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For students and parents/guardians Table of Contents

In the Elements Handbook, you’ll find use-


ful information about the properties of the Elements Handbook . . . . . . . . . 901
main group elements from the periodic table. Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
You’ll also learn about real-world applications Group 1: Alkali Metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906
for many of the elements. Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals . . . . . . . 910
The Math Handbook helps you review and Groups 3–12: Transition Elements . . . . 916
sharpen your math skills so you get the most Group 13: Boron Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922
out of understanding how to solve math prob- Group 14: Carbon Group . . . . . . . . . . . . 926
lems involving chemistry. Reviewing the rules Group 15: Nitrogen Group . . . . . . . . . . . 932
Group 16: Oxygen Group . . . . . . . . . . . . 936
for mathematical operations such as scientific
Group 17: Halogen Group . . . . . . . . . . . 940
notation, fractions, and logarithms can also
Group 18: Noble Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 944
help you boost your test scores.
The reference tables are another tool that Math Handbook . . . . . . . . . . . . 946
will assist you. The practice problems and Scientific Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946
solutions are resources that will help increase Operations with Scientific Notation . . . 948
your comprehension. Square and Cube Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949
Significant Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949
Solving Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . 954
Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
Unit Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
Drawing Line Graphs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 959
Using Line Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961
Ratios, Fractions, and Percents. . . . . . . . 964
Operations Involving Fractions . . . . . . . 965
Logarithms and Antilogarithms. . . . . . . 966
Reference Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . 968
R-1 Color Key. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968
R-2 Symbols and Abbreviations. . . . . . 968
R-3 Solubility Product Constants . . . . 969
R-4 Physical Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969
R-5 Names and Charges of
Polyatomic Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 970
R-6 Ionization Constants . . . . . . . . . . . 970
R-7 Properties of Elements. . . . . . . . . . 971
R-8 Solubility Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . 974
R-9 Specific Heat Values . . . . . . . . . . . . 975
R-10 Molal Freezing Point Depression
and Boiling Point Elevation
Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975
R-11 Heat of Formation Values . . . . . . . 975
Supplemental Practice Problems . . . . . . .976
Solutions to Selected Practice
Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .992
Glossary/Glosario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1005
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1031
Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1051

900 Student Resources


Elements Handbook

Elements in Earth’s Atmosphere

Argon Other
0.93% 0.04%

Oxygen
20.95%

Nitrogen
78.08%

Elements in Earth’s Crust

Iron Calcium
5.63% 4.15%
Other
7.69%
Aluminum
8.23%

Oxygen
46.10%
Silicon
28.20%

Elements Dissolved in
Earth’s Oceans

Other
Sulfur 1.50%
2.70% Calcium
Magnesium 1.20%
3.90%

Sodium Chlorine
32.40% 58.30%

Elements Handbook 901


CORBIS
Elements Handbook

Table of Contents
How This Handbook Is Organized The Elements Handbook is divided into
10 sections: hydrogen and groups 1, 2, 3–12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18. You will discover
physical and atomic properties, common reactions, analytical tests, and real-world
applications of the elements in each section. Questions at the end of each section will
assess your understanding of the elements.

Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .904 Group 14: Carbon Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .926


Group 1: Alkali Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .906 Group 15: Nitrogen Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .932
Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .910 Group 16: Oxygen Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .936
Groups 3–12: Transition Elements . . . . . . . . . . . .916 Group 17: Halogen Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .940
Group 13: Boron Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .922 Group 18: Noble Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .944

How to Use Element Boxes


Each element box on the periodic table contains useful information. In the Elements
Handbook, each element box has an element name, symbol, atomic number, and electron
configuration. At the beginning of each section, each element box also identifies the state
of matter at 25°C and 1 atm. A typical box from the handbook is shown below.

Strontium Element
Atomic number 38
State of matter
Symbol Sr
[Kr]5s2 Electron configuration

Color Key States of Matter Key

Gas
Metal

Liquid
Metalloid
Solid

Nonmetal Synthetic

Interactive Figure To see animations


of the elements, visit glencoe.com. To find links to information on the elements, visit glencoe.com.

902 Elements Handbook


How to Use the Elements Handbook

When you read the Elements Handbook, you need to read for information. Here
are some tools that the Elements Handbook has to help you find that information.

See how a group fits in Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals Element Facts
the Periodic Table. Beryllium
4
Physical Properties Atomic Properties Atomic
radius
Ionic
radius
• Most of the alkaline earth metals have a silvery-white, metallic • Each element in group 2 has two valence electrons and an electron
Be appearance. When exposed to oxygen, a thin oxide coating forms configuration ending with ns 2.
(pm) (pm)
[He]2s2
on the surface. • Alkaline earth metals often lose their two valence electrons to form Be Be2+
112 31
Magnesium • The alkaline earth metals are harder, denser, and stronger than many ions with a 2+ charge.
12 of the group 1 elements, but are still relatively soft compared to other • Atomic radii and ionic radii increase moving down the group but are Mg Mg2+
Mg metals. 160 72
smaller than the corresponding alkali metal.
[Ne]3s2
• Most alkaline earth metals have higher melting points and boiling

Discover the Physical


• Ionization energies and electronegativities generally decrease moving Ca Ca2+
Calcium
points than alkali metals. down the group but are larger than the corresponding alkali metal. 197 100

20 • Moving down the group, densities generally increase.


Ca Sr Sr2+

Properties and Atomic


Melting Points and Boiling Points Densities First Ionization Energies Electronegativities 215 118
[Ar]4s2

Be
1287
Be 1.848
Be 900 Be 1.57
Strontium 2469 Ba Ba2+
222 135

Properties of the
38 Mg
650
Mg 1.738 Mg 738 Mg 1.31
Sr 1090 MP
[Kr]5s2 842 BP Ca Ca 1.00
Ca Ca 1.550 590 Ra
1484
220

elements in a group.
Barium Sr
777
Sr 2.630 Sr 550 Sr 0.95
1382
56
Ba Ba
727
Ba 3.510 Ba 503 Ba 0.89
1870
[Xe]6s2
Ra
700 Ra 5.000 Ra 509 Ra 0.90
1737
Radium
0 1000 2000 3000 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 200 400 600 800 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
88
Ra Temperature (ºC) g/mL kJ/mol Pauling units
[Rn]7s2

Common Reactions • Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with oxygen to Analytical Tests
Summarize Common
form oxides, such as magnesium oxide.
• Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with Three of the alkaline earth metals can be
halogens to form salts, such as Example: 2Mg(s) + O 2(g) → 2MgO(s) identified by flame tests. Calcium produces a
magnesium chloride, and • Sr and Ba react with oxygen to form scarlet color, while strontium produces a crimson

Reactions for the


hydrogen gas. peroxides, such as strontium peroxide. color. Barium, which if present in a sample can
Example: Mg(s) + 2HCl (g) → Example: Sr(s) + O 2(g) → SrO 2(s) mask the colors of both calcium and strontium,
MgCl 2(s) + H 2(g) produces a yellow-green color.
• Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with water to form

elements within a group. • Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with


hydrogen to form hydrides,
such as barium hydride.
bases, such as barium hydroxide, and
hydrogen gas.
Example: Ba(s) + 2H 2O(l) →
Example: Ba(s) + H 2(g) → Ba(OH) 2(aq) + H 2(g)
BaH 2(s)
• Be, Mg, Sr, and Ca react with
nitrogen to form nitrides, such
as magnesium nitride.
Example: 3Mg(s) + N 2(g) →

Identify elements by Mg 3N 2(s)


A ribbon of magnesium reacts with HCl in an
aqueous solution to produce Mg 2+ ions, Cl -
ions, and hydrogen gas.
Barium reacts with water to
form Ba 2+ ions, OH - ions,
and hydrogen gas.
Calcium Strontium Barium

Analytical Tests. 910 Elements Handbook Elements Handbook 911

Source: Elements Handbook, p. 910–911

Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals Real-World Applications Learn how elements are
Calcium
20
Gypsum
Drywall is made from gypsum, which is a soft
Radium
88
used every day in Real-
mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate
Ca
[Ar]4s2 A layer of plaster of paris protects
fossils during shipment.
(CaSO 4·2H 2O). Drywall boards are used in build-
ing construction because the gypsum provides fire
Ra
[Rn]7s2
World Applications.
protection. Gypsum contains large amounts of
water in its crystal form, which vaporizes when The Discovery of Radioactivity
heated. The boards remain at 100°C until all of the Marie Curie’s discovery of the atomic property she called
water evaporates, protecting the wood frame of the radioactivity paved the way for present-day advancements
building. Gypsum that has had most of its water in science and medicine. Curie and her husband, Pierre,
removed is known as plaster of paris. Most unveiled the characteristics and capabilities of radiation,
minerals form pastes when mixed with water. revolutionizing scientific thinking and laying the ground-
When plaster of paris is mixed with water, it forms work for present-day cancer treatments, genetics, and
a rigid crystal structure, so it is often used for casts nuclear energy. Today, many cancers are treated with
to set broken bones and for molds. radiation therapy.
Marie Curie died at the age of 67 from aplastic anemia,
probably caused by her exposure to massive amounts
of radiation. Today, the effects of radiation on health
Crystals formed from strontium chloride Toothpaste containing are well known, and suitable safety precautions are
Strontium and saliva fill in pores in the root of a strontium chloride Vent pipe taken when using radioactive materials.
38 tooth and block access to the nerve.
Sr Crystals Fan
Nerve
[Kr]5s2
Pore to root canal
and nerves Radon Gas
Sensitive Teeth Dentine Decay of radium-226 in soil and rock produces radon gas.
Almost 40 million people in the United States Root canal The radioactive radon gas can seep through cracks in a home’s
have teeth that are hypersensitive to touch and Root
foundation or can be dissolved in water pumped into the house

Test your knowledge


temperature. Sensitivity occurs when the dentine from a well. High concentrations of radon can increase the risk
and roots of teeth are exposed due to receding nerve through openings called pores. Toothpastes of cancer. In many homes, installing a radon-reduction system
gums or thinning of the tooth enamel. This is the that contain strontium chloride (SrCl 2) help reduces the concentration of radon gas by using a fan to draw
result of poor oral hygiene or, in many instances, reduce the sensitivity. The compound reacts with the gas through pipes that vent to the outside of the home.
from brushing too hard. Exposing the root enables
stimuli, such as cold temperatures, to reach the
a person’s saliva to create crystals that fill in the
pores so stimuli cannot reach the nerves. A radon-reduction system lowers the concentration of radon in homes by
venting the radon gas from the home to the outside environment.
of the elements by
Barium
After being coated with
barium liquid, the large answering Assessment
56 intestine shows up
Assessment
questions.
Ba clearly on an X ray.
[Xe]6s2 13. Describe the general trend in first ionization energies 18. Infer The alkaline earth metals are usually found
in group 2, and explain why this trend occurs. combined with oxygen and other nonmetals in Earth’s
14. Explain What is the charge on alkaline earth metal crust. Based on the atomic properties of this group,
Medical X Rays explain why alkaline earth metals are so reactive.
ions? Explain your answer.
Barium is used by medical professionals to exam-
15. Compare and contrast the physical properties 19. Calculate Calcium makes up about 1.5% of a
ine a person’s gastrointestinal tract. Patients drink human’s body mass. Calculate the amount of calcium
barium liquid, which coats the tract, and are then of the alkaline earth metals and the alkali metals.
found in a person who weighs 68 kg.
X-rayed. Barium is almost completely insoluble in 16. Evaluate why magnesium is used in emergency flares
instead of other alkaline earth metals. 20. Calculate Radium-226 has a half-life of 1600 years.
water and acids and appears as a bright white
After 8000 years, how much of a 500.0-g sample of
color in X rays. This allows doctors and radiolo- 17. Analyze Use the atomic properties of the alkali radium-226 would be left?
gists to locate tumors, ulcers, areas of reflux, and metals and alkaline earth metals to explain why
other abnormalities in the digestive tract. calcium is less reactive than potassium.

914 Elements Handbook Elements Handbook 915

Source: Elements Handbook, p. 914–915

Elements Handbook 903


Hydrogen: Element Facts

Physical and Atomic Properties


• At constant temperature and pressure, hydrogen gas (H 2) has the
lowest density of any gas.
• At very high pressures, such as the interior of planet Jupiter, hydrogen
Hydrogen
might exist as a solid metal.
1
H • Hydrogen is placed in group 1 because it has one valence electron.
1s1
• Hydrogen shares some properties with the group 1 metals. It can lose
an electron to form a hydrogen ion (H +).
• Hydrogen also shares some properties with the group 17 nonmetals.
It can gain an electron to form a hydride ion (H −).
• There are three common Physical and Atomic Properties
hydrogen isotopes. Protium, of Hydrogen
the most common isotope,
has one proton, one electron, Melting point -259°C
and no neutrons. Deuterium, Boiling point -253°C
also called heavy hydrogen, Density 8.98 × 10 -5 g/mL
has one proton, one neutron,
and one electron. Tritium, Atomic radius 78 pm
which is radioactive, has one First ionization
1312 kJ/mol
proton, two neutrons, and energy
one electron. Electronegativity 2.2 Pauling units

Common Reactions Analytical Tests


• When ignited, hydrogen reacts with oxygen pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion (H +)
to form water. concentration of aqueous solutions. When the
Example: H 2(g) + O 2(g) → 2H 2O(l) hydrogen ion concentration is expressed in
moles per liter, pH is the negative logarithm of
• Hydrogen reacts with sulfur to form hydro- the hydrogen ion concentration, −log[H +]. For
gen sulfide. example, if the hydrogen ion concentration is
Example: 2H 2(g) + S(g) → H 2S(g) 1 × 10 -2 mol/L, the pH is 2.
• Hydrogen reacts with nitrogen at high tem-
peratures and pressures to form ammonia.
Example: 3H 2(g) + N 2(g) → 2NH 3(g)

Hydrogen gas in the red


tube and nitrogen gas in
the blue tube are mixed,
then compressed under
high pressure and tem-
perature to form liquid Common household items are bases or acids, depending on
ammonia in the orange their H + concentrations: the greater the H + concentration, the
tube at bottom right. lower the pH.

904 Elements Handbook


(l)©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc., (r)Matt Meadows
Real-World Applications

Hydrogen
1
H
1s1

Identifying Hydrogen in Stars


Spectroscopy is the study of the spectral lines present
in an electromagnetic spectrum. The colored lines in
an emission spectrum represent the emission of energy.
How do scientists know that more than 90% of the atoms
in the universe are hydrogen atoms? By recording the
emission spectra of light from stars or galaxies, astrono-
mers can identify hydrogen. The spectrum of hydrogen
consists of four distinct color lines at different wave-
lengths. They are produced when electrons in a gas move
to different energy levels in an atom by absorbing and The colorful cloud that makes up this nebula is
then emitting energy. Each element can be identified by composed of hydrogen gas.
characteristic patterns of spectral lines.

Hydrogen Fuel Cells


Hydrogen fuel cells produce electricity by combining
hydrogen (H 2) and oxygen (O 2) without burning. Water
and heat are the only by-products of this process. Current
demonstration projects that use hydrogen fuel cells as
their energy sources include laptop computers, cars, buses,
classrooms, and musical instruments. In the future, it
might be possible to use a pen-sized container filled with
hydrogen gas to power a laptop computer. Or, you might
drive a fuel cell car to a filling station and fill a high-pres-
sure gas cylinder with hydrogen gas.

Hydrogen fuel cells provide the energy to power this


electric guitar.

Assessment
1. Compare and contrast hydrogen isotopes. 5. Infer Hydrogen can gain one electron to reach a
2. Write the balanced equation for the reaction between stable electron configuration. Why isn’t hydrogen
hydrogen gas and oxygen gas in a fuel cell. placed with the group 17 elements that share this
behavior?
3. Explain what happens when hydrogen reacts with a
nonmetal element. 6. Apply A solution’s hydrogen ion concentration is
3.2 × 10 -4 mol/L. Refer to Chapter 19 to determine if
4. Evaluate at least one advantage and one possible this solution is an acid or a base. What is the pH of this
disadvantage of hydrogen fuel cells compared to con- solution?
ventional petroleum engines.

Elements Handbook 905


(t)©European Southern Observatory/Photo Researchers, Inc., (b)©Melanie Stetson Freeman/The Christian Science Monitor via Getty Images
Group 1: Alkali Metals

Lithium Physical Properties


3 • Pure alkali metals have a silvery, metallic appearance.
Li
• Solid alkali metals are soft enough to cut with a knife.
[He]2s1
• Most of the alkali metals have low densities compared to the solid
Sodium form of elements from other groups. Lithium, sodium, and potassium
11 metals are less dense than water.
Na
• Compared to other metals, such as silver or gold, alkali metals have
[Ne]3s1
low melting points.
Potassium
Melting Points and Boiling Points Densities
19
K Li
181 Li 0.535
[Ar]4s1 1342
98
Na MP Na 0.968
883
Rubidium
BP
37 63 K 0.856
K
759
Rb
[Kr]5s1 39
Rb Rb 1.532
668

Cesium 28 Cs 1.879
Cs
671
55
Cs 0 500 1000 1500 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
[Xe]6s1
Temperature (°C) g/mL
Francium
87
Fr
[Rn]7s1
Common Reactions
• Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs react vigorously with halogens to form salts,
such as lithium chloride.
Example: 2Li(s) + Cl 2(g) → 2LiCl(s)
• Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs react with oxygen to form oxides, such as
sodium oxide.
Example: 4Na(s) + O 2(g) → 2Na 2O(s)
• Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs react
vigorously with water to form
metal hydroxides, such as
potassium hydroxide, and
hydrogen gas.
Example: 2K(s) + 2H 2O(l) →
2KOH(aq) + H 2(g)

Potassium reacts violently with water,


producing enough heat to ignite the
hydrogen gas produced.

906 Elements Handbook


©Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs, NYC
Element Facts

Atomic Properties Atomic Ionic


• Each element in group 1 has one valence electron and an electron radius radius
(pm) (pm)
configuration ending with ns 1.
Li1
+
• Group 1 elements lose their valence electrons to form ions with a Li
152 76
1+ charge.
Na1
+
Na
• Going down the elements in group 1, the atomic radii and ionic radii 186 102
increase.
K1
+
• Electronegativity decreases going down the elements in group 1. K
227 138
• The alkali metals are so reactive that they are not found in nature
as free metals. Rb Rb1
+

• All the alkali metals have at least one radioactive isotope. 248 152

• Because francium is rare and decays rapidly, its properties are not
Cs1
+
Cs
well known. 265 167
First Ionization Energies Electronegativities

Li Fr
Li 520 0.98
270

Na 496 Na 0.93

K 419 K 0.82

Rb 403 Rb 0.82

Cs 376 Cs 0.79

Fr 380 Fr 0.70

0 100 200 300 400 500 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0


kJ/mol Pauling units

Analytical Tests
Alkali metals can be qualitatively identified by flame tests. Lithium
produces a red flame. Sodium produces an orange flame. Potassium,
rubidium, and cesium produce violet flames.

Sodium Rubidium

Lithium Potassium Cesium

Elements Handbook 907


(l)©DAVID TAYLOR/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Photo Researchers Inc., (c cl)©JERRY MASON/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/PHOTO RESEARCHERS INC.; (cr r)©Tom Pantages
Group 1: Alkali Metals

Lithium Environmentally Friendly Batteries


3 Someday, electric cars might be powered by lightweight
lithium-ion batteries. Lithium batteries have several
[He]2s1 advantages compared to lead-acid batteries. Unlike lead-
acid batteries, lithium batteries do not contain toxic
metals or corrosive acids, making them safer for the
environment. Lithium’s light weight is also an advantage
for electric vehicles. However, lithium batteries do have
some disadvantages. Researchers are trying to find ways
to make lithium batteries that recharge more rapidly.
Cost is also a drawback. Lithium batteries are currently
used for small applications such as laptop computers, but
they will need to be less expensive before they can be
routinely used in larger, more energy-demanding applica-
The Mars rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, use
solar energy to recharge lithium-ion batteries. tions such as electric or hybrid vehicles.

Sodium Content of Some Common Foods


Sodium
11 Sodium Content
Food
Na (mg) per Serving
[Ne]3s1
fast-food submarine 1310
sandwich with cold cuts
canned chicken noodle 1106
soup
fast-food biscuit with egg 1080
and sausage
High
sodium cottage cheese 851
dill pickle 833
Dietary Salt fast-food cheeseburger 740
In 2006, the American Medical Association
recommended that the amount of sodium in canned corn 571
processed and restaurant foods be reduced by beef hotdog 513
one-half over the next decade. Sodium is essen- fried fish fillet 484
tial for humans, but too much might contribute
to high blood pressure and heart failure. Current wheat bread 133
guidelines advise consuming less than 2400 mg low-fat fruit yogurt 132
of sodium per day, which is less than one tea- fast-food salad with 119
spoon. However, Americans typically consume cheese and egg,
4000 to 6000 mg of sodium per day. Foods that
no dressing
contain more than 480 mg of sodium per serving Low
are considered high-sodium foods. To be labeled sodium pound cake 111
as low sodium, foods must contain 140 mg or oatmeal cookie 96
less per serving. The table lists some common
raw carrots 76
foods that are either high or low in sodium.
canned peaches 16
frozen corn 2

908 Elements Handbook


(t)©NASA/epa/Corbis, (b)©1995 Michael Dalton, Fundamental Photographs, NYC
Real-World Applications

Na+ K+ Sodium-potassium
Sodium Outside cell
pumps
11 Na+
Na
K+
[Ne]3s1 Na+
Na+
K+

Na+
Potassium
Na+ K+
19 Inside cell
K
[Ar]4s1 The sodium-potassium pump brings two K + ions into a cell for every three Na + ions it
moves out of a cell.

The Sodium-Potassium Pump


Humans and other vertebrates need to maintain inside cells and high outside cells. The potassium
a negative potential charge inside their cells in ion concentration is high inside cells and low out-
order to survive. This process requires sodium side cells. In fact, potassium ions are the most com-
ions, potassium ions, and a membrane-bound mon ions inside living cells. For every three
enzyme called sodium/potassium ATPase. Sodium/ sodium ions pumped out of a cell, sodium/potassi-
potassium ATPase uses energy from the hydrolysis um ATPase pumps two potassium ions into the
of ATP to pump sodium ions out of cells and pump cell. The net result is a negative charge inside the
potassium ions into cells. Because of the action of cell and concentration gradients across the cell
this pump, the sodium ion concentration is low membrane for both potassium and sodium ions.

The cesium fountain atomic clock at NIST is


Cesium accurate to about 1 second over a period of
55 70 million years.
Cs
[Xe]6s1

Cesium Atomic Clocks


One of the most accurate clocks in the world is located
at the United States National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST) in Boulder, Colorado. This cesium
fountain atomic clock provides the official time for
the United States. The clock is based on the natural
resonance frequency of the cesium atom
(9,192,631,770 Hz.), which defines the second.

Assessment
7. Describe the trend in density of the alkali metals as 11. Analyze Lithium’s properties are more like
atomic number increases. magnesium in group 2 than sodium. Use what you
learned about atomic sizes to explain this behavior.
8. Compare lithium-ion batteries and lead-acid batteries.
12. Organize Make a table to summarize the data for
9. Write a balanced equation for the reaction between physical and atomic properties of the group 1 elements
lithium and water. according to their trends with increasing atomic
10. Predict the reactivity of lithium metal with water. number.

Elements Handbook 909


©Geoffrey Wheeler
Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals

Beryllium Physical Properties


4 • Most of the alkaline earth metals have a silvery-white, metallic
Be appearance. When exposed to oxygen, a thin oxide coating forms
[He]2s2
on the surface.
Magnesium • The alkaline earth metals are harder, denser, and stronger than many
12 of the group 1 elements, but are still relatively soft compared to other
Mg metals.
[Ne]3s2
• Most alkaline earth metals have higher melting points and boiling
Calcium
points than alkali metals.
20 • Moving down the group, densities generally increase.
Ca
[Ar]4s2 Melting Points and Boiling Points Densities
1287
Be Be 1.848
Strontium 2469
38 Mg 650
Mg 1.738
Sr 1090 MP
[Kr]5s2 842 BP
Ca Ca 1.550
1484

Barium 777
Sr Sr 2.630
1382
56
727
Ba Ba Ba 3.510
1870
[Xe]6s2
700 Ra 5.000
Ra
1737
Radium
0 1000 2000 3000 0 1 2 3 4 5
88
Ra Temperature (ºC) g/mL
[Rn]7s2

Common Reactions
• Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with
halogens to form salts, such as
magnesium chloride, and
hydrogen gas.
Example: Mg(s) + 2HCl (g) →
MgCl 2(s) + H 2(g)
• Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with
hydrogen to form hydrides,
such as barium hydride.
Example: Ba(s) + H 2(g) →
BaH 2(s)
• Be, Mg, Sr, and Ca react with
nitrogen to form nitrides, such
as magnesium nitride.
Example: 3Mg(s) + N 2(g) →
Mg 3N 2(s)
A ribbon of magnesium reacts with HCl in an
aqueous solution to produce Mg 2+ ions, Cl -
ions, and hydrogen gas.

910 Elements Handbook


Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Element Facts

Atomic Properties Atomic Ionic


• Each element in group 2 has two valence electrons and an electron radius radius
(pm) (pm)
configuration ending with ns 2.
Be2
+
• Alkaline earth metals often lose their two valence electrons to form Be
112 31
ions with a 2+ charge.
• Atomic radii and ionic radii increase moving down the group but are Mg Mg2+
160 72
smaller than the corresponding alkali metal.
• Ionization energies and electronegativities generally decrease moving Ca Ca2+
197 100
down the group but are larger than the corresponding alkali metal.

Sr2
+
Sr
First Ionization Energies Electronegativities 215 118

Be 900 Be 1.57
Ba2
+
Ba
222 135
Mg 738 Mg 1.31

Ca 590 Ca 1.00 Ra
220
Sr 550 Sr 0.95

Ba 503 Ba 0.89

Ra 509 Ra 0.90

0 200 400 600 800 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0


kJ/mol Pauling units

• Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with oxygen to


form oxides, such as magnesium oxide.
Analytical Tests
Three of the alkaline earth metals can be
Example: 2Mg(s) + O 2(g) → 2MgO(s) identified by flame tests. Calcium produces a
• Sr and Ba react with oxygen to form scarlet color, while strontium produces a crimson
peroxides, such as strontium peroxide. color. Barium, which if present in a sample can
Example: Sr(s) + O 2(g) → SrO 2(s) mask the colors of both calcium and strontium,
produces a yellow-green color.
• Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba react with water to form
bases, such as barium hydroxide, and
hydrogen gas.
Example: Ba(s) + 2H 2O(l) →
Ba(OH) 2(aq) + H 2(g)

Barium reacts with water to Calcium Strontium Barium


form Ba 2+ ions, OH - ions,
and hydrogen gas.

Elements Handbook 911


(l)Andrew Lambert/Photo Researchers, Inc., (others)Fundamental Photographs
Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals

Beryllium
Beryllium plates
4
Be
[He]2s2

Space Telescopes
Beryllium and beryllium alloys have properties
that make them useful for applications in space:
they are hard, they are lighter than aluminum, and
they are stable over a wide temperature range. The
Hubble Space Telescope’s reaction plate is made of
lightweight beryllium. The reaction plate carries The JWST’s large mirror is composed of 18 hexagonal
heaters that keep the main mirror at a constant beryllium plates.
temperature. Beryllium is also being used in the
Hubble’s replacement—the James Webb Space
Telescope (JWST).
Emerald beryl

Precious Gems
Emerald (Be 3Al 2Si 6O 18), one of the world’s most
valuable gemstones, belongs to a family of gem-
stones known as beryls. Pure beryls are clear,
colorless crystals. Beryls tinted with other elements
form gems such as aquamarine, morganite, and
emerald. Trace amounts of chromium or vanadium
give emeralds their unique green color.

Magnesium Chlorophyll and Crop Yields


12 In the early 1900s, German chemist Richard Willstätter discovered
Mg that a molecule of chlorophyll has a magnesium ion at its center.
[Ne]3s2 Chlorophyll, the green pigment in plants, is responsible for photo-
synthetic processes, which convert sunlight to chemical energy. It is
Amount of Magnesium Removed this chemical energy that supports life on Earth. Notice in the table
by Crops from One Hectare of Soil that an average yield of common crops removes large amounts of
Magnesium Removed magnesium from just one hectare of soil. Once the importance of
Crop magnesium was revealed, soils deficient in magnesium were fertil-
from Soil (kg)
ized, greatly increasing crop yields. Willstätter’s work won him the
Alfalfa 44 Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1915.
Corn 58
Cotton 25 CH2 CH3 CH3 Chlorophyll

Oranges 25 molecule
O
H3C
Peanuts 27
N N CO2 CH3
Rice 15 Mg
N N H H
Soybeans 27 H2C — CH
CH2 CH2 CO2 CH2 CH — C (CH2 CH2 CH2 CH)3 CH3
Tomatoes 40
CH3 H CH3 CH3 CH3
Wheat 20

912 Elements Handbook


(l)Mark A. Schneider/Photo Researchers, (r)Courtesy of Northrop Grumman Space Technology
Real-World Applications

Magnesium Calcium Strontium Barium


12 20 38 56
Mg Ca Sr Ba
[Ne]3s2 [Ar]4s2 [Kr]5s2 [Xe]6s2

Fireworks Metals Used in Fireworks


The four main components of fireworks are a Color Metal
container, a fuse, a bursting charge, and stars.
Red strontium, lithium
Stars contain the chemical compounds needed
to produce light of brilliant colors. Many of these Orange calcium
compounds contain alkaline earth metals, such Gold iron (with carbon)
as barium chloride (BaCl 2), strontium carbonate
Yellow sodium
(SrCO 3), and calcium chloride (CaCl 2). The table
identifies which metals are needed to make the White white-hot magnesium or
colors seen during a fireworks display. aluminum, barium
Green barium
Blue copper
Purple mixture of strontium (red) and
copper (blue)
Silver aluminum, titanium, or magnesium
powder or flakes

New Engineering Alloys


Magnesium alloys are used when
strong, but lightweight, materials are
needed, such as in backpack frames
and aircraft. These alloys also enable
automotive engineers to design
lighter, more fuel-efficient cars. A
new magnesium alloy, introduced in
the engine cradle of some 2006 auto-
motive models, replaces traditional
aluminum. This alloy reduces the The magnesium-alloy engine cradle is lighter than the
engine cradle’s mass by approxi- aluminum model, yet it can still withstand the high
temperatures produced by the car’s engine.
mately one-third, creating a vehicle
that is both agile and controllable.
Considered a breakthrough in Engine cradle
engineering technology, the new
alloy is currently being evaluated
for use in other applications.

Elements Handbook 913


(t)Paul Freytag/zefa/CORBIS, (b)Rebecca Cook/CORBIS
Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals

Calcium
Gypsum
20 Drywall is made from gypsum, which is a soft
Ca mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate
[Ar]4s2 A layer of plaster of paris protects (CaSO 4·2H 2O). Drywall boards are used in build-
fossils during shipment. ing construction because the gypsum provides fire
protection. Gypsum contains large amounts of
water in its crystal form, which vaporizes when
heated. The boards remain at 100°C until all of the
water evaporates, protecting the wood frame of the
building. Gypsum that has had most of its water
removed is known as plaster of paris. Most
minerals form pastes when mixed with water.
When plaster of paris is mixed with water, it forms
a rigid crystal structure, so it is often used for casts
to set broken bones and for molds.

Crystals formed from strontium chloride Toothpaste containing


Strontium and saliva fill in pores in the root of a strontium chloride
38 tooth and block access to the nerve.
Sr Crystals
Nerve
[Kr]5s2
Pore to root canal
and nerves
Sensitive Teeth Dentine
Almost 40 million people in the United States Root canal
have teeth that are hypersensitive to touch and Root

temperature. Sensitivity occurs when the dentine


and roots of teeth are exposed due to receding nerve through openings called pores. Toothpastes
gums or thinning of the tooth enamel. This is the that contain strontium chloride (SrCl 2) help
result of poor oral hygiene or, in many instances, reduce the sensitivity. The compound reacts with
from brushing too hard. Exposing the root enables a person’s saliva to create crystals that fill in the
stimuli, such as cold temperatures, to reach the pores so stimuli cannot reach the nerves.

After being coated with


Barium barium liquid, the large
56 intestine shows up
Ba clearly on an X ray.
[Xe]6s2

Medical X Rays
Barium is used by medical professionals to exam-
ine a person’s gastrointestinal tract. Patients drink
barium liquid, which coats the tract, and are then
X-rayed. Barium is almost completely insoluble in
water and acids and appears as a bright white
color in X rays. This allows doctors and radiolo-
gists to locate tumors, ulcers, areas of reflux, and
other abnormalities in the digestive tract.

914 Elements Handbook


(t)Dung Vo Trung/CORBIS, (b)Neil Borden/Photo Researchers
Real-World Applications

Radium
88
Ra
[Rn]7s2

The Discovery of Radioactivity


Marie Curie’s discovery of the atomic property she called
radioactivity paved the way for present-day advancements
in science and medicine. Curie and her husband, Pierre,
unveiled the characteristics and capabilities of radiation,
revolutionizing scientific thinking and laying the ground-
work for present-day cancer treatments, genetics, and
nuclear energy. Today, many cancers are treated with
radiation therapy.
Marie Curie died at the age of 67 from aplastic anemia,
probably caused by her exposure to massive amounts
of radiation. Today, the effects of radiation on health
are well known, and suitable safety precautions are
Vent pipe taken when using radioactive materials.

Fan

Radon Gas
Decay of radium-226 in soil and rock produces radon gas.
The radioactive radon gas can seep through cracks in a home’s
foundation or can be dissolved in water pumped into the house
from a well. High concentrations of radon can increase the risk
of cancer. In many homes, installing a radon-reduction system
reduces the concentration of radon gas by using a fan to draw
the gas through pipes that vent to the outside of the home.

A radon-reduction system lowers the concentration of radon in homes by


venting the radon gas from the home to the outside environment.

Assessment
13. Describe the general trend in first ionization energies 18. Infer The alkaline earth metals are usually found
in group 2, and explain why this trend occurs. combined with oxygen and other nonmetals in Earth’s
14. Explain What is the charge on alkaline earth metal crust. Based on the atomic properties of this group,
ions? Explain your answer. explain why alkaline earth metals are so reactive.

15. Compare and contrast the physical properties 19. Calculate Calcium makes up about 1.5% of a
of the alkaline earth metals and the alkali metals. human’s body mass. Calculate the amount of calcium
found in a person who weighs 68 kg.
16. Evaluate why magnesium is used in emergency flares
instead of other alkaline earth metals. 20. Calculate Radium-226 has a half-life of 1600 years.
After 8000 years, how much of a 500.0-g sample of
17. Analyze Use the atomic properties of the alkali radium-226 would be left?
metals and alkaline earth metals to explain why
calcium is less reactive than potassium.

Elements Handbook 915


(l)Fred Haebegger/Grant Heilman Photography, (r)Bettmann/CORBIS
Groups 3–12: Transition Elements

Physical Properties
• The main transition elements include four series of d-block elements
with atomic numbers between 21–30, 39–48, 72–80, and 104–109. The
inner transition elements include the f-block (rare earth) elements in
the lanthanide series (atomic numbers 57–71) and actinide series
(atomic numbers 89–103.) All are metals.
• As metals, transition elements are generally good conductors of
electricity and heat. They are ductile, which means they can be pulled
into wires. Transition metals are also malleable, which means they
can be hammered into thin sheets. For example, 1 g of gold can be
hammered into a 1 m 2-sheet that is 0.1 µ thick .
• In general, the transition elements have high densities, high melting
points, and low vapor pressure. Except for mercury, which is a liquid,
all are solids at room temperature.
• High density and resistance to corrosion make transition elements,
such as iron, good structural materials.
• Most transition elements can form colored compounds.
• Transition elements are often paramagnetic, which means they are
attracted to an applied magnetic field. Three transition elements—iron,
cobalt, and nickel—are ferromagnetic. That means these elements can
form their own magnetic fields.

When exposed to a magnet, iron


filings become magnetic and are
attracted to the magnet and to
each other.

Common Reactions
• Most transition elements can form stable • Transition elements and their compounds are
complex ions and coordinate covalent com- often useful as catalysts.
pounds. A complex ion is an ion in which Example: Nickel is used as a catalyst in
a central metal ion is surrounded by weakly converting unsaturated fats to saturated fats.
bound molecules or ions called ligands.
• Transition elements can react with oxygen to
Example: Prussian blue, an intense blue pigment form oxides.
used in paints, is a coordinate compound made
Example: In the presence of water, iron reacts
of iron(III) and an iron(II) cyanide complex:
with oxygen to form rust. The overall reaction is:
Fe 4[Fe(CN) 6] 3.
4Fe + 3O 2 → 2Fe 2O 3.
• Transition elements can often combine to form
• Some transition elements are important in
alloys.
biochemical reactions.
Examples:
Example: In the protein hemoglobin, iron binds
• Brass is a mixture of copper and zinc. to O 2 to transport oxygen from the lungs to the
• Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin. rest of the body.

916 Elements Handbook


©CORDELIA MOLLOY/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Photo Researchers Inc.
Element Facts

Atomic Properties
• The main transition elements have incomplete d sublevels.
• Inner transition elements include the lanthanide series and actinide series. Elements in these
series have incomplete f sublevels.
• The electronic structures of the transition elements give rise to their physical properties.
The more unpaired electrons in the d sublevel, the greater the hardness and the higher the
melting and boiling points.
• Unpaired d and f electrons produce paramagnetism in the transition elements.
• The tendency of transition elements to form colored compounds also derives from their
electron configurations. Compounds with unpaired d electrons can absorb visible light.
• For transition elements, there is little variation in atomic size, electronegativity, and ioniza-
tion energy across a period.
• Transition metals can typically form ions in more than one oxidation state.
Oxidation Numbers of the First Row of Transition Elements

Sc +3
Ti +1 +2 +3 +4
V +1 +2 +3 +4 +5
Cr 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6
Mn 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7
Fe 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6
Co 0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5
Ni +1 +2 +3 +4
Cu +1 +2 +3
Zn +2

Analytical Tests
Notice in the photo the colorful compounds
of transition metals. When placed in solutions,
these compounds absorb different wavelengths
of light. Visible spectroscopy uses light absorp-
tion at specific wavelengths to measure the con-
centration of colored compounds in solution.
This method of analysis uses the interaction
of valence electrons of transition elements and
visible light. Because many transition element
compounds are colored, this technique can be
used in transition element analysis.

The compounds of transition metals have color because of the par-


tially filled d sublevels. The electrons in these sublevels can absorb
visible light of specific wavelengths. Compounds with empty or
filled d sublevels do not produce brilliant colors.

Elements Handbook 917


©Martyn F. Chillmaid/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Groups 3–12: Transition Elements

Titanium
22

[Ar]3d24s2

Lighter but Stronger than Steel


The curved surfaces of the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao,
Spain, are covered with 32,000 m 2 of 0.4 mm-thick titani-
um panels. Titanium’s reflective properties give the building
a warm look that is ever changing. Titanium is also three
The titanium panels that cover the outside of the
times stronger than steel, more resistant to weathering, and Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain, were chosen
weighs less than steel. for the metal’s physical properties.

Chromium Manganese Cobalt Tungsten Platinum


24 25 27 74 78
Cr Mn Co W Pt
[Ar]3d54s1 [Ar]3d54s2 [Ar]3d74s2 [Xe]4f145d46s2 [Xe]4f145d96s1

Strategic and Critical Materials


Transition metals, such as chromium, manganese, cobalt, tungsten, and platinum, play a
vital role in the economy of many countries because they have a wide variety of uses. As the
uses of transition metals increase, so does the demand for these valuable materials. Ores
that contain transition metals are located throughout the world.

Locations of Some Strategic Metals Russia


Antimony Chromium Copper
Norway Turkey Cobalt Platinum Gallium
Nickel Chromium Nickel
Cobalt

France Japan
Canada Manganese Cadmium
Nickel Gallium
Copper China
Gallium Jamaica Antimony
Tantalum Aluminum Cadmium
Zinc Copper
India
Cesium Tin
Cadmium
Cobalt Gabon Manganese
Chromium
Platinum Manganese Tantalum
Manganese
Vanadium Vanadium
Indonesia
Bolivia Tin
Antimony Brazil
Tin Manganese Gold
Mexico Aluminum Tin South Africa
Zinc Copper Chromium Platinum Australia
Cadmium Manganese Manganese Antimony Copper Aluminum Platinum Tin
Strontium Vanadium Gold Nickel Manganese Tantalum Zinc

The United States now imports more than 60 materials that are classified as “strategic
and critical” because industry and the military are dependent on these materials.

918 Elements Handbook


©Colin Walton/Alamy
Real-World Applications
Crust
Iron Nickel
Outer mantle
26 28
Inner mantle
Fe
6
[Ar]3d 4s 2 8
[Ar]3d 4s 2 Outer core
(iron and nickel)
Inner core (iron)
Earth’s Iron Core
Earth’s core is a solid iron sphere about the size of the
Moon. Surrounding the inner core, there is an outer
liquid core that contains a nickel-iron alloy. Scientists
think the iron core formed when multiple collisions
during Earth’s early history resulted in enough heat to
melt metals. In the molten state, the densest materials,
including iron and nickel, settled to the center and
became Earth’s core. The less-dense materials
remained at the surface. As Earth cooled, the outer
layers solidified, creating Earth’s mantle and crust. Earth’s crust and mantle insulate the hot iron core.

Copper
Copper Microchips
29 For many years, aluminum was used to make computer
Cu microchips. Although copper is a better electrical conductor
[Ar]3d104s1 than aluminum, it was not until the late 1990s that the tech-
nology existed to use copper in microchips. Combined with
the extremely small size of copper wires, this allows copper
microchips to be smaller and to operate 25 to 30 times faster
than other kinds of microchips. To make wires this small, the
copper must be between 99.999 and 99.9999% pure.

To create a copper microchip, first a layer of tantalum coats a silicon substrate.


Then, copper is deposited using a vacuum process. Copper chips like this one
are used in handheld games, computers, and other electronic devices.

Titanium Chromium Iron Cobalt Copper


22 24 26 27 29
Cr Fe Co Cu
[Ar]3d24s2 [Ar]3d54s1 [Ar]3d64s2 [Ar]3d74s2 [Ar]3d104s1

Paint Pigments
Paints are a mixture of particles of pigment in a liquid
base. Once the liquid evaporates, the pigment particles
coat a painted surface. Transition elements and their
compounds are often used as paint pigments. Iron oxides
are used as red, yellow, and brown pigments. Chromium,
copper, and cobalt compounds produce green and blue Artists can create their own paints by mixing dry pigments
pigments. Titanium dioxide is often used for white paint. in a liquid base such as oil, latex, or even egg yolk.

Elements Handbook 919


(t)©Roger Harris/Photo Researchers, Inc., (c)©Tom Pantages, (b)©Kalicoba/Alamy
Groups 3–12: Transition Elements

Gold
Gilding
79 Covering an ordinary object with gold foil or gold leaf can
Au make the object look like it is made of solid gold. The process,
[Xe]4f145d106s1 which is called gilding, has been used for more than 5000
years. To create gold foil, gold is hammered until it is very
thin. The thinnest sheets are called gold leaf. They can be as
thin as 0.1 mm thick. It takes skill and a special gilder’s brush
to handle sheets this thin, but the results can be spectacular.

Egyptian King Tutankhamun’s coffin was made of wood


covered with gold foil. It has lasted more than 3000 years.

Cadmium Gold
48 79 Plastic sheet
Cd Au
[Kr]4d105s2 [Xe]4f145d106s1
Au
Au (10 nm)
Touch Sensors for Robot Fingers
Imagine a surgeon using a robot for microsurgery. In the
future, it might be possible for the surgeon to feel what is CdS
(3 nm)
happening as the robot makes a microsuture. Future robots
might use thin, film sensors to mimic the human sense of Glass
touch. These sensors are built on a glass base from alternating
layers of nanoparticles of gold and cadmium sulfide separated
by layers of plastic. The entire sensor is only 100 nm thick and This touch sensor is made from nanoparticles
of gold and cadmium sulfide.
works by transmitting an electro-luminescent signal and
electric current when regions of the sensor are touched.

Manganese Iron Copper Zinc Silver Cadmium


25 26 29 30 47 48
Mn Fe Cu Zn Ag Cd
[Ar]3d54s2 [Ar]3d64s2 [Ar]3d104s1 [Ar]3d104s2 [Kr]4d105s1 [Kr]4d105s2

Biotreatment of Acid Mine Wastes


Mining operations can generate acidic wastewater
that contain harmful levels of dissolved transition
metals, including manganese, iron, copper, zinc,
silver, and cadmium. One treatment method uses
naturally occurring anaerobic bacteria to remove
all of the oxygen. Then sulfate-reducing bacteria
convert sulfuric acid in the mine waste to sulfide.
Sulfide reacts with metals in the wastewater to
Untreated acid mine drainage can contaminate streams with
form metal sulfide precipitates, which can be harmful concentrations of transition metals. The red-orange
recovered and processed for commercial use. color of the water comes from iron compounds.

920 Elements Handbook


(t)©The Art Archive/Egyptian Museum Cairo/Dagli Orti, (b)©Theodore Clutter/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Real-World Applications

Gadolinium
64
Gd
[Xe]4f75d16s2

Magnetic Resonance Imaging


Gadolinium contrast agents are compounds that enhance
differences between normal tissue and abnormal tissue, such
as tumors, in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans. The
gadolinium compounds are injected directly into the blood-
stream prior to an MRI scan. Tumors accumulate more of the
gadolinium compounds than normal tissue. Gadolinium
enhances MRI images because it is paramagnetic. Magnetic
resonance imaging uses a strong magnetic field and radio
waves to stimulate water molecules to an excited state. The
MRI image is formed as water molecules relax back to their
This gadolinium-enhanced MRI scan from
normal state. Gadolinium speeds up the relaxation rate, which a patient with multiple sclerosis shows
improves the contrast between normal and abnormal tissue. several areas of scar tissue (white patches).

Thorium Lawrencium Reorganizing the Periodic Table


90 103 The actinides are a row of radioactive elements from thorium to
Th Lr lawrencium. They were not always separated into their own row in
[Rn]6d27s2 [Rn]5f146d17s2 the periodic table. Originally, the actinides were located within the
d-block following actinium. In 1944, Glenn Seaborg proposed a
reorganization of the periodic chart to reflect what he knew about
the chemistry of the actinide elements. He placed the actinide
series elements in their own row directly below the lanthanide
series. Seaborg had played a major role in the discovery of
plutonium in 1941. His reorganization of the periodic table made
it possible for him and his coworkers to predict the properties of
possible new elements and facilitated the synthesis of nine addi-
tional transuranium elements.

Seaborg won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1951 for his


work. Element 106, seaborgium, was named in his honor.

Assessment
21. Compare the electron configurations of the main 25. Calculate A particular copper-chip manufacturing
transition elements and the inner transition elements. process specifies that the copper must be 99.999 to
22. Explain how some transition metals can form ions 99.9999% pure. Calculate the maximum limit for
with more than one charge. impurities in the copper in parts per million (ppm).

23. Identify countries that export only one “strategic and 26. Hypothesize Silver is the best conductor of
critical” transition metal to the United States. electricity. Hypothesize why silver is not used for
electric wires if it is such a good conductor of
24. Predict Which elements would you expect to have electricity.
properties most closely related to gold?

