated steel, proper-
mole-to-mass conversions, 328 prob.; Metallic hydroxids, 648 ties of, 227 act.; isotopes, model, 120
SI base unit for, 33 table, 34; volume- Metallic solids, 422, 422 table, 423 act.; molar volume and mass (fire
mass gas stoichiometry, 462, 462–463 Metalloids, 181, 196 act. extinguisher), 457 act.; observation
prob.; weight v., 9–10 Metallurgist, 423 skills, develop, 13 act.; paper chroma-
Mass defect, 877 Metals, 177. See also Alkali metals; tography, 82 act.; percent composition
Mass number, 117, 118 prob. Alkaline earth metals; Inner transi- of chewing gum, 342 act.; periodic
Mass spectrometry, 125, 327 tion metals; Transition metals; acid- trends, model, 193 act.; precipitate-
Mass-to-mass stoichiometric conver- base reactions and, 635; activities of, forming reaction, observe, 301 act.;
sions, 374, 377, 377 prob. 310 act.; boiling points, 226, 226 table; radioactive decay, model, 873 act.;
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), 59 bonding in, 225; ductility of, 177, 226; reaction rate and temperature, 571
Materials scientist. See Careers in durability of, 226; electrical conduc- act.; saponification (soap making),
Chemistry; In the Field tivity of, 177, 226; fireworks and, 913; 837 act.; specific heat, 526 act.; stoi-
Math Handbook, 946–967; algebraic hardness and strength of, 226; mal- chiometry of baking soda decomposi-
equations, 954–955, 955 prob.; anti- leability of, 177, 226; melting points, tion, 378 act.; tarnish removal (redox
logarithms, 967; dimensional analysis, 226, 226 table; periodic table position, reaction), 683 act.
956 prob.; fractions, 964, 965–966; 177; properties of, 177, 196 act., 226, Miscible, 479
line graphs, 959–963; logarithms, 226 table; purification of by electroly- Mixtures, 80–83, 87; heterogeneous, 81,
sis, 731–732; reactivity of, 293–294, 476–478; homogeneous, 81, 478–479;
966–967; percents, 965; ratios, 964;
separate components of, 80, 82 act.,
scientific notation, 946–948; sig- 310 act.; single-replacement reactions
82–83
nificant figures, 949–950, 951 prob.; involving, 293–294; specific heat of,
Mobile phase, chromatography, 83
square and cube roots, 949; unit con- 526 act.; thermal conductivity of, 226
Model, 10, 15
version, 957–958, 958 prob. Meteorologist, 447
Molal boiling point elevation constant
Matter: categories of, 87; characteristics Meter (m), 33, 33 table
(K b), 500, 500 table, 976 table
of, 9–10; chemical changes in, 69 act., Methanal, 796
1042 Index
Index
Molal freezing point elevation constant Molecules, 241; diatomic, 241; shape Neutron activation analysis, 886, 891
(K f), 502, 502 table, 976 table of, 261–262, 263 table, 264 prob., Neutrons, 113, 114 table, 119, 969 table
Molality (m), 480 table, 487, 487 prob. 267–268 Neutron-to-proton ratio, nuclear stabil-
Molar calculations, history in a glass of Mole fraction, 480 table, 488, 488 prob. ity and, 865, 866
water and, 355 Mole ratios, 371–372, 390 act. Newlands, John, 175, 176 table
Molar enthalpy (heat) of condensation, Mole-to-mass stoichiometric conver- Newton, Sir Isaac, 16
530 sions, 374, 376, 376 prob. NiCad batteries, 720
Molar enthalpy (heat) of fusion, 530 Mole-to-mole stoichiometric conver- Nickel, 919
Molar enthalpy (heat) of vaporization, sions, 373–374, 375 prob. Night-vision lenses, 930
530, 531 act. Monatomic ions, 218; formulas for, Nitrate, 221 table
Molarity (M), 480 table, 482, 483 prob.; 218–219; oxidation number of, 219 Nitrite, 221 table
from titration, 663, 664 prob., 670 act. Monoclinic unit cells, 421 table, 422 act. Nitrogen, 158 table, 161 table, 195, 932,
Molar mass, 326–332; atom-to-mass Monomers, 810 933, 934
conversions, 331 prob.; of compounds, Monoprotic acids, 640, 641 table Nitrogen cryotherapy, 934
335, 335 prob.; effusion rate and, 404, Monosaccharides, 825 act., 832–833 Nitrogen-fixation, 462, 934
405 prob.; ideal gas law and, 456; Montreal Protocol, 20 Nitrogenous bases, 841, 843
mass-to-atom conversions, 329–330, Moon rocks, oxygen in, 387 act. Noble gases (Group 18), 180, 183, 184,
330 prob.; mass-to-mole conversions, Moseley, Henry, 115, 176, 176 table, 184 185 table, 207, 944–945
329 prob.; mole-to-mass conversions, Mothballs, 428 Noble-gas notation, 159
327–328, 328 prob.; nuclear model of Motor oil, viscosity of, 417, 418 Nonane, 751 table
mass and, 326 act. Multidrug therapy, 389 Nonmetals, 180; ions of, 209; periodic
Molar solubility, 615–617, 616 prob., Multiple covalent bonds, 245–246 table position, 177; properties of,
621, 624 act. Multiplication, 54, 54 prob. 196 act.
Molar solutions, preparation of, 484, Nonpolar covalent bonds, 266
485, 486 prob.
Molar volume, 452, 453 prob., 969 table N Nonpolar molecules, 267–268, 269
Nuclear atomic model, 112–113, 136
Mole (mol), 321–324; chemical for- Naming conventions: acids, 250–251, Nuclear chain reactions. See Chain
mulas and, 333–334, 334–335 prob.; 250–251, 252; alcohols, 793; alde- reactions
conversion factors, 319 act.; convert hydes, 796; alkenes, 760, 761 prob.; Nuclear equations, 123, 869, 869 prob.