Elements Handbook 921


(t)©ISM/Phototake, (b)©Fritz Goro/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images
Group 13: Boron Group

Boron Physical Properties


5 • Most of the elements in group 13 are metals that have a silvery-white
B appearance. The exception is boron, which is pure black. Thallium is
[He]2s22p1
initially silvery, but oxidizes quickly.
Aluminum • Boron is a metalloid. The remaining group 13 elements are metals.
13 • Elements in this group are relatively lightweight and soft, except for
Al boron. Boron is extremely hard—almost as hard as diamond.
[Ne]3s23p1
• The group 13 elements are solids at room temperature. Gallium melts
Gallium slightly above room temperature.
31
• They have higher boiling points than the alkaline earth metals and
Ga
lower boiling and melting points than the carbon group elements.
[Ar]4s23d104p1

Melting Points and Boiling Points Densities


Indium
2076
49 B B 2.460
3927
In
660
[Kr]5s24d105p1 Al Al 2.700
2519 MP
30 BP Ga
Thallium Ga 5.904
2204
81
157
Tl In In 7.310
2072
[Xe]6s24f145d106p1
304 Tl
Tl 11.850
1473

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 0 3 6 9 12


Temperature (°C) g/mL

Common Reactions
• B, Al, Ga, In, and Tl react with oxygen to form metal(III) oxides,
such as aluminum(III) oxide.
Example: 4Al(s) + 3O 2(g) → 2Al 2O 3(s)
• B and Al react with nitrogen to form nitrides, such as boron nitride.
Example: 2B(s) + N 2(g) → 2BN(s)
• Al, Ga, In, and Tl react with halogens to form metal(III) halides,
such as gallium(III) fluoride.
Example: 2Ga(s) + 3F 2(g) → 2GaF 3(g)
• Tl reacts with halogens to form metal(I) halides, such as thallium(I)
fluoride.
Example: 2Tl(s) + F 2(g) → 2TlF(s)
• B reacts with halogens to form covalent compounds, such as boron
trichloride.
Example: 2B(s) + 3Cl 2(g) → 2BCl 3(g)
• Tl reacts with water to form thallium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Example: 2Tl(s) + 2H 2O(l) → 2TlOH(aq) + H 2(g)

922 Elements Handbook


Element Facts

Atomic Properties Atomic Ionic


• Each element in group 13 has three valence electrons and an electron radius radius
(pm) (pm)
configuration ending with ns 2np 1.
+
• Except for boron, the group 13 elements lose their three valence electrons B B3
85 20
to form ions with a 3+ charge. Some of the elements (Ga, In, and Tl) also
have the ability to lose just one of their valence electrons to form ions with Al Al3+
a 1+ charge. 143 50

• Boron participates only in covalent bonding. Ga Ga3+


135 62
• Atomic radii and ionic radii generally increase going down the group and
are similar in size to the group 14 elements. +
In In3
• First ionization energies for the group 13 elements generally decrease 167 81
going down the group.
+
First Ionization Energies Electronegativities Tl Tl3
170 95
B 801 B 2.04

Al 578 Al 1.61

Ga 579 Ga 1.81

In 558 In 1.78

Tl 589 Tl 1.62

0 200 400 600 800 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0


kJ/mol Pauling units

Analytical Tests Flame Test Results


With the exception of aluminum, which is one of
the most abundant elements in Earth’s crust, most Element Color of Flame
of the boron group elements are rare. None of the Boron initial bright green flash
elements are found free in nature. Three can be Indium indigo blue
identified by flame tests, as shown in the table.
Boron produces a bright green color, while indium Thallium green
produces an indigo blue color. Thallium produces
a green color. More precise identification methods
involve advanced spectral and imaging techniques.

indium
Indium was named after
its distinct indigo blue
spectral line.

Elements Handbook 923


Group 13: Boron Group

Boron
Detergent
5 Sodium perborate (NaBO 3·H 2O or NaBO 3·4H 2O) is one of the
B key ingredients in powdered laundry detergent. The hydrate,
[He]2s22p1 formed by combining borax pentahydrate (Na 2B 4O 7·5H 2O)
with hydrogen peroxide and sodium hydroxide, releases
oxygen during the laundering process to help make clothes
whiter and brighter. Sodium perborate is the chemical of
choice because it remains stable over long periods of time,
helps maintain wash water pH, and increases the solubility
of detergent ingredients.

Many powder laundry detergents contain boron


compounds that help make clothes cleaner.

Aluminum A thin aluminum film coats the depressions embed-


13 ding information in a compact disc and makes the
Al surface of a CD shiny.
[Ne]3s23p1

CDs and DVDs


Have you ever wondered what your CDs and DVDs are
made of? The inside is made of plastic, about 1 mm thick. A
machine embeds digital information, such as sound record-
ings, into the plastic as a series of bumps and then coats the
plastic with aluminum. That is what makes CDs and DVDs so
shiny. A thin layer of acrylic protects the aluminum. The
shiny surface allows the laser from the CD or DVD player to
read the information reflected off the disc’s surface.

Gallium
HD DVDs
31 Videos in high-definition (HD) have higher quality sound
Ga and pictures than regular DVDs. However, HD technology
[Ar]4s23d104p1 requires more information than can be stored on regular
DVDs. A red laser is used to read and write data on a regular
DVD. Blue lasers made from gallium nitride (GaN) are used
to read and write data on HD DVDs. Blue light has a shorter
wavelength than red light, so a blue laser can read more
densely packed information, allowing more information to be
stored in the same amount of space.

HD DVDs store up to 50 gigabytes (GB) of information, com-


pared to 4.7 GB on a regular DVD.

924 Elements Handbook


(t)©Tom Pantages, (tc)©Greg Stott/Masterfile, (b)©Toshiba Corporation images, (bc)©Eye of Science/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Real-World Applications

Indium
Flat-Screen Televisions
49 Known as ITO in the electronics industry,
In indium-tin oxide has proven to be the cornerstone
[Kr]5s24d105p1 of liquid crystal display (LCD) technology. During
production, a thin layer of indium-tin oxide
(a mixture of In 2O 3 and SnO 2) is used to coat the
glass contained within an LCD flat-screen panel.
This allows the glass to be both conductive and
transparent. About half of the world’s indium is
used to make LCDs.

Indium-tin oxide is one of the main components in


LCD flat-panel televisions.

Thallium
81
Tl
[Xe]6s24f145d106p1

Cardiac Scans
Thallium-201 is a radioisotope used by medical pro-
fessionals to determine the health of a person’s heart.
During a thallium-201 scan, also called a heart stress
test, a patient performs physical activity and is injected
with thallium-201 one to two minutes before stopping
the activity. The isotope emits gamma rays that are
recorded by a detector to display a two-dimensional
image of the heart and its blood supply. If gamma rays The dark blue areas in this thallium-201 scan
are areas with low blood supply.
are not detected in certain areas in and around the
heart, the areas are considered “cold.” This means that
the blood supply has been impeded or blocked, a con-
dition that often leads to heart attack or stroke.

Assessment
27. Describe how the properties of boron are different 30. Explain why HD DVDs can store more information
from the other group 13 elements. than regular DVDs.
28. Identify what an unknown element would be if it 31. Summarize how “cold” areas in thallium-201 scans
produced a green flash of color at the beginning of could correspond to artery blockages.
a flame test. 32. Calculate It is estimated that 123,000 aluminum
29. Describe any trends in the first ionization energies of cans are recycled each minute. Assume that each can
the group 13 elements. has a mass of 14 g. Determine how much aluminum
(kg) is recycled during the month of September.

Elements Handbook 925


(t)©Judith Collins/Alamy, (b)©Collection CNRI/Phototake
Group 14: Carbon Group

Carbon Physical Properties


6 • Elements in the carbon group increase in metallic character going
C down the group. Carbon is a nonmetal. Silicon and germanium are
[He]2s22p2
metalloids. Tin and lead are metals.
Silicon • Carbon can be a black powder; a soft, slippery gray solid; a hard,
14 transparent solid; or an orange-red solid.
Si • Silicon can be a brown powder or a shiny-gray solid.
[Ne]3s23p2
• Germanium is a shiny, gray-white solid that breaks easily.
Germanium • Tin also occurs in two forms. One form is a silvery-white solid, while
32
the other is a shiny-gray solid. Both forms are ductile and malleable.
Ge
[Ar]4s23d104p2 • Lead is a shiny-gray solid. It is soft, malleable, and ductile.
• Moving down the group, melting and boiling points decrease and
Tin densities increase.
50
Sn Melting Points and Boiling Points Densities
[Kr]5s24d105p2
3527
C C 2.267
4027
Lead
1414
82 Si Si 2.330
2900 MP
Pb 938 BP
[Xe]6s24f145d106p2 Ge Ge 5.323
2820
232
Sn Sn 7.310
2602
327 Pb
Pb 11.340
1749

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 0 3 6 9 12


Temperature (°C) g/mL

Common Reactions
At room temperature, carbon group ele-
ments are generally unreactive. Reactions
do occur under elevated temperature
conditions.
• C, Si, Ge, and Sn react with oxygen to
form oxides, such as carbon dioxide.
Example: C(s) + O 2(g) → CO 2(g)
• C, Si, Ge, and Sn react with halogens to
form halides, such as silicon chloride.
Example: Si(s) + 2Cl 2(l) → SiCl 4(g)
• Sn and Pb react with bases to form
hydroxo ions and hydrogen gas.
Example: Silicon chloride (SiCl4) reacts with
Sn(s) + KOH(aq) + 2H 2O(l) → water to form silicon dioxide and
hydrochloric acid, which turns lit-
K +(aq) + Sn(OH) 3 -(aq) + H 2(g) mus paper pink.

926 Elements Handbook


©ANDREW LAMBERT PHOTOGRAPHY/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/PHOTO RESEARCHERS INC.
Element Facts

Atomic Properties Atomic Ionic


• Each element in group 14 has four valence electrons and an electron radius radius
(pm) (pm)
configuration ending with ns 2np 2.
C4
+
• Carbon group elements participate in covalent bonding with an oxidation C
77 15
number of 4+. Tin and lead can also have an oxidation number of 2+.
Si4
+
Carbon and silicon have an oxidation number of 4- in some compounds. Si
118 41
• Carbon, silicon, and tin occur as allotropes.
• Atomic and ionic radii increase moving down the group and are similar to Ge Ge4+
122 53
their corresponding group 13 elements.
• Except for carbon, the group 14 elements have similar ionization energies Sn Sn4
+

and no distinct pattern of electronegativities. 140 71

Pb4
+
Pb
146 84

First Ionization Energies Electronegativities

C 1087 C 2.55

Si 787 Si 1.90

Ge 762 Ge 2.01

Sn 709 Sn 1.96

Pb 716 Pb 2.33

0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
kJ/mol Pauling units

• C reacts with water to form carbon


monoxide and hydrogen gas.
Analytical Tests
Because the group 14 ele-
Example: C(s) + H 2O(g) → ments bond covalently, they
CO(g) + H 2(g) do not lend themselves to
• Si reacts with water to form silicon identification through flame
dioxide and hydrogen gas. tests. The exception is lead,
Example: Si(s) + 2H 2O(l) → which produces a light-blue
SiO 2(s) + 2H 2(g) color. The carbon group
elements can be identified
• Sn and Pb react with acids to form through analysis of their
hydrogen gas. physical properties (melting
Example: point, boiling point, densi-
Pb(s) + 2HBr(aq) → ty), emission spectra, or
Pb Br 2(aq) + H 2(g) reactions with other chemi-
• C reacts with hydrogen to form cals. For example, tin and
hydrocarbons, such as propane. lead form precipitates when
added to specific solutions. If lead nitrate is added to
Example: 3C(s) + 4H 2(g) → C 3H 8(g) potassium iodide, a yellow
precipitate of lead iodide forms.

Elements Handbook 927


©David Taylor/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Group 14: Carbon Group

Carbon
6
C
[He]2s22p2

Graphite Golf Shafts


Some golf shafts are created by fusing
sheets of graphite together with a binding
material. The use of graphite instead of traditional steel allows
greater versatility in club design and construction. Graphite
sheets can be layered to vary the weight and stiffness of the
club, which for many golfers translates into greater shot dis-
tance and overall performance. Graphite also offers greater
durability than steel for golfers with powerful swings.

Graphite can be easily formed into


sheets due to its atomic structure.

Diamond Cutting
The way a diamond is cut is one of the “4 Cs” that
gemologists use to determine a diamond’s value. If
diamond is the hardest mineral on Earth, then how
is it possible to cut a diamond? Diamond cutters use
other diamonds and lasers to create facets that reflect
and refract light. The more precisely the cuts are
Too deep Ideal Too shallow
made, the greater the gem’s brilliance. If a diamond
The way a diamond is cut determines how well light is cut is too shallow or too deep, light escapes from the
reflected and refracted within the gemstone. diamond without traveling back to the eye, resulting
in a lackluster appearance.

Nanotubes
Fullernes form a group of carbon allotropes. There are
spherical fullerenes nicknamed buckyballs and cylindrical
fullerenes known as buckytubes or nanotubes. Fullerenes
have yet to display all of their capabilities to scientists. One
of the most promising areas of fullerene research involves the
creation of nanotubes. Nanotubes are sheets of carbon that
are rolled up into cylinders. These cylinders are strong—due
to the hexagonal structure of the carbon atoms—and have
unique conducting properties. Fullerene nano-technology on
the horizon includes the development of faster computer
chips, smaller electronic components, and more advanced
space-exploration vehicles.
The hexagonal structure of carbon atoms gives
extraordinary strength to carbon nanotubes.

928 Elements Handbook


(tr)©CHEMICAL DESIGN/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Photo Researchers Inc., (tr)©Johner Images/Getty Images, (b)©DR TIM EVANS/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Photo Researchers Inc.
Real-World Applications
Step 1 Thin wafers
Silicon are cut from a bar
14 of silicon.
Si
[Ne]3s23p2

Computer Chips
Computer chips are everywhere. From pet-identification Step 2 A layer of
systems to laptop computers—any device that can be silicon dioxide is
added to each
programmed contains a computer chip. Silicon’s abundance wafer.
and ability as a semiconductor make it an ideal material for
the production of computer chips. The first step in making a
computer chip involves cutting pure silicon into wafer-like
pieces. Silicon dioxide (SiO 2) is then cultivated on each wafer. More than 250 steps are needed to create
one computer chip.
Layers upon layers of silicon dioxide and other chemicals are
used to create chips for specific functions.

Glass
Almost 40% of the sand produced in the United States is used for glass production. Glass is creat-
ed by first melting silicon dioxide (SiO 2) obtained from sand with sodium carbonate and then
supercooling the mixture. This results in a solid whose structure resembles a liquid and whose
physical properties make it ideal for glassmaking. For manufacturing purposes, sand that yields at
least 95% SiO 2 with no impurities is required for making glass products, such as exterior panels
on buildings, automotive windshields, and commercial beverage containers. Manufacturers of
high precision optical instruments, such as telescopes and microscopes, require sand that con-
tains more than 99.5% SiO 2.
Sand dunes in Michigan
provide millions of metric Sand Production in Michigan
tons of sand each year.

2,500,000
Sand produced (metric tons)

2,000,000

1,500,000

1,000,000

500,000

0
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05
Year

Elements Handbook 929


©Phil Schermeister/CORBIS
Group 14: Carbon Group

Germanium
32
Ge
[Ar]4s23d104p2

Night Vision
Lenses that contain germanium are found in an array of night vision
equipment including goggles, binoculars, and cameras. Unlike ordi-
nary glass lenses, germanium-containing lenses are transparent to
infrared radiation. Infrared radiation is emitted by objects that radiate
heat. Infrared radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, a
region distinct from the visible spectrum, so special equipment is
needed to detect it. Night vision is used for military and security appli-
cations, to monitor wildlife, to navigate roads, and to locate objects The germanium lens in night vision
that have been hidden by criminals. goggles focuses infrared radiation emit-
ted from living things.

Fiber Optic Cables


Fiber optic cables are responsible for the transmission of
information both across the street and across the globe.
These cables are made of extremely pure glass that allows
light signals to travel the span of the cable without losing a
significant amount of energy. Each fiber optic cable consists
of three main parts: a core, cladding, and a buffer coating.
The core is made by exposing gaseous germanium tetra-
chloride (GeCl 4) to oxygen, resulting in germanium dioxide
(GeO 2). The germanium dioxide helps the light signal move
effectively along the cable.
Germanium is added to the core of a fiber optic cable
to improve the efficiency of the light signal.

Tin
50
Sn
[Kr]5s24d105p2

Food Packaging
A quick trip to the grocery store reveals that many dif-
ferent foods are stored in cans. Soft drinks, fruits, veg-
etables, and even meats can be stored in cans. Cans are
made from sheets of steel that are coated on both sides
with pure tin. Known as tinplate, the metal is both
durable and resistant to rusting and corrosion. These
properties allow foods to stay fresh on the shelf for
long periods of time, and to be transported long dis-
tances. More than 200 million cans are used per day in
the United States alone. More than 2500 different products are packaged in cans.

930 Elements Handbook


(t)©Martin Dohrn/naturepl.com, (c)©GOODSHOOT - JUPITERIMAGES FRANCE/Alamy, (b)©Allan H Shoemake/Taxi/Getty Images
Real-World Applications

Lead
82
Pb
[Xe]6s24f145d106p2

Leaded or Unleaded?
In the early 1900s, the automotive industry needed to solve a
problem that people complained about when they drove their
cars—knocking in the engine. At the time, little was known about
the chemistry of fuels and fuel additives. Researchers spent seven
years searching for a gasoline additive that effectively reduced
knocking before discovering tetraethyl lead (Pb(C 2H 5) 4). Further
research revealed the health and environmental risks posed by
lead, leading to the development of unleaded fuels that reduce
knocking.

Unleaded fuels reduce knocking in car


engines and do not have the health and envi-
ronmental concerns posed by leaded fuels.

Batteries
Anode (+)
A car battery is composed of three main parts: one elec-
Cathode (-)
trode made of lead, one electrode made of lead dioxide
(PbO 2), and an electrolytic solution made with sulfuric acid
(H 2SO 4). That is why car batteries are also called lead-acid
Lead batteries. The battery’s energy comes from the chemical
Lead dioxide reactions occurring between the electrodes and the
electrolyte. During the chemical reaction, electrons are pro-
duced that accumulate on the lead electrode. When a wire
connects the electrodes, electrons flow freely from the lead
Electrolytic electrode to the lead-dioxide electrode, and the battery
solution
discharges. Applying a current reverses the reaction,
Eighty-five percent of the lead used in the United recharging the battery.
States goes into making lead-acid batteries.

Assessment
33. Write the electron configuration of tin. 37. Consider why graphite is the most suitable carbon
34. Summarize the physical properties of the elements in allotrope for golf clubs.
group 14. 38. Calculate Pure diamond has a density of 3.52 g/cm 3,
35. Compare and contrast the atomic properties of the while graphite has a density of 2.20 g/cm 3. Recall that
group 13 and group 14 elements. density = mass/volume. Samples of diamond and
graphite each displace 4.60 mL of water. What is the
36. Predict what product or products will be formed if mass of each sample?
bromine gas reacts with solid carbon under elevated
temperature conditions.

Elements Handbook 931


©Chinch Gryniewicz; Ecoscene/CORBIS
Group 15: Nitrogen Group

Nitrogen Physical Properties


7
• Like the elements in group 14, the group 15 elements increase in
N
metallic character going down the group. Nitrogen and phosphorus are
[He]2s22p3
nonmetals. Arsenic and antimony are metalloids. Bismuth is a metal.
Phosphorus • Also like group 14, the nitrogen group elements vary in appearance.
15
• Nitrogen is a colorless, odorless gas (N 2).
P
[Ne]3s23p3 • Phosphorus exists in three allotropic forms, which are all solids. The
forms are white, red, and black in color.
Arsenic
• Arsenic is a shiny, gray solid that is brittle. Under certain conditions, it
33
can become a dull, yellow solid. Arsenic sublimates when heated.
As
[Ar]4s23d104p3 • Antimony is a shiny, silver-gray solid that is very brittle.
• Bismuth is a shiny, gray solid that has a pink cast to it. It is one of the
Antimony
least conductive metals on the periodic table and is also brittle.
51
Sb • Boiling points and densities of the group 15 elements generally
2 10 3 increase going down the group.
[Kr]5s 4d 5p

Bismuth Melting Points and Boiling Points Densities


83 -210
N
Bi -196
[Xe]6s24f145d106p3 44 P
P 1.823
277 MP
817 BP As
As 5.727
614
631 Sb 6.697
Sb
1587
271 Bi 9.780
Bi
1564

-500 0 500 1000 1500 0 2 4 6 8 10


Temperature (°C) g/mL

Common Reactions
• At high temperatures are increased, nitrogen reacts with oxygen to
form nitric oxide.
Example: N 2(g) + O 2(g) → 2NO(g)
• At high temperature and pressure, nitrogen reacts with hydrogen to
form ammonia.
Example: N 2(g) + 3H 2(g) → 2NH 3(g)
• P reacts with an excess of oxygen to form phosphorus(V) oxide.
Example: P 4(s) + 5O 2(g) → P 4O 10(s)
• P, As, Sb, and Bi react with oxygen to form element(III) oxides.
Example: P 4(s) + 3O 2(g) → P 4O 6(s)
• P, As, Sb, and Bi react with halogens to form trihalides.
Example: 2Sb(s) + 3Cl 2(g) → 2SbCl 3(s)

932 Elements Handbook


Element Facts

Atomic Properties Atomic Ionic


• Each element in group 15 has five valence electrons and an electron radius radius
(pm) (pm)
configuration ending with ns 2p 3.
-
• Nitrogen is diamagnetic, meaning it is repelled by magnetic fields. This N N3
75 146
indicates that all of nitrogen’s electrons are paired.
• Nitrogen can have oxidation numbers ranging from −3 to +5. P P3-
110 212
• Phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony can have oxidation numbers of −3,
+3, and +5. As As3-
120 222
• Bismuth can have oxidation numbers of +3 and +5.
• Going down the group, first ionization energies and electronegativities Sb Sb5+
decrease and atomic radii increase. 140 62

First Ionization Energies Electronegativities +


Bi Bi5
N 1402 N 3.04 150 74

P 1012 P 2.19

As 947 As 2.18

Sb 834 Sb 2.05

Bi 703 Bi 2.02

0 500 1000 1500 0 1.0 2.0 3.0


kJ/mol Pauling units

Analytical Tests
Because group 15 elements bond covalently and most
are nonmetallic in nature, they do not lend themselves
to identification through flame tests. The exceptions
are antimony and bismuth. Antimony produces a faint
green or blue color when placed in a flame, while
bismuth produces a light purple-blue color.
The nitrogen group elements can be identified
through analysis of their physical properties (melting
point, boiling point, density), emission spectra, or
reactions with other chemicals. For example, bismuth
ions precipitate when added to tin(II) hydroxide and
sodium hydroxide. Another example is the test for
ammonium compounds. These compounds, which
contain nitrogen, can be identified by their distinct
smell when added to sodium hydroxide and by the
color change observed when red litmus paper is
placed at the opening of the test tube.
The ammonia vapor produced by mixing
ammonium compounds (NH 4 +) with sodium
hydroxide changes red litmus paper to blue.

Elements Handbook 933


©Tom Pantages
Group 15: Nitrogen Group

Nitrogen
7
N
[He]2s22p3

Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria
Although nitrogen makes up about 78% of Earth’s atmosphere,
it occurs in a form that plants cannot use. Some bacteria in the
soil convert nitrogen gas (N 2) from the air into a usable form
by breaking the molecule’s triple bond. This creates a form of
nitrogen that plants uptake into their root systems. Plants need
nitrogen to build cellular components, to participate in photo-
synthesis, and to transfer energy effectively. Commercial
fertilizers mimic the action of nitrogen-fixing bacteria by
providing nitrogen and other nutrients in forms that are easily Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are found in
incorporated into the plant system. protective nodules along plant roots.

Liquid Nitrogen Cryotherapy


Cryotherapy, also called cryosurgery, is a medical procedure
used to remove a variety of skin lesions, including
carcinomas, warts, and other tissue abnormalities. The pro-
cedure involves dabbing liquid nitrogen onto the affected
area to freeze and kill the cells. This is then repeated over
time until all of the affected tissue is gone. Research has
shown that patients who undergo cryotherapy treatment for
certain types of lesions experience a lower recurrence rate
than patients who receive radiation or surgical removal.

Doctors use liquid nitrogen as one of the treatment options to


remove certain types of skin cancer. More than 1.3 million new
cases of skin cancer are recorded each year in the United States.

Phosphorus
15
P
[Ne]3s23p3

Safety Matches
Safety matches consist of two main parts: the tip and the
textured strip on the side of the box. The tip contains potassium
chlorate, and the textured strip contains red phosphorus.
When these two chemicals come in contact, a chemical
reaction occurs, and fire is produced. In safety matches, the
chemicals needed for reaction are separate from each other. In
strike-anywhere matches, both chemicals are contained in the The strike of a match initiates a chemical
matchstick so that ignition can occur using almost any surface. reaction that produces a flame.

934 Elements Handbook


(t)©Wally Eberhart/Visuals Unlimited, (c)©Dr P. Marazzi/Photo Researchers, Inc., (b)©Al Francekevich/CORBIS
Real-World Applications

Antimony Flame Retardants


51 Antimony trioxide (Sb 2O 3) is used along with
Sb brominated or chlorinated compounds in the making
[Kr]5s24d105p3 of flame retardants that protect plastics, paints, and
some textile products. Antimony trioxide increases the
effectiveness of the halogen compounds in preventing
the spread of a fire. Research shows that approximately
5000 deaths in the United States are caused by fire
each year. The use of flame retardants improves escape
time, releases less toxic gases and heat, and decreases
fire damage.

Antimony trioxide fire retardants coat electrical wires and


components found in a variety of everyday appliances.

Bismuth
83
Bi
[Xe]6s24f145d106p3

Soothing Upset Stomachs


Originally named Mixture Cholera Infantum, the popular
pink medicine now used for upset stomachs was created to
combat cholera. This mixture, whose active ingredient was
bismuth subsalicylate (C 7H 5BiO 4), proved effective in treating
the nausea and vomiting associated with infant cholera.
However, it could not cure the disease itself. Nonetheless, the
product became a wide success. As science advanced and doc-
tors realized that cholera was contracted from bacteria (which Bismuth subsalicylate
could be treated with antibiotics), bismuth subsalicylate found (C 7H 5BiO 4) is the active ingre-
its way into medical treatments for a variety of other stomach dient in some medicines used
to treat stomach problems.
problems, including heartburn, indigestion, and ulcers.

Assessment
39. Identify which elements in the nitrogen group are 43. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction
metals, nonmetals, or metalloids. between potassium chlorate (KClO 3) and red phospho-
40. Explain why nitrogen does not react with other rus (P 4). The reaction produces potassium chloride
elements under normal temperature conditions. (KCl) and phosphorus pentoxide (P 4O 10).

41. Explain why a compound of antimony is used in 44. Predict what product will be formed when bismuth is
flame retardants that protect plastic products. combined with chlorine.

42. Describe how fertilizers mimic the action of nitrogen- 45. Calculate A 35-kg bag of fertilizer contains 5.25 kg of
fixing bacteria. nitrogen. What percentage of the fertilizer is nitrogen?

Elements Handbook 935


(t)©Michael Newman/Photo Edit, (bl)©Michael Newman/photoedit, (br)©Janet Horton
Group 16: Oxygen Group

Oxygen Physical Properties


8 • At room temperature, oxygen is a clear, odorless gas, while the other
O
group 16 elements are solids.
[He]2s22p4
• Some of the group 16 elements have several common allotropic
Sulfur forms. Oxygen can exist as either O 2 or O 3 (ozone). Sulfur has many
16 allotropes. Selenium has three common allotropes: amorphous gray,
S red crystalline, and red/black powder.
[Ne]3s23p4
• Oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are nonmetals. Tellurium and pollonium
Selenium are metalloids.
34 • O 2 is paramagnetic, which means that a strong magnet will attract
Se oxygen molecules.
[Ar]4s23d104p4
• Except for polonium, boiling points and melting points of the group 16
Tellurium elements increase with increasing atomic number. Density increases
52 with increasing atomic number for all group 16 elements.
Te
Melting Points and Boiling Points Densities
[Kr]5s24d105p4
-218
O
Polonium -183
84 S
115 MP S 1.960
445
Po BP
[Xe]6s24f145d106p4 Se
221 Se 4.819
685

Te
450 Te 6.240
988
254 Po 9.196
Po
962

-400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 2 4 6 8 10


g/mL
Temperature (°C)

Common Reactions
• S, Se, Te, and Po react with oxygen Oxides of Main Group Elements
to form oxides, such as selenium H H 2O,H 2O 2
oxide.
Li 2O, Na 2O, K 2O, Rb 2O,
Example: Se(s) + O 2(g) → SeO 2(s) 1
Cs 2O, Fr 2O
• Oxygen also reacts with hydrogen 2 BeO, MgO, CaO, SrO, BaO, RaO
and most of the elements in
B 2O 3, Al 2O 3, Ga 2O 3, In 2O 3,
groups 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, and 17 to 13
form oxides, such as silicon oxide In 2O, Ti 2O
and magnesium oxide. CO 2, SiO 2, GeO 2, SnO 2, SnO,
14
Examples: Si + O 2 → SiO 2 PbO 2, PbO
2Mg + O 2 → 2MgO N 2O 5, N 2O 3, N 2O, NO, NO 2,
• O, S, Se, Te, and Po react with 15 P 4O 10, P 4O 6, As 2O 5, As 4O 6,
halogens to form halides, such Sb 2O 5, Sb 4O 6, Bi 2O 3
as sulfur(VI) fluoride. 17 Cl 2O 7, Cl 2O, Br 2O, I 2O 5
Example: S(s) + 3F 2(g) → SF 6(l)

936 Elements Handbook


Element Facts

Atomic Properties Atomic Ionic


• Each element in group 16 has six valence electrons and an electron radius radius
(pm) (pm)
configuration ending with ns 2np 4.
O2
-
• Group 16 elements can have many different oxidation numbers. O
73 140
For example, oxygen can have oxidation numbers of 2- and 1-, and
sulfur can have oxidation numbers of 6+, 4+, and 2-. S S2-
103 184
• Going down the elements in group 16, the atomic radii and ionic radii
increase. Se Se2-
119 198
• Electronegativity and first ionization energy decrease going down the
elements in group 16.
Te Te2-
• Polonium has 27 known isotopes. All are radioactive. 142 221

Po
168

First Ionization Energies Electronegativities

O 1314 O 3.44

S 1000 S 2.58

Se 941 Se 2.55

Te 869 Te 2.10

Po 812 Po 2.00

0 500 1000 1500 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

kJ/mol Pauling units

• Group 16 elements are involved


in many important industrial
Analytical Tests
reactions, such as the formation Oxygen can be measured in many different ways and in many
of sulfuric acid. different environments. For example, dissolved-oxygen meters
measure oxygen in water samples. Dissolved-oxygen meters
Example: Sulfuric-acid production use an electrochemical reaction that reduces oxygen mole-
is a three-step process. cules to hydroxide ions. The meter measures the electric
1) S(s) + O 2(g) → SO 2(g) current produced during this reaction. The higher the oxygen
concentration, the larger the current.
2) 2SO 2(g) + O 2(g) → 2SO 3(g)
3) SO 3(g) + H 2O(l) → H 2S O 4(l)

Dissolved-oxygen tests are part of


routine water quality monitoring.

Elements Handbook 937


©Chuck Place Photography
Group 16: Oxygen Group

Oxygen
8
O
[He]2s22p4

Photosynthesis Produces O 2 from H 2O


Earth’s atmosphere is 21% oxygen by volume. Most of the oxygen in
the atmosphere comes from photosynthesis. Photosynthetic organisms,
including plants and cyanobacteria, use energy from sunlight to oxi-
dize water. The result is hydrogen ions (H +) and oxygen (O 2). The
reactions involved in this part of photosynthesis are called light
reactions because they depend on light energy to proceed. During the
dark reactions of photosynthesis, the hydrogen ions derived during the
light reactions are combined with carbon dioxide (CO 2) to form Photosynthesis captures energy from
glucose (C 6H 12O 6). The overall reaction for photosynthesis follows: sunlight and provides hydrogen ions to
synthesize glucose from carbon dioxide.
6H 2O + 6CO 2 → C 6H 12O 6 + 6O 2

Air Quality Index for Ozone The Dual Nature of Ozone


Levels of Ozone (O 3), an allotrope of oxygen, has three
Index oxygen atoms per molecule instead of two. Like
Health Cautionary Statements
Values diatomic oxygen (O 2), ozone is a gas at room
Concern
temperature. However, unlike O 2, ozone gas has
0–50 good none
a slight blue color and a distinctive odor that
51–100 moderate Unusually sensitive people should can be detected during a thunderstorm or near
consider reducing prolonged or a high-voltage electric motor. Ozone is also
heavy exertion outdoors. more reactive than diatomic oxygen. At ground
101–150 unhealthy Active children and adults, and level, ozone can be a serious potential health
for sensitive people with lung disease, such as hazard, irritating eyes and lungs. High ground-
groups asthma, should reduce prolonged level ozone concentrations are a particular
or heavy exertion outdoors. threat on hot sunny days. The table illustrates
how ozone affects air quality and health. On the
151–200 unhealthy Active children and adults, and other hand, stratospheric ozone protects Earth
people with lung disease should from harmful UV radiation by absorbing UV
avoid prolonged or heavy rays from sunlight.
exertion outdoors. Everyone else
should reduce prolonged or
heavy exertion outdoors.
201–300 very Active children and adults, and
unhealthy people with lung disease, such as
asthma, should avoid all outdoor
exertion. Everyone else should
avoid prolonged or heavy
exertion outdoors.
301–500 hazardous Everyone should avoid all
physical activity outdoors.
Many cities issue air-quality alerts when ground-
Data obtained from: Patient Exposure and the Air Quality Index. U.S. E.P.A. March 2006 level ozone levels are high.

938 Elements Handbook


(t)©Scientifica/Visuals Unlimited, (b)©Glow Images/Alamy
Real-World Applications

Sulfur U.S. Chemical Production


16
Sulfuric acid

Millions of metric tons


S 40 500
[Ne]3s23p4
400

$ Billions
30 Chemical sales
300
An Economic Indicator 20 Ammonia
200
Sulfuric acid is one of the world’s most impor-
tant industrial raw materials. In the United 10 Chlorine 100
States, more sulfuric acid is produced than any
0 0
other industrial chemical. Most sulfuric acid is 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
used in the production of phosphate fertilizers. Year
Sulfuric acid is also important in extracting Data obtained from: Chemical & Engineering News 83 (2005) and 84 (2006).
metals from ore, oil refining, waste treatment,
Sulfuric acid production in the United States is
chemical synthesis, and as a component in used to track chemical economic trends.
lead-acid batteries. Sulfuric acid is so impor-
tant that economists use its production as a
measure of a nation’s industrial development.

Selenium Photocopies
34 Gray selenium is a photoconductor, which means it conducts
Se electricity more efficiently in the presence of light than in the
[Ar]4s23d104p4 dark. Some photocopiers use this property to copy images.
In a photocopier, a bright light shines on the original. Mirrors
reflect the dark and light areas onto a drum coated with a
thin layer of selenium. Because selenium is a photoconductor,
the light areas conduct electricity, while the dark areas do not.
As current flows through the drum, the light areas develop
a negative charge and the dark areas develop a positive
charge. Negatively charged toner particles are attracted to the
positively charged dark areas to create a copy of the original
image. Some of this same technology has been applied in
developing new high-resolution digital detectors that use
selenium as a photoconductor.
Gray selenium is a key component in many
photocopiers.

Assessment
46. Identify the molecule that is the source of oxygen 49. Apply Coal and petroleum products are sometimes
atoms for O 2 production during photosynthesis. contaminated with sulfur. When coal or petroleum con-
47. Explain why high ozone concentrations are harmful at taining sulfur is burned, sulfur dioxide (SO 2) can be
ground level but beneficial in the upper atmosphere. released into the atmosphere. Use the information
about the reactions involved in industrial sulfuric-acid
48. Calculate Approximately 90% of the sulfur used in production to infer how atmospheric sulfur dioxide
the United States is used to make sulfuric acid. In 2004, contributes to acid precipitation.
38.0 million metric tons of sulfuric acid were produced.
How much sulfur did the United States use in 2004?

Elements Handbook 939


©Leslie Garland Picture Library/Alamy
Group 17: Halogen Group

Fluorine Physical Properties


9 • Fluorine and chlorine are gases at room temperature. Along with
F mercury, bromine is one of only two elements that are liquid at room
[He]2s22p5 temperature. Iodine is a solid that easily sublimes at room temperature.
Chlorine • Fluorine gas is pale yellow. Chlorine gas is yellow-green. Bromine is a
17 red-brown liquid. Iodine is a blue-black solid.
Cl • Both boiling points and melting points of the group 17 elements
[Ne]3s23p5 increase with increasing atomic number.
Bromine
Melting Points and Boiling Points
35
Br -220
F
2 10 5 -188
[Ar]4s 3d 4p
-102
Cl
-34 MP
Iodine
-7 BP
53 Br
59
I
114
[Kr]5s24d105p5 I
184
At 302
Astatine
85
At -400 -200 0 200 400
[Xe]6s24f145d106p5 Temperature (°C) Iodine crystals are a blue-black color.
They produce a violet vapor when
they sublime at room temperature.

Common Reactions
• The halogens react with alkali metals and alkaline earth metals to
form salts, such as potassium bromide and calcium chloride.
Examples: 2K(s) + Br 2(g) → 2KBr(s) and Ca(s) + Cl 2(g) → CaCl 2(s)
• The halogens can form acids, such as hydrochloric acid, by hydroly-
sis in water.
Example: Cl 2(g) + H 2O(l) → HClO(aq) + HCl(aq)
• Several important plastic polymers, including nonstick coatings and
polyvinyl chloride, contain group 17 elements.
Example: Polyvinyl chloride (vinyl) is made by a three-step process.
1) Ethene reacts with chlorine to form dichloroethane.
C 2H 4(g) + Cl 2(g) → C 2H 4Cl 2(l)
2) At high temperature and pressure, dichloroethane is converted to
vinyl chloride and HCl gas.
C 2H 4Cl 2(l) → C 2H 3Cl(l) + HCl(g)
3) Vinyl chloride polymerizes to form polyvinyl chloride.
2n(C 2H 3Cl)(l) → (—CH 2–CHCl–CH 2–CHCl—) n(l)
• Fluorine is the most active of all the elements and reacts with every
element except helium, neon, and argon.
Example: 2Al(s) + 3F 2(g) → 2AlF 3(s)

940 Elements Handbook


©Larry Stepanowicz/Visuals Unlimited
Element Facts

Atomic Properties Atomic Ionic


• Each element in group 17 has seven valence electrons and an electron radius radius
(pm) (pm)
configuration ending with ns 2np 5.
-
• Electronegativities and first ionization energies decrease going down F F1
72 133
the elements in group 17.
• Fluorine is the most electronegative element on the periodic table. Cl Cl1-
100 181
Therefore, it has the greatest tendency to attract electrons.
-
• Astatine is a radioactive element with no known uses. Br Br1
114 195
• The atomic radii and ionic radii of the group 17 elements increase
going down the group. I I1
-

133 220

First Ionization Energies Electronegativities

F 1681 F 3.98

Cl 1251 Cl 3.16

Br 1140 Br 2.96

I 1008 I 2.66

At 920 At 2.20

0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0


kJ/mol Pauling units

Analytical Tests
Three of the halogens can be identified through
precipitation reactions. Chlorine, bromine, and
iodine react with silver nitrate, forming distinc-
tive precipitates. Silver chloride is a white
precipitate, silver bromide is a cream-colored
precipitate, and silver iodide is a yellow
precipitate.
Chlorine, bromine, and iodine can also be
identified when they dissolve in cyclohexane.
As shown in the photo, when these halogens
are dissolved in cyclohexane, the solution turns
yellow for chlorine, orange for bromine, and
violet for iodine.

The halogens are only slightly soluble in water (bottom layer).


However, in cyclohexane (top layer), chlorine (yellow), bromine
(orange), and iodine (violet) readily dissolve.

Elements Handbook 941


©ANDREW LAMBERT PHOTOGRAPHY/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Photo Researchers Inc.
Group 17: Halogen Group

Fluorine
9
F
[He]2s22p5

Fluoridation
Fluorine compounds added to toothpaste and public
drinking-water supplies have greatly reduced the incidence
of cavities. Fluoride protects teeth in two ways. As teeth
form, fluoride from food and drink is incorporated into Many brands of toothpaste contain either
the enamel layer. The fluoride makes the enamel stronger stannous fluoride or sodium fluoride, which,
like fluoridated water, strengthen teeth and
and more resistant to decay. Once teeth are present in the provide protection from cavities.
mouth, fluoride in saliva bonds to teeth and strengthens
the surface enamel. This surface fluoride attracts calcium,
which helps to fill in areas where decay has begun.

How Chlorine Bleach Is Made


Chlorine
17
Chlorine compounds are widely used as bleaching agents by the textile
Cl and paper industries. Some chlorine compounds can bleach materials by
[Ne]3s23p5 oxidizing colored molecules. Chlorine compounds are also used as disinfec-
tants. Household bleach is a 5.25% solution of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl)
in water. Chlorine bleach is prepared commercially by passing an electric
current through a solution of sodium chloride in water. As the sodium chlo-
ride breaks down, sodium hydroxide collects at the cathode and chlorine
gas is generated at the anode. Sodium hydroxide and chlorine can then
be combined to form sodium hypochlorite.

Household chlorine bleach is made by reacting


chlorine gas or liquid chlorine with sodium
hydroxide to form sodium hypochlorite.

Halogen lamps use bromine or other halo-


Bromine Iodine
gen molecules to capture tungsten vapor
35 53 and return tungsten atoms to the filament. Tungsten-
Br I bromide Tungsten
[Ar]4s23d104p5 [Kr]5s24d105p5 particle

Tungsten
Halogen Lightbulbs Bromine filament
Halogen lightbulbs include a halogen gas, such as iodine or bromine.
Compared to standard lightbulbs, halogen bulbs are brighter and last
longer and can be more energy efficient. During the operation of a
normal lightbulb, some of the tungsten in the filament evaporates and
is deposited on the inside surface of the bulb. In a halogen lamp, the
evaporated tungsten reacts with the halogen gas and is redeposited
back on the filament. This extends the life of the filament.

942 Elements Handbook


©Michael Newman / PhotoEdit
Real-World Applications

Iodine Combating Iodine Deficiency with Salt


53 The thyroid gland is the only part of the body that absorbs iodine. Thyroid cells use
I iodine to produce thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism. Low levels of iodine
[Kr]5s24d105p5 in the diet can lead to thyroid-hormone deficiencies and goiters, which are enlarged
thyroid glands. In serious cases, low levels of thyroid hormones can cause birth defects
and brain damage. In the United States, potassium iodide is added to most table salt
to protect against dietary iodine deficiency. Even small amounts of added iodine can
prevent iodine-deficiency disorders. However, there are parts of the world in which
iodine deficiency is still prevalent.

Iodine Deficiency Around the World

Severe deficiency (<20 µg/L) Mild deficiency (50–99 µg/L) Risk of iodine-induced hyperthyroidism (200–299 µg/L)
Moderate deficiency (20–49 µg/L) Optimal (100–199 µg/L) Risk of adverse health consequences (>300 µg/L)
No data

A significant percentage of the world’s population was at risk for iodine deficiency in 2004. In 2005,
the World Health Organization launched a program to eliminate iodine deficiency worldwide.

Assessment
50. Compare the risks for iodine deficiency in Europe, 53. Calculate Household bleach is typically a 5.25%
Africa, and the United States. solution of sodium hypochlorite in water. How many
51. Explain why fluorine is the most reactive of all the grams of sodium hypochlorite would there be in
elements. 300 mL of bleach?

52. Evaluate Why does a tungsten filament last longer in 54. Hypothesize In 1962, Neil Bartlett synthesized the
a halogen lightbulb than in a normal lightbulb? first noble gas compound using PtF 6. Hypothesize why
Bartlett used a fluorine compound for this synthesis.

Elements Handbook 943


Group 18: Noble Gases

Helium
2 Physical Melting Points and Boiling Points

He
1s2
Properties He
-270
-269
• The group 18 elements are Ne
-249
colorless, odorless gases. -246 MP
Neon
10 -189 BP
• They are all nonmetals. Ar -186
Ne
[He]2s22p6 • Their melting points and Kr
-157
-153
boiling points increase going
-112
Argon down the group, but are much Xe
-108
18 lower than those of the other
-71
Ar groups in the periodic table. Rn -62
[Ne]3s23p6
-300 -200 -100 0

Krypton Temperature (ºC)


36
Kr
2 10 6
Atomic Properties First Ionization Energies
[Ar]4s 3d 4p
• Each element in group 18 He 2372
has eight valence electrons,
Xenon
producing an octet with an Ne 2081
54
Xe electron configuration ending
Ar 1521
[Kr]5s24d105p6 with ns 2np 6, except for helium,
which has two electrons.
Kr 1351
Radon • Noble gases are monatomic—
86 Xe 1170
they exist as single atoms.
Rn
[Xe]6s24f145d106p6 • Compared to the other groups Rn 1037
in the periodic table, the noble
gases have the highest first 0 500 1000 1500 2000
ionization energies. kJ/mol

Analytical Tests
Because the noble gases are odorless, colorless and generally unreactive,
many of the common analytical tests used for identifying elements
are not useful. However, the noble gases do emit light of certain colors
Common when exposed to an electric current and have characteristic emission
line spectra.
Reactions
Although the noble
gases are also known
as inert gases, a few
compounds can be
formed if conditions
are favorable. Generally,
however, noble gases
are nonreactive.
When an electric current passes through
xenon, it exhibits a characteristic color
(blue) and line spectrum.

944 Elements Handbook


(l)©Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, Inc., (r)©TED KINSMAN/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRAR/Photo Researchers Inc.Y
Real-World Applications

Helium
2
He
1s2

The Sun
Only 150 million km away (considered close in astronomi-
cal terms), the Sun provides the energy needed to support
life on Earth. The Sun makes its energy through the fusion
of hydrogen to make helium. Scientists have determined
that the core of the Sun is composed of approximately
50% helium, leaving enough hydrogen for the Sun to burn The Sun’s energy comes from a nuclear reaction that
for another 5 billion years. produces helium.

Neon Argon Krypton Xenon


10 18 36 54
Ne Ar Kr Xe
[He]2s22p6 [Ne]3s23p6 [Ar]4s23d104p6 [Kr]5s24d105p6

Lighting
Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are all
used in different lighting applications. Neon
signs are found in many businesses to
advertise products or display the name of
the business. Although true neon signs glow
with a red-orange color, the term neon sign
has also come to represent the collection of
gas tubes that contain gases that display
other colors. Argon is found in everyday
lightbulbs such as those in lamps. Because
The noble gases are found in many different light sources.
argon is inert, it provides an ideal atmo-
sphere for the filament. Krypton and xenon
bulbs produce whiter, sharper light and last
longer than traditional argon bulbs. These
bulbs are commonly found in chandeliers,
flashlights, and luxury car headlights.

Assessment
55. Describe three physical properties of the noble gases. 58. Hypothesize why argon is used in everyday lighting
56. Write the reaction for the production of xenon even though krypton and xenon produce whiter light
tetroxide. and last longer.

57. Analyze why the noble gases have the highest 59. Calculate If the Sun is 150 million km away and light
first ionization energies compared to the rest of travels at 3.00 x 105 m/s, how long does it take for
the elements on the periodic table. sunlight to reach Earth?

Elements Handbook 945


(t)©epa/Corbis, (bl)©PHOTOTAKE Inc./Alamy, (br)©Wolfgang Kaehler/CORBIS
Mathematics is a language used in science to express and solve problems.
Calculations you perform during your study of chemistry require arithme-
tic operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Use this handbook to review basic math skills and to reinforce some math
skills presented in more depth in the chapters.

Scientific Notation
Scientists must use extremely small and extremely large numbers to
describe the objects in Figure 1. The mass of the proton at the center of
a hydrogen atom is 0.000000000000000000000000001673 kg. HIV, the
virus that causes AIDS, is about 0.00000011 m. The temperature at the
center of the Sun reaches 15,000,000 K. Such small and large numbers
are difficult to read and hard to work with in calculations. Scientists
have adopted a method of writing exponential numbers called scientific
notation. It is easier than writing numerous zeros when numbers are
very large or very small. It is also easier to compare the relative size of
numbers when they are written in scientific notation.
A number written in scientific notation has two parts.
N × 10 n
The first part (N) is a number in which only one digit is placed to the
left of the decimal point and all remaining digits are placed to the right
of the decimal point. The second part is an exponent of ten (10 n) by
which the decimal portion is multiplied. For example, the number
2.53 × 10 6 is written in scientific notation.
2.53 × 10 6
Number between Exponent
one and ten of ten

The decimal portion is 2.53 and the exponent is 10 6.


Positive exponents are used to express large numbers, and negative
exponents are used to express small numbers.

■ Figure 1 Scientific notation provides a convenient way to express data with


extremely large or small numbers. Scientists can express the mass of a proton, the
length of HIV, and the temperature of the Sun in scientific notation.

Proton

Hydrogen atom HIV attacking a white blood cell The Sun


Proton mass = 1.673 × 10 -27 kg HIV length = 1.1 × 10 -7 m Sun temperature = 1.5 × 10 7 K

946 Math Handbook


(l)©Chris Bjornberg/Photo Researchers, Inc, (r)©Daniele Pellegrini/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Math Handbook

Positive exponents
When scientists discuss the physical properties of the Moon, shown in
Figure 2, the numbers are enormously large. A positive exponent of
10 (n) tells how many times a number must be multiplied by 10 to give
the long form of the number.
2.53 × 10 6
= 2.53 × 10 ×10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 10
= 2,530,000
You can also think of the positive exponent of 10 as the number of
places you move the decimal to the left until only one nonzero digit
is to the left of the decimal point. ■Figure 2 The mass of the
The decimal point moves six places Moon is 7.349 × 10 22 kg.
2,530,000.
to the left.

To convert the number 567.98 to scientific notation, first write the


number as an exponential number by multiplying by 10 0.
567.98 × 10 0
(Remember that multiplying any number by 10 0 is the same as multi-
plying the number by 1.) Move the decimal point to the left until there
is only one digit to the left of the decimal. At the same time, increase
the exponent by the same number as the number of places the decimal
is moved.

567.98 × 10 0 + 2 The decimal point moves two places


to the left.

■ Figure 3 Because of their short


Thus, 567.98 written in scientific notation is 5.6798 × 10 2.
wavelengths (10 -8 m to 10 -13 m),
X rays can pass through some
Negative exponents
objects.
Measurements can also have negative exponents, such as shown by the
X rays in Figure 3. Negative exponents are used for numbers that are
very small. A negative exponent of 10 tells how many times a number
must be divided by 10 to give the long form of the number.

6.43 × 10 −4 = __
6.43
= 0.000643
10 × 10 × 10 × 10
A negative exponent of 10 is the number of places you move the deci-
mal to the right until it is just past the first nonzero digit.
When converting a number that requires the decimal to be moved
to the right, the exponent is decreased by the appropriate number. For
example, the expression of 0.0098 in scientific notation is as follows:
0.0098 × 10 0
0 0098 × 10 0 − 3 The decimal point moves three places
to the right.
9.8 × 10 -3

Thus, 0.0098 written in scientific notation is 9.8 × 10 -3.

Math Handbook 947


(t)©JULIAN BAUM/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Photo Researchers Inc., (b)©Royalty-Free/CORBIS
Math Handbook

Operations with Scientific Notation


The arithmetic operations performed with ordinary numbers can be
done with numbers written in scientific notation. However, the expo-
nential portion of the numbers must also be considered.
1. Addition and subtraction
Before numbers in scientific notation can be added or subtracted, the
exponents must be equal. Remember that the decimal is moved to the
left to increase the exponent and to the right to decrease the exponent.
(3.4 × 10 2) + (4.57 × 10 3) = (0.34 × 10 3) + (4.57 × 10 3)
= (0.34 + 4.57) × 10 3
= 4.91 × 10 3

(7.52 × 10 -4) − (9.7 × 10 -5) = (7.52 × 10 -4) − (0.97 × 10 -4)


= (7.52 − 0.97) × 10 -4
= 6.55 × 10 -4

2. Multiplication
When numbers in scientific notation are multiplied, only the decimal
portion is multiplied. The exponents are added.
(2.00 × 10 3)(4.00 × 10 4) = (2.00)(4.00) × 10 3 + 4
= 8.00 × 10 7

3. Division
When numbers in scientific notation are divided, only the decimal
portion is divided, while the exponents are subtracted as follows:
9.60 × 10 7 _
_ = 9.60 × 10 7 − 4
1.60 × 10 4 1.60
= 6.00 × 10 3

PRACTICE Problems
1. Express the following numbers in scientific notation.
a. 5800 c. 0.0005877
b. 453,000 d. 0.0036
2. Perform the following operations.
a. (5.0 × 10 6 ) + (3.0 × 10 7 ) c. (3.89 × 10 12 ) − (1.9 × 10 11)
9
b. (1.8 × 10 ) + (2.0 × 10 ) 8 d. (6.0 × 10 -8 ) − (4.0 × 10 −9 )
3. Perform the following operations.
9.6 × 10 8
a. (6.0 × 10 -4 ) × (4.0 × 10 -6 ) d. _ -6 1.6 × 10
(2.5 ×10 6 )(7.2 × 10 4 )
b. (4.5 × 10 9 ) × (6.0 × 10 -10 ) e. __ -5
1.8 × 10
4.5 × 10 -8 (6.2 × 10 12 )(6.0 × 10 -7 )
c. _ -4
f. __
1.5 × 10 1.2 × 10 6

948 Math Handbook


Math Handbook

2 × 2 = 4 3 × 3 = 9 4 × 4 = 16
2 = 4 3 = 9 4 = 16
a b c

■ Figure 4 a. The number 4 can be


Square and Cube Roots expressed as two groups of 2. The identi-
A square root is one of two identical factors of a number. As shown in cal factors are 2. b. The number 9 can be
expressed as three groups of 3. Thus, 3 is
Figure 4a, the number 4 is the product of two identical factors—2.
the square root of 9. c. 4 is the square
Thus, the square root of 4 is 2. The symbol √, called a radical sign, is root of 16.
used to indicate a square root. Most scientific calculators have a square Determine the cube root of 16
root key labeled √. using your calculator.

4 = √
√ 2×2=2
This equation is read “the square root of 4 equals 2.” What is the square
root of 9, shown in Figure 4b?
There can be more than two identical factors of a number. You know
that 2 × 4 = 8. Are there any other factors of the number 8? It is the
product of 2 × 2 × 2. A cube root is one of three identical factors of
a number. Thus, what is the cube root of 8? It is 2. A cube root is also
indicated by a radical.
3 3
√ 8 = √
 2×2×2=2
Check your calculator handbook for more information on finding roots.

Significant Figures
Accuracy reflects how close the measurements you make in the labora-
tory come to the real value. Precision describes the degree of exactness
of your measurements. Which ruler in Figure 5 would give you the
most precise length? The top ruler, with the millimeter markings, would
allow your measurements to come closer to the actual length of the
pencil. The measurement would be more precise.

■ Figure 5 The estimated digit must


be read between the millimeter markings
on the top ruler.
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 cm
Evaluate Why is the bottom ruler
less precise?

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 cm

Math Handbook 949


Math Handbook

Measuring tools are never perfect, nor are the people doing the
measuring. Therefore, whenever you measure a physical quantity, there
will always be some amount of uncertainty in the measurement. The
24 25 26 27 28 number of significant figures in the measurement indicates the uncer-
tainty of the measuring tool.
The number of significant figures in a measured quantity is all of the
certain digits plus the first uncertain digit. For example, the pencil in
■ Figure 6 If you determine Figure 6 has a length that is between 27.6 and 27.7 cm. You can read
that the length of this pencil is the ruler to the nearest millimeter (27.6 cm), but after that you must
27.65 cm, that measurement has
four significant figures.
estimate the next digit in the measurement. If you estimate that the
next digit is 5, you would report the measured length of the pencil as
27.65 cm. Your measurement has four significant figures. The first
three are certain, and the last is uncertain. The ruler used to measure
the pencil has precision to the nearest tenth of a millimeter.
How many significant figures?
When a measurement is provided, the following series of rules will
help you to determine how many significant figures there are in that
measurement.
1. All nonzero figures are significant.
2. When a zero falls between nonzero digits, the zero is also significant.
3. When a zero falls after the decimal point and after a significant figure,
that zero is significant.
4. When a zero is used merely to indicate the position of the decimal,
it is not significant.
5. All counting numbers and exact numbers are treated as if they have
an infinite number of significant figures.
Examine each of the following measurements. Use the rules above to
check that all of them have three significant figures.
245 K Rule 1
18.0 L Rule 3
308 km Rule 2
0.00623 g Rule 4
186,000 m Rule 4

Suppose you must do a calculation using the measurement 200 L.


You cannot be certain which zero was estimated. To indicate the signifi-
cance of digits, especially zeros, write measurements in scientific nota-
tion. In scientific notation, all digits in the decimal portion are
significant. Which measurement is most precise?
200 L has unknown significant figures.
2 × 10 2 L has one significant figure.
2.0 × 10 2 L has two significant figures.
2.00 × 10 2 L has three significant figures.
The greater the number of digits in a measurement expressed in scien-
tific notation, the more precise the measurement is. In this example,
2.00 × 10 2 L is the most precise data.

950 Math Handbook


Math Handbook

EXAMPLE Problem 1
Significant Figures How many significant figures are in the
measurement 0.00302 g? 60 min? 5.620 m? 9.80 × 10 2 m/s 2?

1 Analyze the Problem


To determine the number of significant digits in a series
of numbers, review the rules for significant figures.

2 Solve for the Unknown


0.00302 g

Not significant Significant


(Rule 4) (Rules 1 and 2)

The measurement 0.00302 g has three significant figures.


60 min
Unlimited significant figures
(Rule 5)

5.620 m
Significant
(Rules 1 and 3)

The measurement 5.620 m has four significant figures.


9.80 × 10 2 m/s 2
Significant
(Rules 1 and 3)

3 Evaluate the Answer


The measurements 0.00302 g and 9.80 × 10 2 m/s 2 have
three significant figures. The measurement 60 min has
unlimited significant figures. The measurement 5.620 m
has four significant figures.

PRACTICE Problems
4. Determine the number of significant figures in each measurement:
a. 35 g m. 0.157 kg
b. 3.57 m n. 28.0 mL
c. 3.507 km o. 2500 m
d. 0.035 kg p. 0.070 mol
e. 0.246 L q. 30.07 nm
f. 0.004 m 3 r. 0.106 cm
g. 24.068 kPa s. 0.0076 g
h. 268 K t. 0.0230 cm 3
i. 20.04080 g u. 26.509 cm
j. 20 dozen v. 54.52 cm 3
k. 730,000 kg w. 2.40 × 10 6 kg
l. 6.751 g x. 4.07 × 10 16 m

Math Handbook 951


Math Handbook

Rounding
Arithmetic operations that involve measurements are done the same
way as operations involving any other numbers. However, the results
must correctly indicate the uncertainty in the calculated quantities.
Perform all of the calculations, and then round the result to the least
number of significant figures in any of the measurements used in the
calculations. To round a number, use the following rules.
1. When the leftmost digit to be dropped is less than 5, that digit and any
digits that follow are dropped. Then, the last digit in the rounded num-
ber remains unchanged. For example, when rounding the number
8.7645 to three significant figures, the leftmost digit to be dropped
is 4. Therefore, the rounded number is 8.76.
2. When the leftmost digit to be dropped is greater than 5, that digit and
any digits that follow are dropped, and the last digit in the rounded
number is increased by one. For example, when rounding the num-
ber 8.7676 to three significant figures, the leftmost digit to be
dropped is 7. Therefore, the rounded number is 8.77.
3. When the leftmost digit to be dropped is 5 followed by a nonzero
number, that digit and any digits that follow are dropped. The last
digit in the rounded number increases by one. For example, 8.7519
rounded to two significant figures equals 8.8.
4. If the digit to the right of the last significant figure is equal to 5 and is
not followed by a nonzero digit, look at the last significant figure. If
it is odd, increase it by one; if even, do not round up. For example,
92.350 rounded to three significant figures equals 92.4, and 92.25
equals 92.2.

Calculations with significant figures


Look at the glassware in Figure 7. Would you expect to measure a more
precise volume with the beaker or the graduated cylinder? When you
perform any calculation using measured quantities such as volume or
mass, it is important to remember that the result can never be more
■ Figure 7 Compare the precise than the least-precise measurement. That is, your answer cannot
markings on the graduated cylinder have more significant figures than the least precise measurement. Note
at the top with the markings on the that it is important to perform all calculations before dropping any
beaker at the bottom.
insignificant digits.
Analyze Which piece of
The following rules determine how to use significant figures in
glassware will yield more
precise measurements? calculations that involve measurements.
1. To add or subtract measurements, first perform the mathematical
operation, then round off the result to the least-precise value. There
should be the same number of digits to the right of the decimal as
the measurement with the least number of decimal digits.
2. To multiply or divide measurements, first perform the calculation,
then round the answer to the same number of significant figures as
the measurement with the least number of significant figures. The
answer should contain no more significant figures than the fewest
number of significant figures in any of the measurements in the
calculation.

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Matt Meadows
Math Handbook

EXAMPLE Problem 2
Calculating with Significant Figures Air contains oxygen (O 2),
nitrogen (N 2), carbon dioxide (CO 2), and trace amounts of other
gases. Use the known pressures in Table 1 to calculate the partial
pressure of oxygen.

1 Analyze the Problem Pressures of


The data in Table 1 contains the gas pressure for nitrogen Table 1 Gases in Air
gas, carbon dioxide gas, and trace gases. To add or subtract
measurements, first perform the operation, then round off Pressure (kPa)
the result to correspond to the least-precise value involved.
Nitrogen
79.10
2 Solve for the Unknown gas
P O 2 = P total - (P N 2 + P CO 2 + P trace) Carbon
0.040
P O 2 = 101.3 kPa - (79.10 kPa + 0.040 kPa + 0.94 kPa) dioxide gas
P O 2 = 101.3 kPa - 80.080 kPa
P O 2 = 21.220 kPa Trace gases 0.94

The total pressure (P total) was measured to the tenths place. It is


Total gases 101.3
the least precise measurement. Therefore, the result should be
rounded to the nearest tenth of a kilopascal. The pressure of
oxygen is P O 2 = 21.2 kPa.

3 Evaluate the Answer


By adding the gas pressure of all the gases, including oxygen,
the total gas pressure is 101.3 kPa.

PRACTICE Problems
5. Round off the following measurements to the number of significant
figures indicated in parentheses.
a. 2.7518 g (3)
b. 8.6439 m (2)
c. 13.841 g (2)
d. 186.499 m (5)
e. 634,892.34 (4)
f. 355,500 g (2)
6. Perform the following operations.
a. (2.475 m) + (3.5 m) + (4.65 m)
b. (3.45 m) + (3.658 m) + (47 m)
c. (5.36 × 10 −4 g) − (6.381 × 10 −5 g)
d. (6.46 × 10 12 m) − (6.32 × 10 11 m)
e. (6.6 × 10 12 m) × (5.34 × 10 18 m)
5.634 × 10 11 m
f. __ 12
3.0 × 10 m
4.765 × 10 11 m)(5.3 × 10 -4 m)
(___
g.
7.0 × 10 -5 m

Math Handbook 953


Math Handbook

Solving Algebraic Equations


When you are given a problem to solve, it often can be written as an
algebraic equation. You can use letters to represent measurements or
unspecified numbers in the problem. The laws of chemistry are often
written in the form of algebraic equations. For example, the ideal gas
law relates pressure, volume, moles, and temperature of the gases. The
ideal gas law is written as follows.
PV = nRT
The variables are pressure (P), volume (V), number of moles (n), and
temperature (T). R is a constant. This is a typical algebraic equation that
can be manipulated to solve for any of the individual variables.
When you solve algebraic equations, any operation that you perform
on one side of the equal sign must be performed on the other side of the
equation. Suppose you are asked to use the ideal gas law to find the
pressure of a gas (P). To solve for, or isolate, P requires you to divide the
left-hand side of the equation by V. This operation must be performed
on the right-hand side of the equation as well, as shown in the second
equation below.
PV = nRT
_
PV _
= nRT
V V
■ Figure 8 When faced with an The Vs on the left-hand side of the equation cancel each other out.
equation that contains more than _
PV _
one operation, use this flowchart = nRT
V V
to determine the order in which
to perform your calculations. P×_=_
V nRT
V V
Order of Operations P=_
nRT
V
The ideal gas law equation is now written in terms of pressure. That is,
Examine all
arithmetic operations. P has been isolated.
Order of operations
When isolating a variable in an equation, it is important to remember
that arithmetic operations have an order of operations, as shown in
Do all operations inside Figure 8, that must be followed. Operations in parentheses (or brackets)
parentheses or brackets. take precedence over multiplication and division, which in turn take
precedence over addition and subtraction. For example, in the following
equation

Do all multiplication and


a+b×c
division from left to right.
variable b must be multiplied first by variable c. Then, the resulting
product is added to variable a. If the equation is written
(a + b) × c
Perform addition and the operation in parentheses or brackets must be done first. In the equa-
subtraction from left to right.
tion above, variable a is added to variable b before the sum is multiplied
by variable c.

954 Math Handbook


Math Handbook

To see the difference order of operations makes, try replacing a with


2, b with 3, and c with 4.
a + (b × c) = 2 + (3 × 4) = 14
(a + b) × c = (2 + 3) × 4 = 20
To solve algebraic equations, you also must remember the distributive
property. To remove parentheses to solve a problem, any number out-
side the parentheses is distributed across the parentheses as follows.
6(x + 2y) = 6(x) + 6(2y) = 6x + 12y

EXAMPLE Problem 3
Order of Operations The temperature on a cold day was 25°F.
What was the temperature on the Celsius scale?

1 Analyze the Problem


The temperature in Celsius can be calculated by using the equation
for converting from the Celsius temperature to Fahrenheit temperature.
The Celsius temperature is the unknown variable. The known variable
is 25°C.

2 Solve for the Unknown


Determine the equation for calculating the temperature in Celsius.

°F = _°C + 32
9
5

°F − 32 = _°C + 32 − 32
9 Rearrange the equation to isolate °C.
5 Begin by subtracting 32 from both sides.

°F − 32 = _°C
9
5
5 × ( °F − 32) = 5 × _°C
9
Then, multiply both sides by 5.
5
5 × ( °F − 32) = 9°C

5__
× ( °F − 32)
=_
9°C
Finally, divide both sides by 9.
9 9

°C = _( °F − 32)
5
9
_
5
= (25 − 32) Substitute the known Fahrenheit
9 temperature.

= −3.9°C

The Celsius temperature is −3.9°C.

3 Evaluate the Answer


To determine if the answer is correct, place the answer, −3.9°C,
into the original equation. If the Fahrenheit temperature is 25°, the
calculation was done correctly.

Math Handbook 955


Math Handbook

PRACTICE Problems
Isolate the indicated variable in each equation.
7. PV = nRT for R
8. 3 = 4(x + y) for y
9. z = x(4 + 2y) for y
10. _
2
x = 3 + y for x
11. _ = 6 for x
2x + 1
3

Dimensional Analysis
The dimensions of a measurement refer to the type of units attached
to a quantity. For example, length is a dimensional quantity that can be
measured in meters, centimeters, and kilometers. Dimensional analysis
is the process of solving algebraic equations for units as well as num-
bers. It is a way of checking to ensure that you have used the correct
equation, and that you have correctly applied the rules of algebra when
solving the equation. It can also help you to choose and set up the cor-
rect equation, as shown on the next page, when you learn how to do
unit conversions. It is good practice to make dimensional analysis a
habit by always stating the units as well as the numerical values whenever
substituting values into an equation.

EXAMPLE Problem 4
Dimensional Analysis The sculpture in Figure 9 is made from
aluminum. The density (D) of aluminum is 2700 kg/m 3. Determine
■ Figure 9 Aluminum is a metal
the mass (m) of a piece of aluminum of volume (V ) 0.20 m 3.
that is useful from the kitchen to
the sculpture garden.
1 Analyze the Problem
The facts of the problem are density (2700 kg/m 3 ), volume (0.20 m 3 ),
and the density equation, D = m/V.

2 Solve for the Unknown


Determine the equation for mass by rearranging the density equation.
The equation for density is
D=_
m
V
DV = _
mV Multiply both sides of the
V equation by V, and isolate m.
_
V
DV = × m
V
m = DV
m = (2700 kg/m 3 )(0.20 m 3 ) = 540 kg Substitute the known values
for D and V.
3 Evaluate the Answer
Notice that the unit m 3 cancels out, leaving mass in kg, a unit of mass.

956 Math Handbook


©ABN Stock Images/Alamy
Math Handbook

PRACTICE Problems
Determine whether the following equations are dimensionally correct.
Explain.
12. v = s × t where v = 24 m/s, s = 12 m, and t = 2 s.
13. R = _nT
where R is in L·atm/mol·K, n is in mol, T is in K, P is in atm,
PV
and V is in L.
14. t = _vs where t is in seconds, v is in m/s, and s is in m.
at 2
15. s = _ where s is in m, a is in m/s 2, and t is in s.
2

Unit Conversion
Recall from Chapter 2 that the universal unit system used by scientists
is called Le Système Internationale d’Unités, or SI. It is a metric system
based on seven base units—meter, second, kilogram, kelvin, mole,
ampere, and candela—from which all other units are derived. The size
of a unit in the metric system is indicated by a prefix related to the dif-
ference between that unit and the base unit. For example, the base unit
for length in the metric system is the meter. One-tenth of a meter is a
decimeter, where the prefix deci- means one-tenth. One thousand
meters is a kilometer, where the prefix kilo- means one thousand.
You can use the information in Table 2 to express a measured quantity
in different units. For example, how is 65 m expressed in centimeters?
Table 2 indicates one centimeter and one-hundredth meter are equivalent,
that is, 1 cm = 10 −2 m. This information can be used to form a conversion
factor. A conversion factor is a ratio equal to one that relates two units. You
can make the following conversion factors from the relationship between
meters and centimeters. Be sure when you set up a conversion factor that
the measurement in the numerator (the top of the ratio) is equivalent to
the measurement in the denominator (the bottom of the ratio).
−2
1=_
1 cm
and 1 = _
10 m
−210 m 1 cm

Table 2 Common SI Prefixes


Exponential Exponential
Prefix Symbol Prefix Symbol
Notation Notation
Peta P 10 15 Deci d 10 −1
Tera T 10 12 Centi c 10 −2
Giga G 10 9 Milli m 10 −3
Mega M 10 6 Micro μ 10 −6
Kilo k 10 3 Nano n 10 −9
Hecto h 10 2 Pico p 10 −12
Deka da 10 1 Femto f 10 −15

Math Handbook 957


Math Handbook

Recall that the value of a quantity does not change when it is multiplied
by 1. To convert 65 m to centimeters, multiply 65 m by the conversion
factor for centimeters.
65 m × _
1 cm
−2
10 m
= 65 × 10 2 cm
= 6.5 × 10 3 cm
Note the conversion factor is set up so that the unit meters cancels
and the answer is in centimeters as required. When setting up a unit
conversion, use dimensional analysis to check that the units cancel to
give an answer in the desired units. Always check your answer to be
certain the units make sense.
You make unit conversions every day when you determine how
many quarters are needed to make a dollar or how many feet are in a
yard. One unit that is often used in calculations in chemistry is the
mole. Chapter 10 shows you equivalent relationships among moles,
grams, and the number of representative particles (atoms, molecules,
formula units, or ions). For example, 1 mol of a substance contains
6.02 × 10 23 representative particles. Try the next Example Problem to
see how this information can be used in a conversion factor to deter-
mine the number of atoms in a sample of manganese.

EXAMPLE Problem 5
Unit Conversions One mole of manganese (Mn), shown in
Figure 10, has a mass of 54.94 g. How many atoms are in 2.0 mol
of manganese?

1 Analyze the Problem


You are given the mass of 1 mol of manganese. In order to convert to
the number of atoms, you must set up a conversion factor relating the
number of moles and the number of atoms.

2 Solve for the Unknown


The conversion factors for moles and atoms are shown below.
__ 6.02 × 10 23 atoms
and __
■ Figure 10 The mass of one 1 mol
23
6.02 × 10 atoms1 mol
mole of manganese equals 54.94 g.
Determine How many Choose the conversion factor that cancels units of moles and gives an
significant figures are in this answer in number of atoms.
measurement?
6.02 × 10 23 atoms
2.0 mol × __ = 12.04 × 10 23 atoms
1 mol
= 1.2 × 10 24 atoms

3 Evaluate the Answer


The answer is expressed in the desired units (number of atoms). It is
expressed in two significant figures because the number of moles (2.0)
has two significant figures.

958 Math Handbook


Matt Meadows
Math Handbook

PRACTICE Problems
16. Convert the following measurements as indicated.
a. 4 m = ____cm i. 2.7 × 10 2 L = ____mL
b. 50.0 cm = ____m j. 7.3 × 10 5 mL = ____L
c. 15 cm = ____mm k. 8.4 × 10 10 m = ____km
d. 567 mg = ____g l. 3.8 × 10 4 m 2 = ____mm 2
e. 324 mL = ____L m. 6.9 × 10 12 cm 2 = ____m 2
f. 28 L = ____mL n. 6.3 × 10 21 mm 3 = ____cm 3
3
g. 4.6 × 10 m = ____mm o. 9.4 × 10 12 cm 3 = ____m 3
h. 8.3 × 10 4 g = ____kg p. 5.7 × 10 20 cm 3 = ____km 3

Drawing Line Graphs


Scientists, such as the one shown in Figure 11, as well as you and your
classmates, use graphing to analyze data gathered in experiments.
Graphs provide a way to visualize data in order to determine the mathe-
matical relationship between the variables in your experiment. Line
graphs are used most often.
Figure 11 also shows a line graph. Line graphs are drawn by plotting
variables along two axes. Plot the independent variable on the x-axis
(horizontal axis), also called the abscissa. The independent variable is
the quantity controlled by the person doing the experiment. Plot the
dependent variable on the y-axis (vertical axis), also called the ordinate.
The dependent variable is the variable that depends on the independent
variable. Label the axes with the variables being plotted and the units
attached to those variables.

■ Figure 11 Once experimental data have been collected, they must


be analyzed to determine the relationships between the measured variables.

Graph of Line with Point A


y-axis
Dependent variable

(x, y)

x-axis

0
Origin 0 Independent variable

This research scientist might use graphs to analyze the Any graph of your data should include labeled
data she collects on ultrapure water. x- and y-axes, a suitable scale, and a title.

Math Handbook 959


©Bill Aron/Photo Edit
Math Handbook

■ Figure 12 To plot a point on a


graph, place a dot at the location for each Density of Water Experimental Data
ordered pair (x,y) determined by your
data. In the Density of Water graph, the 70 70
dot marks the ordered pair (40 mL, 40 g).
Generally, the line or curve that you draw 60 60
will not include all of your experimental 50 50

Mass (g)
Mass (g)
data points, as shown in the Experimental A (x, y) 40
40
Data graph.
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Volume (mL) Volume (mL)

Determining a scale
An important part of graphing is the selection of a scale. Scales should
be easy to plot and easy to read. First, examine the data to determine the
highest and lowest values. Assign each division on the axis (the square
on the graph paper) with an equal value so that all data can be plotted
along the axis. Scales divided into multiples of 1, 2, 5, or 10, or decimal
values, are often the most convenient. It is not necessary to start at zero,
nor is it necessary to plot both variables to the same scale. Scales must,
however, be labeled clearly with the appropriate numbers and units.
Plotting data
The values of the independent and dependent variables form ordered
pairs of numbers, called the x-coordinate and the y-coordinate (x,y),
that correspond to points on the graph. The first number in an ordered
pair always corresponds to the x-axis; the second number always
corresponds to the y-axis. The ordered pair (0,0) is always the origin.
Sometimes, the points are named by using a letter. In Figure 12,
Point A on the Density of Water graph corresponds to Point (x,y).
After the scales are chosen, plot the data. To graph or plot an ordered
pair means to place a dot at the point that corresponds to the values in
the ordered pair. The x-coordinate indicates how many units to move
right (if the number is positive) or left (if the number is negative). The
y-coordinate indicates how many units to move up or down. Which
direction is positive on the y-axis? Negative? Locate each pair of x- and
y-coordinates by placing a dot, as shown in Figure 12 in the Density of
Water graph. Sometimes, a pair of rulers, one extending from the x-axis
and the other from the y-axis, can ensure that data are plotted correctly.
Drawing a curve
Once the data is plotted, a straight line or a curve is drawn. It is not
necessary to make it go through every point plotted, or even any of
the points, as shown in the Experimental Data graph in Figure 12.
Graphing data is an averaging process. If the points do not fall along a
line, the best-fit line or most-probable smooth curve through the points
is drawn. Note that curves do not always go through the origin (0,0).

960 Math Handbook


Math Handbook

Naming a graph
Last but not least, give each graph a title that describes what is being
graphed. The title should be placed at the top of the page, or in a box
on a clear area of the graph. It should not cross the data curve.

Using Line Graphs


Once the data from an experiment has been collected and plotted, the
graph must be interpreted. Much can be learned about the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables by examining the
shape and slope of the curve. Four common types of curves are shown
in Figure 13. Each type of curve corresponds to a mathematical rela-
tionship between the independent and dependent variables.
Direct and inverse relationships
In your study of chemistry, the most common curves are the linear,
representing the direct relationship (y ∞ x), and the inverse, representing
the inverse relationship (y ∞ 1/x), where x represents the independent
variable and y represents the dependent variable. In a direct relationship,
y increases in value as x increases in value, or y decreases when x
decreases. In an inverse relationship, y decreases in value as x increases.
An example of a typical direct relationship is the increase in volume
of a gas with increasing temperature. When the gases inside a hot-air
balloon are heated, the balloon gets larger. As the balloon cools, its size
decreases. However, a plot of the decrease in pressure as the volume of a
gas increases yields a typical inverse curve.
You might also encounter exponential and root curves in your study
of chemistry. See Figure 13. An exponential curve describes a relation-
ship in which one variable is expressed by an exponent. A root curve
describes a relationship in which one variable is expressed by a root.

■ Figure 13 The shape of the curve


formed by a plot of experimental data
indicates how the variables are related.

Linear curve Inverse curve


a y∝x b y∝- 1
x

Exponential curve Root curve


n
y ∝ xn y ∝ x
c (n > 1) d (n > 1)

Math Handbook 961


Math Handbook

■ Figure 14 A steep slope indicates


Density of Water
that the dependent variable changes
rapidly with a change in the indepen-
70
dent variable.
Infer What would an almost flat 60
line indicate? 50 (x2, y2)

Mass (g)
40
Rise
30
20 (x1, y1)

10 Run
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Volume (mL)

The linear graph


The linear graph is useful in analyzing data because a linear relationship
can be translated easily into equation form using the equation for a
straight line.
y = mx + b
In the equation, y stands for the dependent variable, m is the slope of
the line, x stands for the independent variable, and b is the y-intercept,
the point where the curve crosses the y-axis.
The slope of a linear graph is the steepness of the line. Slope is
defined as the ratio of the vertical change (the rise) to the horizontal
change (the run) as you move from one point to the next along the line.
Use the graph in Figure 14 to calculate slope. Choose any two points
on the line, (x 1,y 1) and (x 2,y 2). The two points need not be actual data
points, but both must fall somewhere on the straight line. After
selecting two points, calculate slope, m, using the following equation.
∆y y −y
m=_
rise
run =
_=_ 2 1
x 2 − x 1 , where x 1 ≠ x 2
∆x
The symbol ∆ stands for change, x 1 and y 1 are the coordinates or values
of the first point, and x 2 and y 2 are the coordinates of the second point.
Choose any two points along the graph of mass v. volume in
Figure 15, and calculate its slope.
135 g − 54 g
m = __
3 3
= 2.7 g/cm 3
50.0 cm − 20.0 cm
Note that the units for the slope are the units for density. Plotting a
graph of mass versus volume is one way of determining the density
of a substance.
Apply the general equation for a straight line to the graph in
Figure 15.

y = mx + b
mass = (2.7 g/cm 3)(volume) + 0
mass = (2.7 g/cm 3)(volume)

962 Math Handbook


Math Handbook

■ Figure 15 Interpolation and extrap-


Density of Aluminum olation will help you determine the values
160.0 Data of points you did not plot.
140.0
Volume (mL) Mass (g)
120.0
100.0 20.0 54.0
Mass (g)

80.0 30.0 81.0


60.0
50.0 135.0
40.0
20.0
0
0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0
Volume (mL)

Once the data from the graph in Figure 15 has been placed in the
general equation for a straight line, this equation verifies the direct rela-
tionship between mass and volume. For any increase in volume, the
mass also increases.
Interpolation and extrapolation
Graphs also serve functions other than determining the relationship
between variables. They permit interpolation, the prediction of values of
the independent and dependent variables. For example, you can see in
the table in Figure 15 that the mass of 40.0 cm 3 of aluminum was not
measured. However, you can interpolate from the graph that the mass
would be 108 g.
Graphs also permit extrapolation, which is the determination of
points beyond the measured points. To extrapolate, draw a broken
line to extend the curve to the desired point. In Figure 15, you can
determine that the mass at 10.0 cm 3 equals 27 g. One caution regarding
extrapolation—some straight-line curves do not remain straight indefi-
nitely. So, extrapolation should only be done where there is a reasonable
likelihood that the curve does not change.

PRACTICE Problems
17. Plot the data in each table. Explain whether the graphs represent direct
or inverse relationships.

Table 3 Effect of Pressure on Gas Table 4 Effect of Pressure on Gas


Pressure Volume Pressure Temperature
(mm Hg) (mL) (mm Hg) (K)
3040 5.0 3040 1092
1520 10.0 1520 546
1013 15.0 1013 410
760 20.0 760 273

Math Handbook 963


Math Handbook

Ratios, Fractions, and Percents


When you analyze data, you may be asked to compare measured quanti-
ties. Or, you may be asked to determine the relative amounts of ele-
ments in a compound. Suppose, for example, you are asked to compare
the molar masses of the diatomic gases, hydrogen (H 2) and oxygen (O 2).
The molar mass of hydrogen gas equals 2.00 g/mol; the molar mass of
oxygen equals 32.00 g/mol. The relationship between molar masses can
be expressed in three ways: a ratio, a fraction, or a percent.
Ratios
You make comparisons by using ratios in your daily life. For example, if
the mass of a dozen limes is shown in Figure 16, how does it compare
■ Figure 16 The mass of one to the mass of one lime? The mass of one dozen limes is 12 times larger
lime would be one-twelfth the mass than the mass of one lime. In chemistry, the chemical formula for a
of one dozen limes. compound compares the elements that make up that compound, as
shown in Figure 17. A ratio is a comparison of two numbers by division.
One way it can be expressed is with a colon (:). The comparison between
the molar masses of oxygen and hydrogen can be expressed as follows.
molar mass (H 2):molar mass (O 2)
2.00 g/mol:32.00 g/mol
2.00:32.00
1:16

■ Figure 17 In a crystal of table Notice that the ratio 1:16 is the smallest integer (whole number) ratio.
salt (sodium chloride), each sodium It is obtained by dividing both numbers in the ratio by the smaller num-
ion is surrounded by chloride ions, ber, and then rounding the larger number to remove the digits after the
yet the ratio of sodium ions to decimal. The ratio of the molar masses is 1 to 16. In other words, the
chloride ions is 1:1. The formula
ratio indicates that the molar mass of diatomic hydrogen gas is 16 times
for sodium chloride is NaCl.
smaller than the molar mass of diatomic oxygen gas.
Fractions
Ratios are often expressed as fractions in simplest form. A fraction is a
quotient of two numbers. To express the comparison of the molar masses
as a fraction, place the molar mass of hydrogen over the molar mass of
oxygen as follows.
molar mass H 2
__
molar mass O 2
2.0 g/mol
=_
32.00 g/mol
=_2.00
32.00
=_1
16
In this case, the simplified fraction is calculated by dividing both the
numerator (top of the fraction) and the denominator (bottom of the
fraction) by 2.00. This fraction yields the same information as the ratio.
That is, diatomic hydrogen gas has one-sixteenth the mass of diatomic
oxygen gas.

964 Math Handbook


Matt Meadows
Math Handbook

Percents
A percent is a ratio that compares a number to 100. The symbol for
percent is %. You also are used to working with percents in your daily
life. The number of correct answers on an exam can be expressed as a
percent. If you answered 90 out of 100 questions correctly, you would
receive a grade of 90%. Signs like the one in Figure 18 indicate a reduc-
tion in price. If the item’s regular price is $100, how many dollars would
you save? Sixty percent means 60 of every 100, so you would save $60.
How much would you save if the sign said 75% off?
The comparison between molar mass of hydrogen gas and the
molar mass of oxygen gas described on the previous page can also be
expressed as a percent by taking the fraction, converting it to decimal
form, and multiplying by 100 as follows.
molar mass H 2
__ 2.00 g/mol
× 100 = _ × 100 = 0.0625 × 100 = 6.25%
molar mass O 2 32.00 g/mol ■ Figure 18 Stores often use
percentages when advertising sales.
Diatomic hydrogen gas has 6.25% of the mass of diatomic oxygen gas. Analyze Would the savings be
large at this sale? How would
Operations Involving Fractions you determine the sale price?
Fractions are subject to the same type of operations as other numbers.
Remember that the number on the top of a fraction is the numerator
and the number on the bottom is the denominator. Figure 19 shows an
example of a fraction.
1. Addition and subtraction
Before two fractions can be added or subtracted, they must have a
common denominator. Common denominators are found by finding
the least common multiple of the two denominators. Finding the least ■ Figure 19 When two numbers
are divided, the one on top is the
common multiple is often as easy as multiplying the two denominators numerator and the one on the
together. For example, the least common multiple of the denominators bottom is the denominator. The
of the fractions _
1
and _
1
is 2 × 3 or 6. result is called the quotient. When
2 3 you perform calculations with
_1 + _1 = _3 × _1 + _2 × _1 = _3 + _2 = _5
2 3 3 ( 2 2 ) (3 6 ) 6 6
fractions, the quotient can be
expressed as a fraction or a decimal.
Sometimes, one of the denominators will divide into the other, which
Dividend
makes the larger of the two denominators the least common multiple. (numerator)
For example, the fractions _
1
and _
1
have 6 as the least common multiple
2 6
denominator.
Quotient = 9 × 10-4
8

_1 + _1 = _3 × _1 + _1 = _3 + _1 = _4 3 × 10
2 6 (
3 2 ) 6 6 6 6
In other situations, both denominators will divide into a number that is Divisor
not the product of the two. For example, the fractions _
1
and _
1
have the (denominator)
4 6
number 12 as their least common multiple denominator, rather than 24,
the product of the two denominators.
The least common denominator can be deduced as follows:
_1 + _1 = _4 × _1 + _6 × _1 = _ +_ =_ +_ =_
6 4 4( 6 6) ( 4
4
24
6
24 )2
12
3
12
5
12
Because both fractions can be simplified by dividing numerator and
denominator by 2, the least common multiple must be 12.

Math Handbook 965


©Elena Rooraid/Photo Edit
Math Handbook

2. Multiplication and division


When multiplying fractions, the numerators and denominators are
multiplied together as follows:
_1 × _2 = _
1×2 _
= 2 =_
1
2 3 2×3 6 3
Note the final answer is simplified by dividing the numerator and
denominator by 2.
When dividing fractions, the divisor is inverted and multiplied by
the dividend as follows:
_2 ÷ _1 = _2 × _2 = _
2×2 _
=4
3 2 3 1 3×1 3

PRACTICE Problems
18. Perform the indicated operation:
a. _ + _ e. _ × _
2 3 1 3
3 4 3 4
_
4
b. + _
3
f. _ × _
3 2
5 10 5 7
c. _ − _ _ _
1 1 5
g. ÷ 1
4 6 8 4
d. _ − _ h. _ ÷ _
7 5 4 3
8 6 9 8

Logarithms and Antilogarithms


When you perform calculations, such as the pH of the products in
Figure 20, you might need to use the log or antilog function on your
calculator. A logarithm (log) is the power or exponent to which a num-
ber, called a base, must be raised in order to obtain a given positive
number.
This textbook uses common logarithms based on a base of 10.
Comparison Therefore, the common log of any number is the power to which 10
Between is raised to equal that number. Examine Table 5 to compare logs and
Table 5
Exponents exponents. Note the log of each number is the power of 10 for the
and Logs exponent of that number. For example, the common log of 100 is 2,
and the common log of 0.01 is −2.
Exponent Logarithm
log 10 2 = 2
10 0 = 1 log 1 = 0 log 10 −2 = −2
10 1 = 10 log 10 = 1 A common log can be written in the following general form.
10 2 = 100 log 100 = 2 If 10 n = y, then log y = n.
10 -1 = 0.1 log 0.1 = -1 In each example in Table 5, the log can be determined by inspection.
10 -2 = 0.01 log 0.01 = -2 How do you express the common log of 5.34 × 10 5? Because logarithms
are exponents, they have the same properties as exponents, as shown in
Table 6 on the next page.

log 5.34 × 10 5 = log 5.34 + log 10 5

966 Math Handbook


Math Handbook

Table 6 Properties of Exponents


Exponential Notation Logarithm
10 A × 10 B = 10 A + B log (A × B) = log A + log B
10 A ÷ 10 B = 10 A − B log (A ÷ B) = log A − log B
AB (log A) × B

Significant figures and logarithms


Most scientific calculators have a button labeled log and, in most cases,
you enter the number and push the log button to display the log of the
number. Note that there is the same number of digits after the decimal
in the log as there are significant figures in the original number entered.
log 5.34 × 10 5 = log 5.34 + log 10 5 = 0.728 + 5 = 5.728
Antilogarithms
Suppose the pH of the aqueous ammonia in Figure 20 is 9.54 and you
are asked to find the concentration of the hydrogen ions in that solu-
tion. By definition, pH = −log [H +]. Compare this to the general equa-
tion for the common log.
Equation for pH: pH = −log [H +]
General equation: y = log 10 n
To solve the equation for [H +], you must follow the reverse process and
calculate the antilogarithm (antilog) of −9.54 to find [H +]. ■ Figure 20 Ammonia is a base.
Antilogs are the reverse of logs. To find the antilog, use a scientific That means its hydrogen ion
calculator to input the value of the log. Then, use the inverse function concentration is less than 10 −7M.
and press the log button. The number of digits after the decimal in the
log equals the number of significant figures in the antilog. An antilog
can be written in the following general form.
If n = antilog y, then y = 10 n.
Thus, [H +] = antilog(−9.54) = 10 −9.54 = 10 (0.46 − 10)
= 10 0.46 × 10 −10
= 2.9 × 10 −10M
Check the instruction manual for your calculator. The exact procedure
to calculate logs and antilogs might vary.