particles to, 323, 323 prob., 324 prob.; alkynes, 764; amides, 800; amines, 795; Nuclear fission, 878–880; chain reac-
convert to particles, 322; as count- aromatic compounds, 772–773, 773 tions and, 879–880; nuclear reactors
ing unit, 319 act., 320; mass-to-mole prob.; binary molecular compounds, and, 880–882
conversions, 329 prob.; mass-to-mole 248–250, 249 prob., 252; branched- Nuclear fusion, 883–884
conversions for compounds, 337, 337 chain alkanes, 752–753, 754–755 prob.; Nuclear power plants, 878, 880–882
prob.; mass to moles to particles con- carboxylic acids, 798; cycloalkanes, Nuclear reactions, 122; balanced equa-
versions, 338, 338–339 prob.; molar 756, 756–757 prob.; esters, 799; halo- tions representing, 863, 869, 869
mass and, 326–332; mole-to-mass carbons, 788; hydrates, 351; ionic prob.; chain reactions, 859 act., 879–
conversions, 327–328, 327–328, 328 compounds, 223–224; ions, 222–223; 880; chemical reactions vs., 860 table;
prob.; mole-to-mass conversions for ketones, 797; oxyanions, 222 table, induced transmutation, 875–876,
compounds, 336, 336 prob. 222–223; straight-chain alkanes, 751 876 prob.; mass defect and binding
Molecular compounds: in aqueous solu- Nanoparticles, 216 act. energy, 877–878; milestones in under-
tions, 299; formation of, 241; formulas Nanotechnology, 107 standing, 882–883; nuclear fission,
from names of, 251; Lewis structures Nanotubes, 928 878–880; nuclear fusion, 883–884;
for, 253–260, 255 prob., 256 prob., Naphthalene, 772 radioactive decay series, 870; thermo-
257 prob., 258 prob., 260 prob.; nam- National Oceanic and Atmospheric nuclear reactions, 883
ing, 248–251, 249 prob., 252; shape of Administration (NOAA), 20, 21 act. Nuclear reactors, 878, 880–882
(VSEPR model), 261–262, 263 table, Natural gas, 416, 745, 747 Nuclear stability, 124, 865–866
264 prob., 272 act.; solvation of aque- Negatively charged ions. See Anions Nuclear waste, storage of, 882
ous solutions of, 491 Neon, 143, 158 table, 161 table, 185 Nucleic acids, 636, 840–843; DNA,
Molecular formulas, 253, 346–347; of table, 944, 945 841–842, 842 act.; RNA, 843
organic compounds, 746; from per- Net ionic equations, 301, 302 prob., 304 Nucleons, 865
cent composition, 346–347, 348–349 prob. Nucleotides, 840
prob. Net ionic redox equations, balancing, Nucleus (atomic), 112; discovery of,
Molecular manufacturing, 107 691, 692 prob. 112; nuclear model of mass and, 326
Molecular paleontologist, 849 Network solids, 270 act.; size of, 112
Molecular shape, 261–262, 263 table, Neutralization equations, 659–660 Nutritional calories, 518
264 prob., 267–268 Neutralization reactions, 659–660 Nylon, 18, 594, 811
Molecular solids, 422, 422 table Neutral solutions, 636
Index 1043
Index
1044 Index
Index
thermochemical equations for, 530– Polyethylene, 762, 810, 811 dot structures, 162 prob.; empirical
531, 531 act.; vaporization, 426–427 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), 810, formula from mass data, 350 prob.;
Phase diagrams, 429–430 812 table empirical formula from percent com-
Phenanthrene, 772 Polymer chemist, 813 position, 346 prob.; energy released
Phenolthphalein, 658, 662 Polymer chemistry, 11 table by reaction, 532 prob.; energy units,
Phenylalanine, 827 table, 828 Polymerization reactions, 810–811 convert, 519 prob.; equilibrium con-
pH meters, 637, 658 Polymers, 809–814; antimicrobial centrations, 613 prob.; equilibrium
Phosphate ion structure, 257 prob. properties of, 216 act.; common, 812 constant expressions, 601 prob., 603
Phosphates, 250 table; milestones in understanding, prob.; equilibrium constants, value of,
Phospholipases, 838 810–811; properties of, 813; reactions 605 prob.; expanded octets, 260 prob.;
Phospholipids, 838 forming, 810–811; recycling of, 814; formulas from names of molecular
Phosphoric acid, 634 synthetic, 809 compounds, 251 prob.; freezing and
Phosphors, 180, 886 Polymethyl methacrylate, 812 table boiling point depressions, 503 prob.;
Phosphorus, 159 table, 932, 933, 934 Polypeptides, 828 gas-forming reactions, 306 prob.;
Phosphorus trihydride, 264 prob. Polyphenols, 662 Gay-Lussac’s law, 448 prob.; Graham’s
Photocopies, 939 Polypropylene, 812 table law of effusion, 405 prob.; ground-
Photoelectric effect, 142–143 Polyprotic acids, 640–641, 641 table state electron configuration, 160
Photoelectrons. See Electrons Polysaccharides, 833–834 prob.; half-cell potentials, 716 prob.;
Photons, 143, 143 prob. Polyurethane, 812 table half-reaction method, 695 prob.; halo-
Photosynthesis, 846, 912, 938 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 812 table carbons, naming, 788 prob.; Henry’s
Photovoltaic cells, 142, 522 Polyvinylidene chloride, 812 table law, 497 prob.; Hess’s law, 537 prob.;
pH paper, 633 act., 635, 658 Popcorn, 466 act. hydrate, determine formula for, 353
pH scale, 636 p orbitals, 154 prob.; ideal gas law, 455 prob.; induced
Physical changes, 76–77 Positive ions. See Cations transmutation, 876 prob.; instanta-
Physical chemistry, 11 table Positron, 868 neous reaction rates, 579 prob.; ion
Physical constants, 969 table Positron emission, 868, 868 table, 888 concentrations, 617 prob.; ion con-
Physical properties, 73; of common Positron emission transaxial tomogra- centrations from pH, 655 prob.; ionic
substances, 73 table; extensive, 73; phy (PET), 888 compound formation, 212 prob.; ionic
intensive, 73, 77; mineral identifica- Potassium, 86, 117, 136, 906, 907 compounds, formulas for, 221 prob.,
tion by, 73; observe, 74–75 Potential energy, 516–517 222 prob.; ionic compounds, nam-
Pi bond, 245–246 Potter, 682 ing, 223 prob.; ionization constant of
Pie charts, 55 Pottery kilns, 461 water, 651 prob.; ionization equations
Planck, Max, 141–142 Practice Problems: acid-metal reactions, and base ionization constants, 649
Planck’s constant, 142, 969 table 635 prob.; acids, naming, 251 prob.; prob.; isotopes, amount of remain-
Plants: hydrogen cyanide in, 647; nitro- aromatic compounds, naming, 773 ing, 872 prob.; law of conservation of
gen-fixation, 462, 934; photosynthe- prob.; atomic mass, 121 prob.; atomic mass, 78 prob.; law of definite pro-
sis, 846, 912, 938; waxes, 838 number, 116 prob., 118 prob.; atomic portions, 88 prob.; Lewis structures,
Plasma, 71, 417 radii trends, 189 prob.; atoms-to- 244 prob., 255 prob., 256 prob., 257
Plastics, 789, 802, 810–811, 814 mass conversions, 331 prob.; average prob., 258 prob., 260 prob.; limiting
Plastic viscosity, 431 reaction rates, 563 prob.; balanced reactant, determine, 383 prob.; mass
Platinum, 918 chemical equations, interpret, 371 number, 118 prob.; mass-to-mass
Plum pudding model, 110 prob.; binary molecular compounds, stoichiometry, 377 prob.; mass-to-
pOH, 652, 653, 654 prob. naming, 249 prob.; Boyle’s law (pres- mole conversions, 329 prob.; mass-
Polar covalent bonds, 266, 267–268 sure and volume relationship), to-mole conversions for compounds,
Polarized light, 769 443 prob.; branched-chain alkanes, 337 prob.; mass-to-moles-to-particles
Polar molecules, 267–268; chromato- naming, 755 prob.; branched-chain conversions, 339 prob.; molality, 487
grams and, 269 act.; ideal gas law and, alkenes, naming, 761 prob.; calorim- prob.; molarity, 483 prob.; molarity
459; shape of, 267–268; solubility of, etry data, 525 prob.; Charles’s law, from titration data, 664 prob.; molar
268 446 prob.; chemical equations, write, mass and, 335 prob.; molar solubility,
Polonium, 882, 936, 937 287 prob.; chemical reactions, clas- 616 prob.; molar solutions, 484 prob.;
Polyacrylonitrile, 812 table sify, 291 prob.; combined gas law, molar volume, 453 prob.; molecular
Polyatomic ions, 221, 970 table; 450 prob.; conjugate acid-base pairs, shape, 264 prob.; mole fraction,
common, 221 table; formulas for, 221, 640 prob.; cycloalkanes, naming, 757 488 prob.; mole ratios, 372 prob.;
222 prob.; Lewis structures, 256, 257 prob.; decomposition reactions, 292 mole relationships from a chemical
prob.; naming, 222–223 prob.; dilute stock solutions, 486 prob.; formula, 335 prob.; moles, convert
Polycarbonate, 809 double-replacement reactions, 297 to particles, 323 prob.; mole-to-mass
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons prob.; electron configuration and the conversions, 328 prob.; mole-to-mass
(PAHs), 807 periodic table, 186 prob.; electron- conversions for compounds, 336
Index 1045
Index
1046 Index
Index
Index 1047
Index
Significant figures, 50–51, 51 prob., Solubility product constant expres- Square root, 949
949–950, 951 prob.; adding and sub- sions, 614–619; ion concentrations Stainless steel, 228 table
tracting, 53, 53 prob., 952, 953 prob.; from, 617, 618–619, 619 prob.; molar Standard enthalpy (heat) of formation,
atomic mass values and, 328; multipli- solubility from, 616 prob., 616–617; 537–541, 538 table, 540 prob.
cation and division and, 54, 54 prob., predicting precipitates, 618, 619 prob.; Standard hydrogen electrode, 711
952; rounding numbers and, 52, 952 writing, 614–615 Standardized Test Practice, 28–29,
Silicates, 214 Soluble, 479 66–67, 98–99, 132–133, 170–171,
Silicon, 84, 159 table, 181, 926–927, 929 Solutes, 299 202–203, 236–237, 278–279, 316–317,
Silicon computer chips, 929 Solution concentration. See 364–365, 398–399, 438–439, 472–473,
Silicon dioxide, 929 Concentration 512–513, 556–557, 590–591, 630–631,
Silver, 226 table, 920 Solution formation. See Solvation 676–677, 704–705, 740–741, 782–783,
Silver batteries, 719 Solutions, 81, 478–479; acidic. See 822–823, 856–857, 898–899
Silver nitrate flame test, 92 act. Acidic solutions; aqueous. See Standard reduction potentials, 712;
Simple sugars. See Monosaccharides Aqueous solutions; basic. See Basic applications of, 716; calculate, 713–
Single covalent bonds, 242–244 solutions; boiling point elevation, 714, 715 prob.; determine, 712, 712
Single-replacement reactions, 293–294, 500–501, 503 prob.; concentration, table; measure, 734 act.
295 prob.; metal replaces hydrogen, 475 act., 480–488; dilution of, 485, Standard temperature and pressure
293; metal replaces metal, 293–294, 486 prob.; electrolytes and colliga- (STP), 452
310 act.; nonmetal replaces nonmetal, tive properties, 498–499; formation Starch, 834
294, 294 act. (solvation), 489–492; freezing point States of matter, 71–72; gases, 72, 72
SI units, 32–37, 958 table depression, 501–502, 502 act., 503 act., 402–410; liquids, 71, 401 act.,
Skeleton equations, 284 prob.; heat of solution, 475 act., 415–419; milestones in understand-
Slime, 785 act. 492; milestones in understanding, ing, 416–417; phase changes, 76–77,
Slope, line, 57, 962 490–491; molar. See Molar solutions; 425–430; solids, 71, 420–424; summa-
Soap, 419, 634, 837 act. neutral, 636; osmotic pressure and, rize information on, 401 act.
Sodium, 136, 159, 159 table, 177, 906, 504; saturated, 493; solubility and. See Stationary phase, chromatography, 83
907, 908, 913 Solubility; supersaturated, 494–495; Stearic acid, 835
Sodium bicarbonate, 308 types of, 81 table, 479 table; unsatu- Steel, 227, 227 act.
Sodium carbonate, 378 act. rated, 493; vapor pressure lowering Stereoisomers, 766. See also Optical
Sodium chloride, 70, 73 table, 85, 205 and, 499–500 isomers
act., 210, 211 table, 213, 729 Solution systems, 81, 81 table Sterling silver, 228 table
Sodium hypochlorite, 683 Solvation, 489–492; aqueous solutions Steroids, 839
Sodium perborate, 924 of ionic compounds, 490; aqueous Steroid toxins, 839
Sodium/potassium ATPase, 909 solutions of molecular compounds, Stock solutions, dilution of, 485, 486
Sodium-potassium pump, 909 491; factors affecting, 492–494, 506 prob.
Soft water, 24 act. act.; heat of solution, 475 act., 492; Stoichiometry, 368–378; actual yield
Solar energy, 142, 354, 522 “like dissolves like”, 489 and, 385; baking soda decomposition,
Solar fusion, 883 Solvents, 299 378 act.; interpret chemical equa-
Solidification, 76. See also Freezing s orbitals, 154 tions, 370 prob.; mass-to-mass con-
Solids, 71, 420–424; amorphous, 424; Space-filling molecular model, 253, 746 versions, 377, 377 prob.; mole ratios
crystalline, 420–423, 422 act., 422 Space shuttle, 691 act., 722 and, 371–372, 390 act.; mole-to-mass
table; density of, 39 act., 420; molecu- Space telescopes, 912 conversions, 376, 376 prob.; mole-
lar, 422 Spandex, 811 to-mole conversions, 373–374, 375
Solubility, 479, 493–497; factors affect- Species, 693 prob.; particle and mole relationships
ing, 492–494, 506 act.; of gases, Specific heat, 519–520, 522, 976 table; and, 368–369; percent yield and, 386,
495–496, 497 prob.; guidelines for, calorimetry and, 523–524, 525 prob., 386 prob., 388; problem-solving flow
975 table; of polar molecules, 268; 526 act.; heat absorbed, calculate, 520, chart, 374; product, calculate when
saturated solutions and, 493; super- 521 prob.; heat released, calculate, reactant is limiting, 380–381, 382–383
saturated solutions and, 494–495; 520; solar energy and, 522; of various prob.; reactions involving gases. See
temperature and, 493–494, 494 table; substances, 520 table Gas stoichiometry; theoretical yield
unsaturated solutions and, 493 Specific rate constant (k), 574 and, 385; titration and. See Titration
Solubility product constant (K sp), Spectator ions, 301 Storage batteries, 720
614–619, 969 table; compare, 624 act.; Spectroscopist, 139 Straight-chain alkanes, 750–751
ion concentrations from, 617, 617 Speed of light (c), 137, 969 table Stratosphere, 5
prob., 618–619; ion product constant Spontaneous processes, 542. See also Straussman, Fritz, 111
(Q sp) and, 618–619, 619 prob.; molar Reaction spontaneity (∆G) Strong acids, 644, 656
solubility from, 615–617, 616 prob.; Spontaneity, reaction rate and. See Strong bases, 648, 656
predicting precipitates, 618 Reaction spontaneity (∆G) Strong electrolytes, 498
1048 Index
Index
Strong nuclear force, 865 Taste, 262 Three Mile Island, 880, 883
Strontium, 186 prob., 910–911, 913, 914 Taste buds, 262 Thymine (T), 841
Strontium-90, 870, 871 table Television, 108 Time, 33
Strontium carbonate, 913 Tellurium, 936, 937 Tin, 226 table, 926–927, 930
Strontium chloride, 914 Temperature, 403; change in as evidence Tinplate, 930
Structural formulas, 253, 253, 746, 751 of chemical reaction, 282; chemical Titanium, 180, 181, 228, 918, 919
Structural isomers, 765 equilibrium and, 609–610, 611 act.; Titrant, 661
Structural proteins, 831 combined gas law and, 449, 450 prob.; Titration, 660–663; acid-base indica-
Subatomic particles, 114 table, 119 table enzyme action and, 850 act.; evapora- tors and, 662, 663; end point of, 663;
Sublimation, 83, 428 tion rate and, 432 act.; extreme and molarity from, 663, 664 prob., 670
Suboctets, 259 ideal gas law, 458; gas pressure and act.; steps in, 661
Substances, 5, 70 (Gay-Lussac’s law), 447, 448 prob.; gas Tokamak reactor, 884
Substituent groups, 752 volume and (Charles’s Law), 441 act., Tolerances, 49
Substituted cycloalkanes, naming, 756, 444–445, 446 prob.; pain receptors Toluene, 774
756–757 prob. and, 815; reaction rate and, 570, 571 Tools, zinc plating of, 295
Substituted hydrocarbons: alcohols, act., 583; solubility and, 493–494, 494 Tooth decay, fluoride and, 622 act.