PRACTICE Problems
19. Find the log of each of the following numbers.
a. 367 b. 4078 c. X n
20. Find the antilog of each of the following logs.
a. 4.663 b. 2.367 c. 0.371 d. −1.588

Math Handbook 967


Geoff Butler
Table R-1 Color Key

Sodium/
Carbon Bromine
Other metals

Hydrogen Iodine Gold

Oxygen Sulfur Copper

Nitrogen Phosphorus Electron

Chlorine Silicon Proton

Fluorine Helium Neutron

Table R-2 Symbols and Abbreviations


α = rays from radioactive E = energy, electromotive force N = newton (force)
materials, helium nuclei F = force NA = Avogadro’s number
β = rays from radioactive G = free energy n = number of moles
materials, electrons g = gram (mass) P = pressure, power
γ = rays from radioactive Gy = gray (radiation) Pa = pascal (pressure)
materials, high-energy H = enthalpy q = heat
quanta Hz = hertz (frequency) Q sp = ion product
∆ = change in h = Planck’s constant R = ideal gas constant
λ = wavelength h = hour (time) S = entropy
ν = frequency J = joule (energy) s = second (time)
A = ampere (electric current) K = kelvin (temperature) Sv = sievert (absorbed radiation)
amu = atomic mass unit Ka = ionization constant (acid) T = temperature
Bq = becquerel (nuclear Kb = ionization constant (base) V = volume
disintegration) K eq = equilibrium constant V = volt (electric potential)
°C = Celsius degree (temperature) K sp = solubility product constant v = velocity
C = coulomb (quantity of kg = kilogram (mass) W = watt (power)
electricity)
M = molarity w = work
c = speed of light
m = mass, molality X = mole fraction
cd = candela (luminous intensity)
m = meter (length)
c = specific heat
mol = mole (amount)
D = density
min = minute (time)

968 Reference Tables


Reference Tables

Table R-3 Solubility Product Constants at 298 K


Compound K sp Compound K sp Compound K sp
Carbonates Halides Hydroxides
BaCO 3 2.6 × 10 -9 CaF 2 3.5 × 10 -11 Al(OH) 3 4.6 × 10 -33
CaCO 3 3.4 × 10 -9 PbBr 2 6.6 × 10 -6 Ca(OH) 2 5.0 × 10 -6
CuCO 3 2.5 × 10 -10 PbCl 2 1.7 × 10 -5 Cu(OH) 2 2.2 × 10 -20
PbCO 3 7.4 × 10 -14 PbF 2 3.3 × 10 -8 Fe(OH) 2 4.9 × 10 -17
MgCO 3 6.8 × 10 -6 PbI 2 9.8 × 10 -9 Fe(OH) 3 2.8 × 10 -39
Ag 2CO 3 8.5 × 10 -12 AgCl 1.8 × 10 -10 Mg(OH) 2 5.6 × 10 -12
ZnCO 3 1.5 × 10 -10 AgBr 5.4 × 10 -13 Zn(OH) 2 3 × 10 -17
Hg 2CO 3 3.6 × 10 -17 AgI 8.5 × 10 -17 Sulfates
Chromates Phosphates BaSO 4 1.1 × 10 -10
BaCrO 4 1.2 × 10 -10 AlPO 4 9.8 × 10 -21 CaSO 4 4.9 × 10 -5
PbCrO 4 2.3 × 10 -13 Ca 3(PO 4) 2 2.1 × 10 -33 PbSO 4 2.5 × 10 -8
Ag 2CrO 4 1.1 × 10 -12 Mg 3(PO 4) 2 1.0 × 10 -24 Ag 2SO 4 1.2 × 10 -5
Iodates Fe(PO 4) 2 1.0 × 10 -22 Arsenates
Cd(IO 3) 2 2.3 × 10 -8 Ni 3(PO 4) 2 4.7 × 10 -32 Pb 3(AsO 4) 2 4.0 × 10 -36

Table R-4 Physical Constants


Quantity Symbol Value
Atomic mass unit amu 1.6605 × 10 -27
Avogadro’s number N 6.022 × 10 23 particles/mole
Ideal gas constant R 8.31 L·kPa/mol·K
0.0821 L·atm/mol·K
62.4 mm Hg·L/mol·K
62.4 torr·L/mol·K
Mass of an electron me 9.109 × 10 -31 kg
5.485799 × 10 -4 amu
Mass of a neutron mn 1.67492 × 10 -27 kg
1.008665 amu
Mass of a proton mp 1.6726 × 10 -27 kg
1.007276 amu
Molar volume of ideal gas at STP V 22.414 L/mol
Normal boiling point of water Tb 373.15 K
100.0°C
Normal freezing point of water Tf 273.15 K
0.00°C
Planck’s constant h 6.6260693 × 10 -34 J·s
Speed of light in a vacuum c 2.997925 × 10 8 m/s

Reference Tables 969


Reference Tables

Table R-5 Names and Charges of Polyatomic Ions


1- 2- 3- 4-
Acetate, CH 3COO - Carbonate, CO 3 2- Arsenate, AsO 4 3- Hexacyanoferrate (II),
Amide, NH 2 - Chromate, CrO 4 2- Arsenite, AsO 3 3- Fe(CN) 6 4-
Astatate, AtO 3 - Dichromate, Cr 2O 7 2- Borate, BO 3 3- Orthosilicate, SiO 4 4-
Azide, N 3 - Hexachloroplatinate, Citrate, C 6H 5O 7 3- Diphosphate, P 2O 7 4-
Benzoate, C 6H 5COO - PtCl 6 2- Hexacyanoferrate (III),
Bismuthate, BiO 3 - Hexafluorosilicate, Sif 6 2- Fe(CN) 6 3-
Bromate, BrO 3 - Molybdate, MoO 4 2- Phosphate, PO 4 3-
Chlorate, ClO 3 - Oxalate, C 2O 4 2- Phosphite, PO 3 3-
Chlorite, ClO 2 - Peroxide, O 2 2- 1+ 2+
Cyanide, CN - Peroxydisulfate, S 2O 8 2- Ammonium, NH 4 + Mercury(I), Hg 2 2+
Formate, HCOO - Ruthenate, RuO 4 2- Neptunyl(V), NpO 2 + Neptunyl(VI), NpO 2 2+
Hydroxide, OH - Selenate, SeO 4 2- Plutonyl(V), PuO 2 + Plutonyl(VI), PuO 2 2+
Hypobromite, BrO - Selenite, SeO 3 2- Uranyl(V), UO 2 + Uranyl(VI), UO 2 2+
Hypochlorite, ClO - Silicate, SiO 3 2- Vanadyl(V), VO 2 + Vanadyl(IV), VO 2+
Hypophosphite, H 2PO 2 - Sulfate, SO 4 2-
Iodate, IO 3 - Sulfite, SO 3 2-
Nitrate, NO 3 - Tartrate, C 4H 4O 6 2-
Nitrite, NO 2 - Tellurate, TeO 4 2-
Perbromate, BrO 4 - Tellurite, TeO 3 2-
Perchlorate, ClO 4 - Tetraborate, B 4O 7 2-
Periodate, IO 4 - Thiosulfate, S 2O 3 2-
Permanganate, MnO 4 - Tungstate, WO 4 2-
Perrhenate, ReO 4 -
Thiocyanate, SCN -
Vanadate, VO 3 -

Table R-6 Ionization Constants


Ionization Ionization Ionization
Substance Substance Substance
Constant Constant Constant
HCOOH 1.77 × 10 -4 HBO 3 -2 1.58 × 10 -14 HS - 1.00 × 10 -19
CH 3COOH 1.75 × 10 -5 H 2CO 3 4.5 × 10 -7 HSO 4 - 1.02 × 10 -2
CH 2ClCOOH 1.36 × 10 -3 HCO 3 - 4.68 × 10 -11 H 2SO 3 1.29 × 10 -2
CHCl 2COOH 4.47 × 10 -2 HCN 6.17 × 10 -10 HSO 3 - 6.17 × 10 -8
CCl 3COOH 3.02 × 10 -1 HF 6.3 × 10 -4 HSeO 4 - 2.19 × 10 -2
HOOCCOOH 5.36 × 10 -2 HNO 2 5.62 × 10 -4 H 2SeO 3 2.29 × 10 -3
HOOCCOO - 1.55 × 10 -4 H 3PO 4 7.08 × 10 -3 HSeO 3 - 4.79 × 10 -9
CH 3CH 2COOH 1.34 × 10 -5 H 2PO 4 - 6.31 × 10 -8 HBrO 2.51 × 10 -9
C 6H 5COOH 6.25 × 10 -5 HPO 4 2- 4.17 × 10 -13 HClO 2.9 × 10 -8
H 3AsO 4 6.03 × 10 -3 H 3PO 3 5.01 × 10 -2 HIO 3.16 × 10 -11
H 2AsO 4 - 1.05 × 10 -7 H 2PO 2 - 2.00 × 10 -7 NH 3 5.62 × 10 -10
H 3BO 3 5.75 × 10 -10 H 3PO 2 5.89 × 10 -2 H 2NNH 2 7.94 × 10 -9
H 2BO 3 - 1.82 × 10 -13 H 2S 9.1 × 10 -8 H 2NOH 1.15 × 10 -6

970 Reference Tables


Table R-7 Properties of Elements

)
ion

r
)
)
om
)

t
(
eat

duct

mbe
ion

o
a
/mol

)
e
rust
id

M
es

bol
a

P)

ent
g Po
R
x

ea
a

ated
sion

i c
h
a
O

ic Ra

in
d

(°C) int
d

ng P
t
ific H
rizat

ic Nu
r

y (kJ ion

(°C) int
Ioniz

i
(pm) dius

m
l

(amu ass*
h’s C

s
Stat ation

Sym
oxid

i
e

Elem
En

e
at ST sured
r
indic tion

d
l
of Fu lpy
Enth

e
ajor

Melt
e

Bo
Po
e

Ato
Spec

Atom
Vapo lpy of
Abun

Dens
Eart ance in

First

Atom
M

En
a

(gas ity (g/cm 3


or to ments fr

Stan
s t

(for tential
Actinium Ac 89 [227] 1050 3300 10.07 --- 499 (3+)-2.13 14 0.120 400 --- 3+
Aluminum Al 13 26.981539 660.32 2519 2.7 143 577.5 (3+)-1.68 10.789 0.897 294 8.2 3+
Americium Am 95 [243] 1176 2607 13.67 --- 578 (3+)-2.07 14.39 0.110 --- --- 2+, 3+, 4+
Antimony Sb 51 121.760 630.6 1587 6.697 140 834 (3+)+0.15 19.79 0.207 68 2 × 10 -5 3+, 5+
Argon Ar 18 39.948 -189.3 -185.8 0.001784 98 1521 --- 1.18 0.520 6.43 1.5 × 10 -4 ---
Arsenic As 33 74.92160 817 614 5.727 120 947 (3+)+0.24 24.44 0.329 32.4 2.1 × 10 -4 3+, 5+
Astatine At 85 [210] 302 --- --- 140 920 (1-)+0.2 6 --- 40 --- 1-, 5+
Barium Ba 56 137.327 727 1870 3.51 222 502.9 (2+)-2.92 7.12 0.204 140 0.034 2+
Berkelium Bk 97 [247] 986 --- 14.78 --- 601 (3+)-2.01 --- --- --- --- 3+, 4+
Beryllium Be 4 9.012182 1287 2469 1.848 112 899.5 (2+)-1.97 7.895 1.825 297 2 × 10 -4 2+
Bismuth Bi 83 208.98040 271.3 1564 9.78 150 703 (3+)+0.317 11.145 0.122 151 3 × 10 -7 3+, 5+
Bohrium Bh 107 [264] --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Boron B 5 10.811 2076 3927 2.46 85 800.6 (3+)-0.89 50.2 1.026 480 9 × 10 -4 3+
Bromine Br 35 79.904 –7.3 59 3.119 114 1139.9 (1-)+1.065 10.57 0.474 29.96 3 × 10 -4 1-, 1+, 3+, 5+
Cadmium Cd 48 112.411 321.07 767 8.65 151 867.8 (2+)-0.4025 6.21 0.232 99.87 1.5 × 10 -5 2+
Calcium Ca 20 40.078 842 1484 1.55 197 589.8 (2+)-2.84 8.54 0.647 155 5.00 2+
Californium Cf 98 [251] 900 --- 15.1 --- 608 (3+)-1.93 --- --- --- --- 3+, 4+
Carbon C 6 12.0107 3527 4027 2.267 77 1086.5 (4-)+0.132 117 0.709 715 0.018 4-, 2+, 4+
Cerium Ce 58 140.116 795 3360 6.689 --- 534.4 (3+)-2.34 5.46 0.192 350 0.006 3+, 4+
Cesium Cs 55 132.905451 28.4 671 1.879 265 375.7 (1+)-2.923 2.09 0.242 65 1.9 × 10 -4 1+
Chlorine Cl 17 35.453 -101.5 -34 0.003 100 1251.2 (1-)+1.358 6.40 0.479 20.41 0.017 1-, 1+, 3+, 5+
Chromium Cr 24 51.9961 1907 2671 7.14 128 652.9 (3+)-0.74 21.0 0.449 339 0.014 2+, 3+, 6+
Cobalt Co 27 58.9332 1495 2927 8.9 125 760.4 (2+)-0.28 16.06 0.421 375 0.003 2+, 3+
Copper Cu 29 63.546 1084.62 2927 8.92 128 745.5 (2+)+0.34 12.93 0.385 300 0.0068 1+, 2+
Curium Cm 96 [247] 1340 3110 13.51 --- 581 (3+)-2.06 --- --- --- --- 3+, 4+
Darmstadtium Ds 110 [281] --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Dubnium Db 105 [262] --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Dysprosium Dy 66 162.5 1407 2567 8.551 --- 573 (3+)-2.29 11.06 0.173 280 6 × 10 -4 2+, 3+
Einsteinium Es 99 [252] 860 --- --- --- 619 (3+)-2 --- --- --- --- 3+
Erbium Er 68 167.259 1497 2868 9.066 --- 589.3 (3+)-2.32 19.9 0.168 285 3 × 10 -4 3+
Europium Eu 63 151.964 826 1527 5.244 --- 547.1 (3+)-1.99 9.21 0.182 175 1.8 × 10 -4 2+, 3+
Fermium Fm 100 [257] 1527 --- --- --- 627 (3+)-1.96 --- --- --- --- 2+, 3+
Fluorine F 9 18.9984032 -219.62 -188.12 0.001696 71 1681 (1-)+2.87 0.51 0.824 6.62 0.054 1-
Francium Fr 87 [223] --- --- --- 270 380 (1+)-2.92 2 --- 65 --- 1+
Gadolinium Gd 64 157.25 1312 3250 7.901 --- 593.4 (3+)-2.28 10.0 0.236 305 5.2 × 10 -4 3+
Gallium Ga 31 69.723 29.76 2204 5.904 135 578.8 (3+)-0.53 5.576 0.373 254 0.0019 1+, 3+
Germanium Ge 32 72.64 938.3 2820 5.323 122 762 (4+)+0.124 36.94 0.320 334 1.4 × 10 -4 2+, 4+
Gold Au 79 196.966569 1064 2856 19.3 144 890.1 (3+)+1.52 12.72 0.129 324 3 × 10 -7 1+, 3+
*[ ] indicates mass of longest-lived isotope

Reference Tables 971


Reference Tables
972
Table R-7 Properties of Elements (continued)

)
ion

r
)
)
om
)

t
(
eat

duct

mbe
ion

o
a
/mol

)
e
rust
id

M
es

bol
a

P)

ent
g Po
R
x

ea
a

ated
sion

Reference Tables
i
h
a
O

ic Ra

in
d

(°C) int
d

ng P
t
ific H
rizat

ic Nu
r

y (kJ ion

(°C) int
Ioniz

i
(pm) dius

m
l

(amu ass*
h’s C

s
Stat ation

Sym
oxid

i
e

Elem
En

e
at ST sured
r
indic tion

d
l
of Fu lpy
Enth

e
ajor

Melt
e

Bo
Po
e

Ato
Spec

Atom
Vapo lpy of
Abun

Dens
Eart ance in

First

Atom
M

En
a

(gas ity (g/cm 3


Reference Tables

or to ments fr

Stan
s t

(for tential
Hafnium Hf 72 178.49 2233 4603 13.31 159 658.5 (4+)-1.70 27.2 0.144 630 3 × 10 -4 4+
Hassium Hs 108 [277] -272.2 --- 0.0001785 --- 2372.3 --- --- --- 0.083 5.5 × 10 -4 ---
-269.7
Helium He 2 4.002602 -268.93 0.00017847 31 2372 --- 0.021 5.193 0.08 --- ---
(2536 kPa)
Holmium Ho 67 164.93032 1461 2720 8.795 --- 581 (3+)-2.33 17.0 0.165 265 1.2 × 10 -4 3+
Hydrogen H I 1.00794 -259.14 -252.87 0.0000899 37 1312 (1+)0.000 0.12 14.304 0.90 0.15 1-, 1+
Indium In 49 114.818 156.6 2072 7.31 167 558.3 (3+)-0.3382 3.281 0.233 230 1.6 × 10 -5 1+, 3+
Iodine I 53 126.90447 113.7 184.3 4.94 133 1008.4 (1-)+0.535 15.52 0.214 41.57 4.9 × 10 -5 1-, 1+, 5+, 7+
Iridium Ir 77 192.217 2466 4428 22.65 136 880 (4+)+0.926 41.12 0.131 560 4 × 10 -7 3+, 4+, 5+
Iron Fe 26 55.845 1538 2861 7.874 126 762.5 (3+)-0.04 13.81 0.449 347 6.3 2+, 3+
Krypton Kr 36 83.798 -157.36 -153.22 0.0037493 112 1350.8 --- 1.64 0.248 9.08 1.5 × 10 -7 ---
Lanthanum La 57 138.9055 920 3470 6.146 187 538.1 (3+)-2.38 6.20 0.195 400 0.0034 3+
Lawrencium Lr 103 [262] 1627 --- --- --- --- (3+)-2 --- --- --- --- 3+
Lead Pb 82 207.2 327.46 1749 11.34 146 715.6 (2+)-0.1251 4.782 0.130 179.5 0.001 2+, 4+
Lithium Li 3 6.941 180.54 1342 0.535 152 520.2 (1+)-3.040 3.00 3.582 147 0.0017 1+
Lutetium Lu 71 174.967 1652 3402 9.841 160 523.5 (3+)-2.3 22 0.154 415 5.6 × 10 -5 3+
Magnesium Mg 12 24.305 650 1090 1.738 160 737.7 (2+)-2.356 8.48 1.023 128 2.9 2+
Manganese Mn 25 54.938045 1246 2061 7.47 127 717.3 (2+)-1.18 12.91 0.479 220 0.11 2+, 3+, 4+, 6+, 7+
Meitnerium Mt 109 [268] --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Mendelevium Md 101 [258] 827 --- --- --- 635 (3+)-1.7 --- --- --- --- 2+, 3+
Mercury Hg 80 200.59 -38.83 356.73 13.6 151 1007.1 (2+)+0.8535 2.29 0.140 59.11 6.7 × 10 -6 1+, 2+
Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94 2623 4639 10.28 139 684.3 (6+)+0.114 37.48 0.251 600 1.1 × 10 -4 4+, 5+, 6+
Neodymium Nd 60 144.24 1024 3100 6.8 --- 533.1 (3+)-2.32 7.14 0.190 285 0.0033 2+,3+
Neon Ne 10 20.1797 -248.59 -246.08 0.0008999 71 2080.7 --- 0.328 1.030 1.71 --- ---
Neptunium Np 93 [237] 637 4000 20.45 --- 604.5 (4+)-1.30 3.20 0.120 335 --- 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+
Nickel Ni 28 58.6934 1455 2913 8.908 124 737.1 (2+)-0.257 17.04 0.444 378 0.009 2+, 3+, 4+
Niobium Nb 41 92.90638 2477 4744 8.57 146 652.1 (5+)-0.65 30 0.265 690 0.0017 4+, 5+
3-, 2-, 1-, 1+, 2+,
Nitrogen N 7 14.0067 -210.1 -195.79 0.0012506 75 1402.3 (2-)-0.23 0.71 1.040 5.57 0.002
3+, 4+, 5+
Nobelium No 102 [259] 827 --- --- --- 642 (2+)-2.5 --- --- --- --- 2+, 3+
Osmium Os 76 190.23 3033 5012 22.61 135 840 (4+)+0.687 57.85 0.130 630 1.8 × 10 -7 4+, 6+, 8+
Oxygen 0 8 15.9994 -218.3 -182.9 0.001429 73 1313.9 (2-)+1.23 0.44 0.918 6.82 46.0 2-, 1-
Palladium Pd 46 106.42 1554.9 2963 12.023 137 804.4 (2+)+0.915 16.74 0.246 380 6.3 × 10 -7 2+, 4+
Phosphorus P 15 30.973462 44.2 277 1.823 110 1011.8 (3-)-0.063 0.66 0.769 12.4 0.10 3-, 3+, 5+
Platinum Pt 78 195.078 1768.3 3825 21.09 138 870 (4+)+1.15 22.17 0.133 490 3.7 × 10 -7 2+, 4+
Plutonium Pu 94 [244] 639.4 3230 19.816 --- 584.7 (4+)-1.25 2.82 0.130 325 --- 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+
Polonium Po 84 [209] 254 962 9.196 168 812.1 (4+)+0.73 13 --- 100 --- 2-, 2+, 4+, 6+

*[ ] indicates mass of longest-lived isotope


Table R-7 Properties of Elements (continued)
Potassium K 19 39.0983 63.38 759 0.856 227 418.8 (1+)-2.925 2.33 0.757 76.9 1.50 1+
Praseodymium Pr 59 140.90765 935 3290 6.64 --- 527 (3+)-2.35 6.89 0.193 330 8.7 × 10 -4 3+, 4+
Promethium Pm 61 [145] 1100 3000 7.264 --- 540 (3+)-2.29 7.7 --- 290 --- 3+
Protactinium Pa 91 231.03588 1568 --- 15.37 --- 568 (5+)-1.19 12.34 --- 470 trace 3+, 4+, 5+
Radium Ra 88 [226] 700 1737 5 220 509.3 (2+)-2.916 8 0.095 125 trace 2+
Radon Rn 86 [222] -71 -61.7 0.00973 140 1037 --- 3 0.094 17 --- 3+
Rhenium Re 75 186.207 3186 5596 21.02 137 760 (7+)+0.415 60.43 0.137 705 2.6 × 10 -7 3+, 4+, 6+, 7+
Rhodium Rh 45 102.9055 1964 3695 12.45 134 719.7 (3+)+0.76 26.59 0.243 495 7 × 10 -8 3+, 4+, 5+
Roentgenium Rg 111 [272] --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Rubidium Rb 37 85.4678 39.31 688 1.532 248 403 (1+)-2.924 2.19 0.363 72 0.006 1+
Ruthenium Ru 44 101.07 2334 4150 12.37 134 710.2 (4+)+0.68 38.59 0.238 580 1 × 10 -7 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+
Rutherfordium Rf 104 [261] --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Samarium Sm 62 150.36 1072 1803 7.353 --- 544.5 (3+)-2.3 8.62 0.197 175 6 × 10 -4 2+, 3+
Scandium Sc 21 44.95591 1541 2830 2.985 162 633.1 (3+)-2.03 14.1 0.568 318 0.0026 3+
Seaborgium Sg 106 [266] --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Selenium Se 34 78.96 221 685 4.819 119 941 (1-)-0.11 6.69 0.321 95.48 5 × 10 -6 2-, 2+, 4+, 6+
Silicon Si 14 28.0588 1414 2900 2.33 118 786.5 (4-)-0.143 50.21 0.712 359 27.0 2+, 4+
Silver Ag 47 107.8682 961.78 2162 10.49 144 731 (1+)+0.7991 11.28 0.235 255 8 × 10 -6 1+
Sodium Na 11 22.989769 97.72 883 0.968 186 495.8 (1+)-2.713 2.60 1.228 97.7 2.3 1+
Strontium Sr 38 87.62 777 1382 2.63 215 549.5 (2+)-2.89 7.43 0.306 137 0.036 2+
Sulfur S 16 32.065 115.2 444.7 1.96 103 999.6 (2-)-0.14 1.72 0.708 45 0.042 2-, 4+, 6+
Tantalum Ta 73 180.9479 3017 5458 16.65 146 761 (5+)-0.81 36.57 0.140 735 1.7 × 10 -4 4+, 5+
Technetium Tc 43 [98] 2157 4265 11.5 136 702 (6+)+0.83 33.29 0.240 550 --- 2+, 4+, 6+, 7+
Tellurium Te 52 127.60 449.51 988 6.24 142 869.3 (2-)-1.14 17.49 0.202 114.1 1 × 10 -7 2-, 2+, 4+, 6+
Terbium Tb 65 158.92534 1356 3230 8.219 --- 565.8 (3+)-2.31 10.15 0.182 295 1 × 10 -4 3+, 4+
Thallium Tl 81 204.3822 304 1473 11.85 170 589.4 (1+)-0.3363 4.14 0.129 165 5.3 × 10 -5 1+, 3+
Thorium Th 90 232.0381 1842 4820 11.72 --- 587 (4+)-1.83 13.81 0.118 530 6 × 10 -4 4+
Thulium Tm 69 168.93421 1545 1950 9.321 --- 596.7 (3+)-2.32 16.84 0.160 250 5 × 10 -5 ---
Tin Sn 50 118.710 231.93 2602 7.31 140 708.6 (4+)+0.15 7.173 0.227 290 2.2 × 10 -4 2+, 4+
Titanium Ti 22 47.867 1668 3287 4.507 147 658.8 (4+)-0.86 14.15 0.523 425 0.66 2+, 3+, 4+
Tungsten W 74 183.84 3422 5555 19.25 139 770 (6+)-0.09 52.31 0.132 800 1.1 × 10 -4 4+, 5+, 6+
Ununbium Uub 112 [285] --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Ununhexium Uuh 116 [291] --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Ununoctium Uuo 118 [294] --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Ununpentium Uup 115 [288] --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Ununquadium Uuq 114 [289] --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Ununtrium Uut 113 [284] --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Uranium U 92 238.02891 1132.2 3927 19.05 --- 597.6 (4+)-1.38 9.14 0.116 420 1.8 × 10 -4 3+, 4+, 5+, 6+
Vanadium V 23 50.9415 1910 3407 6.11 134 650.9 (5+)-0.236 21.5 0.489 453 0.019 2+, 3+, 4+, 5+
Xenon Xe 54 131.293 -111.7 -108 0.0058971 131 1170.4 (6+)+2.12 2.27 0.158 12.57 trace ---
Ytterbium Yb 70 173.04 824 1196 6.57 --- 603.4 (3+)-2.22 7.66 0.155 160 2.8 × 10 -4 2+, 3+
Yttrium Y 39 88.90585 1526 3336 4.472 180 600 (3+)-2.37 11.4 0.298 380 0.0029 3+
Zinc Zn 30 65.409 419.53 907 7.14 134 906.4 (2+)-0.7926 7.068 0.388 119 0.0079 2+
Zirconium Zr 40 91.224 1855 4409 6.511 160 640.1 (4+)-1.55 21.00 0.278 580 0.013 4+
*[ ] indicates mass of longest-lived isotope

Reference Tables 973


Reference Tables
Reference Tables

Table R-8 Solubility Guidelines


A substance is considered soluble if more than three grams of the substance dissolves in 100 mL of water. The more
common rules are listed below.
1. All common salts of the group 1 elements and ammonium ions are soluble.
2. All common acetates and nitrates are soluble.
3. All binary compounds of group 17 elements (other than F) with metals are soluble except those of silver, mercury(I),
and lead.
4. All sulfates are soluble except those of barium, strontium, lead, calcium, silver, and mercury(I).
5. Except for those in Rule 1, carbonates, hydroxides, oxides, sulfides, and phoshates are insoluble.

Solubility of Compounds in Water

e
e

rat
e
ate

hat
nat

xid
ate

ide
de
e

e
e
tat

rom

ide
ide

chl

osp
dro

fat
rbo
mi

rat

ide
lor

lor
Ace

Bro

Per

Suf
Iod

Sul
Nit

Ox
Hy
Ch

Ch

Ch
Ca

Ph
Aluminum S S — S S — I S S I S I S D
Ammonium S S S S S S S S S — S S S S
Barium S S P S S I S S S S S I I D
Calcium S S P S S S S S S P S P P P
Copper(II) S S — S S — I — S I S I S I
Hydrogen S S — S S — — S S S S S S S
Iron(II) — S P S S — I S S I S I S I
Iron(III) — S — S S I I S S I S P P D
Lead(II) S S — S S I P P S P S I P I
Lithium S S S S S ? S S S S S P S S
Magnesium S S P S S S I S S I S P S D
Manganese(II) S S P S S — I S S I S P S I
Mercury(I) P I I S I P — I S I S I P I
Mercury(II) S S — S S P I P S P S I D I
Potassium S S S S S S S S S S S S S S
Silver P I I S I P — I S P S I P I
Sodium S S S S S S S S S D S S S S
Strontium S S P S S P S S S S S I P S
Tin(II) D S — S S O S D I S I S I
Tin(IV) S S — — S S I D — I S — S I
Zinc S S P S S P P S S P S I S I
S – soluble P – partially soluble I – insoluble D – decomposes

974 Reference Tables


Reference Tables

Table R-9 Specific Heat Values (J/g·K)


Substance c Substance c Substance c
AIF 3 0.8948 Fe 3C 0.5898 NaVO 3 1.540
BaTiO 3 0.79418 FeWO 4 0.37735 Ni(CO) 4 1.198
BeO 1.020 HI 0.22795 Pbl 2 0.1678
CaC 2 0.9785 K 2CO 3 0.82797 SF 6 0.6660
CaSO 4 0.7320 MgCO 3 0.8957 SiC 0.6699
CCl 4 0.85651 Mg(OH) 2 1.321 SiO 2 0.7395
CH 3OH 2.55 MgSO 4 0.8015 SrCl 2 0.4769
CH 2OHCH 2OH 2.413 MnS 0.5742 Tb 2O 3 0.3168
CH 3CH 2OH 2.4194 Na 2CO 3 1.0595 TiCl 4 0.76535
CdO 0.3382 NaF 1.116 Y 2O 3 0.45397
CuSO 4·5H 2O 1.12

Table R-10 Molal Freezing Point Depression and


Boiling Point Elevation Constants
K fp Freezing Point K bp Boiling Point
Substance (C°kg/mol) (°C) (C°kg/mol) (°C)
Acetic acid 3.90 16.66 3.22 117.90
Benzene 5.12 5.533 2.53 80.100
Camphor 37.7 178.75 5.611 207.42
Cyclohexane 20.0 6.54 2.75 80.725
Cyclohexanol 39.3 25.15 --- ---
Nitrobenzene 6.852 5.76 5.24 210.8
Phenol 7.40 40.90 3.60 181.839
Water 1.86 0.000 0.512 100.000

Table R-11 Heat of Formation Values


∆H ◦f (kJ/mol) (concentration of aqueous solutions is 1M)
Substance ∆H ◦f Substance ∆H ◦f Substance ∆H ◦f Substance ∆H ◦f
Ag(s) 0 CsCl(s) -443.0 H 3PO 4(aq) -1271.7 NaBr(s) -361.1
AgCl(s) -127.0 Cs 2SO 4(s) -1443.0 H 2S(g) -20.6 NaCl(s) -411.2
AgCN(s) 146.0 Cul(s) -67.8 H 2SO 3(aq) -608.8 NaHCO 3(s) -950.8
Al 2O 3 -1675.7 CuS(s) -53.1 H 2SO 4(aq) -814.0 NaNO 3(s) -467.9
BaCl 2(aq) -855.0 Cu 2S(s) -79.5 HgCl 2(s) -224.3 NaOH(s) -425.8
BaSO 4 -1473.2 CuSO 4(s) -771.4 Hg 2Cl 2(s) -265.4 Na 2CO 3(s) -1130.7
BeO(s) -609.4 F 2(g) 0 Hg 2SO 4(s) -743.1 Na 2S(s) -364.8
BiCl 3(s) -379.1 FeCl 3(s) -399.49 l 2(s) 0 Na 2SO 4(s) -1387.1
Bi 2S 3(s) -143.1 FeO(s) -272.0 K(s) 0 NH 4Cl(s) -314.4
Br 2 0 FeS(s) -100.0 KBr(s) -393.8 O 2(g) 0
CCl 4(I) -128.2 Fe 2O 3(s) -824.2 KMnO 4(s) -837.2 P 4O 6(s) -1640.1
CH 4(g) -74.6 Fe 3O 4(s) -1118.4 KOH -424.6 P 4O 10(s) -2984.0
C 2H 2(g) 227.4 H(g) 218.0 LiBr(s) -351.2 PbBr 2(s) -278.7
C 2H 4(g) 52.4 H 2(g) 0 LiOH(s) -487.5 PbCl 2(s) -359.4
C 2H 6(g) -84.0 HBr(g) -36.3 Mn(s) 0 SF 6(g) -1220.5
CO(g) -110.5 HCl(g) -92.3 MnCl 2(aq) -555.0 SO 2(g) -296.8
CO 2(g) -393.5 HCl(aq) -167.159 Mn(NO 3) 2(aq) -635.5 SO 3(g) -454.5
CS 2(I) 89.0 HCN(aq) 108.9 MnO 2(s) -520.0 SrO(s) -592.0
Ca(s) 0 HCHO -108.6 MnS(s) -214.2 TiO 2(s) -944.0
CaCO 3(s) -1206.9 HCOOH -425.0 N 2(g) 0 Tll(s) -123.8
CaO(s) -634.9 HF(g) -273.3 NH 3(g) -45.9 UCl 4(s) -1019.2
Ca(OH) 2(s) -985.2 Hl(g) 26.5 NH 4Br(s) -270.8 UCl 6(s) -1092.0
Cl 2(g) 0 H 2O(I) -285.8 NO(g) 91.3 Zn(s) 0
Co 3O 4(s) -891.0 H 2O(g) -241.8 NO 2(g) 33.2 ZnCl 2(aq) -415.1
CoO(s) -237.9 H 2O 2(I) -187.8 N 2O(g) 81.6 ZnO(s) -350.5
Cr 2O 3(s) -1139.7 H 3PO 2(I) -595.4 Na(s) 0 ZnSO 4(s) -982.8

Reference Tables 975


Chapter 2
Section 2.1 1. The density of a substance is 48 g/mL. What is the volume of a sample that
is 19.2 g?
2. A 2.00-mL sample of Substance A has a density of 18.4 g/mL, and a
5.00-mL sample of Substance B has a density of 35.5 g/mL. Do you have
an equal mass of Substances A and B?
Section 2.2 3. Express the following quantities in scientific notation.
a. 5,453,000 m e. 34,800 s
b. 300.8 kg f. 332,080,000 cm
c. 0.00536 ng g. 0.0002383 ms
d. 0.0120325 km h. 0.3048 mL

4. Solve the following problems. Express your answers in scientific notation.


a. 3 × 10 2 m + 5 × 10 2 m
b. 8 × 10 −5 m + 4 × 10 −5 m
c. 6.0 × 10 5 m + 2.38 × 10 6 m
d. 2.3 × 10 -3 L + 5.78 × 10 -2 L
e. 2.56 × 10 2 g - 1.48 × 10 2 g
f. 5.34 × 10 -3 L - 3.98 × 10 -3 L
g. 7.623 × 10 5 nm - 8.32 × 10 4 nm
h. 9.052 × 10 -2 s - 3.61 × 10 -3 s

5. Solve the following problems. Express your answers in scientific notation.


a. (8 × 10 3 m) × (1 × 10 5 m)
b. (4 × 10 2 m) × (2 × 10 4 m)
c. (5 × 10 -3 m) × (3 × 10 4 m)
d. (3 × 10 -4 m) × (3 × 10 -2 m)
e. (8 × 10 4 g) ÷ (4 × 10 3 mL)
f. (6 × 10 -3 g) ÷ (2 × 10 -1 mL)
g. (1.8 × 10 -2 g) ÷ (9 × 10 -5 mL)
h. (4 × 10 -4 g) ÷ (1 × 10 3 mL)

6. Perform the following conversions.


a. 96 kg to g e. 188 dL to L
b. 155 mg to g f. 3600 m to km
c. 15 cg to kg g. 24 g to pg
d. 584 µs to s h. 85 cm to nm
7. How many minutes are there in 5 days?

8. A car is traveling at 118 km/h. What is its speed in Mm/h?

Section 2.3 9. Three measurements of 34.5 m, 38.4 m, and 35.3 m are taken. If the
accepted value of the measurement is 36.7 m, what is the percent error for
each measurement?
10. Three measurements of 12.3 mL, 12.5 mL, and 13.1 mL are taken. The
accepted value for each measurement is 12.8 mL. Calculate the percent
error for each measurement.

976 Supplemental Practice Problems


Supplemental Practice Problems

11. Determine the number of significant figures in each measurement.


a. 340,438 g e. 1.040 s
b. 87,000 ms f. 0.0483 m
c. 4080 kg g. 0.2080 mL
d. 961,083,110 m h. 0.0000481 g

12. Write the following in three significant figures.


a. 0.0030850 km c. 5808 mL
b. 3.0823 g d. 34.654 mg

13. Write the answers in scientific notation.


a. 0.005832 g c. 0.0005800 km
b. 386,808 ns d. 2086 L

14. Use rounding rules when you complete the following.


a. 34.3 m + 35.8 m + 33.7 m
b. 0.056 kg + 0.0783 kg + 0.0323 kg
c. 309.1 mL + 158.02 mL + 238.1 mL
d. 1.03 mg + 2.58 mg + 4.385 mg
e. 8.376 km - 6.153 km
f. 34.24 s - 12.4 s
g. 804.9 dm - 342.0 dm
h. 6.38 × 10 2 m - 1.57 × 10 2 m

15. Complete the following calculations. Round off the answers to the correct
number of significant figures.
a. 34.3 cm × 12 cm d. 45.5 g ÷ 15.5 mL
b. 0.054 mm × 0.3804 mm e. 35.43 g ÷ 24.84 mL
c. 45.1 km × 13.4 km f. 0.0482 g ÷ 0.003146 mL

Chapter 3
Section 3.2 1. A 3.5-kg iron shovel is left outside through the winter. The shovel, now
orange with rust, is rediscovered in the spring. Its mass is 3.7 kg. How
much oxygen combined with the iron?
2. When 5.0 g of tin reacts with hydrochloric acid, the mass of the products,
tin chloride and hydrogen, totals 8.1 g. How many grams of hydrochloric
acid were used?
Section 3.4 3. A compound is analyzed and found to be 50.0% sulfur and 50.0% oxygen.
If the total amount of the sulfur oxide compound is 12.5 g, how many
grams of sulfur are there?
4. Two unknown compounds are analyzed. Compound I contains 5.63 g of
tin and 3.37 g of chlorine, while Compound II contains 2.5 g of tin and
2.98 g of chlorine. Are the compounds the same?

Chapter 4
Section 4.3 1. How many protons and electrons are in each of the following atoms?
a. gallium d. calcium
b. silicon e. molybdenum
c. cesium f. titanium

Supplemental Practice Problems 977


Supplemental Practice Problems

2. What is the atomic number of each of the following elements?


a. an atom that contains 37 electrons
b. an atom that contains 72 protons
c. an atom that contains 1 electron
d. an atom that contains 85 protons

3. Use the periodic table to write the name and the symbol for each element
identified in Question 2.
4. An isotope of copper contains 29 electrons, 29 protons, and 36 neutrons.
What is the mass number of this isotope?
5. An isotope of uranium contains 92 electrons and 144 neutrons. What is the
mass number of this isotope?
6. Use the periodic table to write the symbols for each of the following
elements. Then, determine the number of electrons, protons, and neutrons
each contains.
a. yttrium-88 d. bromine-79
b. arsenic-75 e. gold-197
c. xenon-129 f. helium-4

7. An element has two naturally occurring isotopes: 14X and 15X. 14X has a
mass of 14.00307 amu and a relative abundance of 99.63%. 15X has a mass
of 15.00011 amu and a relative abundance of 0.37%. Identify the unknown
element.
8. Silver has two naturally occurring isotopes. Ag-107 has an abundance of
51.82% and a mass of 106.9 amu. Ag-109 has a relative abundance of
48.18% and a mass of 108.9 amu. Calculate the atomic mass of silver.

Chapter 5
Section 5.1 1. What is the frequency of an electromagnetic wave that has a wavelength of
4.55 × 10 −3 m? 1.00 × 10 −12 m?
2. Calculate the wavelength of an electromagnetic wave with a frequency of
8.68 × 10 16 Hz; 5.0 × 10 14 Hz; and 1.00 × 10 6 Hz.
3. What is the energy of a quantum of visible light having a frequency of
5.45 × 10 14 s −1?
4. An X ray has a frequency of 1.28 × 10 18 s −1. What is the energy of a quan-
tum of the X ray?
Section 5.3 5. Write the ground-state electron configuration for the following.
a. nickel c. boron
b. cesium d. krypton

6. What element has the following ground-state electron configuration


[He]2s 2? [Xe]6s 24f 145d 106p 1?
7. Which element in period 4 has four electrons in its electron-dot structure?

8. Which element in period 2 has six electrons in its electron-dot structure?

9. Draw the electron-dot structure for each element in Question 5.

978 Supplemental Practice Problems


Supplemental Practice Problems

Chapter 6
Section 6.2 1. Identify the group, period, and block of an atom with the following elec-
tron configurations.
a. [He]2s 22p 1 b. [Kr]5s 24d 5 c. [Xe]6s 25f 146d 5

2. Write the electron configuration for the element fitting each of the following
descriptions.
a. a noble gas in the first period
b. a group 4 element in the fifth period
c. a group 14 element in the sixth period
d. a group 1 element in the seventh period

Section 6.3 3. Using the periodic table, rank each group of elements in order of
increasing size.
a. calcium, magnesium, and strontium
b. oxygen, lithium, and fluorine
c. fluorine, cesium, and calcium
d. selenium, chlorine, and tellurium
e. iodine, krypton, and beryllium

Chapter 7
Section 7.2 1. Explain the formation of an ionic compound from zinc and chlorine.

2. Explain the formation of an ionic compound from barium and nitrogen.

Section 7.3 3. Write the chemical formula of an ionic compound composed of the follow-
ing pairs of ions.
a. calcium and arsenide
b. iron(III) and chloride
c. magnesium and sulfide
d. barium and iodide
e. gallium and phosphide

4. Determine the formula for ionic compounds composed of the following


ions.
a. copper(II) and acetate c. calcium and hydroxide
b. ammonium and phosphate d. gold(III) and cyanide

5. Name the following compounds.


a. Co(OH) 2 c. Na 3PO 4 e. SrI 2
b. Ca(ClO 3) 2 d. K 2Cr 2O 7 f. HgF 2

Chapter 8
Section 8.1 1. Draw the Lewis structure for each of the following molecules.
a. CCl 2H 2 b. HF c. PCl 3 d. CH 4

Section 8.2 2. Name the following binary compounds.


a. S 4N 2 c. SF 6 e. SiO 2
b. OCl 2 d. NO f. IF 7

3. Name the following acids: H 3PO 4, HBr, HNO 3.

Supplemental Practice Problems 979


Supplemental Practice Problems

Section 8.3 4. Draw the Lewis structure for each of the following.
a. CO c. N 2O e. SiO 2
b. CH 2O d. OCl 2 f. AlBr 3

5. Draw the Lewis resonance structure for CO 3 2−.

6. Draw the Lewis resonance structure for CH 3CO 2 −.

7. Draw the Lewis structure for NO and IF 4 −.

Section 8.4 8. Determine the molecular geometry, bond angles, and hybrid of each
molecule in Question 4.
Section 8.5 9. Determine whether each of the following molecules is polar or nonpolar.
a. CH 2O b. BF 3 c. SiH 4 d. H 2S

Chapter 9
Section 9.1 Write skeleton equations for the following reactions.
1. Solid barium and oxygen gas react to produce solid barium oxide.

2. Solid iron and aqueous hydrogen sulfate react to produce aqueous iron(III)
sulfate and gaseous hydrogen.
Write balanced chemical equations for the following reactions.
3. Liquid bromine reacts with solid phosphorus (P 4) to produce solid
diphosphorus pentabromide.
4. Aqueous lead(II) nitrate reacts with aqueous potassium iodide to produce
solid lead(II) iodide and aqueous potassium nitrate.
5. Solid carbon reacts with gaseous fluorine to produce gaseous carbon
tetrafluoride.
6. Aqueous carbonic acid reacts to produce liquid water and gaseous carbon
dioxide.
7. Gaseous hydrogen chloride reacts with gaseous ammonia to produce solid
ammonium chloride.
8. Solid copper(II) sulfide reacts with aqueous nitric acid to produce aqueous
copper(II) sulfate, liquid water, and nitrogen dioxide gas.
Section 9.2 Classify each of the following reactions into as many types as possible.
9. 2Mo(s) + 3O 2(g) → 2MoO 3(s)
10. N 2H 4(l) + 3O 2(g) → 2NO 2(g) + 2H 2O(l)

Write balanced chemical equations for the following decomposition


reactions.
11. Aqueous hydrogen chlorite decomposes to produce water and gaseous
chlorine(III) oxide.
12. Calcium carbonate(s) decomposes to produce calcium oxide(s) and carbon
dioxide(g).
Use the activity series to predict whether each of the following single-
replacement reactions will occur.
13. Al(s) + FeCl 3(aq) → AlCl 3(aq) + Fe(s)

980 Supplemental Practice Problems


Supplemental Practice Problems

14. Br 2(l) + 2LiI(aq) → 2LiBr(aq) + I 2(aq)

15. Cu(s) + MgSO 4(aq) → Mg(s) + CuSO 4(aq)

Write chemical equations for the following chemical reactions.


16. Bismuth(III) nitrate(aq) reacts with sodium sulfide(aq), yielding
bismuth(III) sulfide(s) plus sodium nitrate(aq).
17. Magnesium chloride(aq) reacts with potassium carbonate(aq), yielding
magnesium carbonate(s) plus potassium chloride(aq).
Section 9.3 Write net ionic equations for the following reactions.
18. Aqueous solutions of barium chloride and sodium fluoride are mixed to
form a precipitate of barium fluoride.
19. Aqueous solutions of copper(I) nitrate and potassium sulfide are mixed to
form insoluble copper(I) sulfide.
20. Hydrobromic acid reacts with aqueous lithium hydroxide.

21. Perchloric acid reacts with aqueous rubidium hydroxide.

22. Nitric acid reacts with aqueous sodium carbonate.

23. Hydrochloric acid reacts with aqueous lithium cyanide.

Chapter 10
Section 10.1 1. Determine the number of atoms in 3.75 mol of Fe.

2. Calculate the number of formula units in 12.5 mol of CaCO 3.

3. How many moles of CaCl 2 contain 1.26 × 10 24 formula units of CaCl 2?

4. How many moles of Ag contain 4.59 × 10 25 atoms of Ag?

Section 10.2 5. Determine the mass in grams of 0.0458 mol of sulfur.

6. Calculate the mass in grams of 2.56 × 10 −3 mol of iron.

7. Determine the mass in grams of 125 mol of neon.

8. How many moles of titanium are contained in 71.4 g?

9. How many moles of lead are equivalent to 9.51 × 10 3 g of Pb?

10. Determine the number of moles of arsenic in 1.90 g of As.

11. Determine the number of atoms in 4.56 × 10 −2 g of sodium.

12. How many atoms of gallium are in 2.85 × 10 3 g of gallium?

13. Determine the mass in grams of 5.65 × 10 24 atoms of Se.

14. What is the mass in grams of 3.75 × 10 21 atoms of Li?

Section 10.3 15. How many moles of each element are in 0.0250 mol of K 2CrO 4?

16. How many moles of ammonium ions are in 4.50 mol of (NH 4) 2CO 3?

17. Determine the molar mass of silver nitrate.

18. Calculate the molar mass of acetic acid (CH 3COOH).

Supplemental Practice Problems 981


Supplemental Practice Problems

19. Determine the mass of 8.57 mol of sodium dichromate (Na 2Cr 2O 7).

20. Calculate the mass of 42.5 mol of potassium cyanide.

21. Determine the number of moles present in 456 g of Cu(NO 3) 2.

22. Calculate the number of moles in 5.67 g of potassium hydroxide.

23. Calculate the number of each atom in 40.0 g of methanol (CH 3OH).

24. What mass of sodium hydroxide contains 4.58 × 10 23 formula units?

Section 10.4 25. What is the percent by mass of each element in sucrose (C 12H 22O 11)?

26. Which compound has a greater percent by mass of chromium, K 2CrO 4 or


K 2Cr 2O 7?
27. Analysis of a compound indicates the percent composition 42.07% Na,
18.89% P, and 39.04% O. Determine its empirical formula.
28. A colorless liquid was found to contain 39.12% C, 8.76% H, and 52.12% O.
Determine the empirical formula of the substance.
29. Analysis of a compound used in cosmetics reveals the compound contains
26.76% C, 2.21% H, 71.17% O and has a molar mass of 90.04 g/mol.
Determine the molecular formula for this substance.
30. Eucalyptus leaves are the food source for panda bears. Eucalyptol is an oil
found in these leaves. Analysis of eucalyptol indicates it has a molar mass
of 154 g/mol and contains 77.87% C, 11.76% H, and 10.37% O. Determine
the molecular formula of eucalyptol.
31. Beryl is a hard mineral that occurs in a variety of colors. A 50.0-g sample
of beryl contains 2.52 g Be, 5.01 g Al, 15.68 g Si, and 26.79 g O. Determine
its empirical formula.
32. Analysis of a 15.0-g sample of a compound used to leach gold from low-
grade ores is 7.03 g Na, 3.68 g C, and 4.29 g N. Determine the empirical
formula for this substance.
Section 10.5 33. Analysis of a hydrate of iron(III) chloride revealed that in a 10.00-g sample
of the hydrate, 6.00 g is anhydrous iron(III) chloride and 4.00 g is water.
Determine the formula and name of the hydrate.
34. When 25.00 g of a hydrate of nickel(II) chloride was heated, 11.37 g of
water was released. Determine the name and formula of the hydrate.

Chapter 11
Section 11.1 Interpret the following balanced chemical equations in terms of particles,
moles, and mass.
1. Mg + 2HCl → MgCl 2 + H 2

2. 2Al + 3CuSO 4 → Al 2(SO 4) 3 + 3Cu

3. Cu(NO 3) 2 + 2KOH → Cu(OH) 2 + 2KNO 3

4. Write and balance the equation for the decomposition of aluminum


carbonate. Determine the possible mole ratios.