792–793; aldehydes, 796–797; amides, table; viscosity and, 418 Torricelli, Evangelista, 406
800; amines, 795; carboxylic acids, Temperature inversion, 428 Touch sensors, 920
798; chemical reactions involving. See Temperature scales, 34–35; convert Toxicologist, 59
Organic reactions; crosslinks (make between, 34, 35; gas laws and, 451 Toxicology, 59
slime), 785 act.; esters, 799, 800 act.; Tetraethyl lead, 930 Trace elements, 195
ethers, 794; functional groups, 785 Tetragonal unit cell, 421 table, 422 act. Transactinide elements, 185
act., 786, 787 table; halocarbons, Tetrahedral molecular shape, 261, 263 Trans-fatty acids, 767
787–791; ketones, 797 table trans- isomers, 766
Substitutional alloys, 228 Thallium, 922, 923, 925 Transition elements, 177, 916–921;
Substitution reactions, 790–791 Theoretical chemistry, 11 table analytical tests for, 917; applications
Substrates, 830 Theoretical yield, 385 of, 918–921; atomic properties, 917;
Subtraction: scientific notation and, 42; Theory, 16 common reactions involving, 916;
significant figures and, 53 Thermal conductivity, 226 inner transition metals, 180; locations
Sucrose, 73 table, 88, 205 act., 833 Thermochemical equations, 529–533; of strategic, 918; physical properties
Sulfur, 159 table, 195, 936–937, 939 for changes of state, 530–531, 531 of, 916; transition metals, 180
Sulfuric acid, manufacture of, 388, 939 act.; Hess’s law, 534–536, 536 prob.; Transition metal ions, 208, 219, 219
Sunburn, 5 standard enthalpy (heat) of formation, table
Sunlight, continuous spectrum of, 138 537–541, 540 prob.; writing, 529 Transition metals, 180, 185
Sunscreen, 5 Thermochemical universe, 526, 546 Transition state, 564
Sun, solar fusion in, 883 Thermochemistry, 523–528; combus- Transmutation, 865, 875
Superacids, 637 tion reactions, 532 prob., 533; enthalpy Transport proteins, 830
Super ball, properties of, 239 act. and enthalpy changes, 526–528; Transuranium elements, 876
Supercritical mass, 880 enthalpy (heat) of reaction, 527–528; Triclinic unit cells, 421 table
Supersaturated solutions, 494–495 Hess’s law, 534–536, 536 prob.; molar Triglycerides, 836–837, 837 act.; phos-
Surface area: reaction rate and, 569– enthalpy (heat) of fusion, 530–531; pholipids, 838; saponification of, 838,
570; solvation and, 492 molar enthalpy (heat) of vaporization, 838 act.
Surface tension, 418–419 530; phase changes and, 530–531; sur- Trigonal bipyramidal molecular shape,
Surfactants, 419 roundings, 526; systems, 526; thermo- 263 table
Surroundings (thermochemical), 526 chemical equations, 529–533 Trigonal planar molecular shape, 261,
Suspensions, 476 Thermocouples, 34 263 table
Synthesis reactions, 289 Thermodynamics, second law of, 543 Trigonal pyramid molecular shape, 261,
System (thermochemical), 526 Thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD), 263 table
Systeme International d’Unites. See SI 885 Triple covalent bonds, 245, 246
units Thermonuclear reactions, 883 Triple point, 429
Thermoplastic polymers, 813 Tritium, 904
Index 1049
Index
charide, 833; element, 85; eliminate, v. soft, 24 act.; history in a glass of,
U 751; environment, 75; evolve, 5; force,
419; formula, 284; gases, 403; generate,
355; hydration reactions forming, 804;
hydrogen bonds in, 413–414; ion prod-
Ultraviolet radiation: overexposure to,
damage from, 5; ozone layer and, 5, 6 878; homologous, 751; indicators, 663; uct constant for (K w), 650–651, 651
Ultraviolet (Lyman) series, 147, 150 act. initial, 576; investigate, 566; meter, 33; prob.; law of multiple proportions and,
Unbalanced forces, 597 method, 694; mixture, 81; mole, 321, 89; layering of in graduated cylinder,
Unit cell, 421, 421 table, 422 act. 456; monosaccharide, 833; neutral, 31 act.; Lewis structure, 243; melting
Units, 32–37; base SI, 33–35; converting 113; orient, 412; overlap, 244; ozone, of, 425–426; phase diagram, 429, 430;
between, 957–958, 958 prob.; derived 5; percent, 48; period, 159; periodic, physical properties, 73 table, 75; polar-
SI, 35–37; English, 32 176; phenomenon, 141; polysaccha- ity of, 267–268; as pure substance, 70;
Universe (thermochemical), 526, 546 ride, 833; potential, 714; pressure, 495; sigma bonds in, 244, 245; solutions of.
Unsaturated fatty acids, 835–836 product, 381; radiation, 863; random, See Aqueous solutions; surface tension
Unsaturated hydrocarbons, 746 544; ratio, 333, 462; recover, 21; reduce, of, 419; thermochemistry, 530–531,
Unsaturated solutions, 493 730; reduction, 681; resonance, 258; 531 act.; turbidity and Tyndall effect,
Ununquadium, 185 saturated, 494; species, 693; specific, 478 act.; vaporization of, 426
Uranium-235, 878–879, 880 119; stoichiometry, 369; stress, 607; Watson, James, 637, 841–842
Uranium-238, 863, 880 structure, 184; sum, 42; system, 543; Wavelength, 137, 140 prob.
Urea, 800 trans-, 766; transfer, 219; trigonal pla- Wave mechanical model of the atom.
UV-B radiation, 5 nar, 262; unstable, 867; weight, 10 See Quantum mechanical model of
Volt, 710 atom
Volta, Alessandro, 709 Wave model of light, 137–139; atomic
V Voltaic cell potentials. See
Electrochemical cell potentials
emission spectrum and, 144–145;
dual nature of light and, 143
Valence electrons, 161; chemical bonds
and, 207; periodic table trends, 182– Voltaic cells, 709–711; chemistry of, Waves, 137–138; amplitude of, 137;
185, 186 prob. 710–711; electrochemical cell poten- electromagnetic wave relationship,
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion tials, 711–714, 715 prob., 716–717, 137; frequency of, 137; wavelength of,
(VSEPR) theory. See VSEPR model 734 act.; half-cells, 710 137, 140 prob.
Valine, 827 table Voltaic pile, 709 Waxes, 838
van der Waals forces, 269–270, 271 Volume: chemical equilibrium and, Weak acids, 645, 648 table
Vapor, 72 608–609; combined gas law and, 449, Weak bases, 649
Vaporization, 426–427; molar enthalpy 450 prob.; determine mass of object Weak electrolytes, 498
(heat) of vaporization, 530, 531 act. from, 38 prob.; gas pressure and Weather balloons, 449
See also Boiling, Evaporation (Boyle’s law), 442–443, 443 prob., 444 Weather patterns, density of air masses
Vapor pressure, 427 act.; gas stoichiometry and, 460–461, and, 37
Vapor pressure lowering, 499–500 461 prob., 462, 462–463 prob.; gas Weight, 9–10
Variables, 14; controlling, 14–15; temperature and (Charles’ Law), 441 Willstater, Richard, 912
dependent, 14, 56; independent, 14 act., 444–445, 446 prob.; identify an Wohler, Friedrich, 744
Venom, 838 unknown by, 50 act.; SI units for, Word equations, 284
Vinegar-baking soda volcano, 669 35–36
Viscosity, 401 act., 417, 418
Visible (Balmer) series, 147, 148, 150 act.