982 Supplemental Practice Problems


Supplemental Practice Problems

5. Write and balance the equation for the formation of magnesium hydroxide
and hydrogen from magnesium and water. Determine the possible mole
ratios.
Section 11.2 6. Some antacid tablets contain aluminum hydroxide. The aluminum
hydroxide reacts with stomach acid according to the equation:
Al(OH) 3 + 3HCl → AlCl 3 + 3H 2O. Determine the moles of acid
neutralized if a tablet contains 0.200 mol of Al(OH) 3.
7. Chromium reacts with oxygen according to the equation:
4Cr + 3O 2 → 2Cr 2O 3. Determine the moles of chromium(III) oxide
produced when 4.58 mol of chromium is allowed to react.
8. Space vehicles use solid lithium hydroxide to remove exhaled carbon
dioxide according to the equation: 2LiOH + CO 2 → Li 2CO 3 + H 2O.
Determine the mass of carbon dioxide removed if the space vehicle carries
42.0 mol of LiOH.
9. Some of the sulfur dioxide released into the atmosphere is converted to
sulfuric acid according to the equation: 2SO 2 + 2H 2O + O 2 → 2H 2SO 4.
Determine the mass of sulfuric acid formed from 3.20 mol of sulfur
dioxide.
10. How many grams of carbon dioxide are produced when 2.50 g of sodium
hydrogen carbonate reacts with excess citric acid according to the equa-
tion: 3NaHCO 3 + H 3C 6H 5O 7 → Na 3C 6H 5O 7 + 3CO 2 + 3H 2O?
11. Aspirin (C 9H 8O 4) is produced when salicylic acid (C 7H 6O 3) reacts with
acetic anhydride (C 4H 6O 3) according to the equation:
C 7H 6O 3 + C 4H 6O 3 → C 9H 8O 4 + HC 2H 3O 2. Determine the mass of aspi-
rin produced when 150.0 g of salicylic acid reacts with an excess of acetic
anhydride.
Section 11.3 12. Chlorine reacts with benzene to produce chlorobenzene and hydrogen
chloride, Cl 2 + C 6H 6 → C 6H 5Cl + HCl. Determine the limiting reactant
if 45.0 g of benzene reacts with 45.0 g of chlorine, the mass of the excess
reactant after the reaction is complete, and the mass of chlorobenzene
produced.
13. Nickel reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce nickel(II) chloride and
hydrogen according to the equation: Ni + 2HCl → NiCl 2 + H 2. If 5.00 g
of Ni and 2.50 g of HCl react, determine the limiting reactant, the mass of
the excess reactant after the reaction is complete, and the mass of nickel(II)
chloride produced.
Section 11.4 14. Tin(IV) iodide is prepared by reacting tin with iodine. Write the balanced
chemical equation for the reaction. Determine the theoretical yield if a
5.00-g sample of tin reacts in an excess of iodine. Determine the percent
yield if 25.0 g of SnI 4 was recovered.
15. Gold is extracted from gold-bearing rock by adding sodium cyanide in
the presence of oxygen and water, according to the reaction: 4Au(s) +
8NaCN(aq) + O 2(g) + 2H 2O(l) → 4NaAu(CN) 2(aq) + NaOH(aq).
Determine the theoretical yield of NaAu(CN) 2 if 1000.0 g of gold-bearing
rock is used, which contains 3.00% gold by mass. Determine the percent
yield of NaAu(CN) 2 if 38.790 g of NaAu(CN) 2 is recovered.

Supplemental Practice Problems 983


Supplemental Practice Problems

Chapter 12
Section 12.1 1. Calculate the ratio of effusion rates for methane (CH 4) and nitrogen.

2. Calculate the molar mass of butane. Butane’s rate of diffusion is 3.8 times
slower than that of helium.
3. What is the total pressure in a canister that contains oxygen gas at a partial
pressure of 804 mm Hg, nitrogen at a partial pressure of 220 mm Hg, and
hydrogen at a partial pressure of 445 mm Hg?
4. Calculate the partial pressure of neon in a flask that has a total pressure of
1.87 atm. The flask contains krypton at a partial pressure of 0.77 atm and
helium at a partial pressure of 0.62 atm.

Chapter 13
Section 13.1 1. The pressure of air in a 2.25-L container is 1.20 atm. What is the new
pressure if the sample is transferred to a 6.50-L container? Temperature
is constant.
2. The volume of a sample of hydrogen gas at 0.997 atm is 5.00 L. What will
be the new volume if the pressure is decreased to 0.977 atm? Temperature
is constant.
3. A gas at 55.0°C occupies a volume of 3.60 L. What volume will it occupy
at 30.0°C? Pressure is constant.
4. The volume of a gas is 0.668 L at 66.8°C. At what Celsius temperature will
the gas have a volume of 0.942 L, assuming pressure remains constant?
5. The pressure in a bicycle tire is 1.34 atm at 33.0°C. At what temperature
will the pressure inside the tire be 1.60 atm? Volume is constant.
6. If a sample of oxygen gas has a pressure of 810 torr at 298 K, what will be
its pressure if its temperature is raised to 330 K?
7. Air in a tightly sealed bottle has a pressure of 0.978 atm at 25.5°C. What
will be its pressure if the temperature is raised to 46.0°C?
8. Hydrogen gas at a temperature of 22.0°C that is confined in a 5.00-L
cylinder exerts a pressure of 4.20 atm. If the gas is released into a 10.0-L
reaction vessel at a temperature of 33.6°C, what will be the pressure inside
the reaction vessel?
9. A sample of neon gas at a pressure of 1.08 atm fills a flask with a volume of
250 mL at a temperature of 24.0°C. If the gas is transferred to another flask
at 37.2°C and a pressure of 2.25 atm, what is the volume of the new flask?
Section 13.2 10. What volume of beaker contains exactly 2.23 × 10 -2 mol of nitrogen gas
at STP?
11. How many moles of air are in a 6.06-L tire at STP?

12. How many moles of oxygen are in a 5.5-L canister at STP?

13. What mass of helium is in a 2.00-L balloon at STP?

14. What volume will 2.3 kg of nitrogen gas occupy at STP?

984 Supplemental Practice Problems


Supplemental Practice Problems

15. Calculate the number of moles of gas that occupy a 3.45-L container at
a pressure of 150 kPa and a temperature of 45.6°C.
16. What is the pressure in torr that a 0.44-g sample of carbon dioxide gas will
exert at a temperature of 46.2°C when it occupies a volume of 5.00 L?
17. What is the molar mass of a gas that has a density of 1.02 g/L at 0.990 atm
pressure and 37°C?
18. Calculate the grams of oxygen gas present in a 2.50-L sample kept at
1.66 atm pressure and a temperature of 10.0°C.
Section 13.3 19. What volume of oxygen gas is needed to completely combust 0.202 L
of butane gas (C 4H 10)?
20. Determine the volume of methane gas (CH 4) needed to react completely
with 0.660 L of O 2 gas to form methanol (CH 3OH).
21. Calculate the mass of hydrogen peroxide needed to obtain 0.460 L of
oxygen gas at STP. 2H 2O 2(aq) → 2H 2O(l) + O 2(g)
22. When potassium chlorate is heated in the presence of a catalyst such as
manganese dioxide, it decomposes to form solid potassium chloride and
oxygen gas: 2KClO 3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O 2(g). How many liters of oxygen
will be produced at STP if 1.25 kg of potassium chlorate decomposes
completely?

Chapter 14
Section 14.2 1. What is the percent by mass of a sample of ocean water that is found to
contain 1.36 g of magnesium ions per 1000 g?
2. What is the percent by mass of iced tea containing 0.75 g of aspartame in
250 g of water?
3. A bottle of hydrogen peroxide is labeled 3%. If you pour out 50 mL of
hydrogen peroxide solution, what volume is hydrogen peroxide?
4. If 50 mL of pure acetone is mixed with 450 mL of water, what is the per-
cent volume?
5. Calculate the molarity of 1270 g of K 3PO 4 in 4.0 L aqueous solution.

6. What is the molarity of 90.0 g of NH 4Cl in 2.25 L aqueous solution?

7. Which is more concentrated, 25 g of NaCl dissolved in 500 mL of water or


a 10% solution of NaCl (percent by mass)?
8. Calculate the mass of NaOH required to prepare a 0.343M solution
dissolved in 2500 mL of water.
9. Calculate the volume required to dissolve 11.2 g of CuSO 4 to prepare a
0.140M solution.
10. How would you prepare 500 mL of a solution that has a new concentration
of 4.5M if the stock solution is 11.6M?
11. Caustic soda is 19.1M NaOH and is diluted for household use. What is the
household concentration if 10 mL of the concentrated solution is diluted
to 400 mL?

Supplemental Practice Problems 985


Supplemental Practice Problems

12. What is the molality of a solution containing 63.0 g of HNO 3 in 0.500 kg


of water?
13. What is the molality of an acetic acid solution containing 0.500 mol of
HC 2H 3O 2 in 0.800 kg of water?
14. What mass of ethanol (C 2H 5OH) will be required to prepare a 2.00m
solution in 8.00 kg of water?
15. Determine the mole fraction of nitrogen in a gas mixture containing
0.215 mol N 2, 0.345 mol O 2, 0.023 mol CO 2, and 0.014 mol SO 2. What is
the mole fraction of N 2?
16. A necklace contains 4.85 g of gold, 1.25 g of silver, and 2.40 g of copper.
What is the mole fraction of each metal?
Section 14.3 17. Calculate the mass of gas dissolved at 150.0 kPa, if 0.35 g of the gas dis-
solves in 2.0 L of water at 30.0 kPa.
18. At which depth, 10 m or 40 m, will a scuba diver have more nitrogen
dissolved in the bloodstream?
Section 14.4 19. Calculate the freezing point and boiling point of a solution containing
6.42 g of sucrose (C 12H 22O 11) in 100.0 g of water.
20. Calculate the freezing point and boiling point of a solution containing
23.7 g of copper(II) sulfate in 250.0 g of water.
21. Calculate the freezing point and boiling point of a solution containing
0.15 mol of the molecular compound naphthalene in 175 g of benzene
(C 6H 6).

Chapter 15
Section 15.1 1. What is the equivalent in joules of 126 Calories?

2. Convert 455 kilojoules to kilocalories.

3. How much heat is required to warm 122 g of water by 23.0°C?

4. The temperature of 55.6 grams of a material decreases by 14.8°C when it


loses 3080 J of heat. What is its specific heat?
5. What is the specific heat of a metal if the temperature of a 12.5-g sample
increases from 19.5°C to 33.6°C when it absorbs 37.7 J of heat?
Section 15.2 6. A 75.0-g sample of a metal is placed in boiling water until its temperature
is 100.0°C. A calorimeter contains 100.00 g of water at a temperature of
24.4°C. The metal sample is removed from the boiling water and
immediately placed in water in the calorimeter. The final temperature of
the metal and water in the calorimeter is 34.9°C. Assuming that the calo-
rimeter provides perfect insulation, what is the specific heat of the metal?
Section 15.3 7. Use Table 15.4 to determine how much heat is released when 1.00 mol of
gaseous methanol condenses to a liquid.
8. Use Table 15.4 to determine how much heat must be supplied to melt
4.60 g of ethanol.

986 Supplemental Practice Problems


Supplemental Practice Problems

Section 15.4 9. Calculate ∆H rxn for the reaction 2C(s) + 2H 2(g) → C 2H 4(g), given the
following thermochemical equations:
2CO 2(g) + 2H 2O(l) → C 2H 4(g) + 3O 2(g) ∆H = 1411 kJ
C(s) + O 2(g) → CO 2(g) ∆H = −393.5 kJ
2H 2(g) + O 2(g) → 2H 2O(l) ∆H = −572 kJ
10. Calculate ∆H rxn for the reaction HCl(g) + NH 3(g) → NH 4Cl(s), given the
following thermochemical equations:
H 2(g) + Cl 2(g) → 2HCl(g) ∆H = −184 kJ
N 2(g) + 3H 2(g) → 2NH 3(g) ∆H = −92 kJ
N 2(g) + 4H 2(g) + Cl 2(g) → 2NH 4Cl(s) ∆H = −628 kJ
Use standard enthalpies of formation from Table 15.5 and Table R-11 to
calculate ∆H° rxn for each of the following reactions.
11. 2HF(g) → H 2(g) + F 2(g)

12. 2H 2S(g) + 3O 2(g) → 2H 2O(l) + 2SO 2(g)

Section 15.5 Predict the sign of ∆S system for each reaction or process.
13. FeS(s) → Fe 2+(aq) + S 2−(aq)

14. SO 2(g) + H 2O(l) → H 2SO 3(aq)

Determine if each of the following processes or reactions is spontaneous or


nonspontaneous.
15. ∆H system = 15.6 kJ, T = 415 K, ∆S system = 45 J/K

16. ∆H system = 35.6 kJ, T = 415 K, ∆S system = 45 J/K

Chapter 16
Section 16.1 1. In the reaction A → 2B, suppose that [A] changes from 1.20 mol/L
at time = 0 to 0.60 mol/L at time = 3.00 min and that [B] = 0.00 mol/L
at time = 0.
a. What is the average rate at which A is consumed in mol/(L∙min)?
b. What is the average rate at which B is produced in mol/(L∙min)?

Section 16.3 2. What are the overall reaction orders in Practice Problems 19 to 22 on
page 577?
3. If halving [A] in the reaction A → B causes the initial rate to decrease to
one-fourth its original value, what is the probable rate law for the reaction?
4. Use the data below and the method of initial rates to determine the rate
law for the reaction 2NO(g) + O 2(g) → 2NO 2(g).

Formation of NO 2 Data
Initial [NO] Initial [O 2] Initial Rate
Trial
(M) (M) (mol/(L·s))
1 0.030 0.020 0.0041
2 0.060 0.020 0.0164
3 0.030 0.040 0.0082

Supplemental Practice Problems 987


Supplemental Practice Problems

Section 16.4 5. The rate law for the reaction in which 1 mol of cyclobutane (C 4H 8)
decomposes to 2 mol of ethylene (C 2H 4) at 1273 K is Rate = (87 s −1)
[C 4H 8]. What is the instantaneous rate of this reaction when
a. [C 4H 8] = 0.0100 mol/L?
b. [C 4H 8] = 0.200 mol/L?

Chapter 17
Section 17.1 Write equilibrium constant expressions for the following equilibria.
1. N 2(g) + O 2(g) ⇌ 2NO

2. 3O 2(g) ⇌ 2O 3(g)

3. P 4(g) + 6H 2(g) ⇌ 4PH 3(g)

4. CCl 4(g) + HF(g) ⇌ CFCl 2(g) + HCl(g)

5. 4NH 3(g) + 5O 2(g) ⇌ 4NO(g) + 6H 2O(g)

Write equilibrium constant expressions for the following equilibria.


6. NH 4Cl(s) ⇌ NH 3(g) + HCl(g)

7. SO 3(g) + H 2O(l) ⇌ H 2SO 4(l)

8. 2Na 2O 2(s) + 2CO 2(g) ⇌ 2Na 2CO 3(s) + O 2(g)

Calculate K eq for the following equilibria.


9. H 2(g) + I 2(g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
[H 2] = 0.0109, [I 2] = 0.00290, [HI] = 0.0460
10. I 2(s) ⇌ I 2(g)
[I 2(g)] = 0.0665
Section 17.3 11. At a certain temperature, K eq = 0.0211 for the equilibrium
PCl 5(g) ⇌ PCl 3(g) + Cl 2(g).
a. What is [Cl 2] in an equilibrium mixture containing 0.865 mol/L
PCl 5 and 0.135 mol/L PCl 3?
b. What is [PCl 5] in an equilibrium mixture containing 0.100 mol/L
PCl 3 and 0.200 mol/L Cl 2?
12. Use the K sp value for zinc carbonate given in Table 17.4 to calculate its
molar solubility at 298 K.
13. Use the K sp value for iron(II) hydroxide given in Table 17.4 to calculate its
molar solubility at 298 K.
14. Use the K sp value for silver carbonate given in Table 17.4 to calculate
[Ag +] in a saturated solution at 298 K.
15. Use the K sp value for calcium phosphate given in Table 17.4 to calculate
[Ca 2+] in a saturated solution at 298 K.
16. Does a precipitate form when equal volumes of 0.0040M MgCl 2 and
0.0020M K 2CO 3 are mixed? If so, identify the precipitate.
17. Does a precipitate form when equal volumes of 1.2 × 10 -4M AlCl 3 and
2.0 × 10 -3M NaOH are mixed? If so, identify the precipitate.

988 Supplemental Practice Problems


Supplemental Practice Problems

Chapter 18
Section 18.1 1. Write the balanced formula equation for the reaction between zinc and
nitric acid.
2. Write the balanced formula equation for the reaction between magnesium
carbonate and sulfuric acid.
3. Identify the base in the reaction
H 2O(l) + CH 3NH 2(aq) → OH -(aq) + CH 3NH 3 +(aq).
4. Identify the conjugate base described in the reaction in Practice Problems
1 and 2.
5. Write the steps in the complete ionization of hydrosulfuric acid.

6. Write the steps in the complete ionization of carbonic acid.

Section 18.2 7. Write the acid ionization equation and ionization constant expression for
formic acid (HCOOH).
8. Write the acid ionization equation and ionization constant expression for
the hydrogen carbonate ion (HCO 3−).
9. Write the base ionization constant expression for ammonia.

10. Write the base ionization expression for aniline (C 6H 5NH 2).

Section 18.3 11. Is a solution in which [H +] = 1.0 × 10 −5M acidic, basic, or neutral?

12. Is a solution in which [OH -] = 1.0 × 10 −11M acidic, basic, or neutral?

13. What is the pH of a solution in which [H +] = 4.5 × 10 −4M?

14. Calculate the pH and pOH of a solution in which [OH -] = 8.8 × 10 −3M.

15. Calculate the pH and pOH of a solution in which [H +] = 2.7 × 10 −6M.

16. What is [H +] in a solution having a pH of 2.92?

17. What is [OH -] in a solution having a pH of 13.56?

18. What is the pH of a 0.00067M H 2SO 4 solution?

19. What is the pH of a 0.000034M NaOH solution?

20. The pH of a 0.200M HBrO solution is 4.67. What is the acid’s K a?

21. The pH of a 0.030M C 2H 5COOH solution is 3.20. What is the acid’s K a?

Section 18.4 22. Write the formula equation for the reaction between hydriodic acid and
beryllium hydroxide.
23. Write the formula equation for the reaction between perchloric acid and
lithium hydroxide.
24. In a titration, 15.73 mL of 0.2346M HI solution neutralizes 20.00 mL of a
LiOH solution. What is the molarity of the LiOH?
25. What is the molarity of a caustic soda (NaOH) solution if 35.00 mL of
solution is neutralized by 68.30 mL of 1.250M HCl?

Supplemental Practice Problems 989


Supplemental Practice Problems

26. Write the chemical equation for the hydrolysis reaction that occurs when
sodium hydrogen carbonate is dissolved in water. Is the resulting solution
acidic, basic, or neutral?
27. Write the chemical equation for any hydrolysis reaction that occurs when
cesium chloride is dissolved in water. Is the resulting solution acidic, basic,
or neutral?

Chapter 19
Section 19.1 Identify the following information for each problem. What element is
oxidized? Reduced? What is the oxidizing agent? Reducing agent?
1. 2P + 3Cl 2 → 2PCl 3

2. C + H 2O → CO + H 2

3. ClO 3 − + AsO 2 − → AsO 4 3− + Cl −

4. Determine the oxidation number for each element in the following


compounds.
a. Na 2SeO 3
b. HAuCl 4
c. H 3BO 3

5. Determine the oxidation number for the following compounds or ions.


a. P 4O 8
b. Na 2O 2 (Hint: This is like H 2O 2.)
c. AsO 4 −3

Section 19.2 6. How many electrons will be lost or gained in each of the following half-
reactions? Identify whether each is an oxidation or reduction.
a. Cr → Cr 3+
b. O 2 → O 2−
c. Fe +2 → Fe 3+

7. Balance the following reaction by the oxidation number method:


MnO 4 − + CH 3OH → MnO 2 + HCHO (acidic). (Hint: Assign the oxida-
tion of hydrogen and oxygen as usual, and solve for the oxidation number of
carbon.)
8. Balance the following reaction by the oxidation number method:
Zn + HNO 3 → ZnO + NO 2 + NH 3
9. Use the oxidation number method to balance these net ionic equations.
a. SeO 3 2− + I − → Se + I 2 (acidic solution)
b. NiO 2 + SeO 3 2− → Ni(OH) 2 + SO 3 2− (acidic solution)

Use the half-reaction method to balance the following redox equations.


10. Zn(s) + HCl(aq) → ZnCl 2(aq) → H 2(g)

11. MnO 4 −(aq) + H 2SO 3(aq) → Mn 2+(aq) + HSO 4 −(aq) + H 2O(l)


(acidic solution)
12. NO 2(aq) + OH −(aq) → NO 2 −(aq) + NO 3 −(aq) + H 2O(l) (basic
solution)
13. HS −(aq) + IO 3 −(aq) → I −(aq) + S(s) + H 2O(l) (acidic solution)

990 Supplemental Practice Problems


Supplemental Practice Problems

Chapter 20
Section 20.1 1. Calculate the cell potential for each of the following.
a. Co 2+(aq) + Al(s) → Co(s) + Al 3+(aq)
b. Hg 2+(aq) + Cu(s) → Cu 2+(aq) + Hg(s)
c. Zn(s) + Br 2(l) → Br 1−(aq) + Zn 2+(aq)

2. Calculate the cell potential to determine whether the reaction will occur
spontaneously or not spontaneously. For each reaction that is not
spontaneous, correct the reactants or products so that a reaction would
occur spontaneously.
a. Ni 2+(aq) + Al(s) → Ni(s) + Al 3+(aq)
b. Ag +(aq) + H 2(g) → Ag(s) + H +(aq)
c. Fe 2+(aq) + Cu(s) → Fe(s) + Cu 2+(aq)

Chapter 21
Section 21.2 1. Draw the structure of the following branched alkanes.
a. 2,2,4-trimethylheptane
b. 4-isopropyl-2-methylnonane

2. Draw the structure of each of the following cycloalkanes.


a. 1-ethyl-2-methylcyclobutane
b. 1,3-dibutylcyclohexane

Section 21.3 3. Draw the structure of each of the following alkenes.


a. 1,4-hexadiene c. 4-propyl-1-octene
b. 2,3-dimethyl-2-butene d. 2,3-diethylcyclohexene

Chapter 22
Section 22.1 1. Draw the structures of the following alkyl halides.
a. chloroethane d. 1,3-dibromocyclohexane
b. chloromethane e. 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane
c. 1-fluoropentane

Chapter 24
Section 24.2 1. Write balanced equations for each of the following decay processes.
244 210
a. alpha emission of 96 Cm c. beta emission of 83 Bi
70 116
b. positron emission of 33 As d. electron capture by 51 Sb
47
2. 20 Ca → β + ?
240 243
3. 95 Am + ? → 97 Bk + n
4. How much time has passed if 1/8 of an original sample of radon-222 is
left? Use Table 24.5 for half-life information.
5. If a basement air sample contains 3.64 μg of radon-222, how much radon
will remain after 19 days?
6. Cobalt-60, with a half-life of 5 years, is used in cancer radiation treatments.
If a hospital purchases 30.0 g, how much would be left after 15 years?

Supplemental Practice Problems 991


Chapter 1 33. _
0.11 × 100 = 6.92%
1.59
No practice problems _
0.10 × 100 = 6.29%
1.59
_
0.12 × 100 = 7.55%
1.59
Note: The answers are reported in three significant
Chapter 2 figures because student error is the difference between
1. No; the density of aluminum is 2.7 g/cm 3; the density the actual value (1.59 g/cm 3) and the measured value.
20g
of the cube is _3 = 4 g/cm 3. 35. a. 4 b. 7 c. 5 d. 3
5cm
147 g 37. two significant figures: 1.0 × 10 1, 1.0 × 10 2, 1.0 × 10 3
3. volume = _ = _ = 21.0 mL
mass
density 7.00 g/mL three significant figures: 1.00 × 10 1, 1.00 × 10 2,
volume = 20.0 mL + 21.0 mL = 41.0 mL 1.00 × 10 3
11. a. 7 × 10 2 e. 5.4 × 10 -3 four significant figures: 1.000 × 10 1, 1.000 × 10 2,
b. 3.8 × 10 4 f. 6.87 × 10 -6 1.000 × 10 3
c. 4.5 × 10 6 g. 7.6 × 10 -8 39. a. 5.482 × 10 -4 g c. 3.087 × 10 8 mm
d. 6.85 × 10 11 h. 8 × 10 -10 b. 1.368 × 10 5 kg d. 2.014 mL

13. a. 7 × 10−5 c. 2 × 10 2 41. a. 4.32 × 10 3 cm - 1.6 × 10 6 mm


b. 3 × 10 8 d. 5 × 10 -12 = 4.32 × 10 3 cm - 16 × 10 6 cm
= 4.32 × 10 3 cm - 16,000 × 10 3 cm
15. a. (4 × 1) × 10 2 + 8 = 4 × 10 10
= −15,995.68 × 10 3 cm = -16.0 × 10 6 cm
b. (2 × 3) × 10 -4 + 2 = 6 × 10 -2
b. 2.12 × 10 7 mm + 1.8 × 10 3 cm
c. (6 ÷ 2) × 10 2 - 1 = 3 × 10 1
= 2.12 × 10 7 mm + 1.8 × 10 4 mm
d. (8 ÷ 4) × 10 4 - 1 = 2 × 10 3
= 2120 × 10 4 mm + 1.8 × 10 4 mm
16 g salt
__ 100 g solution
17. a. ; __ = 2121.8 × 10 4 mm = 2.12 × 10 7 mm
100 g solution 16 g salt
1.25 g 43. a. 2.0 m/s c. 2.00 m/s
b. _ ; _
1 mL
1 mL 1.25 g b. 3.00 m/s d. 2.9 m/s

c. _
25 m _
; 1s
1 s 25 m
Chapter 3
19. a. 360 s × _ = 360,000 ms
1000 ms
1s
5. amount of bromine that reacted = 100.0 - 8.5 = 91.5 g
_ 1 kg
b. 4800 g × = 4.8 kg amount of compound formed = 100.0 + 10.3 - 8.5
1000 g
= 101.8 g
c. 5600 dm × _ = 560 m
1m
10 dm 7. mass reactants = mass products
1000 mg
d. 72 g × _ = 72,000 mg mass sodium + mass chlorine = mass sodium chloride
1g
mass sodium = 15.6 g
e. 2.45 × 10 ms × _ = 0.245 s
2 1s
1000 ms masssodium chloride = 39.7 g
f. 5 μm × _ × _ × _
1 mm 1m 1 km Substituting and solving for mass chlorine yields
1000 μm 1000 mm 1000 m 15.6 g + mass chlorine = 39.7 g
= 5 × 10 −9 km mass chlorine = 39.7 g - 15.6 g = 24.1 g used in the
g. 6.800 × 10 3 cm × _ × _
1m 1 km
100 cm 1000 m
reaction.
= 6.800 × 10 -2 km Because the sodium reacts with excess chlorine,
1 Mg all of the sodium is used in the reaction; that is,
h. 2.5 × 10 1 kg × __ = 0.025 Mg 15.6 g of sodium are used in the reaction.
1000 kg
65 mi × _ 9. 157.5 g - 106.5 g = 51.0 g
21. _
1 km
= 105 km/h
1h 0.62 mi Yes. Mass of reactants equals mass of products.
23. mass = (volume)(density) = (185 mL)(1.02 g/mL) mass hydrogen
mass = 189 g vinegar 19. percent by mass hydrogen = _
mass × 100
compound
12.4 g
(
5.00 g acetic acid
)
(189 g vinegar) __ = 9.45 g acetic acid
100 g vinegar
percent by mass hydrogen = _ × 100 = 15.9%
78.0 g

992 Solutions to Selected Practice Problems


Solutions to Selected Practice Problems

21. mass xy = 3.50 g + 10.5 g = 14.0 g Chapter 6


mass x
percent by mass x = _
mass xy × 100 9. a. Sc, Y, La, Ac c. Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
3.50 g
percent by mass x = _ × 100 = 25.0% b. N, P, As, Sb, Bi
14.0 g
mass y 17. B. The atomic radius increases when going down a
percent by mass y = _
mass xy × 100 group so helium is the smallest and radon is the biggest.
10.5 g 19. a. the element in period 2, group 1
percent by mass y = _ × 100 = 75.0%
14.0 g
b. the element in period 5, group 2
23. No, you cannot be sure. Having the same mass per- c. the element in period 6, group 15
centage of a single element does not guarantee that d. the element in period 4, group 18
the composition of each compound is the same.
Chapter 7
Chapter 4 7. Three Na atoms each lose 1 e-, forming 1+ ions. One
13. dysprosium 15. Yes. 9
N atom gains 3 e-, forming a 3- ion. The ions attract,
forming Na3N.
17. 25 protons, 25 electrons, 30 neutrons, manganese
19. N-14 is more abundant because the atomic mass is
( Na ion )
3 Na ions _ + 1 N ion _
1+ 3-
( N ion )
closer to 14 than 15. = 3(1+) + 1(3-) = 0
The overall charge on one formula unit of Na 3N is zero.
9. One Sr atom loses 2 e-, forming a 2+ ion. Two
Chapter 5 F atoms each gain 1 e-, forming 1- ions. The ions
1. c = λν attract, forming SrF 2.
ν=c/λ
3.00 × 10 8 m/s
ν = __ = 6.12 × 10 14 Hz
( Sr ion )
1 Sr ion _ + 2 F ions _
2+ 1-
( F ion )
4.90 × 10 -7 m = 1(2+) + 2(1-) = 0
3. 3.00 × 10 8 m/s The overall charge on one formula unit of SrF 2 is zero.

5. a. E photon = λν = (6.626 × 10 -34 J·s)(6.32 × 10 20 s -1) 11. Three group 1 atoms lose 1 e-, forming 1+ ions.
= 4.19 × 10 -13 J One group 15 atom gains 3 e-, forming a 3- ion. The
b. E photon = λν = (6.626 × 10 -34 J·s)(9.50 × 10 13 s -1) ions attract, forming X 3Y, where X represents a group
= 6.29 × 10 -20 J 1 atom and Y represents a group 15 atom.
c. E photon = λν = (6.626 × 10 -34 J·s)(1.05 × 10 16 s -1) 19. KI 21. AlBr 3
= 6.96 × 10 -18 J
23. The general formula is XY 2, where X represents the
7. E photon = hc / λ group 2 element and Y represents the group 17 element.
(6.626 × 10 -34 J·s)(3.00 × 10 8 m/s)
E photon = ___ 25. Ca(ClO 3) 2
1.25 × 10 -1 m
= 1.59 × 10 -24 J 27. MgCO 3; answers will vary

21. a. bromine (35 electrons): [Ar]4s 23d 104p 5 29. calcium chloride 31. copper(II) nitrate
b. strontium (38 electrons): [Kr]5s 2 33. ammonium perchlorate
c. antimony (51 electrons): [Kr]5s 24d 105p 3
d. rhenium (75 electrons): [Xe]6s 24f 145d 5
e. terbium (65 electrons): [Xe]6s 24f 9 Chapter 8
f. titanium (22 electrons): [Ar]4s 23d 2
1. H
23. Sulfur (15 electrons) has the electron configuration
— —

[Ne]3s 23p 4. Therefore, 6 electrons are in orbitals H + H + H + P → H —P


related to the third energy level of the sulfur atom.
H
25. [Xe]6s 2; barium
3. H + Cl → H — Cl
27. aluminum; 3 electrons

Solutions to Selected Practice Problems 993


Solutions to Selected Practice Problems

5. H 27. Na 2C 2O 4(aq) + Pb(NO 3) 2(aq) →


PbC 2O 4(s) + 2NaNO 3(aq)
H + H + H + H + Si → H — Si — H


35. chemical equation: KI(aq) + AgNO 3(aq) →
H
KNO 3(aq) + AgI(s)
15. sulfur dioxide complete ionic equation:
17. carbon tetrachloride K +(aq) + I -(aq) + Ag +(aq) + NO 3 -(aq) →
K +(aq) + NO 3 -(aq) + AgI(s)
19. hydroiodic acid
net ionic equation: I -(aq) + Ag +(aq) → AgI(s)
21. chlorous acid
23. hydrosulfuric acid 37. chemical equation: AlCl 3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) →
Al(OH)3(s) + 3NaCl(aq)
25. AgCl 27. ClF 3
complete ionic equation:
29. strontium acetate is ionic, not molecular: Sr(C 2H 3O 2) 2 Al 3+(aq) + 3Cl -(aq) + 3Na +(aq) + 3OH 2(aq) →
37. H 39. H H Al(OH) 3(s) + 3Na +(aq) + 3Cl -(aq)

— net ionic equation: Al 3+(aq) + 3OH -(aq) →


B— C=C
H— H — — Al(OH) 3(s)
H H
1+ 39. chemical equation: 5Na 2CO 3(aq) + 2MnCl 5(aq) →
41. H
10NaCl(aq) + Mn 2(CO 3) 5(s)
H N H complete ionic equation:
H 10Na +(aq) + 5CO 3 2-(aq) + 2Mn 5+(aq) + 10Cl -(aq) →
10Na +(aq) + 10Cl -(aq) + Mn 2(CO 3) 5(s)
1- 1-
43. net ionic equation: 5CO 3 2-(aq) + 2Mn 5+(aq) →
N N
O O O O Mn 2(CO 3) 5(s)
net ionic equation: 2H +(aq) + 2OH -(aq) →
45. 2H 2O(l) or H +(aq) + OH -(aq) → H 2O(l)
O O
O O O O
41. chemical equation: 2HCl(aq) + Ca(OH) 2(aq) →
47. 49. 2H 2O(l) + CaCl 2(aq)
F F
F Cl F F complete ionic equation:
F S 2H +(aq) + 2Cl -(aq) + Ca 2+(aq) + 2OH -(aq) →
F F
F 2H 2O(l) + Ca 2+(aq) + 2Cl -(aq)
net ionic equation: H +(aq) + OH -(aq) → H 2O(l)
57. bent, 104.5°, sp 3 59. tetrahedral, 109°, sp 3
43. chemical equation: H 2S(aq) + 1 Ca(OH) 2(aq) →
2H 2O(l) + CaS(aq)
Chapter 9 complete ionic equation:
1. H 2(g) + Br 2(g) → HBr(g) 2H +(aq) + S 2-(aq) + Ca 2+(aq) + 2OH -(aq) →
2H 2O(l) + Ca 2+(aq) + S 2-(aq)
3. KClO 3(s) → KCl(s) + O 2(g)
net ionic equation: H +(aq) + OH -(aq) → H 2O(l)
5. CS 2(l) + 3O 2(g) → CO 2(g) + 2SO 2(g)
45. chemical equation: 2HClO 4(aq) + K 2CO 3(aq) →
15. H 2O(l) + N 2O 5(g) → 2HNO 3(aq); synthesis
H 2O(l) + CO 2(g) + 2KClO 4(aq)
17. H 2SO 4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na 2SO 4(aq) + 2H 2O(l) complete ionic equation:
19. Ni(OH) 2(s) → NiO(s) + H 2O(l) 2H +(aq) + 2ClO 4 -(aq) + 2K +(aq) + CO 3 2-(aq) →
H 2O(l) + CO 2(g) + 2K +(aq) + 2ClO 4 -(aq)
21. Yes. K is above Zn in the metal activity series. net ionic equation: 2H +(aq) + CO 3 2-(aq) →
2K(s) + ZnCl 2(aq) → Zn(s) + 2KCl(aq) H 2O(l) + CO 2(g)
23. No. Fe is below Na in the metal activity series.
47. chemical equation: 2HBr(aq) + (NH 4) 2CO 3(aq) →
25. LiI(aq) + AgNO 3(aq) → AgI(s) + LiNO 3(aq) H 2O(l) + CO 2(g) + 2NH 4Br(aq)

994 Solutions to Selected Practice Problems


Solutions to Selected Practice Problems

2 mol Cl -
complete ionic equation: 29. 2.50 mol ZnCl 2 × _ = 5.00 mol Cl -
1 mol ZnCl 2
2H +(aq) + 2Br -(aq) + 2NH 4 +(aq) + CO 3 2-(aq) →
3 mol SO 4 2-
H 2O(l) + CO 2(g) + 2NH 4 +(aq) + 2Br -(aq) 31. 3.00 mol Fe 2(SO 4) 3 ×__ = 9.00 mol SO 4 2-
1 mol Fe 2(SO 4) 3
net ionic equation: 2H +(aq) + CO 3 2-(aq) →
33. 1.15 × 10 1 mol H 2O × _ = 23.0 mol H
2 mol H
H 2O(l) + CO 2(g) 1 mol H 2O
= 2.30 × 10 1 mol H
49. chemical equation: 2KI(aq) + Pb(NO 3) 2(aq) →
12.01 g C
2KNO 3(aq) + PbI 2(s) 35. a. 2 mol C × _ = 24.02 g
complete ionic equation: 1 mol C
1.008 gH
2K +(aq) + 2I -(aq) + Pb 2+(aq) + 2NO 3 -(aq) → 6 mol H × _ = 6.048 g
1 mol H
2K +(aq) + 2NO 3 -(aq) + PbI 2(s)
16.00 g O
net ionic equation: Pb 2+(aq) + 2I -(aq) → PbI 2(s) 1 mol O × _ = 16.00 g
1 mol O
molar mass C 2H 5OH = 46.07 g/mol

Chapter 10 1.008 g H
b. 1 mol H × _ = 1.008 g
10 23 1 mol H
1. 2.50 mol Zn × __
6.02 × atoms
12.01 gC
1 mol 1 mol C × _ = 12.01 g
= 1.51 × 10 24 atoms of Zn 1 mol C
14.01 g N
6.02 × 10 23 formula units 1 mol N × _ = 14.01 g
3. 3.25 mol AgNO 3 × __ 1 mol N
1 mol molar mass HCN = 27.03 g/mol
= 1.96 × 10 24 formula units of AgNO 3 12.01 g C
c. 1 mol C × _ = 12.01 g
1 mol C
5. a. 5.75 × 10 24 atoms Al × __
1 mol
6.02 × 10 23 atoms 35.45 g Cl
= 9.55 mol Al 4 mol Cl × _ = 141.80 g
1 mol Cl
b. 2.50 × 10 20 atoms Fe × __
1 mol molar mass CCl 4 = 153.81 g/mol
6.02 × 10 23 atoms
= 4.15 × 10 -4 mol Fe 37. Step 1: Find the molar mass of H 2SO 4.
1.008 g H
26.98 g Al
15. a. 3.57 mol Al × _ = 96.3 g Al 2 mol H × _ = 2.016 g
1 mol Al 1 mol H
32.07 gS
28.09 g Si
b. 42.6 mol Si × _ = 1.20 × 10 3 g Si 1 mol S × _ = 32.07 g
1 mol Si 1 mol S
16.00 g O
1 mol Ag
17. a. 25.5 g Ag × _ = 0.236 mol Ag 4 mol O × _ = 64.00 g
107.9 g Ag 1 mol O
molar mass H 2SO 4 = 98.09 g/mol
b. 300.0 g S × _ = 9.355 mol S
1 mol S
32.07 g S Step 2: Make mole → mass conversion.
6.02 × 10 23 atoms
19. a. 55.2 g Li × _ × __
1 mol Li 98.09 g H 2SO 4
6.94 g Li 1 mol 3.25 mol H 2SO 4 × __ = 319 g H 2SO 4
1 mol H 2SO 4
= 4.79 × 10 24 atoms Li
6.02 × 10 23 atoms 39. Potassium permanganate has a formula of KMnO 4.
b. 0.230 g Pb × _ × __
1 mol Pb
6.94 g Pb 1 mol Step 1: Find the molar mass of KMnO 4.
= 6.68 × 10 20 atoms Pb 39.10 g K
1 mol Hg 1 mol K × _ = 39.10 g
6.02 × 10 23 atoms
c. 11.5 g Hg × _ × __ 1 mol K
200.6 g Hg 1 mol 54.94 g Mn
= 3.45 × 10 22 atoms Hg 1 mol Mn × _ = 54.94 g
1 mol Mn
6.02 × 10 23 atoms 16.00 g O
21. a. 4.56 × 10 3 g Si × _ × __ 4 mol O × _
1 mol Si
= 64.00 g
28.09 g Si 1 mol 1 mol O
= 9.77 × 10 25 atoms Si molar mass KMnO 4 = 158.04 g/mol
1000 g Ti
b. 0.120 kg Ti × _ × _
1 mol Ti Step 2: Make mole → mass conversion.
1 kg Ti 47.87 g Ti 158.04 g KMnO 4
6.02 × 10 23 atoms 2.55 mol KMnO 4 × __ = 403 g KMnO 4
× __ = 1.51 × 10 24 atoms Ti 1 mol KMnO 4
1 mol

Solutions to Selected Practice Problems 995


Solutions to Selected Practice Problems

41. a. ionic compound 45. Step 1: Find the number of moles of NaCl.
4.59 × 10 24 formula units NaCl ×
Step 1: Find the molar mass of Fe 2O 3.
55.85 g Fe ___
1 mol NaCl
2 mol Fe × _ = 111.70 g 6.02 × 10 23 formula unit NaCl
1 mol Fe
= 7.62 mol NaCl 2
16.00 gO
3 mol O × _ = 48.00 g Step 2: Find the molar mass of NaCl.
1 mol O
molar mass Fe 2O 3 = 159.70 g/mol
_
1 mol Na × 22.99 g Na
= 22.99 g
1 mol Na
Step 2: Make mass → mole conversion. 35.45 g Cl
1 mol Cl × _ = 35.45 g
1 mol Fe O 1 mol Cl
2500 g Fe2O3 × __
2 3
= 15.7 × 101 mol Fe2O3 molar mass NaCl = 58.44 g/mol
159.70 g Fe 2O 3
b. ionic compound Step 3: Make mole → mass conversion.
58.44 g NaCl
Step 1: Find the molar mass of PbCl 4. 7.62 mol NaCl × _ = 445 g NaCl
1 mol NaCl
207.2 g Pb
1 mol Pb × _ = 207.2 g 55. Steps 1 and 2: Assume 1 mole; calculate molar mass of
1 mol Pb
H 2SO 3.
35.45 g Cl
4 mol Cl × _ = 141.80 g
1.008 g H
1 mol Cl 2 mol H × _ = 2.016 g
1 mol H
molar mass PbCl 4 = 349.0 g/mol 32.06 g S
1 mol S × _ = 32.06 g
1 mol S
Step 2: Make mass → mole conversion. 16.00 g O
3 mol O × _ = 48.00 g
1 mol PbCl
254 g PbCl 4 × __4
= 0.728 mol PbCl 4 1 mol O
349.0 g PbCl 4
molar mass H 2SO 3 = 82.08 g/mol
43. a. Step 1: Find the molar mass of Na 2SO 3 Step 3: Determine percent by mass of S.
22.99 g Na 32.06 g S
2 mol Na × _ = 45.98 g percent S = __ × 100 = 39.06% S
1 mol Na 82.08 g H 2SO 3
32.07 g S
_ Repeat steps 1 and 2 for H 2S 2O 8. Assume 1 mole;
1 mol S × = 32.07 g
1 mol S calculate molar mass of H 2S 2O 8.
16.00 g O 1.008 g H
3 mol O × _ = 48.00 g 2 mol H × _ = 2.016 g
1 mol O 1 mol H
molar mass Na 2SO 3 = 126.05 g/mol 32.06 gS
2 mol S × _ = 64.12 g
1 mol S
Step 2: Make mass → mole conversion.
16.00 g O
2.25 g Na 2SO 3 × __
2 31 mol Na SO 8 mol O × _ = 128.00 g
126.05 g Na 2SO 3 1 mol O
= 0.0179 mol Na 2SO 3 molar mass H 2S 2O 8 = 194.14 g/mol
Step 3: Determine percent by mass of S.
Step 3: Make mole → formula unit conversion. 64.12 g S
23 percent S = __ × 100 = 33.03% S
0.0179 mol Na 2SO 3 × __
6.02 × 10 formula units 194.14 g H 2S 2O 8
1 mol Na 2SO 3 H 2SO 3 has a larger percent by mass of S.
= 1.08 × 10 22 formula units Na 2SO 3
57. a. sodium, sulfur, and oxygen; Na 2SO 4
Step 4: Determine the number of Na + ions. b. ionic
1.08 × 10 22 formula units Na 2SO 3 × c. Steps 1 and 2: Assume 1 mole; calculate molar
2 Na + ions
__ mass of Na 2SO 4.
= 2.16 × 10 22 Na + ions
1 formula unit Na 2SO 3 22.99 g Na
2 mol Na × _ = 45.98 g
b. 1.08 × 10 22formula units Na 2SO 3 × 1 mol Na
32.07 gS
__ 1 SO 3 2- ion
= 1.08 × 10 22 SO 3 2- ions 1 mol S × _ = 32.07 g
1 formula unit Na 2SO 3 1 mol S
16.00 g O
126.08 g Na 2SO 3 ___
1 mol Na 2SO 3 4 mol O × _ = 64.00 g
c. __ × 1 mol O
1 mol Na 2SO 3 6.02 × 10 23 formula unit Na 2SO 3 molar mass Na 2SO 4 = 142.05 g/mol
= 2.09 × 10 -22 g Na 2SO 3/formula unit

996 Solutions to Selected Practice Problems


Solutions to Selected Practice Problems

Step 3: Determine percent by mass of each element. The simplest ratio is 1 mol N: 1 mol O.
45.98 g Na The empirical formula is NO.
percent Na = __ × 100 = 32.37% Na
142.05 g Na 2SO 4 Step 3: Calculate the molar mass of the empirical
32.07 g S
percent S = __ × 100 = 22.58% S formula.
14.01 g N
142.05 g Na 2SO 4
1 mol N × _ = 14.01 g
64.00 g O 1 mol N
percent O = __ × 100 = 45.05% O 16.00 gO
142.05 g Na 2SO 4 1 mol O × _ = 16.00 g
1 mol O
59. Step 1: Assume 100 g sample; calculate moles of each
molar mass NO = 30.01 g/mol
element.
Step 4: Determine whole number multiplier.
35.98 g Al × _
1 mol Al
= 1.334 mol Al
26.98 g Al 60.01 g/mol
_ = 2.000
64.02 g S × _
1 mol S
= 1.996 mol S 30.01 g/mol
32.06 g S The molecular formula is N 2O 2.
Step 2: Calculate mole ratios.
1.334 mol Al = _
_ 1.000 mol Al _ 65. Step 1: Assume 100 g sample; calculate moles of each
= 1 mol Al element.
1.334 mol Al 1.000 mol Al 1 mol Al
_
1.996 mol S
= _
1.500 mol S _
= 1.5 mol S 65.45 g C × _
1 mol C
= 5.450 mol C
1.334 mol Al 1.000 mol Al 1 mol Al 12.01 g C
The simplest ratio is 1 mol Al: 1.5 mol S. 5.45 g H × _
1 mol H
= 5.41 mol H
1.008 g H
Step 3: Convert decimal fraction to whole number.
29.09 g O × _1 mol O
= 1.818 mol O
In this case, multiply by 2 because 1.5 × 2 = 3. 16.00 g O
Therefore, the empirical formula is Al 2S 3. Step 2: Calculate mole ratios.
61. Step 1: Assume 100 g sample; calculate moles of each
_
5.450 mol C
=_
3.000 mol C
=_
3 mol C
1.818 mol O 1.000 mol O 1 mol O
element. 5.41 mol H = _ = _
_ 2.97 mol H 3 mol H
60.00 g C × _
1 mol C
= 5.00 mol C 1.818 mol O 1.00 mol O 1 mol O
12.01 g C
_=_=_
1.818 mol O 1.000 mol O 1 mol O
4.44 g H × _1 mol H
= 4.40 mol H 1.818 mol O 1.000 mol O 1 mol O
1.008 g H
The simplest ratio is 3 mol C: 3 mol H: 1 mol O.
35.56 g O × _1 mol O
= 2.22 mol O
16.00 g O Therefore, the empirical formula is C 3H 3O.
Step 2: Calculate mole ratios. Step 3: Calculate the molar mass of the empirical
formula.
_
5.00 mol C
=_
2.25 mol C
=_
2.25 mol C
12.01 g C
2.22 mol O 1.00 mol O 1 mol O 3 mol C × _ = 36.03 g
4.40 mol H = _
_ 1.98 mol H _ 1 mol C
= 2 mol H
2.22 mol O 1.00 mol O 1 mol O 1.008 gH
3 mol H × _ = 3.024 g
2.22 mol O _
_ = 1.00 mol O = _
1 mol O 1 mol H
2.22 mol O 1.00 mol O 1 mol O 16.00 g O
1 mol O × _ = 16.00 g
The simplest ratio is 2.25 mol C: 2 mol H: 1 mol O. 1 mol O
Step 3: Convert decimal fraction to whole number. molar mass C 3H 3O = 55.05 g/mol
In this case, multiply by 4 because 2.25 × 4 = 9. Step 4: Determine whole number multiplier.
Therefore, the empirical formula is C 9H 8O 4. 110.00 g/mol
__ = 1.998, or 2
55.05 g/mol
63. Step 1: Assume 100 g sample; calculate moles of each
element. The molecular formula is C 6H 6O 2.
46.68 g N × _
1 mol N
= 3.332 mol N 75. Step 1: Calculate the mass of CoCl 2 remaining.
14.01 g N
129.83 g CoCl 2
_
53.32 g O × 1 mol O = 3.333 mol O 0.0712 mol CoCl 2 × __ = 9.24 g CoCl 2
16.00 g O 1 mol CoCl 2
Step 2: Calculate mole ratios. Step 2: Calculate the mass of water driven off.
3.332 mol N = _
_ 1.000 mol N _
= 1 mol N mass of hydrated compound - mass of anhydrous
3.332 mol N 1.000 mol N 1 mol N compound remaining
3.333 mol O _
_ = 1.000 mol O = _
1 mol O
= 11.75 g CoCl 2·xH 2O - 9.24 g CoCl 2 = 2.51 g H 2O
3.332 mol N 1.000 mol N 1 mol N

Solutions to Selected Practice Problems 997


Solutions to Selected Practice Problems

Step 3: Calculate moles of each component. 13. Step 1: Balance the chemical equation.
1 mol CoCl 2
9.24 g CoCl 2 × __ 2NaCl(s) → 2Na(s) + Cl 2(g)
129.83 g CoCl 2 Step 2: Make mole → mole conversion.
= 0.0712 mol CoCl 2 1 mol Cl
1 mol H 2O 2.50 mol NaCl × _2
= 1.25 mol Cl 2
2.51 g H 2O × _ = 0.139 mol H 2O 2 mol NaCl
18.02 g H 2O Step 3: Make mole → mass conversion.
Step 4: Calculate mole ratios. 70.9 g Cl 2
0.0712 mol CoCl 2 1.00 mol CoCl 1 mol CoCl 1.25 mol Cl 2 × _ = 88.6 g Cl 2
__ = __2 = _2 1 mol Cl 2
0.0712 mol CoCl 2 1.00 mol CoCl 2 1 mol CoCl 2
15. 2NaN 3(s) → 2Na(s) + 3N 2(g)
0.139 mol H O 1.95 mol H O 2 mol H 2O
__ 2
= __ 2
=_ Step 1: Make mass → mole conversion.
0.0712 mol CoCl 2 1.00 mol CoCl 2 1 mol CoCl 2
1 mol NaN
The formula of the hydrate is CoCl 2·2H 2O. Its name 100.0 g NaN 3 × _3
= 1.538 mol NaN 3
65.02 g NaN 3
is cobalt(II) chloride dehydrate.
Step 2: Make mole → mole conversion.
3 mol N
1.538 mol NaN 3 × _2
= 2.307 mol N 2
Chapter 11 2 mol NaN 3
Step 3: Make mole → mass conversion.
1. a. 1 molecule N 2 + 3 molecules H 2 → 28.02 g N 2
2 molecules NH 3 2.307 mol N 2 × _ = 64.64 g N 2
1 mol N 2
1 mole N 2 + 3 moles H 2 → 2 moles NH 3
23. Step 1: Make mass → mole conversion.
28.02 g N 2 + 6.06 g H 2 → 34.08 g NH 3
100.0 g Na × _ 1 mol Na
= 4.350 mol Na
b. 1 molecule HCl + 1 formula unit KOH → 22.99 g Na
1 formula unit KCl + 1 molecule H 2O 1 mol Fe 2O 3
100.0 g Fe 2O 3 × __ = 0.6261 mol Fe 2O 3
1 mole HCl + 1 mole KOH → 159.7 g Fe 2O 3
1 mole KCl + 1 mole H 2O Step 2: Make mole ratio comparison.
36.46 g HCl + 56.11 g KOH → 0.6261 mol Fe 2O 3 1 mol Fe 2O 3
__ compared to _
74.55 g KCl + 18.02 g H 2O 4.350 mol Na 6 mol Na
c. 2 atoms Mg + 1 molecule O2 → 0.1439 compared to 0.1667
2 formula units MgO
a. The actual ratio is less than the needed ratio, so
2 moles Mg + 1 mole O 2 → 2 moles MgO
iron(III) oxide is the limiting reactant.
48.62 g Mg + 32.00 g O 2 → 80.62 g MgO
b. Sodium is the excess reactant.
4 mol Al 3 mol O 2 2 mol Al 2O 3
3. a. _ _ _
3 mol O 2 2 mol Al 2O 3 4 mol Al c. Step 1: Make mole → mole conversion.
3 mol O 2 _
_ 2 mol Al 2O 3 _ 4 mol Al 0.6261 mol Fe 2O 3 × _ 2 mol Fe
= 1.252 mol Fe
4 mol Al 3 mol O 2 2 mol Al 2O 3 1 mol Fe 2O 3
Step 2: Make mole → mass conversion.
b. _ _ _
3 mol Fe 3 mol Fe 3 mol Fe
55.85 g Fe
4 mol H 2O 4 mol H 2 1 mol Fe 3O 4
1.252 mol Fe × _ = 69.92 g Fe
4 mol H 2O _
_ 4 mol H 2 _1 mol Fe 3O 4 1 mol Fe
3 mol Fe 3 mol Fe 3 mol Fe d. Step 1: Make mole → mole conversion.
1 mol Fe 3O 4 _
_ 1 mol Fe 3O 4 _
4 mol H 2O 0.6261 mol Fe 2O 3 × _ 6 mol Na
4 mol H 2 4 mol H 2O 4 mol H 2 1 mol Fe 2O 3
4 mol H 2 _ 4 mol H 2O _ 4 mol H 2 = 3.757 mol Na needed
_
1 mol Fe 3O 4 1 mol Fe 3O 4 4 mol H 2O Step 2: Make mole → mass conversion.
22.9 g Na
2 mol HgO 1 mol O 2 1 mol O 2
c. _ _ _ 3.757 mol Na × _ = 86.37 g Na needed
2 mol Hg 2 mol Hg 2 mol HgO 1 mol Na
2 mol Hg _ 2 mol Hg _ 2 mol HgO 100.0 g Na given - 86.37 g Na needed
_
2 mol HgO 1 mol O 2 1 mol O 2 = 13.6 g Na in excess

11. a. 2CH 4(g) + S 8(s) → 2CS 2(l) + 4H 2S(g) 29. a. Step 1: Write the balanced chemical equation.
2 mol CS 2 Zn(s) + I 2(s) → ZnI 2(s)
b. 1.50 mol S 8 × _ = 3.00 mol CS 2
1 mol S 8 Step 2: Make mass → mole conversion.
4 mol H 2S
c. 1.50 mol S 8 × _ = 6.00 mol H 2S 125.0 g Zn × _
1 mol Zn
= 1.912 mol Zn
1 mol S 8 65.38 g Zn

998 Solutions to Selected Practice Problems


Solutions to Selected Practice Problems

Step 3: Make mole → mole conversion. 13. T 1 = 0.00°C + 273 = 273 K


1 mol ZnI
1.912 mol Zn × _2 = 1.912 mol ZnI 2 T 2 = 30.0°C + 273 = 303 K
1 mol Zn PT
V2 _ (1.00 atm)(303 K)
Step 4: Make mole → mass conversion.
_ = 1 2 = __ = 0.92
V1 P 2T 1 (1.20 atm)(273 K)
319.2 g ZnI 2
1.912 mol ZnI 2 × _ = 610.3 g ZnI 2 This is a ratio, so there are no units. The final volume
1 mol ZnI 2 is less than the original volume, so the piston will
610.3 g of ZnI 2 is the theoretical yield. move down.
515.6 g ZnI 2
b. % yield = ___ × 100
21. 1.0 L × _ = 0.045 mol
1 mol
610.3 g ZnI 2 22.4 L
= 84.48% yield of ZnI 2 44.0 g
0.045 mol × _ = 2.0 g
1 mol
Chapter 12 23. 0.416 g × _1 mol
= 0.00496 mol
83.80 g
Rate nitrogen 
1. _ = _ = √
20.2 g/mol
Rate neon
0.721 = 0.849
28.0 g/mol 0.00496 mol × _ 22.4 L
= 0.111 L
1 mol
3. Rearrange Graham’s law to solve for Rate A.
25. 0.860 g - 0.205 g = 0.655 g He remaining

Rate A = Rate B × _B
molar mass
molar mass A Set up the problem as a ratio.
Rate B = 3.6 mol/min V =_
_ 19.2 L
0.655 g 0.860 g
molar mass B
_ = 0.5 Solve for V.
molar mass A
(19.2 L)(0.655 g)
Rate A = 3.6 mol/min × √
0.5 V = __ = 14.6 L
0.860 g
= 3.6 mol/min × 0.71
= 2.5 mol/min (0.323 mol) 0.0821_ (
L·atm
(265 K))
mol·K
27. V = _ = ___ = 7.81 L
nRT
5. P total = 5.00 kPa + 4.56 kPa + 3.02 kPa + 1.20 kPa P 0.900 atm
= 13.78 kPa
(3.81 atm)(0.44 L)
29. n = _ = __ = 6.9 × 10 -3 mol
7. N 2 = 590 mm Hg; O 2 = 160 mm Hg; Ar = 8 mm Hg PV
RT
0.0821_
( L·atm
(298 K))
mol·K
Chapter 13 39. 2H 2(g) + O 2(g) → 2H 2O(g)
V 1P 1 (300.0 mL)(99.0 kPa)
1. V 2 = _ = __ = 158 mL 2 volumes H
5.00 L O 2 × __2 = 10.0 L H 2
P2 188 kPa 1 volume O 2
3. P 2 = 1.08 atm + (1.08 atm × 0.25) = 1.35 atm
41. N 2 + O 2 = N 2O
(145.7 mL)(1.08 atm)
V 1P 1 __
V2 = _ = = 117 mL 2N 2 + O 2 = 2N 2O
P2 1.35 atm
1 volume O
5. T 1 = 89°C + 273 = 362 K 34 L N 2O × __2
= 17 L O 2
2 volumes N 2
(362 K)(1.12 L)
T 1V 2 __
T2 = _ = = 605 K 1000 g 1 mol CaCO 3 1 mol CO 2
V1 0.67 L 43. 2.38 kg × _ × __ × __
1 kg 100.09 g 1 mol CaCO 3
605 - 273 = 332°C = 330°C
×_ 22.4 L
= 533 L CO 2
7. V 2 = 0.67 L - (0.67 L × 0.45) = 0.37 L 1 mol
(350 K)(0.37 L)
T 1V 2 __
T2 = _ = = 190 K 45. Molecular mass of sodium bicarbonate = 83.9 g/mol
V1 0.67 L 1 mol NaHCO
28 g NaHCO 3 × __3 = 0.33 mol NaHCO 3
9. T 2 = 36.5°C + 273 = 309.5 K 83.9 g
(309.5 K)(1.12 atm)
T 2P 1 __ For each mole of sodium bicarbonate, one mole of
T1 = _ = = 135 K CO 2 is produced, so 0.33 mol NaHCO 3 will produce
P2 2.56 atm
135 K - 273 = -138°C 0.33 mol CO 2.
For an ideal gas, molar volume is 22.4 L at 273 K and
11. T 1 = 22.0°C + 273 = 295 K
1 atm.
T 2 = 100.0°C + 273 = 373 K
T = 20°C + 273 = 293 K
VTP (0.224 mL)(295 K)(1.23 atm)
V1 = _
2 1 2
= ___ = 0.214 mL 0.33 mol CO 2 × _
22.4 L _
× 293 K = 7.9 L of CO 2
T 2P 1 (373 K)(1.02 atm) 1 mol 273 K

Solutions to Selected Practice Problems 999


Solutions to Selected Practice Problems

Chapter 14 = 0.118
The mole fraction of NaOH is 0.118.
9. 600.0 mL H 2O × 1.0 g/mL = 600.0 g H 2O
1.5 g
___ 20.0 g NaHCO 3
× 100 = 3% 37. S 2 = _ = 1.5 g/L
1.0 L
600.0 g H 2O + 20.0 g NaHCO 3 S 1.5 g/L
P 2 = P 1 × _2 = 10.0 atm × _ = 23 atm
11. 1500.0 g - 54.3 g = 1445.7 g solvent S1 0.66 g/L

__
35 mL 45. ∆T b = 0.512°C/m × 0.625m = 0.320°C
13. × 100 = 18%
155 mL + 35 mL T b = 100°C + 0.320°C = 100.320°C
15. 15% = __ × 100 = 120 mL
18 mL ∆T f = 1.86°C/m × 0.625m = 1.16°C
x mL solution
T f = 0.0°C − 1.16°C = −1.16°C
17. mol KBr = 1.55 g × _ = 0.0130 mol KBr
1 mol
119.0 g ∆T f
47. K f = _m
molarity = __ mol KBr
=_ 0.0130 mol
1.60 L solution 1.60 L =_0.080°C
0.045 m
= 8.13 × 10 -3M
= 1.8°C/m
x mol Ca(OH)
19. 0.25M = __2 It is most likely water because the calculated value is
1.5 L solution
x = 0.38 mol Ca(OH) 2 closest to 1.86°C/m.
74.08 g
0.38 mol Ca(OH) 2 × _
1 mol Chapter 15
= 28 g Ca(OH) 2
1. 142 Calories = 142 kcal
21. mol CaCl 2 = 500.0 mL × _ × 0.20M
1L
1000 mL 142 kcal × _
1000 cal
= 142,000 cal
1 kcal
= 500.0 mL × _ 1L
×_0.20 mol
= 0.10 mol 3. Unit X = 0.1 cal
1000 mL 1L
110.98 g
mass CaCl 2 = 0.10 mol CaCl 2 × _ 1 cal = 4.184 J
1 mol X = (0.1 cal)(4.184 J/cal) = 0.4184 J
=11 g
46 g ethanol 1 cal = 0.001 Calorie
23. 100 mL × _ × __ × __
1L 0.15 mol ethanol
1000 mL 1 L solution 1 mol ethanol X = (0.1 cal)(1 Cal/1000 cal) = 0.0001 Calorie
× __1 mL ethanol
= 0.87 mL 5. q = c × m × ∆T
0.7893 g ethanol
5696 J = c × 155 g × 15.0°C
25. (5.0M)V 1 = (0.25M)(100.0 mL) c = 2.45 J/(g·°C)
(0.25M)(100.0 mL)
V 1 = __ = 5.0 mL The specific heat is very close to the value for ethanol.
5.0M
13. q = c × m × ∆T
27. mol Na 2SO 4 = 10.0 g Na 2SO 4 × __
1 mol
142.04 g Na 2SO 4 5650 J = 4.184 J/(g·°C) × m × 26.6°C
= 0.0704 mol Na 2SO 4 m = 50.8 g
0.0704 mol Na SO
molality = __
2 4
= 0.0704m 15. q = c × m × ∆T
1.0000 kg H 2O
9750 J = 4.184 J/(g·ºC) × 335 g × ∆T
29. 22.8% = __ × 100
mass NaOH
mass NaOH + mass H 2O ∆T = 6.96°C
Assume 100.0 g sample. Because the water lost heat, let ∆T = −6.96°C.
Then, mass NaOH = 22.8 g ∆T = −6.96°C = T f − 65.5°C
mass H 2O = 100.0 g - (mass NaOH) = 77.2 g T f = 58.5°C
mol NaOH = 22.8 g × _
1 mol
= 0.570 mol NaOH 1 mol CH 3OH
23. 25.7 g CH 3OH × __ × __
3.22 kJ
40.00 g
32.04 g CH 3OH 1 mol CH 3OH
mol H 2O = 77.2 g × _1 mol
= 4.28 mol H 2O = 2.58 kJ
18.02 g
1 mol CH 4 891 kJ
mol fraction NaOH = __ mol NaOH 25. 12,880 kJ = m × _ × _
mol NaOH + mol H 2O 16.04 g CH 4 1 mol CH 4
16.04 g CH 4
= ___ =_
1 mol CH
m = 12,880 kJ × _ × _4
0.570 mol NaOH 0.570
0.570 mol NaOH + 4.28 mol H 2O 4.85 1 mol CH 4 891 kJ

1000 Solutions to Selected Practice Problems


Solutions to Selected Practice Problems

m = 232 g CH 4 Average reaction rate = - __


0.020M - 0.030M
4.00 s - 0.00 s
33. a. 4Al(s) + 3O 2(g) → 2Al 2O 3(s) ∆H = -3352 kJ =-_
-0.010M
= 0.0025 mol/(L·s)
4.00 s
b. ∆H for Equation b = -x kJ 3. HCl is formed so the average rate expression should
Add Equation a to Equation b reversed and tripled. be positive.
4Al(s) + 3O 2(g) → 2Al 2O 3(s) ∆H = -3352 kJ Average reaction rate =
3MnO 2(s) → 3Mn(s) + 3O 2(g) ∆H = 3x kJ [HCl] at time t 2 - [HCl] at time t 1
___
t2 - t1
= 0.0050 mol/(L·s)
4Al(s) + 3MnO 2(s) → 2Al 2O 3(s) + 3Mn(s)
-1789 kJ = 3x kJ + (-3352 kJ) [HCl] at time t 2 =
3x kJ = -1789 kJ + 3352 kJ = +1563 kJ (0.0050 mol/(L·s))(t 2 - t 1) + [HCl] at time t 1
1563 kJ = (0.0050 mol/L·s)(4.00 s - 0.00 s) + 0.00 s
x = _ = +521 kJ
3 = 0.020M
Because the direction of Equation b was changed, 19. Rate = k[A] 3
∆H for Equation b = -521 kJ.
21. Examining trials 1 and 2, doubling [A] has no effect
35. ∆H 0rxn = [4(33.18 kJ) + 6(-285.83 kJ)] - on the rate; therefore, the reaction is zero order in A.
4(-46.11) kJ = -1397.82 Examining trials 2 and 3, doubling [B] doubles the
37. Reverse Equation a and change the sign of ∆H 0f to rate; therefore, the reaction is first order in B. Rate =
obtain Equation c. k[A] 0[B] = k[B]
Add equation b. 31. [NO] = 0.00500M
c. NO(g) → ΩN 2(g) + ΩO 2(g) ∆H 0f = -91.3 kJ [H 2] = 0.00200M
b. ΩN 2(g) + O 2(g) → NO 2(g) ∆H 0f = ? k = 2.90 × 10 2 L 2/(mol 2·s)
Add the equations. Rate = k [NO] 2[H 2]
NO(g) + ΩO 2(g) → NO 2(g) = [2.90 × 10 2 L 2/(mol 2·s)](0.00500M) 2(0.00200M)
∆H 0rxn = -58.1 kJ = ∆H 0f (c) + ∆H 0f (b) = [2.90 × 10 2 L 2/(mol 2·s)](0.00500 mol/k) 2
−58.1 kJ = -91.3 kJ + ∆H 0f (b) (0.00200 mol/L)
∆H 0f (b) = -58.1 kJ + 91.3 kJ = 33.2 kJ = 1.45 × 10 -5 mol/(L·s)
45. The states of the two reactants are the same on both 33. Rate = k [NO] 2[H 2]
sides of the equation, so it is impossible from the 
9.00 × 10 -5 mol/(L × s)
[NO] = _

Rate
= ___ √
equation alone to predict the sign of ∆S system. k[H 2] 2 (2.90 × 10 )(0.00300mol/L)
47. Calculate T when ∆G system = 0. = 1.02 × 10 -2M
1 kJ
-36.8 J/K × _ = -0.0368 kJ/K
1000 J
Chapter 17
∆G system = ∆H system - T∆S system [NO 2] 2 [NO] 4[H 2O] 6
-144 kJ - (T × (−0.0368 kJ/K)) = -144 kJ + 1. a. K eq = _ d. K eq = __
[N 2O 4] [NH 3] 4[O 2] 5
0.0368T kJ/K = 0 [H 2] 2[S 2] [CS 2][H 2] 4
144 kJ b. K eq = _ e. K eq = _2
T = _ = 3910 K [H 2S] 2 [CH 4][H 2S]
0.0368 kJ/K
[CH 4][H 2O]
At any temperature above 3910 K, the reaction is c. K eq = _
[CO][H 2] 3
spontaneous.
[CO(g)][H 2(g)]
3. a. K eq = [C 10H 8(g)] d. K eq = __
[H 2O(g)]
Chapter 16 b. K eq = [H 2O(g)] e. K eq =
[CO 2(g)]
_
[CO(g)]
1. H 2 is consumed. Average reaction rate expression c. K eq = [CO 2(g)]
should be negative. [NO 2] 2 0.0627 2
Average reaction rate = 5. K eq = _ = _ = 0.213
[N 2O 4] 0.0185
[H ] at time t - [H ] at time t ∆[H ]
- ___
2 2
t −t
2 1
=-_2
2 1 ∆t [CO][Cl 2]
_
7. = 8.2 × 10 -2
[COCl 2]

Solutions to Selected Practice Problems 1001


Solutions to Selected Practice Problems

(0.150)(0.150) [C H NH +][OH -]
__ = 8.2 × 10 -2 K b = __
6 13 3
[COCl 2] [C 6H 13NH 2]
(0.150)(0.150)
[COCl 2] = __
-2
= 0.28M b. C 3H 7NH 2(aq) + H 2O(l) ⇌
8.2 × 10 C 3H 7NH 3 -(aq) + OH-(aq)
19. According to the stoichiometry of the equation, the [C H NH +][OH -]
K b = __
3 7 3
concentration of B is 0.450M; C and D are 1.00 - [C 3H 7NH 2]
0.450 = 0.550M. c. CO 3 2-(aq) + H 2O(l) ⇌ HCO 3 -(aq) + OH -(aq)
(0.550)(0.550)
K eq = __ = 1.49 [HCO 3 -][OH -]
K b = __
(0.450)(0.450) [CO 3 2-]
21. K sp = [Pb 2+][CO 3 2-] = 7.40 × 10 -14 d. HSO 3 -(aq) + H 2O(l) ⇌ H 2SO 3(aq) + OH -(aq)
(s)(s) = 7.40 × 10 -14 [H SO -][OH -]
K b = __
2 3
s = √
7.40 × 10 -14 = 2.72 × 10 -7M -
[HSO 3 ]
s = 2.72 × 10 -7 mol/L × 267.2 g/mol 23. At 298 K, [H +] = [OH −] = 1.0 × 10 −7M
= 7.27 × 10 -5 g/L −7
Mol H + = __
1.0 × 10 mol _
× 1 L × 300 mL =
1L 1000 mL
23. K sp = [Ag +] 3[PO 4 3-] = 2.6 × 10 -18 3.0 × 10 −8 mol
[PO 4 3-] = s, [Ag +] = 3s 23 +
3.0 × 10 −8 mol H + ions × __
6.02 × 10 H ions
=
(3s) 3(s) = (27s 3)(s) = 27s 4 = 2.6 × 10 −18 1 mol
1.8 × 10 16 H + ions
4 
s = _ 2.6 × 10 -18
= 1.8 × 10 -5 mol/L Number of H + = number of OH − = 1.8 × 10 16 ions
27

25. a. PbF 2(s) ⇌ Pb 2+(aq) + 2F -(aq) 25. a. [H +] = 0.0055M b. [H +] = 0.000084M


Q sp = [Pb 2+][F -] 2 = (0.050M)(0.015M) 2 pH = −log [H +] pH = −log [H +]
= 1.12 × 10 -5 pH = −log 0.0055 pH = −log 0.000084
K sp = 3.3 × 10 -8 pH = 2.26 pH = 4.08
Q sp > K sp, so a precipitate of PbF 2 will form.
27. a. [OH −] = 1.0 × 10 −6M
b. Ag 2SO 4(s) ⇌ 2Ag +(aq) + SO 4 2-(aq) pOH = −log [OH −]
Q sp = [Ag +] 2[SO 4 2-] = (0.0050M) 2(0.125M) pOH = −log(1.0 × 10 −6)
= 3.1 × 10 -6 pOH = 6.00
K sp = 1.2 × 10 -5 pH = 14.00 − pOH = 14.00 − 6.00 = 8.00
Q sp < K sp, so a precipitate will not form. b. [OH −] = 6.5 × 10 −4M
pOH = −log [OH −]
pOH = −log(6.5 × 10 −4)
Chapter 18 pOH = 3.19
1. a. 2Al(s) + 3H 2SO 4(aq) → Al 2(SO 4) 3(aq) + 3H 2(g) pH = 14.00 − pOH = 14.00 − 3.19 = 10.81
b. CaCO 3(s) + 2HBr(aq) → c. [H +] = 3.6 × 10 −9M
CaBr 2(aq) + H 2O(l) + CO 2(g) pH = −log [H +]
3. pH = −log(3.6 × 10 −9 )
Acid Conjugate Base Conjugate pH = 8.44
base acid
pOH = 14.00 − pH = 14.00 − 8.44 = 5.56
a. NH 4 + NH 3 OH - H 2O d. [H +] = 2.5 × 10 −2M
b. HBr Br - H 2O H 3O + pH = −log(−2.5 × 10 −2)
pH = 1.60
c. H 2O OH - CO 3 2- HCO 3 -
pOH = 14.00 − pH = 14.00 − 1.60 = 12.40
13. H 2SeO 3(aq) + H 2O(l) ⇌ HSeO 3 -(aq) + H 3O +(aq) 1.0 × 10 −3 mol
29. [HCl] = [H +] = __ = 0.00020M =
5.0 L
HSeO 3 -(aq) + H 2O(l) ⇌ SeO 3 2-(aq) + H 3O +(aq) 2.0 × 10 −4M
15. a. C 6H 13NH 2(aq) + H 2O(l) ⇌ pH = −log(2.0 × 10 −4)
= −(−3.70) = 3.70
C 6H 13NH 3 -(aq ) + OH −(aq) pOH = 14.00 − 3.70 = 10.30

1002 Solutions to Selected Practice Problems


Solutions to Selected Practice Problems

31. [OH −] = antilog (−pOH) Chapter 19


[OH −] = antilog (−5.60) = 2.5 × 10 −6M
1. a. reduction c. oxidation
pH = 14.00 − 5.60 = 8.40 b. oxidation d. reduction
[H +] = antilog (−8.40) = 4.0 × 10 −9M
3. Ag + is the oxidizing agent, Fe is the reducing agent;
33. a. pH = 14.00 − pOH Ag + is reduced, Fe is oxidized
pH = 14.00 − 10.70 = 3.30 5. a. +7 b. +5 c. +3
[H +] = antilog (−pH)
7. a. -3 b. -3 c. -2
[H +] = antilog (−3.30) = 5.0 × 10 −4M
[C 6H 5COO −] = [H +] = 5.0 × 10 −4M 15. 3(+2)
[C 6H 5COOH] = 0.0040M − 5.0 × 10 −4M = +1 -1 +1 +5 -2 +1 -2 +1 +2 -2 +1 -2

0.0035M HCl + HNO3 → HOCl + NO + H2O


(5.0 × 10 −4)(5.0 × 10 −4)
[H +][C 6H 5COO −] __
K a = __ =
[C 6H 5COOH] −3
(3.5 × 10 ) 2(–3)
K a = 7.1 × 10 −5 3HCl + 2HNO 3 → 3HOCl + 2NO + H 2O
b. pH = 14.00 − pOH
17. 4(+3)(2)
pH = 14.00 − 11.00 = 3.00
[H +] = antilog (−pH) -3 +1 +4 -2 0 +1 -2
NH3(g) + NO2(g) → N2(g) + H2O(l)
[H +] = antilog (−3.00) = 1.0 × 10 −3M
[CNO −] = [H +] = 1.0 × 10 −3M 3(–4)(2)
[HCNO] = 0.100 − 1.0 × 10 −3M = 0.099M 8NH 3(g) + 6NO 2(g) → 7N 2(g) + 12H 2O(l)
[H +][CNO −] (1.0 × 10 −3)(1.0 × 10 −3)
K a = __ = __
[HCNO] (0.099) 19. 3(+2)
K a = 1.0 × 10 −5
+1 -2 +5 -2 0 +2 -2
c. pH = 14.00 − pOH H2S(g) + NO3-(aq) → S(s) + NO(g)
pH = 14.00 − 11.18 = 2.82
[H +] = antilog (−pH) 2(–3)
[H +] = antilog (−2.82) = 1.5 × 10 −3M 2H +(aq) + 3H 2S(g) + 2NO 3 -(aq) →
[C 3H 7COO −] = [H +] = 1.5 × 10 −3M 3S(s) + 2NO(g) + 4H 2O(l)
[C 3H 7COOH] = 0.150M − 1.5 × 10 −3M = 0.149M
21. +2
[H +][C H COO −] (1.5 × 10 −3)(1.5 × 10 −3)
K a = __
3 7
= __
[C 3H 7COOH] (0.149) 0 +5 -2 +2 +4 -2

K a = 1.5 × 10 −5 Zn + 2NO3- + 4H+ → Zn2+ + 2NO2 + 2H2O

45. 49.90 mL HCl × _ × __ =


1L 0.5900 mol HCl (–1)
1000 mL 1 L HCl
2.944 × 10 −2 mol HCl Zn + 2NO 3 + 4H + → Zn 2+ + 2NO 2 + 2H 2O
-

1 mol NH
2.944 × 10 −2 mol HCl × _3 = 2.944 × 23. 2I -(aq) → I 2(s) + 2e - (oxidation)
1 mol HCl
10 −2 mol NH 3 14H +(aq) + 6e - + Cr 2O 7 2-(aq) →
2.944 × 1 0 −2 mol N H
M NH 3 = __3 = 1.178M 2Cr 3+(aq) + 7H 2O(l) (reduction)
0.02500 L NH 3
Multiply oxidation half-reaction by 3 and add to
47. a. NH 4 +(aq) + H 2O(l)  NH 3(aq) + H 3O +(aq) reduction half-reaction.
The solution is acidic. 14H +(aq) + 6e - + CrO 7 2-(aq) + 6I -(aq) →
b. SO 4 2−(aq) + H 2O(l)  HSO 4 −(aq) + OH −(aq) 3I 2(s) + 2Cr 3+(aq) + 7H 2O(l) + 6e -
The solution is neutral. 14H (aq) + CrO 7 2-(aq) + 6I -(aq) →
+
c. CH 3COO −(aq) + H 2O(l)  3I 2(s) + 2Cr 3+(aq) + 7H 2O(l)
CH 3COOH(aq) + OH −(aq)
25. 6OH -(aq) + N 2O(g) →
The solution is basic.
2NO 2 -(aq) + 4e - + 3H 2O(l) (oxidation)
d. CO 3 2−(aq) + H 2O(l)  HCO 3 −(aq) + OH −(aq)
The solution is basic. ClO -(aq) + 2e - + H 2O(l) →
Cl -(aq) + 2OH -(aq) (reduction)

Solutions to Selected Practice Problems 1003


Solutions to Selected Practice Problems

Multiply reduction half-reaction by 2 and add to oxi- 31. a. propylbenzene


dation half-reaction. b. 1-ethyl-2-methylbenzene
6OH -(aq) + N 2O(g) + 2ClO -(aq) + 4e - + 2H 2O(l) → c. 1-ethyl-2,3-dimethylbenzene
2NO 2 -(aq) + 4e - + 3H 2O(l) + 2Cl -(aq) + 4OH -(aq)
N 2O(g) + 2ClO -(aq) + 2OH -(aq) → Chapter 22
2NO 2 -(aq) + 2Cl -(aq) + H 2O(l)
1. 2,3-difluorobutane
3. 1,3-dibromo-2-chlorobenzene
Chapter 20
1. Pt 2+(aq) + Sn(s) → Pt(s) + Sn 2+(aq)
Chapter 23
E 0cell = +1.18 V - (-0.1375 V)
E 0cell = +1.32 V No practice problems
Sn|Sn 2+||Pt 2+|Pt
3. Hg 2+(aq) + Cr(s) → Hg(l) + Cr 2+(aq)
E 0cell = +0.851 V - (-0.913 V) Chapter 24
E 0cell = +1.764 V 7. 229 4 225
90Th → 2He + 88Ra
Cr|Cr 2+||Hg 2+|Hg
Alpha decay
5. E 0cell = +0.3419 V - (-0.1375 V)
9. For one half-life, amount remaining = (initial
E 0cell = +0.4794 V n
1 1
amount) _ 1
() = (10.0 mg) _ ()= 5.00 mg.
E 0cell > 0 spontaneous 2 2

7. E 0cell = 0.920 V - (+1.507 V)


For two half-lives, amount remaining = (initial
n
1 2
E 0cell = -0.587 V amount) _1
(2) = (10.0 mg) _ (2)= 2.50 mg.
E 0cell < 0 not spontaneous For three half-lives, amount remaining = (initial
n
1 3
9. Al|Al 3+||Hg 2+|Hg 2 2+ amount) _ (2)
1
= (10.0 mg) _ (2)= 1.25 mg.
2Al(s) + 6Hg 2+(aq) → 2Al 3+(aq)
+ 3Hg 2 2+(aq)
11. Sample A will have 16.2 grams remaining after two
E 0cell = 0.920 V - (-1.662 V) = +2.582 V
half-lives, or 10.54 years. For Sample B, amount
10.54y
_
The reaction is spontaneous. _t
remaining = (initial amount) _
1
() T = (58.4 g) _
(2)
1 12.32y
2
≈ 32.3 g
Chapter 21 For Sample C, amount remaining =
10.54y
_
_t
9. a. CH3 C3H7 (initial amount) T = (37.6 g) _
(2)
1 28.79y
≈ 29.2 g

CH3CHCHCH2CH(CH2)4CH3
27
19. + n → 24 4

13Al 11Na + 2He


CH3
b. C2H5 C2H5 21. Let T = target and I = unstable isotope. Then,

110
CH3CH2CHCHCHCH2CH2CH3 n + T = I and I = β + 48Cd

Balancing the second equation gives:


C2H5
110
47Ag = β + 11048Cd
11. a. C2H5 b. CH3 The first equation must then be: n + T = 11047Ag
CH3 Balancing this equation gives: n + 109 Ag = 110
47 47Ag
CH3 The target, then, was silver-109, and the unstable
isotope was silver-110.
CH3
C3H7
17. a. 4-methyl-2-pentene b. 2,2,6-trimethyl-3-octene

1004 Solutions to Selected Practice Problems


A multilingual science glossary at glencoe.com includes Arabic,
Bengali, Chinese, English, Haitian Creole, Hmong, Korean, Portuguese,
Russian, Tagalog, Urdu, and Vietnamese.

Pronunciation Key
Use the following key to help you sound out words in the glossary.
a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . back (BAK) ew . . . . . . . . . . . . . food (FEWD)
ay . . . . . . . . . . . . . day (DAY) yoo . . . . . . . . . . . . pure (PYOOR)
ah . . . . . . . . . . . . . father (FAH thur) yew . . . . . . . . . . . . few (FYEW)
ow . . . . . . . . . . . . . flower (FLOW ur) uh . . . . . . . . . . . . . comma (CAHM uh)
ar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . car (CAR) u (+con) . . . . . . . . rub (RUB)
e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . less (LES) sh . . . . . . . . . . . . . shelf (SHELF)
ee . . . . . . . . . . . . . leaf (LEEF) ch . . . . . . . . . . . . . nature (NAY chur)
ih. . . . . . . . . . . . . . trip (TRIHP) g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gift (GIHFT)
i (i+con+e). . . . . . idea, life (i DEE uh, life) j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gem (JEM)
oh . . . . . . . . . . . . . go (GOH) ing . . . . . . . . . . . . sing (SING)
aw . . . . . . . . . . . . . soft (SAWFT) zh . . . . . . . . . . . . . vision (VIHZH un)
or . . . . . . . . . . . . . orbit (OR but) k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . cake (KAYK)
oy . . . . . . . . . . . . . coin (COYN) s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . seed, cent (SEED, SENT)
oo . . . . . . . . . . . . . foot (FOOT) z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . zone, raise (ZOHN, RAYZ)

Como usar el glosario en espanol:


1. Busca el termino en ingles que desees encontrar.
2. El termino en espanol, junto con la definicion,
A se encuentran en la columna de la derecha.

English Español
absolute zero (p. 445) Zero on the Kelvin scale which repre- cero absoluto (pág. 445) Equivale a cero grados en la escala
sents the lowest possible theoretical temperature; atoms de Kelvin y representa la temperatura teórica más fría
are all in the lowest possible energy state. posible; a esta temperatura todos los átomos se encuen-
tran en el menor estado energético posible.
accuracy (p. 47) Refers to how close a measured value is to exactitud (pág. 47) Se refiere a la cercanía entre un valor
an accepted value. medido y el valor aceptado.
acid-base indicator (p. 662) A chemical dye whose color is indicador ácido-base (pág. 662) tinción química cuyo color
affected by acidic and basic solutions. cambia al entrar en contacto con soluciones ácidas y
básicas.
acidic solution (p. 636) Contains more hydrogen ions than solución ácida (pág. 636) Solución que contiene más iones
hydroxide ions. hidrógeno que iones hidróxido.
acid ionization constant (p. 647) The value of the equilib- constante ácida de ionización (pág. 647) Valor de la expre-
rium constant expression for the ionization of a weak sión de la constante de equilibrio para la ionización de
acid. un ácido débil.
actinide series (p. 180) In the periodic table, the f-block ele- serie de actínidos (pág. 180) Elementos del bloque F del
ments from period 7 that follow the element actinium. período 7 de la tabla periódica que aparecen después del
elemento actinio.
activated complex (p. 564) A short-lived, unstable arrange- complejo activado (pág. 564) Complejo efímero e inestable
ment of atoms that can break apart and re-form the reac- de átomos que se puede romper para volver a formar los
tants or can form products; also sometimes referred to as reactivos o para formar los productos; a veces también se
the transition state. le llama estado de transición.
activation energy (p. 564) The minimum amount of energy energía de activación (pág. 564) La cantidad mínima de
required by reacting particles in order to form the acti- energía que requieren las partículas de una reacción para
vated complex and lead to a reaction. formar el complejo activado y producir la reacción.
active site (p. 830) The pocket or crevice to which a sub- sitio activo (pág. 830) Saliente o hendidura a la que se enlaza
strate binds in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction. un sustrato durante una reacción catalizada por enzimas.

Glossary/Glosario 1005
Glossary/Glosario

actual yield/rendimiento real amino acid/amino ácido

actual yield (p. 385) The amount of product produced when rendimiento real (pág. 385) Cantidad de producto que se
a chemical reaction is carried out. obtiene al realizar una reacción química.
addition polymerization (p. 811) Occurs when all the atoms polimerización de adición (pág. 811) Ocurre cuando todos
present in the monomers are retained in the polymer los átomos presentes en los monómeros forman parte del
product. producto polimérico.
addition reaction (p. 804) A reaction that occurs when other reacción de adición (pág. 804) Reacción que ocurre cuando
atoms bond to each of two atoms bonded by double or dos átomos unidos entre sí por enlaces covalentes dobles
triple covalent bonds. o triples se unen con otros átomos.
alcohol (p. 792) An organic compound in which a hydroxyl alcohol (pág. 792) Compuesto orgánico en el que un grupo
group replaces a hydrogen atom of a hydrocarbon. hidroxilo reemplaza a un átomo de hidrógeno de un
hidrocarburo.
aldehyde (p. 796) An organic compound containing the aldehído (pág. 796) Compuesto orgánico que contiene una
structure in which a carbonyl group at the end of a car- estructura en la que un grupo carbonilo, situado al final de
bon chain is bonded to a carbon atom on one side and a una cadena de carbonos, se une a un átomo de carbono por
hydrogen atom on the other side. un lado y a un átomo de hidrógeno por el lado opuesto.
aliphatic compounds (a luh FA tihk • KAHM pownd) compuestos alifáticos (pág. 771) Hidrocarburos no aromáti-
(p. 771) Nonaromatic hydrocarbons, such as the alkanes, cos como los alcanos, los alquenos y los alquinos.
alkenes, and alkynes.
alkali metals (p. 177) Group 1 elements, except for hydro- metales alcalinos (pág. 177) Incluyen los elementos del
gen, they are reactive and usually exist as compounds grupo 1, a excepción del hidrógeno. Son reactivos y gene-
with other elements. ralmente existen como compuestos con otros elementos.
alkaline earth metals (p. 177) Group 2 elements in the mod- metales alcalinotérreos (pág. 177) Elementos altamente
ern periodic table and are highly reactive. reactivos del grupo 2 de la tabla periódica moderna.
alkane (p. 750) Hydrocarbon that contains only single alcano (pág. 750) Hidrocarburo que sólo contiene enlaces
bonds between atoms. sencillos entre sus átomos.
alkene (p. 759) An unsaturated hydrocarbon, such as eth- alqueno (pág. 759) Hidrocarburo no saturado, como el
ene (C 2H 4), with one or more double covalent bonds eteno (C 2H 4), que tiene uno o más enlaces covalentes
between carbon atoms in a chain. dobles entre los átomos de carbono en una cadena.
alkyl halide (p. 787) An organic compound containing a haluro de alquilo (pág. 787) Compuesto orgánico que con-
halogen atom covalently bonded to an aliphatic carbon tiene un átomo de halógeno enlazado covalentemente a
atom. un átomo de carbono alifático.
alkyne (p. 763) An unsaturated hydrocarbon, such as alquino (pág. 763) Hidrocarburo no saturado, como el ace-
ethyne (C 2H 2), with one or more triple bonds between tileno (C 2H 2), que tiene uno o más enlaces triples entre
carbon atoms in a chain. los átomos de carbono en una cadena.
allotrope (p. 422) One of two or more forms of an element alótropos (pág. 422) Formas de un elemento que tienen
with different structures and properties when they are in estructura y propiedades distintas cuando están en el
the same state—solid, liquid, or gas. mismo estado: sólido, líquido o gaseoso.
alloy (p. 227) A mixture of elements that has metallic prop- aleación (pág. 227) Mezcla de elementos que posee propie-
erties; most commonly forms when the elements are dades metálicas; en general se forman cuando los elemen-
either similar in size (substitutional alloy) or the atoms tos tienen un tamaño similar (aleación de sustitución)
of one element are much smaller than the atoms of the o cuando los átomos de un elemento son mucho más
other (interstitial alloy). pequeños que los átomos del otro (aleación intersticial).
alpha particle (p. 123) A particle with two protons and two partícula alfa (pág. 123) Partícula con dos protones y dos
neutrons, with a 2+ charge; is equivalent to a helium-4 neutrones que tiene una carga 2+ ; equivale a un núcleo
nucleus, can be represented as α; and is emitted during de helio 4, se puede representar como α y es emitida
radioactive decay. durante la desintegración radiactiva.
alpha radiation (p. 123) Radiation that is made up of alpha radiación alfa (pág. 123) Radiación compuesta de partículas
particles; is deflected toward a negatively charged plate alfa; si la radiación proveniente de una fuente radiactiva es
when radiation from a radioactive source is directed dirigida hacia dos placas cargadas eléctricamente, este tipo
between two electrically charged plates. de radiación se desvía hacia la placa con carga negativa.
amide (AM ide) (p. 800) An organic compound in which amida (pág. 800) Compuesto orgánico en el que el grupo
the -H group of a carboxylic acid is replaced by a nitro- -H de un ácido carboxílico es sustituido por un átomo
gen atom bonded to other atoms. de nitrógeno unido a otros átomos.
amines (A meen) (p. 795) Organic compounds that con- aminas (pág. 795) Compuestos orgánicos que contienen
tain nitrogen atoms bonded to carbon atoms in aliphatic átomos de nitrógeno unidos a átomos de carbono en
chains or aromatic rings and have the general formula cadenas alifáticas o anillos aromáticos; su fórmula gene-
RNH 2. ral es RNH 2.
amino acid (p. 826) An organic molecule that has both an amino ácido (pág. 826) Molécula orgánica que posee un
amino group (-NH 2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH). grupo amino (-NH 2) y un grupo carboxilo (-COOH).