Volumetric analysis, 341
VSEPR model, 261–262, 263 table, 264 X
Visible spectroscopy, 917 prob., 272 act. Xenon, 944, 945
Visible spectrum, 138–139 X-ray crystallography, 212
Vitalism, 744
Vitamins, 383
W X rays, 137, 864, 914
Xylene, 772, 774
Vocabulary margin features: alloy, 227; Warfarin, 59
anhydrous, 352; aromatic, 771; atom,
103; attain, 243; aufbau, 157; bond,
Water: adhesion and cohesion of, 419;
amphoteric nature of, 639; boiling of, Z
794; buffer, 667; capacity, 721; cis-, 766; 427, 969 table; capillary action, 419; Zewail, Ahmed, 581
class, 799; combustion, 290; comple- changes of state and, 76, 425–428; Zinc, 208, 920
tion, 599; complex, 845; compound, chemical properties, 75; condensation Zinc-carbon dry cells, 718–719
300; concentrated, 485; concentra- of, 428; covalent bonds in, 240, 243; Zinc plating, 295
tion, 561; concept, 113; conceptualize, density of solid, 420; electrical con-
845; conduct, 215; conductor, 180; ductivity of, 205 act.; electrolysis of,
conform, 642; conjugate, 639; convert, 86; evaporation of, 426–427, 432 act.;
595; correspond, 711; demonstrate, formation of in aqueous solutions, 303,
547; deposit, 747; derive, 372; disac- 304 prob.; freezing, 428, 969 table; hard
1050 Index
Researchers, (tc bl br)Mark A. Schneider/Visuals Unlimited, (tr)Jeff J. Daly, Fundamental
Photo Credits Photography, NYC, (bcl)Carl Frank/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (bcr)Roberto De
Gugliemo/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 422 Ross Frid/Visuals Unlimited; 423
Cover SPL/Photo Researchers; iv (t)courtesy of Thandi Buthelezi, (tc)courtesy of Laurel
Deborah Davis/PhotoEdit; 424 Wally Eberhart/Visuals Unlimited; 426 CORBIS; 428 (t)Richard
Dingrando, (bc)courtesy of Nicholas Hainen, (b)courtesy of Dinah Zike; 2 (t)Ted Kinsman/
Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC, (b)Alissa Crandall/CORBIS; 431 Peter Scholey/Getty
Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (c)Beateworks Inc./Alamy, (b)Daniel Sambraus/
Images; 432 Matt Meadows; 440 (t)Patrick Ward/CORBIS, (b)Elizabeth Opalenik/CORBIS,
Photo Researchers, (bkgd)BL Images Ltd/Alamy; 3 Tom Pantages; 4 (l)STScI/NASA/CORBIS,
(bkgd)CORBIS; 441 Matt Meadows; 448 Marie-Louise Avery/Alamy; 449 Roger Ressmeyer/
(r)Atlantide Phototravel/CORBIS; 5 CORBIS; 6 David Hay Jones/Science Photo Library/Photo
CORBIS; 454 unlike by STOCK4B; 456 Cordelia Malloy/Science Photo Library; 457 Matt
Researchers; 7 NASA/Photo Researchers; 9 David Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit; 10 (l)AFP/Getty
Meadows; 458 (l)Pasquale Sorrentino/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (r)Paul
Images, (r)NASA Ames Research Center/Photo Researchers; 13 Art Vandalay/Getty Images;
Broadbent/Alamy Images; 459 (l)Barry Runk/Grant Heilman Photography, (r)Lee Pengelly/
14 (t)Matt Meadows, (b)Martyn F. Chillmaid/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 15
Alamy Images; 461 Thomas R. Fletcher/www.proseandphotos.com; 462 Denny Eilers/Grant
Chuck Bryan/epa/CORBIS; 17 Hank Morgan/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 18
Heilman Photography; 464 Janet Horton Photography; 465 Jason Cohn/Reuters/CORBIS;
(l)Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, (r)Dr Jeremy Burgess/Science Photo Library/Photo
466 Matt Meadows; 474 (t)David Papazian/Beateworks/CORBIS, (b)Peter Bowater/Alamy,
Researchers; 19 Matt Meadows; 21 NASA/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 22
(bkgd)Tom Feiler/Masterfile; 475 Matt Meadows; 476 Tom Pantages; 478 Matt Meadows/Peter
(l)Philippe Psaila/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (r)Eye Of Science/Science Photo
Arnold, Inc.; 480 Tom Pantages; 482 AP Photo/L.G. Patterson; 484 Matt Meadows; 485 Richard
Library/Photo Researchers; 23 (tl)The Andy Warhol Foundation, Inc./Art Resource, NY,
Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC; 489 Matt Meadows; 490 (l)Hulton-Deutsch Collection/
(tr)courtesy of Sharon Miller/NASA; 26 STScI/NASA/CORBIS; 30 Photri/T.Sanders; 31 Matt
CORBIS, (r)SuperStock; 491 (t)Richard Megna/Fundamental Photography, NYC, (b)courtesy of
Meadows; 32 (l)Rhoda Peacher, (r)Janet Horton Photography; 34 Robert Rathe; 37 (t)Matt
DuPont; 492 (t b)Tiercel Photographics, (c)Rhonda Peacher Photography; 493 Andrew Lambert
Meadows, (b)B. Runk/S. Schoenberger/Grant Heilman Photography; 40 The Hope Diamond/
Photography/Science Photo Library; 494 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC/The Bridgeman Art Library; 42 Ed Young/CORBIS; 44
photographer; 495 Theo Allofs/Visuals Unlimited; 496 (t)Marilyn Genter/The Image Works,
CORBIS; 49 Chris Gibson/Alamy; 52 Matt Meadows; 59 Jonathan Nourok/PhotoEdit; 68 Magnus
(bl)Rachel Epstein/PhotoEdit, (br)CORBIS; 498 FP, Fundamental Photography, NYC; 501 (l)AP
Hjorleifsson/Getty Images; 70 (l)Luca Trovato/Getty Images, (r)Thomas Raupach/Peter Arnold,
Photo/Gerry Broome, (r)Tom Pantages; 505 Courtesy of Dr. Christopher L. Sabine, National
Inc.; 71 (t)Michael Newman/PhotoEdit, (b)Colin Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit; 72 (t)Richard T.
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; 506 Tom Pantages; 508 Leonard Lessin/Peter Arnold,
Nowitz/CORBIS, (b)Spencer Grant/PhotoEdit; 73 (l)Sydney James/Getty Images, (r)Scientifica/
Inc.; 511 Courtesy NODC; 514 Purestock/Getty Images; 515 Matt Meadows; 516 (l)Agence
Visuals Unlimited; 74 (l)Gibson Stock Photography, (r)Richard Megna, Fundamental
Zoom/Getty Images, (r)Donald Miralle/Getty Images; 517 Alan Sirulnikoff/Photo Researchers;
Photography, NYC; 75 British Antarctic Survey/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 76
519 (l)Stephen Chernin/Getty Images, (r)Bob Krist/CORBIS; 521 Matt Meadows; 522 Eurelios/
(l)Ilianski/Alamy, (r)Design Pics Inc./Alamy; 77 (t)Alan Schein/zefa/CORBIS, (b)Astrid & Hanns-
Phototake; 524 Tom Pantages; 526 Matt Meadows; 527 Tim Fuller; 528 Phil Degginger/Alamy;
frieder Michler/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 79 (l r)Richard Megna, Fundamental
533 Janet Horton Photography; 534 (l)CORBIS, (r)Mark A. Schneider/Visuals Unlimited; 537 Will
Photography, NYC; 80 (l)Custom Medical Stock Photo, (r)Envision/CORBIS; 81 Robert Fournier/
& Deni McIntyre/Photo Researchers; 539 Jeff Maloney/Getty Images; 542 Ton Koene/Visuals
Visuals Unlimited; 82 Martyn F. Chillmaid/Photo Researchers; 83 Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit; 84
Unlimited; 544 Dinodia Photo Library/PixtureQuest; 545 Matt Meadows; 546 Jon Arnold
(l)Barry Mason/Alamy, (c)Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit, (r)AP Photo/Breakthrough Films &
Images/Alamy; 549 (t)AP Photo, (b)Joshua Matz/Grant Heilman Photography; 550 Matt
Televisions Inc., Randy Brooke; 85 Science Museum/SSPL/The Image Works; 86 (tl)Andrew
Meadows; 552 Wesley Hitt/Alamy; 554 Frank Cezus/Getty Images; 554 Marc Muench/Getty
Lambert Photography/Photo Researchers, (tr)Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, (b)Larry
Images; 558 (inset)PhotriMicroStock/J.Greenberg, (bkgd)Transtock Inc/Alamy; 559 Matt
Stepanowicz/Fundamental Photography, NYC; 90 Matt Meadows/Peter Arnold, Inc.; 91 Robert
Meadows; 560 (l)Motoring Picture Library/Alamy, (cl)The Car Photo Library, (cr)John Terence
Corry; 100 (inset)Colin Cuthbert/Photo Researchers, (bkgd)CORBIS; 101 Tom Pantages; 102
Turner/Taxi/Getty Images, (r)Getty Images; 563 Masterfile Corporation; 567 Charles D. Winters/
(l)PhotoLink/Getty Images, (t)Andre Jenny/Alamy, (r)Digital Vision/PunchStock, (b)Sean Daveys/
Photo Researchers; 568 Tom Pantages; 569 Richard Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC;
Australian Picture Library/CORBIS; 103 (t)Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (b)The Art
570 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; 571 Tom Pantages;
Archive/Museo Nazionale Palazzo Altemps Rome/Dagli Ort; 104 (t)Rischgitz/Getty Images,
572 (l)Arco Images/Alamy, (r)SuperStock; 574 (l)Mark Thomas/Science Photo Library/Photo
(b)Wellcome Library, London; 106 (l)Stockdisc/PunchStock, (r)European Space Agency/Science
Researchers, (r)Dr Jurgen Scriba/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 581 Stephen Wilkes/
Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 107 Philippe Plailly/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers;
Getty Images; 584 Matt Meadows; 592 Stock Connection Distribution/Alamy; 593 Matt
110 SSPL/The Image Works; 111 (l)Bettmann/CORBIS, (r)CERN/Photo Researchers; 113
Meadows; 594 Randall Hyman Photography; 597 Tim Fuller; 598 Oote Boe/Alamy; 600 Martyn
Research Group of Professor C. J. Zhong/SUNY-Binghamton/Supported by NSF; 117 Dan Peha/
Chillmaid /Photolibrary; 601 Dr. A. Leger/ISM/Phototake; 603 Plowes ProteaPix; 606 Shalom
viestiphoto.com; 120 Eitan Simanor/Alamy; 122 (l r)Image Source/Getty Images; 125 Mauro
Ormsby/Blend Images/Getty Images; 608 Getty Images; 610 Richard Megna, Fundamental
Fermariello/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 126 Janet Horton Photography; 134
Photography, NYC; 612 Tim Brakemeier/dpa/CORBIS; 614 (l)James L. Amos/CORBIS, (r)1996-
Roger Ressmeyer/CORBIS; 135 Matt Meadows; 136 137 Richard Megna, Fundamental
98 AccuSoft Inc., All right/Robert Harding World Imagery/CORBIS; 615 Yoav Levy/Phototake;
Photography, NYC; 138 David Parker/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 141 CORBIS;
618 620 Tom Pantages; 623 Mount Everest from the South. AlpineAscents.com Collection;
142 Andrew Fox/CORBIS; 145 (t b)Richard Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC; 149 John
624 Matt Meadows; 625 David Taylor/Photo Researchers; 627 Matt Meadows; 629 Marie-
D. Norman/CORBIS; 153 Alberto Biscaro/Masterfile; 164 Matt Meadows; 172 Jim Sugar/Science
Louise Avery/Alamy; 632 (t b)Tim Fuller, (bkgd)Jane Faircloth/TRANSPARENCIES, Inc.; 633 Matt
Faction/Getty Images; 173 Tom Pantages; 175 Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 177
Meadows; 634 (l)Pat O’Hara/CORBIS, (r)W. Wayne Lockwood, M.D./CORBIS; 635 (l cl r)Tom
Courtesy of Dell Inc.; 181 Miyoko Oyashiki/CORBIS Sygma; 185 Lawrence Berkley National
Pantages, (cr)Eric Fowke/PhotoEdit; 636 With kind permission of the University of Edinburgh/
Laboratory; 192 Brandon D. Cole/CORBIS; 195 3D4Medicalcom/Getty Images; 204 CORBIS;
The Bridgeman Art Library; 637 (tl)courtesy of the Archives, California Institue of Technology,
205 Matt Meadows; 206 David Nardini/Getty Images; 208 Richard Megna, Fundamental
(r)Kazuyoshi Nomachi/CORBIS, (bl)Pasieka/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 638
Photography, NYC; 210 (l)Andrew Lambert Photography/Photo Researchers, (r)Charles D.
Spencer Grant/PhotoEdit; 639 Ciaran Griffin/Getty Images; 643 Jim Wark/Peter Arnold, Inc.; 644
Winters/Photo Researchers; 212 Colin Woods/Alamy; 213 (t)Manfred Kage/Peter Arnold, Inc.,
645 Matt Meadows; 646 Louise Lister/Getty Images; 652 (t)Ingram Publishing/Alamy, (cl)Sue
(c)Cat Gwynn/CORBIS, (b)Philippe Plailly/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 214
Wilson/Alamy, (cr)foodfolio/Alamy, (bl)Eric Fowke/PhotoEdit, (br)Janet Horton Photography;
(l r)Traudel Sachs/Phototake, (c)Mark A. Schneider/Photo Researchers; 220 Richard Megna,
654 Peter Dean/Grant Heilman Photography; 656 Matt Meadows; 658 (l)Matt Meadows,
Fundamental Photography, NYC; 228 Greg Huglin/SuperStock; 229 Macduff Everton/CORBIS;
(r)Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 659 660 661 662
230 Matt Meadows; 238 BIOS Gilson FranÁois/Peter Arnold, Inc.; 239 Matt Meadows; 240
663 664 665 Matt Meadows; 666 Sisse Brimberg/Getty Images; 668 Dr. Dennis Kunkel/Visuals
Charles Krebs/Getty Images; 244 Visual Arts Library (London)/Alamy; 247 Charles O’Rear/
Unlimited; 669 (l)Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, (r)CORBIS; 672 673 674 Matt
CORBIS; 257 Suzanne Long/Alamy; 261 Matt Meadows; 268 Tony Craddock/Photo Researchers;