1006 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario

amorphous solid/sólido amorfo ATP/ATP

amorphous solid (p. 424) A solid in which particles are sólido amorfo (pág. 424) Sólido cuyas partículas no están
not arranged in a regular, repeating pattern that often is ordenadas de modo que formen un patrón regular repe-
formed when molten material cools too quickly to form titivo; a menudo se forma cuando el material fundido se
crystals. enfría demasiado rápido como para formar cristales.
amphoteric (AM foh TAR ihk) (p. 639) Describes water anfotérico (pág. 639) Término que describe al agua y otras
and other substances that can act as both acids and bases. sustancias que pueden actuar como ácidos y bases.
amplitude (p. 137) The height of a wave from the origin to amplitud (pág. 137) Altura de una onda desde el origen
a crest, or from the origin to a trough. hasta una cresta o desde el origen hasta un valle.
anabolism (ah NAB oh lih zum) (p. 844) Refers to the anabolismo (pág. 844) Reacciones metabólicas en las que
metabolic reactions through which cells use energy and las células usan energía y pequeñas unidades básicas para
small building blocks to build large, complex molecules formar las moléculas grandes y complejas que requieren
needed to carry out cell functions and for cell structures. para realizar sus funciones celulares y para construir sus
estructuras.
anion (AN i ahn) (p. 209) An ion that has a negative anión (pág. 209) Ion con carga negativa.
charge.
anode (p. 710) In an electrochemical cell, the electrode ánodo (pág. 710) Electrodo donde sucede la oxidación en
where oxidation takes place. una celda electroquímica.
applied research (p. 17) A type of scientific investigation investigación aplicada (pág. 17) Tipo de investigación cientí-
that is undertaken to solve a specific problem. fica que se realiza para resolver un problema concreto.
aqueous solution (p. 299) A solution in which the solvent is solución acuosa (pág. 299) Solución en la que el agua fun-
water. ciona como disolvente.
aromatic compounds (p. 771) Organic compounds that con- compuestos aromáticos (pág. 771) Compuestos orgánicos
tain one or more benzene rings as part of their molecular que contienen uno o más anillos de benceno como parte
structure. de su estructura molecular.
Arrhenius model (ah REE nee us • MAH dul) (p. 637) modelo de Arrhenius (pág. 637) Modelo de ácidos y bases;
A model of acids and bases; states that an acid is a sub- establece que un ácido es una sustancia que contiene
stance that contains hydrogen and ionizes to produce hidrógeno y se ioniza para producir iones hidrógeno en
hydrogen ions in aqueous solution and a base is a sub- solución acuosa, y que una base es una sustancia que
stance that contains a hydroxide group and dissociates to contiene un grupo hidróxido y se disocia para producir
produce a hydroxide ion in aqueous solution. un ion hidróxido en solución acuosa.
aryl halide (p. 788) An organic compound that contains a haluro de arilo (pág. 788) Compuesto orgánico que con-
halogen atom bonded to a benzene ring or another aro- tiene un átomo de halógeno unido a un anillo de ben-
matic group ceno u otro grupo aromático.
asymmetric carbon (p. 768) A carbon atom that has four carbono asimétrico (pág. 768) Átomo de carbono que está
different atoms or groups of atoms attached to it; occurs unido a cuatro átomos o grupos de átomos diferentes; se
in chiral compounds. hallan en compuestos quirales.
atmosphere (p. 407) The unit that is often used to report air atmósfera (pág. 407) Unidad que a menudo se usa para
pressure. reportar la presión atmosférica.
atom (p. 106) The smallest particle of an element that átomo (pág. 106) La partícula más pequeña de un elemento
retains all the properties of that element; is electrically que retiene todas las propiedades de ese elemento; es
neutral, spherically shaped, and composed of electrons, eléctricamente neutro, de forma esférica y está com-
protons, and neutrons. puesto de electrones, protones y neutrones.
atomic emission spectrum (p. 144) A set of frequencies of espectro de emisión atómica (pág. 144) Conjunto de fre-
electromagnetic waves given off by atoms of an element; cuencias de ondas electromagnéticas que emiten los áto-
consists of a series of fine lines of individual colors. mos de un elemento; consta de una serie de líneas finas
de distintos colores.
atomic mass (p. 119) The weighted average mass of the iso- masa atómica (pág. 119) La masa promedio ponderada de
topes of that element. los isótopos de un elemento.
atomic mass unit (amu) (p. 119) One-twelfth the mass of a unidad de masa atómica (uma) (pág. 119) La doceava parte
carbon-12 atom. de la masa de un átomo de carbono 12.
atomic number (p. 115) The number of protons in an atom. número atómico (pág. 115) El número de protones en un
átomo.
atomic orbital (p. 152) A three-dimensional region around orbital atómico (pág. 152) Región tridimensional alrededor
the nucleus of an atom that describes an electron’s prob- del núcleo de un átomo que describe la ubicación proba-
able location. ble de un electrón.
ATP (p. 845) Adenosine triphosphate—a nucleotide that ATP (pág. 845) Trifosfato de adenosina; nucleótido que
functions as the universal energy-storage molecule in sirve como la molécula universal de almacenamiento de
living cells. energía en las células vivas.

Glossary/Glosario 1007
Glossary/Glosario

aufbau principle/principio de aufbau buffer capacity/capacidad amortiguadora

aufbau principle (p. 156) States that each electron occupies principio de aufbau (pág. 156) Establece que cada electrón
the lowest energy orbital available. ocupa el orbital de energía más bajo disponible.
Avogadro’s number (p. 321) The number 6.0221367 × 10 23, número de Avogadro (pág. 321) Equivale al número
which is the number of representative particles in 6.0221367 × 10 23; es el número de partículas representa-
a mole, and can be rounded to three significant digits tivas en un mol; se puede redondear a tres dígitos signifi-
6.02 × 10 23. cativos: 6.02 × 10 23.
Avogadro’s principle (p. 452) States that equal volumes of principio de Avogadro (pág. 452) Establece que los
gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal volúmenes iguales de gases, a la misma temperatura y
numbers of particles. presión, contienen igual número de partículas.

B
band of stability (p. 866) The region on a graph within banda de estabilidad (pág. 866) Región de una gráfica en la
which all stable nuclei are found when plotting the num- que se hallan todos los núcleos estables cuando se grafica
ber of neutrons versus the number of protons. el número de neutrones contra el número de protones.
barometer (p. 407) An instrument that is used to measure barómetro (pág. 407) Instrumento que se utiliza para medir
atmospheric pressure. la presión atmosférica.
base ionization constant (p. 649) The value of the equilib- constante de ionización básica (pág. 649) El valor de la
rium constant expression for the ionization of a base. expresión de la constante de equilibrio para la ionización
de una base.
base unit (p. 33) A defined unit in a system of measurement unidad básica (pág. 33) Unidad definida en un sistema de
that is based on an object or event in the physical world medidas; está basada en un objeto o evento del mundo
and is independent of other units. físico y es independiente de otras unidades.
basic solution (p. 636) Contains more hydroxide ions than solución básica (pág. 636) Solución que contiene más iones
hydrogen ions. hidróxido que iones hidrógeno.
battery (p. 718) One or more electrochemical cells in a batería (pág. 718) Una o más celdas electroquímicas con-
single package that generates electrical current. tenidas en una sola unidad que genera corriente eléctrica.
beta particle (p. 123) A high-speed electron with a 1− partícula beta (pág. 123) Electrón de alta velocidad con
charge that is emitted during radioactive decay. una carga 1− que es emitido durante la desintegración
radiactiva.
beta radiation (p. 123) Radiation that is made up of beta radiación beta (pág. 123) Radiación compuesta de partículas
particles; is deflected toward a positively charged plate beta; si la radiación proveniente de una fuente radiactiva es
when radiation from a radioactive source is directed dirigida hacia dos placas cargadas eléctricamente, este tipo
between two electrically charged plates. de radiación se desvía hacia la placa con carga positiva.
boiling point (p. 427) The temperature at which a liquid’s punto de ebullición (pág. 427) Temperatura a la cual la pre-
vapor pressure is equal to the external or atmospheric sión de vapor de un líquido es igual a la presión externa
pressure. o atmosférica.
boiling-point elevation (p. 500) The temperature difference elevación del punto de ebullición (pág. 500) Diferencia de
between a solution’s boiling point and a pure solvent’s temperatura entre el punto de ebullición de una solución
boiling point. y el punto de ebullición de un disolvente puro.
Boyle’s law (p. 442) States that the volume of a fixed amount ley de Boyle (pág. 442) Establece que el volumen de una
of gas held at a constant temperature varies inversely cantidad dada de gas a temperatura constante varía
with the pressure. inversamente según la presión.
breeder reactor (p. 882) A nuclear reactor that is able to reactor generador (pág. 882) Reactor nuclear capaz de pro-
produce more fuel than it uses. ducir más combustible del que utiliza.
Brønsted-Lowry model (p. 638) A model of acids and bases modelo de Brønsted-Lowry (pág. 638) Modelo de áci-
in which an acid is a hydrogen-ion donor and a base is a dos y bases en el que un ácido es un donante de iones
hydrogen-ion acceptor. hidrógeno y una base es un receptor de iones hidrógeno.
Brownian motion (p. 477) The erratic, random, movements movimiento browniano (pág. 477) Movimientos erráticos,
of colloid particles that results from collisions of particles aleatorios de las partículas coloidales, producidos por el
of the dispersion medium with the dispersed particles. choque entre las partículas del medio de dispersión con
las partículas dispersas.
buffer (p. 666) A solution that resists changes in pH when amortiguador (pág. 666) Solución que resiste los cambios
limited amounts of acid or base are added. de pH cuando se agregan cantidades moderadas del
ácido o la base.
buffer capacity (p. 667) The amount of acid or base a buffer capacidad amortiguadora (pág. 667) Cantidad de ácido o
solution can absorb without a significant change in pH. base que una solución amortiguadora puede absorber sin
sufrir un cambio significativo en el pH.

1008 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario

calorie/caloría chemical property/propiedad química

C
calorie (p. 518) The amount of heat required to raise the caloría (pág. 518) Cantidad de calor que se requiere para
temperature of one gram of pure water by one degree elevar un grado centígrado la temperatura de un gramo
Celsius. de agua pura.
calorimeter (p. 523) An insulated device that is used to calorímetro (pág. 523) Dispositivo aislado que sirve para
measure the amount of heat released or absorbed during medir la cantidad de calor liberada o absorbida durante
a physical or chemical process. un proceso físico o químico.
carbohydrates (p. 832) Compounds that contain multiple carbohidratos (pág. 832) Compuestos que contienen múlti-
hydroxyl groups, plus an aldehyde or a ketone functional ples grupos hidroxilo, además de un grupo funcional
group, and function in living things to provide immedi- aldehído o cetona, cuya función en los seres vivos es pro-
ate and stored energy. porcionar energía inmediata o almacenada.
carbonyl group (p. 796) Arrangement in which an oxygen grupo carbonilo (pág. 796) Grupo formado por un átomo
atom is double-bonded to a carbon atom. de oxígeno unido por un enlace doble a un átomo de
carbono.
carboxyl group (p. 798) Consists of a carbonyl group grupo carboxilo (pág. 798) Consiste en un grupo carbonilo
bonded to a hydroxyl group. unido a un grupo hidroxilo.
carboxylic acid (p. 798) An organic compound that contains ácido carboxílico (pág. 798) Compuesto orgánico que con-
a carboxyl group and is polar and reactive. tiene un grupo carboxilo; es polar y reactivo.
catabolism (kuh TAB oh lih zum) (p. 844) Refers to meta- catabolismo (pág. 844) Reacciones metabólicas en las
bolic reactions that break down complex biological mol- que se desdoblan moléculas biológicas complejas para
ecules for the purpose of forming smaller building blocks obtener unidades básicas más pequeñas y energía.
and extracting energy.
catalyst (p. 571) A substance that increases the rate of a catalizador (pág. 571) Sustancia que aumenta la velocidad de
chemical reaction by lowering activation energies but is una reacción química al reducir su energía de activación;
not itself consumed in the reaction. el catalizador no es consumido durante la reacción.
cathode (p. 710) In an electrochemical cell, the electrode cátodo (pág. 710) Electrodo donde sucede la reducción en
where reduction takes place. una celda electroquímica.
cathode ray (p. 108) Radiation that originates from the rayo catódico (pág. 108) Radiación que se origina en el
cathode and travels to the anode of a cathode-ray tube. cátodo y viaja hacia el ánodo de un tubo de rayos catódicos.
cation (KAT i ahn) (p. 207) An ion that has a positive catión (pág. 207) Ion con carga positiva.
charge.
cellular respiration (p. 846) The process in which glucose is respiración celular (pág. 846) Proceso en el cual la glucosa
broken down in the presence of oxygen gas to produce es desdoblada en presencia del gas oxígeno para producir
carbon dioxide, water, and energy. dióxido de carbono, agua y energía.
Charles’s law (p. 445) States that the volume of a given mass Ley de Charles (pág. 445) Establece que el volumen de una
of gas is directly proportional to its kelvin temperature at masa dada de gas es directamente proporcional a su tem-
constant pressure. peratura Kelvin a presión constante.
chemical bond (p. 206) The force that holds two atoms enlace químico (pág. 206) La fuerza que mantiene a dos áto-
together; may form by the attraction of a positive ion for mos unidos; puede formarse por la atracción de un ion
a negative ion or by sharing electrons. positivo por un ion negativo compartiendo electrones.
chemical change (p. 77) A process involving one or more cambio químico (pág. 77) Proceso que involucra una o más
substances changing into new substances; also called a sustancias que se transforman en sustancias nuevas; tam-
chemical reaction. bién se conoce como reacción química.
chemical equation (p. 285) A statement using chemical ecuación química (pág. 285) Expresión que utiliza fórmu-
formulas to describe the identities and relative amounts las químicas para describir las identidades y cantidades
of the reactants and products involved in the chemical relativas de los reactivos y productos presentes en una
reaction. reacción química.
chemical equilibrium (p. 596) The state in which forward equilibrio químico (pág. 596) Estado en el que se equilibran
and reverse reactions balance each other because they mutuamente las reacciones en sentido directo e inverso de
occur at equal rates. una reacción química debido a que suceden a tasas iguales.
chemical potential energy (p. 517) The energy stored in a energía potencial química (pág. 517) La energía almacenada
substance because of its composition; most is released or en una sustancia debido a su composición; la mayoría
absorbed as heat during chemical reactions or processes. es liberada o absorbida como calor durante reacciones o
procesos químicos.
chemical property (p. 74) The ability or inability of a sub- propiedad química (pág. 74) La capacidad de una sustancia
stance to combine with or change into one or more new de combinarse con una o más sustancias nuevas o de
substances. transformarse en una o más sustancias nuevas.

Glossary/Glosario 1009
Glossary/Glosario

chemical reaction/reacción química condensation polymerization/polimerización por condensación

chemical reaction (p. 282) The process by which the atoms reacción química (pág. 282) Proceso por el cual los átomos
of one or more substances are rearranged to form differ- de una o más sustancias se reordenan para formar sus-
ent substances; occurrence can be indicated by changes tancias diferentes; su pueden identificar cuando suceden
in temperature, color, odor, and physical state. cambios en temperatura, color, olor o estado físico.
chemistry (p. 4) The study of matter and the changes that it química (pág. 4) El estudio de la materia y los cambios que
undergoes. ésta experimenta.
chirality (p. 767) A property of a compound to exist in both quiralidad (pág. 767) Propiedad de un compuesto para
left (l-) and right (d-) forms; occurs whenever a com- existir en forma levógira (i-) o dextrógira (d-); ocurre
pound contains an asymmetric carbon. cuando un compuesto contiene un carbono asimétrico.
chromatography (p. 83) A technique that is used to separate cromatografía (pág. 83) Técnica que sirve para separar los
the components of a mixture based on the tendency of componentes de una mezcla según la tendencia de cada
each component to travel or be drawn across the surface componente a desplazarse o ser atraído a lo largo de la
of another material. superficie de otro material.
coefficient (p. 285) In a chemical equation, the number coeficiente (pág. 285) Número que precede a un reactivo o
written in front of a reactant or product; in a balanced un producto en una ecuación química; en una ecuación
equation describes the lowest whole-number ratio of the equilibrada, indica la razón más pequeña expresada en
amounts of all reactants and products. números enteros de las cantidades de reactivos y produc-
tos en dicha reacción.
colligative property (kol LIHG uh tihv • PRAH pur tee) propiedad coligativa (pág. 498) Propiedad física de una
(p. 498) A physical property of a solution that depends solución que depende del número, pero no de la identi-
on the number, but not the identity, of the dissolved sol- dad, de las partículas de soluto disueltas.
ute particles.
collision theory (p. 563) States that atoms, ions, and mol- teoría de colisión (pág. 563) Establece que los átomos, iones
ecules must collide in order to react. y moléculas deben chocar para reaccionar.
colloids (p. 477) A heterogeneous mixture of intermediate- coloides (pág. 477) Mezcla heterogénea de partículas de
sized particles (between atomic-size of solution particles tamaño intermedio (entre el tamaño atómico de partícu-
and the size of suspension particles). las en solución y el de partículas en suspensión).
combined gas law (p. 449) A single law combining Boyle’s, ley combinada de los gases (pág. 449) Ley que combina
Charles’s, and Gay-Lussac’s laws that states the relation- las leyes de Boyle, Charles y de Gay-Lussac; indica la
ship among pressure, volume, and temperature of a fixed relación entre la presión, el volumen y la temperatura de
amount of gas. una cantidad constante de gas.
combustion reaction (p. 290) A chemical reaction that reacción de combustión (pág. 290) Reacción química que
occurs when a substance reacts with oxygen, releasing ocurre al reaccionar una sustancia con el oxígeno, libe-
energy in the form of heat and light. rando energía en forma de calor y luz.
common ion (p. 620) An ion that is common to two or more ion común (pág. 620) Ion común a dos o más compuestos
ionic compounds. iónicos.
common ion effect (p. 620) The lowering of the solubility of efecto del ion común (pág. 620) Disminución de la solu-
a substance by the presence of a common ion. bilidad de una sustancia debida a la presencia de un ion
común.
complete ionic equation (p. 301) An ionic equation that ecuación iónica total (pág. 301) Ecuación iónica que mues-
shows all the particles in a solution as they realistically tra cómo existen realmente todas las partículas en una
exist. solución.
complex reaction (p. 580) A chemical reaction that consists reacción compleja (pág. 580) Reacción química que consiste
of two or more elementary steps. en dos o más pasos elementales.
compound (p. 85) A chemical combination of two or more compuesto (pág. 85) Combinación química de dos o más
different elements; can be broken down into simpler sub- elementos diferentes; puede ser separado en sustancias
stances by chemical means and has properties different más sencillas por medios químicos y exhibe propiedades
from those of its component elements. que difieren de los elementos que lo componen.
concentration (p. 480) A measure of how much solute is concentración (pág. 480) Medida de la cantidad de soluto que
dissolved in a specific amount of solvent or solution. se disuelve en una cantidad dada de disolvente o solución.
conclusion (p. 15) A judgment based on the information conclusión (pág. 15) Juicio basado en la información
obtained. obtenida.
condensation (p. 428) The energy-releasing process by condensación (pág. 428) El proceso de liberación de energía
which a gas or vapor becomes a liquid. mediante el cual un gas o vapor se convierte en líquido.
condensation polymerization (p. 811) Occurs when mono- polimerización por condensación (pág. 811) Ocurre cuando
mers containing at least two functional groups combine monómeros que contienen al menos dos grupos funcio-
with the loss of a small by-product, usually water. nales se combinan y pierden un producto secundario
pequeño, generalmente agua.

1010 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario

condensation reaction/reacción de condensación Dalton’s atomic theory/teoría atómica de Dalton

condensation reaction (p. 801) Occurs when two smaller reacción de condensación (pág. 801) Ocurre cuando dos
organic molecules combine to form a more complex moléculas orgánicas pequeñas se combinan para formar
molecule, accompanied by the loss of a small molecule una molécula más compleja; esta reacción es acompañada
such as water. de la pérdida de una molécula pequeña como el agua.
conjugate acid (p. 638) The species produced when a base ácido conjugado (pág. 638) Especie que se produce cuando
accepts a hydrogen ion from an acid. una base acepta un ion hidrógeno de un ácido.
conjugate acid-base pair (p. 638) Consists of two substances par ácido-base conjugado (pág. 638) Consiste en dos sus-
related to each other by the donating and accepting of a tancias que se relacionan entre sí mediante la donación y
single hydrogen ion. aceptación de un solo ion hidrógeno.
conjugate base (p. 638) The species produced when an acid base conjugada (pág. 638) Especie que se produce cuando
donates a hydrogen ion to a base. un ácido dona un ion hidrógeno a una base.
control (p. 14) In an experiment, the standard that is used control (pág. 14) Estándar de comparación en un experi-
for comparison. mento.
conversion factor (p. 44) A ratio of equivalent values used factor de conversión (pág. 44) Razón de valores equivalentes
to express the same quantity in different units; is always que sirve para expresar una misma cantidad en unidades
equal to 1 and changes the units of a quantity without diferentes; siempre es igual a 1 y cambia las unidades de
changing its value. una cantidad sin cambiar su valor.
coordinate covalent bond (p. 259) Forms when one atom enlace covalente coordinado (pág. 259) Se forma cuando
donates a pair of electrons to be shared with an atom or un átomo dona un par de electrones para compartirlos
ion that needs two electrons to become stable. con un átomo o un ion que requieren dos electrones para
adquirir estabilidad.
corrosion (p. 724) The loss of metal that results from an oxi- corrosión (pág. 724) Pérdida de metal producida por una
dation-reduction reaction of the metal with substances in reacción de óxido-reducción del metal con sustancias en
the environment. el ambiente.
covalent bond (p. 241) A chemical bond that results from enlace covalente (pág. 241) Enlace químico que se produce
the sharing of valence electrons. al compartir electrones de valencia.
cracking (p. 748) The process by which heavier fractions cracking (pág. 748) Proceso por el cual las fracciones más
of petroleum are converted to gasoline by breaking their pesadas de petróleo son convertidas en gasolina al romper
large molecules into smaller molecules. las moléculas grandes en moléculas más pequeñas.
critical mass (p. 880) The minimum mass of a sample of masa crítica (pág. 880) La masa mínima de una muestra
fissionable material necessary to sustain a nuclear chain de material fisionable que se necesita para sostener una
reaction. reacción nuclear en cadena.
crystal lattice (p. 214) A three-dimensional geometric red cristalina (pág. 214) Ordenamiento geométrico tri-
arrangement of particles in which each positive ion is dimensional de partículas en el que cada ion positivo
surrounded by negative ions and each negative ion is queda rodeado de iones negativos y cada ion negativo
surrounded by positive ions; vary in shape due to sizes queda rodeado de iones positivos; su forma varía según
and relative numbers of the ions bonded. el tamaño y número de iones enlazados.
crystalline solid (p. 420) A solid whose atoms, ions, or sólido cristalino (pág. 420) Sólido cuyos átomos, iones o
molecules are arranged in an orderly, geometric, three- moléculas forman una estructura tridimensional, orde-
dimensional structure. nada y geométrica.
crystallization (p. 83) A separation technique that produces cristalización (pág. 83) Técnica de separación que produce
pure solid particles of a substance from a solution that partículas sólidas puras de una sustancia a partir de una
contains the dissolved substance. solución que contiene dicha sustancia en solución.
cyclic hydrocarbon (p. 755) An organic compound that con- hidrocarburo cíclico (pág. 755) Compuesto orgánico que
tains a hydrocarbon ring. contiene un anillo de hidrocarburos.
cycloalkane (p. 755) Cyclic hydrocarbons that contain cicloalcano (pág. 755) Hidrocarburos cíclicos que sólo con-
single bonds only and can have rings with three, four, tienen enlaces simples; pueden formar anillos con tres,
five, six, or more carbon atoms. cuatro, cinco, seis o más átomos de carbono.

Dalton’s atomic theory (p. 104) States that matter is com-


D teoría atómica de Dalton (pág. 104) Establece que la mate-
posed of extremely small particles called atoms; atoms ria se compone de partículas extremadamente peque-
are invisible and indestructable; atoms of a given ele- ñas denominadas átomos; los átomos son invisibles e
ment are identical in size, mass, and chemical proper- indestructibles; los átomos de un elemento dado son
ties; atoms of a specific element are different from those idénticos en tamaño, masa y propiedades químicas; los
of another element; different atoms combine in simple átomos de un elemento específico difieren de los de otros
whole-number ratios to form compounds; in a chemical elementos; átomos diferentes se combinan en razones
reaction, atoms are separated, combined, or rearranged. simples de números enteros para formar compuestos; los
átomos se separan, se combinan o se reordenan durante
una reacción química.
Glossary/Glosario 1011
Glossary/Glosario

Dalton’s law of partial pressures/ley de Dalton de las presiones parciales elastic collision/choque elástico

Dalton’s law of partial pressures (p. 408) States that the total ley de Dalton de las presiones parciales (pág. 408) Establece
pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the que la presión total de una mezcla de gases es igual a la
pressures of all the gases in the mixture. suma de las presiones de todos los gases en la mezcla.
de Broglie equation (p. 150) Predicts that all moving par- ecuación de deBroglie (pág. 150) Predice que todas las
ticles have wave characteristics and relates each particle’s partículas móviles tienen características ondulatorias y
wavelength to its frequency, its mass, and Planck’s con- relaciona la longitud de onda de cada partícula con su
stant. frecuencia, su masa y la constante de Planck.
decomposition reaction (p. 292) A chemical reaction that reacción de descomposición (pág. 292) Reacción química
occurs when a single compound breaks down into two or que ocurre cuando un solo compuesto se divide en dos o
more elements or new compounds. más elementos o nuevos compuestos.
dehydration reaction (p. 803) An elimination reaction in reacción de deshidratación (pág. 803) Una reacción de elimi-
which the atoms removed form water. nación en la que los átomos que se pierden forman agua.
dehydrogenation reaction (p. 803) A reaction that elimi- reacción de deshidrogenación (pág. 803) Reacción orgánica
nates two hydrogen atoms, which form a hydrogen mol- en la que se pierden dos átomos de hidrógeno, los cuales
ecule of gas. se unen y forman una molécula de hidrógeno.
delocalized electrons (p. 225) The electrons involved in electrones deslocalizados (pág. 225) Los electrones que
metallic bonding that are free to move easily from one forman un enlace metálico; estos electrones pasan fácil-
atom to the next throughout the metal and are not mente de un átomo a otro a través del metal y no están
attached to a particular atom. unidos a ningún átomo en particular.
denaturation (p. 829) The process in which a protein’s natu- desnaturalización (pág. 829) Proceso que afecta la estruc-
ral, intricate three-dimensional structure is disrupted. tura tridimensional, compleja y natural de una proteína.
denatured alcohol (p. 793) Ethanol to which noxious sub- alcohol desnaturalizado (pág. 793) Etanol al cual se añaden
stances have been added in order to make it unfit to drink. sustancias nocivas para evitar que se pueda beber.
density (p. 36) The amount of mass per unit volume; a densidad (pág. 36) La cantidad de masa por unidad de
physical property. volumen; una propiedad física.
dependent variable (p. 14) In an experiment, the variable variable dependiente (pág. 14) Es la variable de un experi-
whose value depends on the independent variable. mento cuyo valor depende de la variable independiente.
deposition (p. 429) The energy-releasing process by which a depositación (pág. 429) Proceso de liberación de energía
substance changes from a gas or vapor to a solid without por el cual una sustancia cambia de gas o vapor a sólido
first becoming a liquid. sin antes convertirse en un líquido.
derived unit (p. 35) A unit defined by a combination of base unidad derivada (pág. 35) Unidad definida por una combi-
units. nación de unidades básicas.
diffusion (p. 404) The movement of one material through difusión (pág. 404) El movimiento de un material a través
another from an area of higher concentration to an area de otro en dirección al área de menor concentración.
of lower concentration.
dimensional analysis (p. 44) A systematic approach to prob- análisis dimensional (pág. 44) Un enfoque sistemático para
lem solving that uses conversion factors to move from resolver un problema en el que se usan factores de con-
one unit to another. versión para pasar de una unidad a otra.
dipole-dipole forces (p. 412) The attractions between oppo- fuerzas dipolo-dipolo (pág. 412) La atracción entre regiones
sitely charged regions of polar molecules. con cargas opuestas de moléculas polares.
disaccharide (p. 833) Forms when two monosaccharides disacárido (pág. 833) Se forma a partir de la unión de dos
bond together. monosacáridos.
dispersion forces (p. 412) The weak forces resulting from fuerzas de dispersión (pág. 412) Fuerzas débiles causadas
temporary shifts in the density of electrons in electron por los cambios temporales en la densidad de electrones
clouds. en las nubes electrónicas.
disaccharide (p. 82) A technique that can be used to physi- destilación (pág. 82) Técnica que se usa para separar física-
cally separate most homogeneous mixtures based on the mente la mayoría de las mezclas homogéneas según las
differences in the boiling points of the substances. diferencias en los puntos de ebullición de las sustancias.
double-replacement reaction (p. 296) A chemical reaction reacción de sustitución doble (pág. 296) Reacción química
that involves the exchange of ions between two com- en la que dos compuestos intercambian iones positivos,
pounds and produces either a precipitate, a gas, or water. produciendo un precipitado, un gas o agua.
dry cell (p. 718) An electrochemical cell that contains a pila seca (pág. 718) Celda electroquímica que contiene una
moist electrolytic paste inside a zinc shell. pasta electrolítica húmeda dentro de un armazón de zinc.

E
elastic collision (p. 403) Collision in which no kinetic choque elástico (pág. 403) Colisión en que no se pierde
energy is lost; kinetic energy can be transferred between energía cinética; la energía cinética es transferida entre
the colliding particles, but the total kinetic energy of the las partículas en choque, pero la energía cinética total de
two particles remains the same. las dos partículas permanece igual.

1012 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario

electrochemical cell/celda electroquímica end point/punto final

electrochemical cell (p. 709) An apparatus that uses a redox celda electroquímica (pág. 709) Aparato que usa una reac-
reaction to produce electrical energy or uses electrical ción redox para producir energía eléctrica o que utiliza
energy to cause a chemical reaction. energía eléctrica para causar una reacción química.
electrolysis (p. 728) The process that uses electrical energy electrólisis (pág. 728) Proceso que emplea energía eléctrica
to bring about a chemical reaction. para producir una reacción química.
electrolyte (p. 215) An ionic compound whose aqueous electrolito (pág. 215) Compuesto iónico cuya solución
solution conducts an electric current. acuosa conduce una corriente eléctrica.
electrolytic cell (p. 728) An electrochemical cell in which celda electrolítica (pág. 728) Celda electroquímica en donde
electrolysis occurs. ocurre la electrólisis.
electromagnetic radiation (p. 137) A form of energy exhib- radiación electromagnética (pág. 137) Forma de energía que
iting wavelike behavior as it travels through space; can exhibe un comportamiento ondulatorio al viajar por el
be described by wavelength, frequency, amplitude, and espacio; se puede describir por su longitud de onda, su
speed. frecuencia, su amplitud y su rapidez.
electromagnetic spectrum (p. 139) Includes all forms of espectro electromagnético (pág. 139) Incluye toda forma
electromagnetic radiation; the types of radiation differ in de radiación electromagnética; los distintos tipos de
their frequencies and wavelengths. radiación difirien en sus frecuencias y sus longitudes de
onda.
electron (p. 108) A negatively charged, fast-moving particle electrón (pág. 108) Partícula móvil rápida, de carga negativa
with an extremely small mass that is found in all forms of y con una masa extremadamente pequeña. que se encuen-
matter and moves through the empty space surrounding tra en todas las formas de materia y que se mueve a través
an atom’s nucleus. del espacio vacío que rodea el núcleo de un átomo.
electron capture (p. 868) A radioactive decay process that captura electrónica (pág. 868) Proceso de desintegración
occurs when an atom’s nucleus draws in a surrounding radiactiva que ocurre cuando el núcleo de un átomo
electron, which combines with a proton to form a neu- atrae un electrón circundante, que luego se combina con
tron, resulting in an X-ray photon being emitted. un protón para formar un neutrón, provocando la emi-
sión de un fotón de rayos X.
electron configuration (p. 156) The arrangement of elec- configuración electrónica (pág. 156) El ordenamiento de los
trons in an atom, which is prescribed by three rules— electrones en un átomo; está determinado por tres reglas:
the aufbau principle, the Pauli exclusion principle, and el principio de Aufbau, el principio de exclusión de Pauli
Hund’s rule. y la regla de Hund.
electron-dot structure (p. 161) Consists of an element’s estructura de puntos de electrones (pág. 161) Consiste en el
symbol, representing the atomic nucleus and inner-level símbolo del elemento, que representa al núcleo atómico y
electrons, that is surrounded by dots, representing the los electrones de los niveles internos, rodeado por puntos
atom’s valence electrons. que representan los electrones de valencia del átomo.
electron sea model (p. 225) Proposes that all metal atoms in modelo del mar de electrones (pág. 225) Propone que todos
a metallic solid contribute their valence electrons to form los átomos de metal en un sólido metálico contribuyen
a “sea” of electrons, and can explain properties of metal- con sus electrones de valencia para formar un “mar” de
lic solids such as malleability, conduction, and ductility. electrones.
electronegativity (p. 194) Indicates the relative ability of an electronegatividad (pág. 194) Indica la capacidad relativa
element’s atoms to attract electrons in a chemical bond. de los átomos de un elemento para atraer electrones en
element (p. 84) A pure substance that cannot be broken un enlace químico.
down into simpler substances by physical or chemical elemento (pág. 84) Sustancia pura que no puede separarse
means. en sustancias más sencillas por medios físicos ni quími-
elimination reaction (p. 802) A reaction of organic com- cos.
pounds that occurs when a combination of atoms is reacción de eliminación (pág. 802) Reacción de compuestos
removed from two adjacent carbon atoms forming an orgánicos que ocurre cuando se pierden un conjunto de
additional bond between the atoms. átomos en dos átomos adyacentes de carbono, al for-
empirical formula (p. 344) A formula that shows the small- marse un enlace entre dichos átomos de carbono.
est whole-number mole ratio of the elements of a com- fórmula empírica (pág. 344) Fórmula que muestra la pro-
pound, and may or may not be the same as the actual porción molar más pequeña expresada en números ente-
molecular formula. ros de los elementos de un compuesto; puede ser distinta
de la fórmula molecular real.
endothermic (p. 247) A chemical reaction or process in endotérmica (pág. 247) Reacción o proceso químico que
which a greater amount of energy is required to break requiere una mayor cantidad de energía para romper los
the existing bonds in the reactants than is released when enlaces existentes en los reactivos, que la que se se libera al
the new bonds form in the product molecules. formarse los enlaces nuevos en las moléculas del producto.
end point (p. 663) The point at which the indicator that is punto final (pág. 663) Punto en el que el indicador que se
used in a titration changes color. utiliza en una titulación cambia de color.

Glossary/Glosario 1013
Glossary/Glosario

energy/energía fatty acid/ácido graso

energy (p. 516) The capacity to do work or produce heat; energía (pág. 516) Capacidad de realizar trabajo o producir
exists as potential energy, which is stored in an object calor; existe como energía potencial (almacenada en
due to its composition or position, and kinetic energy, un objeto debido a su composición o posición) o como
which is the energy of motion. energía cinética (energía del movimiento).
energy sublevels (p. 153) The energy levels contained subniveles de energía (pág. 153) Los niveles de energía den-
within a principal energy level. tro de un nivel principal de energía.
enthalpy (p. 527) The heat content of a system at constant entalpía (pág. 527) El contenido de calor en un sistema a
pressure. presión constante.
enthalpy (heat) of combustion (p. 529) The enthalpy change entalpía (calor) de combustión (pág. 529) El cambio de
for the complete burning of one mole of a given sub- entalpía causado por la combustión completa de un mol
stance. de una sustancia dada.
enthalpy (heat) of reaction (p. 527) The change in enthalpy entalpía (calor) de reacción (pág. 527) El cambio en la
for a reaction—the difference between the enthalpy of entalpía que ocurre en una reacción; es decir, la diferen-
the substances that exist at the end of the reaction and cia entre la entalpía de las sustancias que existen al final
the enthalpy of the substances present at the start de la reacción y la entalpía de las sustancias presentes al
comienzo de la misma.
entropy (p. 543) A measure of the number of possible ways entropía (pág. 543) Una medida de las formas posibles en
that the energy of a system can be distributed; related que se puede distribuir la energía de un sistema; está
to the freedom of the system’s particles to move and the relacionada con la libertad de movimiento de las partícu-
number of ways they can be arranged. las del sistema y el número de maneras en que éstas se
pueden ordenar.
enzyme (p. 829) A biological catalyst. enzima (pág. 829) Catalizador biológico.
equilibrium constant (p. 599) K eq is the numerical value that constante de equilibrio (pág. 599) K eq es el valor numérico
describes the ratio of product concentrations to reactant que describe la razón de las concentraciones de los pro-
concentrations, with each raised to the power corre- ductos con respecto a las concentraciones de los reac-
sponding to its coefficient in the balanced equation. tivos, cada una de ellas elevada a la potencia correspon-
diente a su coeficiente en la ecuación equilibrada.
equivalence point (p. 661) The point at which the moles of punto de equivalencia (pág. 661) Punto en el cual los moles
H + ions from the acid equals moles of OH - ions from de iones H + del ácido equivalen a los moles de iones
the base. OH - de la base.
error (p. 48) The difference between an experimental value error (pág. 48) La diferencia entre el valor experimental y el
and an accepted value valor aceptado.
ester (p. 799) An organic compound with a carboxyl group éster (pág. 799) Compuesto orgánico con un grupo car-
in which the hydrogen of the hydroxyl group is replaced boxilo en el que el hidrógeno del grupo de hidroxilo es
by an alkyl group; may be volatile and sweet-smelling reemplazado por un grupo alquilo; es polar y puede ser
and is polar. volátil y de olor dulce.
ether (p. 794) An organic compound that contains an oxy- éter (pág. 794) Compuesto orgánico que contiene un
gen atom bonded to two carbon atoms. átomo de oxígeno unido a dos átomos de carbono.
evaporation (p. 426) The process in which vaporization evaporación (pág. 426) Proceso en el cual la vaporización
occurs only at the surface of a liquid. ocurre sólo en la superficie de un líquido.
excess reactant (p. 379) A reactant that remains after a reactivo en exceso (pág. 379) Reactivo que sobra luego de
chemical reaction stops. finalizar una reacción química.
exothermic (p. 247) A chemical reaction or process in exotérmica (pág. 247) Reacción o proceso químico en el
which more energy is released than is required to break que se libera más energía que la requerida para romper
bonds in the initial reactants. los enlaces en los reactivos iniciales.
experiment (p. 14) A set of controlled observations that test experimento (pág. 14) Conjunto de observaciones controla-
a hypothesis. das que se realizan para probar una hipótesis.
extensive property (p. 73) A physical property, such as propiedad extensiva (pág. 73) Propiedades físicas, como la
mass, length, and volume, that is dependent upon the masa, la longitud y el volumen, que dependen de la can-
amount of substance present. tidad de sustancia presente.

F
fatty acid (p. 835) A long-chain carboxylic acid that usually ácido graso (pág. 835) Ácido carboxílico de cadena larga
has between 12 and 24 carbon atoms and can be satu- que tiene generalmente entre 12 y 24 átomos de carbono;
rated (no double bonds), or unsaturated (one or more puede ser saturado (sin enlaces dobles) o insaturado o no
double bonds). saturado (con uno o más enlaces dobles).

1014 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario

fermentation/fermentación group/grupo

fermentation (p. 847) The process in which glucose is bro- fermentación (pág. 847) Proceso en el cual la glucosa es
ken down in the absence of oxygen, producing either desdoblada en ausencia de oxígeno produciendo etanol,
ethanol, carbon dioxide, and energy (alcoholic fermenta- dióxido de carbono y energía (fermentación alcohólica)
tion) or lactic acid and energy (lactic acid fermentation). o ácido láctico y energía (fermentación del ácido láctico).
filtration (p. 82) A technique that uses a porous barrier to filtración (pág. 82) Técnica que utiliza una barrera porosa
separate a solid from a liquid. para separar un sólido de un líquido.
formula unit (p. 218) The simplest ratio of ions represented fórmula unitaria (pág. 218) La razón más simple de iones
in an ionic compound. representados en un compuesto iónico.
fractional distillation (p. 747) The process by which petro- destilación fraccionaria (pág. 747) Proceso mediante el cual
leum can be separated into simpler components, called se separa el petróleo en componentes más simples llama-
fractions, as they condense at different temperatures. dos fracciones, las cuales se condensan a temperaturas
diferentes.
free energy (p. 546) The energy available to do work—the energía libre (pág. 546) Energía disponible para hacer tra-
difference between the change in enthalpy and the prod- bajo: la diferencia entre el cambio en la entalpía y el pro-
uct of the entropy change and the kelvin temperature. ducto del cambio de entropía por la temperatura kelvin.
freezing point (p. 428) The temperature at which a liquid is punto de congelación (pág. 428) La temperatura a la cual un
converted into a crystalline solid. líquido se convierte en un sólido cristalino.
freezing-point depression (p. 502) The difference in temper- depresión del punto de congelación (pág. 502) Diferencia de
ature between a solution’s freezing point and the freezing temperatura entre el punto de congelación de una solu-
point of its pure solvent. ción y el punto de congelación de su disolvente puro.
frequency (p. 137) The number of waves that pass a given frecuencia (pág. 137) Número de ondas que pasan por un
point per second. punto dado en un segundo.
fuel cell (p. 722) A voltaic cell in which the oxidation of a celda de combustible (pág. 722) Celda voltaica en la cual la
fuel, such as hydrogen gas, is used to produce electric oxidación de un combustible, como el gas hidrógeno, se
energy. utiliza para producir energía eléctrica.
functional group (p. 786) An atom or group of atoms that grupo funcional (pág. 786) Átomo o grupo de átomos que
always reacts in a certain way in an organic molecule. siempre reaccionan de cierta manera en una molécula
orgánica.

G
galvanization (p. 727) The process in which an iron object galvanizado (pág. 727) Proceso en el cual un objeto de
is dipped into molten zinc or electroplated with zinc to hierro en sumergido o galvanizado en zinc para aumen-
make the iron more resistant to corrosion. tar la resistencia del hierro a la corrosión.
gamma rays (p. 124) High-energy radiation that has no rayos gamma (pág. 124) Radiación de alta energía sin carga
electrical charge and no mass, is not deflected by electric eléctrica ni masa; no es desviada por campos eléctricos ni
or magnetic fields, usually accompanies alpha and beta magnéticos; acompaña generalmente a la radiación alfa y
radiation, and accounts for most of the energy lost dur- beta; representa la mayor parte de la energía perdida
ing radioactive decay. durante la desintegración radiactiva.
gas (p. 72) A form of matter that flows to conform to the gas (pág. 72) Forma de la materia que fluye para adaptarse
shape of its container, fills the container’s entire volume, a la forma de su contenedor, llena el volumen entero del
and is easily compressed. recipiente y se comprime fácilmente.
Gay-Lussac’s law (p. 447) States that the pressure of a fixed ley de Gay-Lussac (pág. 447) Establece que la presión de una
mass of gas varies directly with the kelvin temperature masa dada de gas varía directamente con la temperatura
when the volume remains constant. en grados Kelvin cuando el volumen permanece cons-
tante.
geometric isomers (p. 766) A category of stereoisomers that isómeros geométricos (pág. 766) Categoría de este-
results from different arrangements of groups around a reoisómeros originada por los diversos ordenamientos
double bond. posibles de grupos alrededor de un enlace doble.
Graham’s law of effusion (p. 404) States that the rate of effu- ley de efusión de Graham (pág. 404) Establece que la tasa de
sion for a gas is inversely proportional to the square root efusión de un gas es inversamente proporcional a la raíz
of its molar mass. cuadrada de su masa molar.
graph (p. 55) A visual display of data. gráfica (pág. 55) Representación visual de datos.
ground state (p. 146) The lowest allowable energy state of estado base (pág. 146) Estado de energía más bajo posible
an atom. de un átomo.
group (p. 177) A vertical column of elements in the peri- grupo (pág. 177) Columna vertical de los elementos en la
odic table arranged in order of increasing atomic num- tabla periódica ordenados en sentido creciente según su
ber; also called a family. número atómico; llamado también familia.

Glossary/Glosario 1015
Glossary/Glosario

half-cells/semiceldas Hund’s rule/regla de Hund

H
half-cells (p. 710) The two parts of an electrochemical cell semiceldas (pág. 710) Las dos partes de una celda electro-
in which the separate oxidation and reduction reactions química en las que ocurren las reacciones separadas de
occur. oxidación y reducción.
half-life (p. 870) The time required for one-half of a radio- vida media (pág. 870) Tiempo requerido para que la mitad
isotope’s nuclei to decay into its products. de los núcleos de un radioisótopo se desintegren en sus
productos.
half-reaction (p. 693) One of two parts of a redox reac- semirreacción (pág. 693) Una de dos partes de una reac-
tion—the oxidation half, which shows the number of ción redox: la correspondiente a la oxidación muestra el
electrons lost when a species is oxidized, or the reduction número de electrones que se pierden al oxidarse una espe-
half, which shows the number of electrons gained when a cie y la correspondiente a la reducción muestra el número
species is reduced. de electrones que se ganan al reducirse una especie.
halocarbon (p. 787) Any organic compound containing a halocarbono (pág. 787) Cualquier compuesto orgánico que
halogen substituent. contiene un sustituyente halógeno.
halogen (p. 180) A highly reactive group 17 element. halógeno (pág. 180) Elemento sumamente reactivo del
grupo 17.
halogenation (p. 790) A process by which hydrogen atoms halogenación (pág. 790) Proceso mediante el cual se reem-
are replaced by halogen atoms. plazan átomos de hidrógeno por átomos de halógeno.
heat (p. 518) A form of energy that flows from a warmer calor (pág. 518) Forma de energía que fluye hacia cuerpos
object to a cooler object. más fríos.
heat of solution (p. 492) The overall energy change that calor de solución (pág. 492) El cambio global de energía que
occurs during the solution formation process. ocurre durante el proceso de formación de una solución.
Heisenberg uncertainty principle (p. 151) States that it is not principio de incertidumbre de Heisenberg (pág. 151) Establece
possible to know precisely both the velocity and the posi- que no es posible saber con precisión y al mismo
tion of a particle at the same time. tiempo la velocidad y la posición de una partícula.
Henry’s law (p. 496) States that at a given temperature, the ley de Henry (pág. 496) Establece que a una temperatura
solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to dada, la solubilidad de un gas en un líquido es directa-
the pressure of the gas above the liquid. mente proporcional a la presión del gas sobre el líquido.
Hess’s law (p. 534) States that if two or more thermochemi- ley de Hess (pág. 534) Establece que si para producir la ecua-
cal equations can be added to produce a final equation ción final para una reacción se pueden sumar dos o más
for a reaction, then the sum of the enthalpy changes for ecuaciones termoquímicas, entonces la suma de los cam-
the individual reactions is the enthalpy change for the bios de entalpía para las reacciones individuales equivale
final reaction. al cambio de entalpía de la reacción final.
heterogeneous catalyst (p. 573) A catalyst that exists in a catalizador heterogéneo (pág. 573) Catalizador que existe en
different physical state than the reaction it catalyzes. un estado físico diferente al de la reacción que cataliza.
heterogeneous equilibrium (p. 602) A state of equilibrium equilibrio heterogéneo (pág. 602) Estado de equilibrio que
that occurs when the reactants and products of a reaction ocurre cuando los reactivos y los productos de una reac-
are present in more than one physical state. ción están presentes en más de un estado físico.
heterogeneous mixture (p. 81) One that does not have a mezcla heterogénea (pág. 81) Aquella que no tiene una
uniform composition and in which the individual sub- composición uniforme y en la que las sustancias indi-
stances remain distinct. viduales permanecen separadas.
homogeneous catalyst (p. 573) A catalyst that exists in the catalizador homogéneo (pág. 573) Catalizador que existe en
same physical state as the reaction it catalyzes. el mismo estado físico de la reacción que cataliza.
homogeneous equilibrium (p. 600) A state of equilibrium equilibrio homogéneo (pág. 600) Estado de equilibrio que
that occurs when all the reactants and products of a reac- ocurre cuando todos los reactivos y productos de una
tion are in the same physical state. reacción están en el mismo estado físico.
homogeneous mixture (p. 81) One that has a uniform com- mezcla homogénea (pág. 81) Aquella que tiene una com-
position throughout and always has a single phase; also posición uniforme y siempre tiene una sola fase; también
called a solution. llamada solución.
homologous series (p. 751) Describes a series of compounds serie homóloga (pág. 751) Describe una serie de compues-
that differ from one another by a repeating unit. tos que difieren entre sí por una unidad repetitiva.
Hund’s rule (p. 157) States that single electrons with the regla de Hund (pág. 157) Establece que los electrones indi-
same spin must occupy each equal-energy orbital before viduales con igual rotación deben ocupar cada uno orbi-
additional electrons with opposite spins can occupy the tales distintos con la misma energía, antes de que elec-
same orbitals. trones adicionales con rotación opuesta puedan ocupar
los mismos orbitales.