Meadows; 678 (inset)Tom Pantages, (bkgd)Jeff Daly/Fundamental Photography, NYC; 679
270 Scientifica/Visuals Unlimited; 271 (t)Peter Weber/Getty Images, (tcl)Perennou Nuridsany/
Tom Pantages; 680 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; 681 Tom
Photo Researchers, (cr)Susumu Nishinaga/Photo Researchers, (b bcl)Prof. Kellar Autumn, Lewis
Pantages; 682 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; 685 Dean
& Clark College; 272 Matt Meadows; 280 (t)Robert Clay/Alamy, (b)Terry W. Eggers/CORBIS,
Conger/CORBIS; 686 John Cancalosi/Peter Arnold, Inc.; 689 L. S. Stepanowicz/Visuals Unlimited;
(bkgd)Woodfall Wild Images/Alamy; 281 Matt Meadows; 282 Charles D. Winters/Photo
693 E. R. Degginger/Photo Researchers; 694 Tom Pantages; 697 (t)Mikael Karlsson/Alamy,
Researchers; 283 (l)Mihaela Ninic/Alamy, (c)Phototake Inc./Alamy, (b)VStock/Alamy; 284
(b)Adrian Neumann/adrian_neumann@gmx.de; 700 Tom Pantages; 701 (t)Peticolas/Megna,
Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers; 287 Marilyn Genter/The Image Works; 290 (t)Josh
Fundamental Photography, NYC, (cl)Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit, (cr)Ian Pilbeam/Alamy; 702 Tom
Westrich/zefa/CORBIS, (bl)Jeff Vanuga/CORBIS, (br)Mary Evans Picture Library/The Image
Pantages; 703 (t)Richard Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC, (bl br)Yuliya Andrianova/
Works; 291 (l)Bettmann/CORBIS, (r)David Tipling/Alamy; 292 Courtesy of Mercedes-Benz
Echo Ceramics; 706 (l)Tom Pantages, (tr) bobo/Alamy, (br)Khalid Ghani/NHPA, (bkgd)Michael
Canada; 293 (l)Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, (r)Yoav Levy/Phototake; 295 Donald
Durham/Nature Picture Library; 707 Matt Meadows; 709 Royal Institution/SSPL/The Image
Pye/Alamy; 296 Andrew Lambert Photography/Photo Researchers; 299 Tom Pantages; 300
Works; 710 (t)Rafael Macia/Photo Researchers, (b)Chuck Franklin/Alamy; 719 (l)Tom Pantages,
303 Matt Meadows; 305 Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers; 309 (l)Darwin Dale/Photo
(r)Sami Sarkis/Alamy; 721 Stockbyte Platinum/Alamy; 722 (tl)Paul Silverman, Fundamental
Researchers, (r)Eye of Science/Photo Researchers, (bkgd)E.R. Degginger/Animals Animals -
Photography, NYC, (tr)Paul Rapson/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (r)Ferruccio/
Earth Scenes; 310 Matt Meadows; 318 (t)Tom Pantages, (b)CORBIS, (bkgd)Tom Stack/Tom
Alamy; 723 Pasquale Sorrentino/Photo Researchers; 724 Ilianski/Alamy; 725 Roger Ressmeyer/
Stack & Associates; 319 320 321 Matt Meadows, 322 CORBIS; 325 326 327 Matt Meadows;
CORBIS; 726 Geoff Butler; 730 Tom Pantages; 731 Jeff Greenberg/PhotoEdit; 733 Tom
328 Jeff Greenberg/PhotoEdit; 335 Matt Meadows; 341 (l)Comstock Images/Alamy, (r)GECO
Pantages; 742 Steve Starr/CORBIS; 743 Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library/
UK/Photo Researchers; 346 Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit; 351 Alfred Pasieka/Photo Researchers;
Photo Researchers; 744 Panorama Media (Beijing)Ltd./Alamy; 745 A. T. Willett/Alamy; 748
352 354 356 Matt Meadows; 366 Clive Schaupmeyer/AGStockUSA/Science Photo Library/Photo
Keith Dannemiller/Alamy; 749 Rachel Epstein/PhotoEdit; 752 (l)Michael Newman/PhotoEdit,
Researchers; 368 Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers; 371 Division of Chemical Education,
(r)Janet Horton Photography; 757 Robin Nelson/PhotoEdit; 762 Michael Newman/PhotoEdit;
Inc., American Chemical Society; 373 Richard Megna/Fundamental Photography, NYC; 375
764 Paul A. Souders/CORBIS; 767 (l)Masterfile, (r)Beth Galton/Getty Images; 770 R H
Rhonda Peacher Photography; 379 Aaron Haupt; 380 Chris McElcheran/Masterfile; 384 385
Productions/Getty Images; 772 (tl)Paul Silverman, Fundamental Photography, NYC, (tr)CORBIS,
Matt Meadows; 388 Gunter Marx Photography/CORBIS; 389 3D4Medicalcom/Getty Images; 390
(bl)Colin Garratt, Milepost 92½/CORBIS, (br)SSPL/The Image Works; 774 PicturePress/Getty
Matt Meadows; 400 Richard W. Ramette; 401 Matt Meadows; 402 (l)Steve McCutcheon/Visuals
Images; 775 Peter Titmuss/Alamy; 776 Matt Meadows; 784 (inset)Science Pictures Ltd/Science
Unlimited, (c)Lester V. Bergman/CORBIS, (b)Dirk Wiersma/Photo Researchers; 406 H. Turvey/
Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (bkgd)Waina Cheng/Photolibrary; 785 786 Matt Meadows;
Photo Researchers; 410 Tom Pantages; 415 Richard Megna/Fundamental Photography, NYC;
787 David Hoffman Photo Library/Alamy; 789 DK Limited/CORBIS; 790 Keith Wood/Getty
416 (t)Gabe Palmer/Alamy, (b)SSPL/The Image Works; 417 (l)Kent Wood/Photo Researchers,
Images; 791 Paul Almasy/CORBIS; 797 Bill Aron/PhotoEdit; 798 Norm Thomas/Photo
(r)Geoffrey Wheeler/Submission from National Institute of Standards and Technology; 418 Pier
Researchers; 799 (l)Masterfile, (r)J.Garcia/photocuisine/CORBIS; 802 Cordelia Molloy/Photo
Munstermanu/Foto Nature/Minden Pictures; 419 Richard Megna, Fundamental Photography,
Researchers; 803 Chuck Franklin/Alamy; 807 (t)NASA/ESA/STScI/Science Photo Library/Photo
NYC; 420 Daryl Benson/Masterfile; 421 (tl)Charles D. Winters/Science Photo Library/Photo
Credits 1051
Credits
Researchers, (b)CORBIS; 809 Alan L. Detrick/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 810 CORBIS, (b)Michael Dalton, Fundamental Photography, NYC; 909 Geoffrey Wheeler;
(t)Myrleen Ferguson Cate/PhotoEdit, (bl)SSPL/The Image Works, (br)Victor De Schwanberg/ 910 Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers; 911 (l)Andrew Lambert/Photo Researchers,
Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 811 (l)Bettmann/CORBIS, (r)Danita Delimont/Alamy; (r)Fundamental Photography, NYC; 912 (l)Mark A. Schneider/Photo Researchers, (r)courtesy of
812 (t)Siede Preis/Photodisc Green/Getty Images, (tc)David Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit, (b)CORBIS, Northrop Grumman Space Technology; 913 (t)Paul Freytag/zefa/CORBIS, (b)Rebecca Cook/
(bc)Dorling Kindersley/Getty Images; 813 David R. Frazier Photolibrary, Inc.; 815 Neil CORBIS; 914 (t)Dung Vo Trung/CORBIS, (b)Neil Borden/Photo Researchers; 915 (l)Fred
Emmerson/Robert Harding World Imagery/Getty Images; 816 Matt Meadows; 824 (t)Eye Of Haebegger/Grant Heilman Photography, (r)Bettmann/CORBIS; 916 Cordelia Molloy/Science
Science/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (c)Dr. Kessel & Dr. Kardon/Tissues & Organs/ Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 917 Martyn F. Chillmaid/Photo Researchers; 918 Colin
Visuals Unlimited, (b)Steve Gschmeissner/Photo Researchers, (bkgd)AK PhotoLibrary/Alamy; Walton/Alamy; 919 (t)Roger Harris/Photo Researchers, (c)Tom Pantages, (b)Kalicoba/Alamy;
825 Matt Meadows; 826 (l) John Conrad/CORBIS, (r)Ron Niebrugge/Alamy; 829 Janet Horton 920 (t)The Art Archive/Egyptian Museum Cairo/Dagli Orti, (b)Theodore Clutter/Photo
Photography; 831 (l)CORBIS, (r)Medical-on-Line/Alamy; 833 IndexStock; 834 (l)Foodcollection. Researchers; 921 (t)ISM/Phototake, (b)Fritz Goro/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images; 924 (t)Tom
com/Alamy, (r)Brand X Pictures/Alamy; 835 D. Hurst/Alamy; 836 Michael Newman/PhotoEdit; Pantages, (tc)Greg Stott/Masterfile, (b)Toshiba Corporation images, (bc)Eye of Science/Photo
838 Pat O’Hara/CORBIS; 839 Joe Mc Donald/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes; 846 (t)CORBIS, Researchers; 925 (t)Judith Collins/Alamy, (b)Collection CNRI/Phototake; 926 Andrew Lambert
(b)AP Photo/Joe Cavaretta; 847 (t)David Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit, (b)Alex Farnsworth/The Image Photography/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 927 David Taylor/Photo Researchers;
Works; 848 Wally McNamee/CORBIS; 849 (t)epa/CORBIS, (b)Mary Schweitzer; 855 CORBIS; 928 (tl)Chemical Design/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (tr)Johner Images/Getty
858 (t)ADEAR/RDF/Visuals Unlimited, (c)ISM/Phototake, (b)Science Photo Library/Photo Images, (b)Dr Tim Evans/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 929 Phil Schermeister/
Researchers, (bkgd)John Terence Turner/Taxi/Getty Images; 859 Comstock Images/Alamy; 860 CORBIS; 930 (t)Martin Dohrn/naturepl.com, (c)Goodshoot-Jupiterimages France/Alamy,
(l)alwaysstock, LLC/Alamy, (r)Lee C. Coombs/Phototake; 861 C. Powell, P. Fowler & D. Perkins/ (b)Allan H Shoemake/Taxi/Getty Images; 931 Chinch Gryniewicz, Ecoscene/CORBIS; 933 Tom
Photo Researchers; 864 Reuters/CORBIS; 874 Pixtal/SuperStock; 880 vario images GmbH & Pantages; 934 (t)Wally Eberhart/Visuals Unlimited, (c)Dr P. Marazzi/Photo Researchers, (b)Al
Co.KG/Alamy; 881 Savintsev Fyodor/ITAR-TASS/CORBIS; 882 (t)Catherine Pouedras/Science Francekevich/CORBIS; 935 (t,bl)Michael Newman/PhotoEdit, (br)Janet Horton; 937 Chuck Place
Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (bl)Bettmann/CORBIS, (br)John Hopkins Medical Institute/ Photography; 938 (t)Scientifica/Visuals Unlimited, (b)Glow Images/Alamy; 939 Leslie Garland
AIP/Photo Researchers; 883 (t)epa/CORBIS, (b)D. Ducros/Photo Researchers; 884 (t)EFDA-JET/ Picture Library/Alamy; 940 Larry Stepanowicz/Visuals Unlimited; 941 Andrew Lambert
Photo Researchers; 886 Martin Bond/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 887 Custom Photography/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 942 Michael Newman/PhotoEdit;
Medical Stock Photo/cmsp.com; 888 (tl)ISM/Phototake, (tr)WDCN/Univ. College London/Photo 944 (l)Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, (r)Ted Kinsman/Science Photo Library/Photo
Researchers, (b)Mediscan; 891 Johan Reinhard; 901 CORBIS; 904 (l)SPL/Photo Researchers, Researchers; 945 (t)epa/CORBIS, (bl)Phototake Inc./Alamy, (br)Wolfgang Kaehler/CORBIS; 946
(r)Matt Meadows; 905 (t)European Southern Observatory/Photo Researchers, (b)Melanie (l)Chris Bjornberg/Photo Researchers, (r)Daniele Pellegrini/Photo Researchers; 947 (t)Julian
Stetson Freeman/The Christian Science Monitor via Getty Images; 906 Richard Megna/ Baum/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (b)CORBIS; 952 Matt Meadows; 956 ABN Stock
Fundamental Photography, NYC; 907 (l)David Taylor/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, Images/Alamy; 958 Matt Meadows; 959 Bill Aron/PhotoEdit; 964 Matt Meadows; 965 Elena
(c cl)Jerry Mason/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (cr r)Tom Pantages, (t)NASA/epa/ Rooraid/PhotoEdit; 967 Geoff Butler
1052 Credits
Chemistry nline glencoe.com
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Teaching Today, and much more!
Organisms or other bacteria, fungi, blood, Avoid skin contact with Notify your teacher if you
BIOLOGICAL biological materials that unpreserved tissues, plant these materials. Wear suspect contact with
might be harmful to materials mask or gloves. material. Wash hands
humans thoroughly.
EXTREME Objects that can burn boiling liquids, hot plates, Use proper protection Go to your teacher for
skin by being too cold or dry ice, liquid nitrogen when handling. first aid.
TEMPERATURE too hot
SHARP Use of tools or glassware razor blades, pins, Practice common-sense Go to your teacher for
that can easily puncture or scalpels, pointed tools, behavior and follow first aid.
OBJECT slice skin dissecting probes, guidelines for use of
broken glass the tool.
Possible danger to ammonia, acetone, nail Make sure there is good Leave foul area and
FUME respiratory tract from polish remover, heated ventilation. Never smell notify your teacher
fumes sulfur, moth balls fumes directly. Wear a immediately.
mask.
Possible danger from improper grounding, liquid Double-check setup with Do not attempt to fix
ELECTRICAL electrical shock or burn spills, short circuits, teacher. Check condition electrical problems. Notify
exposed wires of wires and apparatus. your teacher immediately.
Substances that can pollen, moth balls, steel Wear dust mask and Go to your teacher for
IRRITANT irritate the skin or mucous wool, fiberglass, potassium gloves. Practice extra care first aid.
membranes of the permanganate when handling these
respiratory tract materials.
Chemicals that can react bleaches such as Wear goggles, gloves, Immediately flush the
CHEMICAL with and destroy tissue hydrogen peroxide; acids and an apron. affected area with water
and other materials such as sulfuric acid, and notify your teacher.
hydrochloric acid; bases
such as ammonia,
sodium hydroxide
Substance may be mercury, many metal Follow your teacher’s Always wash hands
TOXIC poisonous if touched, compounds, iodine, instructions. thoroughly after use.
inhaled, or swallowed. poinsettia plant parts Go to your teacher for
first aid.
Open flame may ignite alcohol, kerosene, Avoid open flames and Notify your teacher
FLAMMABLE flammable chemicals, potassium permanganate, heat when using immediately. Use fire
loose clothing, or hair. hair, clothing flammable chemicals. safety equipment if
applicable.
Open flame in use, may hair, clothing, paper, Tie back hair and loose Always wash hands
OPEN FLAME cause fire. synthetic materials clothing. Follow teacher's thoroughly after use.
instructions on lighting Go to your teacher for
and extinguishing flames. first aid.
1 Gas
Element Hydrogen
1 State of Liquid
Atomic number
Hydrogen
matter Solid
1
1
2 Symbol H
H
1.008 Atomic mass 1.008 Synthetic
Lithium Beryllium
3 4
2 Li Be
6.941 9.012
Sodium Magnesium
11 12
3 Na Mg 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
22.990 24.305
The number in parentheses is the mass number of the longest lived isotope
for that element.
Nonmetal Helium
2
Recently 13 14 15 16 17 He
observed 4.003
*The names and symbols for elements 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, and 118 are temporary. Final names will be
selected when the elements’ discoveries are verified.