1016 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario

hybridization/hibridación intermediate/intermediario

hybridization (p. 262) A process in which atomic orbitals hibridación (pág. 262) Proceso mediante el cual se mezclan
are mixed to form new, identical hybrid orbitals. los orbitales atómicos para formar orbitales híbridos
nuevos e idénticos.
hydrate (p. 351) A compound that has a specific number of hidrato (pág. 351) Compuesto que tiene un número especí-
water molecules bound to its atoms. fico de moléculas de agua unidas a sus átomos.
hydration reaction (p. 804) An addition reaction in which a reacción de hidratación (pág. 804) Reacción de adición en
hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl group from a water mol- la que se añaden el átomo de hidrógeno y el grupo hidro-
ecule add to a double or triple bond. xilo de una molécula de agua a un enlace doble o triple.
hydrocarbon (p. 745) Simplest organic compound com- hidrocarburo (pág. 745) El compuesto orgánico más simple;
posed only of the elements carbon and hydrogen. está formado sólo por los elementos carbono e hidrógeno.
hydrogenation reaction (p. 804) An addition reaction in reacción de hidrogenación (pág. 804) Reacción de adición
which hydrogen is added to atoms in a double or triple en la que se agrega hidrógeno a los átomos que forman
bond; usually requires a catalyst. un enlace doble o triple; requiere generalmente de un
catalizador.
hydrogen bond (p. 413) A strong dipole-dipole attraction enlace de hidrógeno (pág. 413) Fuerte atracción dipolo-
between molecules that contain a hydrogen atom bonded dipolo entre moléculas que contienen un átomo de
to a small, highly electronegative atom. hidrógeno unido a un átomo pequeño, sumamente elec-
tronegativo.
hydroxyl group (p. 792) An oxygen-hydrogen group cova- grupo hidroxilo (pág. 792) Un grupo hidrógeno-oxígeno
lently bonded to a carbon atom. unido covalentemente a un átomo de carbono.
hypothesis (p. 13) A tentative, testable statement or predic- hipótesis (pág. 13) Enunciado tentativo y comprobable o
tion about what has been observed. predicción acerca de lo que ha sido observado.

I
ideal gas constant (R) (p. 454) An experimentally deter- constante de los gases ideales (R) (pág. 454) Constante
mined constant whose value in the ideal gas equation determinada experimentalmente cuyo valor en la ecua-
depends on the units that are used for pressure. ción de los gases ideales depende de las unidades en las
que se expresa la presión.
ideal gas law (p. 454) Describes the physical behavior of an ley de los gases ideales (pág. 454) Describe el comporta-
ideal gas in terms of pressure, volume, temperature, and miento físico de un gas ideal en términos de la presión, el
number of moles of gas. volumen, la temperatura y el número de moles del gas.

immiscible (ih MIHS ih bul) (p. 479) Describes two liquids inmiscible (pág. 479) Describe dos líquidos que se pueden
that can be mixed together but separate shortly after you mezclar entre sí, pero que se separan poco después de
cease mixing them. que se cesa de mezclarlos.
independent variable (p. 14) In an experiment, the variable variable independiente (pág. 14) La variable de un experi-
that the experimenter plans to change. mento que el experimentador piensa cambiar.
induced transmutation (p. 875) The process in which nuclei transmutación inducida (pág. 875) Proceso en cual se bom-
are bombarded with high-velocity charged particles in bardean núcleos con partículas cargadas de alta veloci-
order to create new elements. dad para crear elementos nuevos.
inhibitor (p. 571) A substance that slows down the reaction inhibidor (pág. 571) Sustancia que reduce la tasa de reac-
rate of a chemical reaction or prevents a reaction from ción de una reacción química o evita que ésta suceda.
happening.
inner transition metal (p. 180) A type of group B element metal de transición interna (pág. 180) Tipo de elemento
that is contained in the f-block of the periodic table and del grupo B contenido dentro del bloque F de la tabla
is characterized by a filled outermost orbital, and filled or periódica; se caracteriza por tener el orbital más externo
partially filled 4f and 5f orbitals. lleno y los orbitales 4f y 5f parcialmente llenos.
insoluble (p. 479) Describes a substance that cannot be dis- insoluble (pág. 479) Describe una sustancia que no se
solved in a given solvent. puede disolver en un disolvente dado.
instantaneous rate (p. 578) The rate of decomposition at a velocidad instantánea (pág. 578) La tasa de descomposición
specific time, calculated from the rate law, the specific en un tiempo dado, se calcula a partir de la ley de veloci-
rate constant, and the concentrations of all the reactants. dad de la reacción, la constante de velocidad de la reac-
ción y las concentraciones de los reactivos.
intensive property (p. 73) A physical property that remains propiedad intensiva (pág. 73) Propiedad física que perma-
the same no matter how much of a substance is present. nece igual sea cual sea la cantidad de sustancia presente.
intermediate (p. 580) A substance produced in one elemen- intermediario (pág. 580) Sustancia producida en un paso
tary step of a complex reaction and consumed in a subse- elemental de una reacción compleja y que es consumida
quent elementary step. en un paso elemental subsecuente.

Glossary/Glosario 1017
Glossary/Glosario

ion/ion law of conservation of mass/ley de conservación de la masa

ion (p. 189) An atom or bonded group of atoms with a ion (pág. 189) Átomo o grupo de átomos unidos que tienen
positive or negative charge. carga positiva o negativa.
ionic bond (p. 210) The electrostatic force that holds oppo- enlace iónico (pág. 210) Fuerza electrostática que mantiene
sitely charged particles together in an ionic compound. unidas las partículas con carga opuesta en un compuesto
iónico.
ionic compounds (p. 210) Compounds that contain ionic compuestos iónicos (pág. 210) Compuestos que contienen
bonds enlaces iónicos.
ionization energy (p. 191) The energy required to remove energía de ionización (pág. 191) Energía que se requiere
an electron from a gaseous atom; generally increases in para separar un electrón de un átomo en estado gaseoso;
moving from left-to-right across a period and decreases generalmente aumenta al moverse de izquierda a derecha
in moving down a group a lo largo de un período de la tabla periódica y disminuye
al moverse hacia abajo a lo largo de un grupo.
ionizing radiation (p. 885) Radiation that is energetic radiación ionizante (pág. 885) Radiación que posee suficiente
enough to ionize matter it collides with. energía como para ionizar la materia con la que choca.
ion product constant for water (p. 650) The value of the constante del producto iónico del agua (pág. 650) Valor de
equilibrium constant expression for the self-ionization la expresión de la constante de equilibrio de la ionización
of water. del agua.
isomers (p. 765) Two or more compounds that have the isómeros (pág. 765) Dos o más compuestos que tienen
same molecular formula but have different molecular la misma fórmula molecular pero poseen estructuras
structures. moleculares diferentes.
isotopes (p. 117) Atoms of the same element with different isótopos (pág. 117) Átomos del mismo elemento con dife-
numbers of neutrons. rente número de neutrones.

J
joule (p. 518) The SI unit of heat and energy. julio (pág. 518) La unidad SI de medida del calor y la
energía.

K
kelvin (p. 35) The SI base unit of temperature. kelvin (pág. 35) Unidad básica de temperatura del SI.
ketone (p. 797) An organic compound in which the carbon cetona (pág. 797) Compuesto orgánico en el que el car-
of the carbonyl group is bonded to two other carbon bono del grupo carbonilo está unido a otros dos átomos
atoms. de carbono.
kilogram (p. 34) The SI base unit for mass. kilogramo (pág. 34) Unidad básica de masa del SI.
kinetic-molecular theory (p. 402) Describes the behavior teoría cinético-molecular (pág. 402) Explica el comporta-
of gases in terms of particles in motion; makes several miento de los gases en términos de partículas en movi-
assumptions about size, motion, and energy of gas par- miento; hace varias suposiciones acerca del tamaño,
ticles. movimiento y energía de las partículas de gas.

lanthanide series (p. 180) In the periodic table, the f-block


L serie de los lantánidos (pág. 180) Los elementos del blo-
elements from period 6 that follow the element lantha- que F del período 6 de la tabla periódica que siguen al
num. elemento lantano.
lattice energy (p. 216) The energy required to separate one energía reticular (pág. 216) Energía que se requiere para
mole of the ions of an ionic compound, which is directly separar un mol de los iones de un compuesto iónico;
related to the size of the ions bonded and is also affected está directamente relacionada con el tamaño de los iones
by the charge of the ions. enlazados y es afectada también por la carga de los iones.
law of chemical equilibrium (p. 599) States that at a given ley del equilibrio químico (pág. 599) Establece que a una
temperature, a chemical system may reach a state in temperatura dada, un sistema químico puede alcanzar un
which a particular ratio of reactant and product concen- estado en el que la razón particular de las concentracio-
trations has a constant value. nes del reactivo y el producto tiene un valor constante.
law of conservation of energy (p. 517) States that in any ley de conservación de la energía (pág. 517) Establece que
chemical reaction or physical process, energy may change en toda reacción química y en todo proceso físico la
from one form to another, but it is neither created nor energía puede cambiar de una forma a otra, pero no
destroyed. puede ser creada ni destruida.
law of conservation of mass (p. 77) States that mass is nei- ley de conservación de la masa (pág. 77) Establece que
ther created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction durante una reacción química la masa no se crea ni se
but is conserved. destruye, sino que se conserva.

1018 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario

law of definite proportions/ley de las proporciones definidas meter/metro

law of definite proportions (p. 87) States that, regardless ley de las proporciones definidas (pág. 87) Establece que,
of the amount, a compound is always composed of the independientemente de la cantidad, un compuesto siem-
same elements in the same proportion by mass. pre se compone de los mismos elementos en la misma
proporción por masa.
law of multiple proportions (p. 89) States that when different ley de las proporciones múltiples (pág. 89) Establece que
compounds are formed by the combination of the same cuando la combinación de los mismos elementos forma
elements, different masses of one element combine with compuestos diferentes, una masa dada de uno de los
the same mass of the other element in a ratio of small elementos se combina con masas diferentes del otro
whole numbers. elemento de acuerdo con una razón que se expresa en
números enteros pequeños.
Le Châtelier’s principle (luh SHAHT uh lee yays • PRIHN Principio de Le Châtelier (pág. 607) Establece que si se aplica
sih puhl) (p. 607) States that if a stress is applied to a una perturbación a un sistema en equilibrio, el sistema
system at equilibrium, the system shifts in the direction cambia en la dirección que reduce la perturbación.
that relieves the stress.
Lewis model (p. 641) An acid is an electron-pair acceptor modelo de Lewis (pág. 641) Un ácido es un receptor de
and a base is an electro-pair donor. pares de electrones y una base es un donante de pares de
electrones.
Lewis structure (p. 242) A model that uses electron-dot estructura de Lewis (pág. 242) Modelo que utiliza diagramas
structures to show how electrons are arranged in mol- de puntos de electrones para mostrar la disposición de
ecules. Pairs of dots or lines represent bonding pairs. los electrones en las moléculas. Los pares de puntos o
líneas representan pares de electrones enlazados.
limiting reactant (p. 379) A reactant that is totally con- reactivo limitante (pág. 379) Reactivo que se consume com-
sumed during a chemical reaction, limits the extent of pletamente durante una reacción química, limita la dura-
the reaction, and determines the amount of product. ción de la reacción y determina la cantidad del producto.
lipids (p. 835) Large, nonpolar biological molecules that lípidos (pág. 835) Moléculas biológicas no polares de gran
vary in structure, store energy in living organisms, and tamaño que varían en estructura, almacenan energía en
make up most of the structure of cell membranes. los seres vivos y conforman la mayor parte de la estruc-
tura de las membranas celulares.
liquid (p. 71) A form of matter that flows, has constant vol- líquido (pág. 71) Forma de materia que fluye, tiene volu-
ume, and takes the shape of its container. men constante y toma la forma de su envase.
liter (p. 35) The metric unit for volume equal to one cubic litro (pág. 35) Unidad de volumen del sistema métrico;
decimeter. equivale a un decímetro cúbico.

M
mass (p. 9) A measure that reflects the amount of matter. masa (pág. 9) Medida que refleja la cantidad de materia.
mass defect (p. 877) The difference in mass between a defecto másico (pág. 877) La diferencia de masa entre un
nucleus and its component nucleons. núcleo y los nucleones que lo componen.
mass number (p. 117) The number after an element’s name, número de masa (pág. 117) El número que va después del
representing the sum of its protons and neutrons. nombre de un elemento; representa la suma de sus pro-
tones y neutrones.
matter (p. 4) Anything that has mass and takes up space. materia (pág. 4) Cualquier cosa que tiene masa y ocupa
espacio.
melting point (p. 426) For a crystalline solid, the tempera- punto de fusión (pág. 426) Para un sólido cristalino, es la
ture at which the forces holding a crystal lattice together temperatura a la que se rompen las fuerzas que mantienen
are broken and it becomes a liquid. unida la red cristalina y el sólido se convierte en líquido.
metabolism (p. 844) The sum of the many chemical reac- metabolismo (pág. 844) El conjunto de las numerosas reac-
tions that occur in living cells. ciones químicas que ocurren en las células vivas.
metal (p. 177) An element that is solid at room tempera- metal (pág. 177) Elemento sólido a temperatura ambiente,
ture, a good conductor of heat and electricity, and gener- es buen conductor de calor y electricidad y generalmente
ally is shiny; most metals are ductile and malleable. es brillante; la mayoría de los metales son dúctiles y
maleables.
metallic bond (p. 225) The attraction of a metallic cation for enlace metálico (pág. 225) Atracción de un catión metálico
delocalized electrons. por los electrones deslocalizados.
metalloid (p. 181) An element that has physical and chemi- metaloide (pág. 181) Elementos que tienen las propiedades
cal properties of both metals and nonmetals. físicas y químicas de metales y de no metales.
meter (p. 33) The SI base unit for length. metro (pág. 33) Unidad básica de longitud del SI.

Glossary/Glosario 1019
Glossary/Glosario

method of initial rates/método de las velocidades iniciales neutralization reaction/reacción de neutralización

method of initial rates (p. 576) Determines the reaction método de las velocidades iniciales (pág. 576) Determina el
order by comparing the initial rates of a reaction carried orden de la reacción al comparar las velocidades iniciales
out with varying reactant concentrations. de una reacción realizada con diversas concentraciones
de reactivo.
miscible (p. 479) Describes two liquids that are soluble in miscible (pág. 479) Describe dos líquidos que son solubles
each other. entre sí.
mixture (p. 80) A physical blend of two or more pure mezcla (pág. 80) Combinación física de dos o más sustan-
substances in any proportion in which each substance cias puras en cualquier proporción en la que cada sustan-
retains its individual properties; can be separated by cia retiene sus propiedades individuales; las sustancias se
physical means. pueden separar por medios físicos.
model (p. 10) A visual, verbal, and/or mathematical expla- modelo (pág. 10) Explicación matemática, verbal o visual
nation of data collected from many experiments. de datos recolectados en muchos experimentos.
molality (p. 487) The ratio of the number of moles of sol- molalidad (pág. 487) La razón del número de moles de
ute dissolved in one kilogram of solvent; also known as soluto disueltos en un kilogramo de disolvente; también
molal concentration. se conoce como concentración molal.
molar enthalpy (heat) of fusion (p. 530) The amount of heat entalpía (calor) molar de fusión (pág. 530) Cantidad
required to melt one mole of a solid substance. requerida de calor para fundir un mol de una sustancia
sólida.
molar enthalpy (heat) of vaporization (p. 530) The amount entalpía (calor) molar de vaporización (pág. 530) Cantidad
of heat required to vaporize one mole of a liquid. requerida de calor para vaporizar un mol de un líquido.
molarity (p. 482) The number of moles of solute dissolved molaridad (pág. 482) Número de moles de soluto disueltos
per liter of solution; also known as molar concentration. por litro de solución; también se conoce como concen-
tración molar.
molar mass (p. 326) The mass in grams of one mole of any masa molar (pág. 326) Masa en gramos de un mol de
pure substance. cualquier sustancia pura.
molar volume (p. 452) For a gas, the volume that one mole volumen molar (pág. 452) Para un gas, es el volumen que
occupies at 0.00°C and 1.00 atm pressure. ocupa un mol a 0.00°C y una presión de 1.00 atm.
mole (p. 321) The SI base unit used to measure the amount mol (pág. 321) Unidad básica del SI para medir la cantidad
of a substance, abbreviated mol; the number of carbon de una sustancia, se abrevia mol; el número de átomos
atoms in exactly 12 g of pure carbon; one mole is the de carbono en 12 g exactos de carbono puro; un mol es
amount of a pure substance that contains 6.02 × 10 23 rep- la cantidad de sustancia pura que contiene 6.02 × 10 23
resentative particles. partículas representativas.
molecular formula (p. 346) A formula that specifies the fórmula molecular (pág. 346) Fórmula que especifica
actual number of atoms of each element in one molecule el número real de átomos de cada elemento en una
of a substance. molécula de la sustancia.
molecule (p. 241) Forms when two or more atoms cova- molécula (pág. 241) Se forma cuando dos o más átomos se
lently bond and is lower in potential energy than its con- unen covalentemente y posee menor energía potencial
stituent atoms. que los átomos que la conforman.
mole fraction (p. 488) The ratio of the number of moles of fracción molar (pág. 488) La razón del número de moles de
solute in solution to the total number of moles of solute soluto en solución al número total de moles de soluto y
and solvent. disolvente.
mole ratio (p. 371) In a balanced equation, the ratio razón molar (pág. 371) En una ecuación equilibrada, se
between the numbers of moles of any two substances. refiere a la razón entre el número de moles de dos sus-
tancias cualesquiera.
monatomic ion (p. 218) An ion formed from only one atom. ion poliatómico (pág. 218) Ion formado de un sólo átomo.
monomer (p. 810) A molecule from which a polymer is monómero (pág. 810) Molécula a partir de la cual se forma
made. un polímero.
monosaccharides (p. 832) The simplest carbohydrates, also monosacáridos (pág. 832) Los carbohidratos más simples;
called simple sugars. se llaman también azúcares simples.

N
net ionic equation (p. 301) An ionic equation that includes ecuación iónica neta (pág. 301) Ecuación iónica que incluye
only the particles that participate in the reaction. sólo las partículas que participan en la reacción.
neutralization reaction (p. 659) A reaction in which an acid reacción de neutralización (pág. 659) Reacción en la que un
and a base react in aqueous solution to produce a salt ácido y una base reaccionan en una solución acuosa para
and water. producir sal y agua.

1020 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario

neutron/neutrón osmotic pressure/presión osmótica

neutron (p. 113) A neutral, subatomic particle in an atom’s neutrón (pág. 113) Partícula subatómica neutral en el
nucleus that has a mass nearly equal to that of a proton. núcleo de un átomo que tiene una masa casi igual a la de
un protón.
noble gas (p. 180) An extremely unreactive group 18 ele- gas noble (pág. 180) Elemento extremadamente no reactivo
ment. del grupo 18.
nonmetals (p. 180) Elements that are generally gases or no metales (pág. 180) Elementos que generalmente son
dull, brittle solids that are poor conductors of heat and gases o sólidos quebradizos, sin brillo y malos conducto-
electricity. res de calor y electricidad.
nuclear equation (p. 123) A type of equation that shows ecuación nuclear (pág. 123) Tipo de ecuación que muestra
the atomic number and mass number of the particles el número atómico y el número de masa de las partículas
involved. involucradas.
nuclear fission (p. 883) The splitting of a nucleus into fisión nuclear (pág. 883) Ruptura de un núcleo en fragmen-
smaller, more stable fragments, accompanied by a large tos más pequeños y más estables; se acompaña de una
release of energy. gran liberación de energía.
nuclear fusion (p. 878) The process of binding smaller fusión nuclear (pág. 878) Proceso de unión de núcleos
atomic nuclei into a single, larger, and more stable atómicos pequeños en un solo núcleo más grande y más
nucleus. estable.
nuclear reaction (p. 122) A reaction that involves a change reacción nuclear (pág. 122) Reacción que implica un cam-
in the nucleus of an atom. bio en el núcleo de un átomo.
nucleic acid (p. 840) A nitrogen-containing biological poly- ácido nucleico (pág. 840) Polímero biológico que contiene
mer that is involved in the storage and transmission of nitrógeno y que participa en el almacenamiento y trans-
genetic information. misión de información genética.
nucleons (p. 865) The positively charged protons and neu- nucleones (pág. 865) Los protones de carga positiva y los
tral neutrons contained in an atom’s nucleus. neutrones sin carga que contiene el núcleo de un átomo.
nucleotide (p. 840) The monomer that makes up a nucleic nucleótido (pág. 840) Monómeros que forman los ácidos
acid; consists of a nitrogen base, an inorganic phosphate nucleicos; consisten de una base nitrogenada, un grupo
group, and a five-carbon monosaccharide sugar. fosfato inorgánico y un azúcar monosacárido de cinco
carbonos.
nucleus (p. 112) The extremely small, positively charged, núcleo (pág. 112) El diminuto y denso centro con carga
dense center of an atom that contains positively charged positiva de un átomo; contiene protones con su carga
protons and neutral neutrons. positiva y neutrones sin carga.

O
octet rule (p. 193) States that atoms lose, gain, or share elec- regla del octeto (pág. 193) Establece que los átomos
trons in order to acquire the stable electron configuration pierden, ganan o comparten electrones para adquirir la
of a noble gas. configuración electrónica estable de un gas noble.
optical isomers (p. 768) Result from different arrangements isómeros ópticos (pág. 768) Son resultado de los distin-
of four different groups around the same carbon atom tos ordenamientos que adquieren los cuatro grupos
and have the same physical and chemical properties diferentes que rodean a un mismo átomo de carbono;
except in chemical reactions where chirality is important. todos poseen las mismas propiedades químicas y físicas,
excepto en las reacciones químicas donde la quiralidad es
importante.
optical rotation (p. 769) An effect that occurs when polar- rotación óptica (pág. 769) Efecto que ocurre cuando la
ized light passes through a solution containing an optical luz polarizada atraviesa una solución que contiene un
isomer and the plane of polarization is rotated to the isómero óptico y el plano de polarización rota a la dere-
right by a d-isomer or to the left by an l-isomer. cha en los isómeros dextrógiros (-d) y a la izquierda en
los isómeros levógiros (-l).
organic compounds (p. 745) All compounds that contain compuestos orgánicos (pág. 745) Todo compuesto que con-
carbon with the primary exceptions of carbon oxides, tiene carbono; las excepciones más importantes son los
carbides, and carbonates, all of which are considered óxidos de carbono, los carburos y los carbonatos, todos
inorganic. los cuales se consideran inorgánicos.
osmosis (p. 504) The diffusion of solvent particles across a osmosis (pág. 504) Difusión de partículas de disolvente a
semipermeable membrane from an area of higher solvent través de una membrana semipermeable hacia el área
concentration to an area of lower solvent concentration. donde la concentración del disolvente es menor.
osmotic pressure (p. 504) The pressure caused when water presión osmótica (pág. 504) La presión que causan las
molecules move into or out of a solution. moléculas de agua al entrar o salir de una solución.

Glossary/Glosario 1021
Glossary/Glosario

oxidation/oxidación periodic table/tabla periódica

oxidation (p. 681) The loss of electrons from the atoms of a oxidación (pág. 681) Pérdida de electrones de los átomos
substance; increases an atom’s oxidation number. de una sustancia; aumenta el número de oxidación de un
átomo.
oxidation number (p. 219) The positive or negative charge número de oxidación (pág. 219) La carga positiva o negativa
of a monatomic ion. de un ion monoatómico.
oxidation-number method (p. 689) The technique that can método del número de oxidación (pág. 689) Técnica que
be used to balance more difficult redox reactions, based sirve para equilibrar las reacciones redox más difíciles;
on the fact that the number of electrons transferred from se basa en el hecho de que el número de electrones trans-
atoms must equal the number of electrons accepted by feridos por los átomos debe ser igual al número de elec-
other atoms. trones aceptados por otros átomos.
oxidation-reduction reaction (p. 680) Any chemical reac- reacción de oxidación-reducción (pág. 680) Toda reacción
tion in which electrons are transferred from one atom to química en la que sucede transferencia de electrones de
another; also called a redox reaction. un átomo a otro; también se llama reacción redox.
oxidizing agent (p. 683) The substance that oxidizes another agente oxidante (pág. 683) Sustancia que oxida otra sustan-
substance by accepting its electrons. cia al aceptar sus electrones.
oxyacid (p. 250) Any acid that contains hydrogen and an oxiácido (pág. 250) Todo ácido que contiene hidrógeno y
oxyanion. un oxianión.
oxyanion (ahk see AN i ahn) (p. 222) A polyatomic ion oxianión (pág. 222) Ion poliatómico compuesto de un ele-
composed of an element, usually a nonmetal, bonded to mento, generalmente un no metal, unido a uno o a más
one or more oxygen atoms. átomos de oxígeno.

P
parent chain (p. 753) The longest continuous chain of car- cadena principal (pág. 753) La cadena continua más larga
bon atoms in a branched-chain alkane, alkene, or alkyne. de átomos de carbono en un alcano, un alqueno o un
alquino ramificados.
pascal (p. 407) The SI unit of pressure; one pascal (Pa) is pascal (pág. 407) La unidad SI de presión; un pascal (Pa) es
equal to a force of one newton per square meter. igual a una fuerza de un newton por metro cuadrado.
Pauli exclusion principle (p. 157) States that a maximum of principio de exclusión de Pauli (pág. 157) Establece que cada
two electrons can occupy a single atomic orbital but only orbital atómico sólo puede ser ocupado por un máximo
if the electrons have opposite spins. de dos electrones, pero sólo si los electrones tienen giros
opuestos.
penetrating power (p. 864) The ability of radiation to pass poder de penetración (pág. 864) La capacidad de la radia-
through matter. ción de atravesar la materia.
peptide (p. 828) A chain of two or more amino acids linked péptido (pág. 828) Cadena de dos o más aminoácidos uni-
by peptide bonds. dos por enlaces peptídicos.
peptide bond (p. 828) The amide bond that joins two amino enlace peptídico (pág. 828) Enlace amida que une dos ami-
acids. noácidos.
percent by mass (p. 87) A percentage determined by the porcentaje en masa (pág. 87) Porcentaje determinado por
ratio of the mass of each element to the total mass of the la razón de la masa de cada elemento respecto a la masa
compound. total del compuesto.
percent composition (p. 342) The percent by mass of each composición porcentual (pág. 342) Porcentaje en masa de
element in a compound. cada elemento en un compuesto.
percent error (p. 48) The ratio of an error to an accepted porcentaje de error (pág. 48) La razón del error al valor
value. aceptado.
percent yield (p. 386) The ratio of actual yield (from an porcentaje de rendimiento (pág. 386) Razón del rendimiento
experiment) to theoretical yield (from stoichiometric real (de un experimento) al rendimiento teórico (de cál-
calculations) expressed as a percent. culos estequiométricos) expresada como porcentaje.
period (p. 177) A horizontal row of elements in the modern período (pág. 177) Fila horizontal de elementos en la tabla
periodic table. periódica moderna.
periodic law (p. 176) States that when the elements are ley periódica (pág. 176) Establece que al ordenar los ele-
arranged by increasing atomic number, there is a peri- mentos por número atómico en sentido ascendente,
odic repetition of their properties. existe una repetición periódica de sus propiedades.
periodic table (p. 85) A chart that organizes all known ele- tabla periódica (pág. 85) Tabla en la que se organizan
ments into a grid of horizontal rows (periods) and verti- todos los elementos conocidos en una cuadrícula de filas
cal columns (groups or families) arranged by increasing horizontales (períodos) y columnas verticales (grupos o
atomic number. familias), ordenados según su número atómico en sen-
tido ascendente.

1022 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario

pH/pH positron emission/emisión de positrones

pH (p. 652) The negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion pH (pág. 652) El logaritmo negativo de la concentración de
concentration of a solution; acidic solutions have pH val- iones hidrógeno de una solución; las soluciones ácidas
ues between 0 and 7, basic solutions have values between poseen valores de pH entre 0 y 7, las soluciones básicas
7 and 14, and a solution with a pH of 7.0 is neutral. tienen valores entre 7 y 14 y una solución con un pH de
7.0 es neutra.
phase change (p. 76) A transition of matter from one state cambio de fase (pág. 76) La transición de la materia de un
to another. estado a otro.
phase diagram (p. 429) A graph of pressure versus tempera- diagrama de fase (pág. 429) Gráfica de presión contra tem-
ture that shows which phase a substance exists in under peratura que muestra la fase en la que se encuentra una
different conditions of temperature and pressure. sustancia bajo distintas condiciones de temperatura y
presión.
phospholipid (p. 838) A triglyceride in which one of the fosfolípido (pág. 838) Triglicérido en el que uno de los áci-
fatty acids is replaced by a polar phosphate group dos grasos es sustituido por un grupo fosfato polar.
photoelectric effect (p. 142) A phenomenon in which pho- efecto fotoeléctrico (pág. 142) Fenómeno en el cual la
toelectrons are emitted from a metal’s surface when light superficie de un metal emiten fotoelectrones cuando una
of a certain frequency shines on the surface. luz de cierta frecuencia ilumina su superficie.
photon (p. 143) A particle of electromagnetic radiation fotón (pág. 143) Partícula de radiación electromagnética
with no mass that carries a quantum of energy. sin masa que transporta un cuanto de energía.
photosynthesis (p. 846) The complex process that converts fotosíntesis (pág. 846) Proceso complejo que convierte
energy from sunlight to chemical energy in the bonds of la energía de la luz solar en la energía química de los
carbohydrates. enlaces en carbohidratos.
physical change (p. 76) A type of change that alters the cambio físico (pág. 76) Tipo de cambio que altera las
physical properties of a substance but does not change its propiedades físicas de una sustancia pero no cambia su
composition. composición.
physical property (p. 73) A characteristic of matter that can propiedad física (pág. 73) Característica de la materia que
be observed or measured without changing the sample’s se puede observar o medir sin cambiar la composición
composition—or example, density, color, taste, hardness, de una muestra de la materia; por ejemplo, la densidad,
and melting point. el color, el sabor, la dureza y el punto de fusión.
pi bond (p. 245) A bond that is formed when parallel orbit- enlace pi (pág. 245) Enlace que se forma cuando orbitales
als overlap to share electrons. paralelos se superponen para compartir electrones.
Planck’s constant (h) (p. 142) 6.626 × 10 -34 J·s, where J is constante de Planck (h) (pág. 142) 6.626 × 10 -34 J·s, donde
the symbol for the joule. J es el símbolo de julios.
plastic (p. 789) A polymer that can be heated and molded plástico (pág. 789) Polímero que se puede calentar y mol-
while relatively soft. dear mientras esté relativamente suave.
pOH (p. 652) The negative logarithm of the hydroxide ion pOH (pág. 652) El logaritmo negativo de la concentración
concentration of a solution; a solution with a pOH above de iones hidróxido de una solución; una solución con un
7.0 is acidic, a solution with a pOH below 7.0 is basic, pOH mayor que 7.0 es ácida, una solución con un pOH
and a solution with a pOH of 7.0 is neutral. menor que 7.0 es básica y una solución con un pOH de
7.0 es neutra.
polar covalent bond (p. 266) A type of bond that forms enlace covalente polar (pág. 266) Tipo de enlace que se
when electrons are not shared equally. forma cuando los electrones no se comparten de manera
equitativa.
polyatomic ion (p. 221) An ion made up of two or more ion poliatómico (pág. 221) Ion compuesto de dos o más
atoms bonded together that acts as a single unit with a átomos unidos entre sí que actúan como una unidad con
net charge. carga neta.
polymerization reaction (p. 810) A reaction in which mono- reacción de polimerización (pág. 810) Reacción en la cual los
mer units are bonded together to form a polymer. monómeros se unen para formar un polímero.
polymers (p. 809) Large molecules formed by combining polímeros (pág. 809) Moléculas grandes formadas por
many repeating structural units (monomers); are synthe- la unión de muchas unidades estructurales repetidas
sized through addition or condensation reactions. (monómeros); se sintetizan a través de reacciones de
adición o de condensación.
polysaccharide (p. 833) A complex carbohydrate, which polisacárido (pág. 833) Carbohidrato complejo; es un
is a polymer of simple sugars that contains 12 or more polímero de azúcares simples que contiene 12 ó más
monomer units. monómeros.
positron (p. 868) A particle that has the same mass as an positrón (pág. 868) Partícula que tiene la misma masa que
electron but an opposite charge. un electrón pero carga opuesta.
positron emission (p. 868) A radioactive decay process in emisión de positrones (pág. 868) Proceso de desintegración
which a proton in the nucleus is converted into a neutron radiactiva en el que un protón del núcleo se convierte en
and a positron, and then the positron is emitted from the un neutrón y un positrón y luego el positrón es emitido
nucleus. del núcleo.
Glossary/Glosario 1023
Glossary/Glosario

precipitate/precipitado radiochemical dating/datación radioquímica

precipitate (p. 296) A solid produced during a chemical precipitado (pág. 296) Sólido que se produce durante una
reaction in a solution. reacción química en una solución.
precision (p. 47) Refers to how close a series of measure- precisión (pág. 47) Se refiere a la cercanía de una serie de
ments are to one another; precise measurements show medidas entre sí; las medidas precisas muestran poca
little variation over a series of trials but might not be variación durante una serie de pruebas, incluso si no son
accurate. exactas.
pressure (p. 406) Force applied per unit area. presión (pág. 406) Fuerza aplicada por unidad de área.
primary battery (p. 720) A type of battery that produces batería primaria (pág. 720) Tipo de batería que produce
electric energy by redox reactions that are not easily energía eléctrica por reacciones redox que no son fácil-
reversed, delivers current until the reactants are gone, mente reversibles, produce corriente hasta que se agotan
and then is discarded. los reactivos y luego se desecha.
principal energy levels (p. 153) The major energy levels of niveles energéticos principales (pág. 153) Los niveles ener-
an atom. géticos más importantes de un átomo.
principal quantum number (n) (p. 153) Assigned by the número cuántico principal (pág. 153) Asignado por el
quantum mechanical model to indicate the relative sizes modelo mecánico cuántico para indicar el tamaño y la
and energies of atomic orbitals. energía relativas de los orbitales atómicos.
product (p. 283) A substance formed during a chemical producto (pág. 283) Sustancia que se forma durante una
reaction. reacción química.
protein (p. 826) An organic polymer made up of animo proteína (pág. 826) Polímero orgánico compuesto de ami-
acids linked together by peptide bonds that can function noácidos unidos por enlaces peptídicos; puede funcionar
as an enzyme, transport important chemical substances, como enzima, transportar sustancias químicas impor-
or provide structure in organisms. tantes o ser parte de la estructura en los organismos.
proton (p. 113) A subatomic particle in an atom’s nucleus protón (pág. 113) Partícula subatómica en el núcleo de un
that has a positive charge of 1+. átomo con carga positiva 1+.
pure research (p. 17) A type of scientific investigation that investigación pura (pág. 17) Tipo de investigación científica
seeks to gain knowledge for the sake of knowledge itself. que busca obtener conocimiento sin otro interés que
satisfacer el interés científico.

Q
qualitative data (p. 13) Information describing color, odor, datos cualitativos (pág. 13) Información que describe el
shape, or some other physical characteristic. color, el olor, la forma o alguna otra característica física.
quantitative data (p. 13) Numerical information describing datos cuantitativos (pág. 13) Información numérica que
how much, how little, how big, how tall, or how fast. describe cantidad, tamaño o rapidez.
quantum (p. 141) The minimum amount of energy that can cuanto (pág. 141) La cantidad mínima de energía que
be gained or lost by an atom. puede ganar o perder un átomo.
quantum mechanical model of the atom (p. 152) An atomic modelo mecánico cuántico del átomo (pág. 152) Modelo
model in which electrons are treated as waves; also called atómico en el cual los electrones se estudian como si
the wave mechanical model of the atom. fueran ondas; también se denomina modelo mecánico
ondulatorio del átomo.
quantum number (p. 146) The number assigned to each número cuántico (pág. 146) Número que se asigna a cada
orbit of an electron. órbita de un electrón.

R
radiation (p. 122) The rays and particles—alpha and beta radiación (pág. 122) Los rayos y partículas que emiten
particles and gamma rays—that are emitted by radioac- los materiales radiactivos (partículas alfa y beta y rayos
tive materials. gamma).
radioactive decay (p. 122) A spontaneous process in which desintegración radiactiva (pág. 122) Proceso espontáneo
unstable nuclei lose energy by emitting radiation. en el que los núcleos inestables pierden energía al emitir
radiación.
radioactive decay series (p. 870) A series of nuclear reac- serie de desintegración radiactiva (pág. 870) Serie de reac-
tions that starts with an unstable nucleus and results in ciones nucleares que empieza con un núcleo inestable y
the formation of a stable nucleus. produce la formación de un núcleo estable.
radioactivity (p. 122) The process in which some substances radiactividad (pág. 122) Proceso en el que algunas sustan-
spontaneously emit radiation. cias emiten radiación espontáneamente.
radiochemical dating (p. 873) The process that is used to datación radioquímica (pág. 873) Proceso que sirve para
determine the age of an object by measuring the amount determinar la edad de un objeto al medir la cantidad res-
of a certain radioisotope remaining in that object. tante de cierto radioisótopo en dicho objeto.

1024 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario

radioisotopes/radioisótopos salt hydrolysis/hidrólisis de sales

radioisotopes (p. 861) Isotopes of atoms that have unstable radioisótopos (pág. 861) Isótopos de átomos que poseen
nuclei and emit radiation to attain more stable atomic núcleos inestables y emiten radiación para obtener una
configurations. configuración atómica más estable.
radiotracer (p. 887) An isotope that emits non-ionizing radiolocalizador (pág. 887) Isótopo que emite radiación
radiation and is used to signal the presence of an element no ionizante y se utiliza para señalar la presencia de un
or specific substance; can be used to analyze complex elemento o sustancia específica; se usan para analizar los
chemical reactions mechanisms and to diagnose disease. mecanismos de reacciones químicas complejas y para
diagnosticar enfermedades.
rate-determining step (p. 581) The slowest elementary step paso determinante de la velocidad de reacción (pág. 581)
in a complex reaction; limits the instantaneous rate of the El paso elemental más lento en una reacción compleja;
overall reaction. limita la velocidad instantánea de la reacción general.
rate law (p. 574) The mathematical relationship between ley de velocidad de la reacción (pág. 574) Relación
the rate of a chemical reaction at a given temperature matemática entre la velocidad de una reacción química
and the concentrations of reactants. a una temperatura dada y las concentraciones de los
reactivos.
reactant (p. 283) The starting substance in a chemical reac- reactivo (pág. 283) Sustancia inicial en una reacción
tion. química.
reaction mechanism (p. 580) The complete sequence of mecanismo de reacción (pág. 580) Sucesión completa de
elementary steps that make up a complex reaction. pasos elementales que componen una reacción compleja.
reaction order (p. 575) For a reactant, describes how the orden de la reacción (pág. 575) Describe cómo la concen-
rate is affected by the concentration of that reactant. tración de un reactivo afecta la velocidad de la reacción
para dicho reactivo.
reaction rate (p. 561) The change in concentration of a tasa de reacción (pág. 561) Cambio en la concentración de
reactant or product per unit time, generally calculated un reactivo o producto por unidad de tiempo, general-
and expressed in moles per liter per second. mente se calcula y expresa en moles por litro por segundo.
redox reaction (p. 680) An oxidation-reduction reaction. reacción redox (pág. 680) Una reacción de oxidorreducción.
reducing agent (p. 683) The substance that reduces another agente reductor (pág. 683) Sustancia que reduce otra sus-
substance by losing electrons. tancia al perder electrones.
reduction (p. 681) The gain of electrons by the atoms of a reducción (pág. 681) Ganancia de electrones por los átomos
substance; decreases an atom’s oxidation number. de una sustancia; reduce el número de oxidación de los
átomos.
reduction potential (p. 711) The tendency of a substance to potencial de reducción (pág. 711) Tendencia de una sustan-
gain electrons. cia a ganar electrones.
representative elements (p. 177) Elements from groups 1, elementos representativos (pág. 177) Elementos de los gru-
2, and 13–18 in the modern periodic table, possessing a pos 1, 2 y 13 a 18 de la tabla periódica moderna; poseen
wide range of chemical and physical properties. una gran variedad de propiedades químicas y físicas.
resonance (p. 258) Condition that occurs when more than resonancia (pág. 258) Condición que ocurre cuando existe
one valid Lewis structure exists for the same molecule. más de una estructura válida de Lewis para una misma
molécula.
reversible reaction (p. 595) A reaction that can take place in reacción reversible (pág. 595) Reacción que puede
both the forward and reverse directions; leads to an equi- ocurrir en direcciones normal e inversa; produce un
librium state where the forward and reverse reactions estado de equilibrio donde las reacciones en sentido nor-
occur at equal rates and the concentrations of reactants mal e inverso ocurren a tasas iguales, ocasionando que
and products remain constant. la concentración de reactivos y productos permanezcan
constantes.

S
salt (p. 659) An ionic compound made up of a cation from sal (pág. 659) Compuesto iónico formado por un catión pro-
a base and an anion from an acid. veniente de una base y un anión proveniente de un ácido.
salt bridge (p. 709) A pathway constructed to allow positive puente salino (pág. 709) Medio que permite el movimiento
and negative ions to move from one solution to another. de iones positivos y negativos de una solución a otra.
salt hydrolysis (p. 665) The process in which anions of the hidrólisis de sales (pág. 665) Proceso en el que los aniones
dissociated salt accept hydrogen ions from water, or the de una sal disociada aceptan iones hidrógeno del agua
cations of the dissociated salt donate hydrogen ions to o en el que los cationes de la sal disociada donan iones
water. hidrógeno al agua.

Glossary/Glosario 1025
Glossary/Glosario

saponification/saponificación species/especie

saponification (suh pahn ih fih KAY shuhn) (p. 837) The saponificación (pág. 837) La hidrólisis de los enlaces éster
hydrolysis of the ester bonds of a triglyceride using an de un triglicérido, usando una solución acuosa de una
aqueous solution of a strong base to form carboxylate base fuerte, para formar sales de carboxilato y glicerol.
salts and glycerol.
saturated hydrocarbon (p. 746) A hydrocarbon that contains hidrocarburo saturado (pág. 746) Hidrocarburo que sólo
only single bonds. contiene enlaces sencillos.
saturated solution (p. 493) Contains the maximum amount solución saturada (pág. 493) Solución que contiene la can-
of dissolved solute for a given amount of solvent at a spe- tidad máxima de soluto disuelto para una cantidad dada
cific temperature and pressure. de disolvente a una temperatura y presión específicas.
scientific law (p. 16) Describes a relationship in nature that ley científica (pág. 16) Describe una relación natural
is supported by many experiments. demostrada en muchos experimentos.
scientific methods (p. 12) A systematic approach used in métodos científicos (pág. 12) Enfoque sistemático que se
scientific study; an organized process used by scientists usa en los estudios científicos; proceso organizado que
to do research and to verify the work of others. siguen los científicos para realizar sus investigaciones y
verificar el trabajo realizado por otros científicos.
scientific notation (p. 40) Expresses any number as a num- notación científica (pág. 40) Expresa cualquier número
ber between 1 and 10 (known as a coefficient) multiplied como un número entre 1 y 10 (conocido como coefi-
by 10 raised to a power (known as an exponent). ciente) multiplicado por 10 elevado a alguna potencia
(conocida como exponente).
second (p. 33) The SI base unit for time. segundo (pág. 33) Unidad básica de tiempo del SI.
second law of thermodynamics (p. 543) The spontaneous segunda ley de la termodinámica (pág. 543) Los pro-
processes always proceed in such a way that the entropy cesos espontáneos siempre proceden de una forma que
of the universe increases. aumenta la entropía del universo.
secondary battery (p. 720) A rechargeable battery that batería secundaria (pág. 720) Batería recargable que
depends on reversible redox reactions. depende de reacciones redox reversibles.
sigma bond (p. 244) A single covalent bond that is formed enlace sigma (pág. 244) Enlace covalente simple que se
when an electron pair is shared by the direct overlap of forma cuando se comparte un par de electrones mediante
bonding orbitals. la superposición directa de los orbitales del enlace.
significant figures (p. 50) The number of all known digits cifras significativas (pág. 50) El número de dígitos conoci-
reported in measurements plus one estimated digit. dos que se reportan en medidas, más un dígito estimado.
single-replacement reaction (p. 293) A chemical reaction reacción de sustitución simple (pág. 293) Reacción química
that occurs when the atoms of one element replace the que ocurre cuando los átomos de un elemento reempla-
atoms of another element in a compound. zan a los átomos de otro elemento en un compuesto.
solid (p. 71) A form of matter that has its own definite sólido (pág. 71) Forma de la materia que tiene su propia
shape and volume, is incompressible, and expands only forma y volumen, es incompresible y sólo se expande
slightly when heated. levemente cuando se calienta.
solubility (p. 614) The maximum amount of solute that will solubilidad (pág. 614) Cantidad máxima de soluto que se
dissolve in a given amount of solvent at a specific tem- disolverá en una cantidad dada de disolvente a una tem-
perature and pressure. peratura y presión específicas.
solubility product constant (p. 614) K sp, which is an equi- constante de producto de solubilidad (pág. 614) Se repre-
librium constant for the dissolving of a sparingly soluble senta como K sp; es la constante de equilibrio para la diso-
ionic compound in water. lución de un compuesto iónico moderadamente soluble
en agua.
soluble (p. 479) Describes a substance that can be dissolved soluble (pág. 479) Describe una sustancia que se puede
in a given solvent. disolver en un disolvente dado.
solute (p. 299) One or more substances dissolved in a solu- soluto (pág. 299) Una o más sustancias disueltas en una
tion. solución.
solution (p. 81) A uniform mixture that can contain solids, solución (pág. 81) Mezcla uniforme que puede contener sóli-
liquids, or gases; also called a homogeneous mixture. dos, líquidos o gases; llamada también mezcla homogénea.
solvation (p. 489) The process of surrounding solute parti- solvatación (pág. 489) Proceso de rodear las partículas de
cles with solvent particles to form a solution; occurs only soluto con partículas del disolvente para formar una solu-
where and when the solute and solvent particles come in ción; ocurre sólo en los lugares y en el momento en que
contact with each other. las partículas de soluto y disolvente entran en contacto.
solvent (p. 299) The substance that dissolves a solute disolvente (pág. 299) Sustancia que disuelve un soluto para
to form a solution; the most plentiful substance in the formar una solución; la sustancia más abundante en la
solution. solución.
species (p. 693) Any kind of chemical unit involved in a especie (pág. 693) Cualquier clase de unidad química que
process. participa en un proceso.

1026 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario

specific heat/calor específico substitution reaction/reacción de sustitución

specific heat (p. 519) The amount of heat required to raise calor específico (pág. 519) Cantidad de calor requerida para
the temperature of one gram of a given substance by one elevar la temperatura de un gramo de una sustancia dada
degree Celsius. en un grado centígrado (Celsius).
specific rate constant (p. 575) A numerical value that relates constante de velocidad de la reacción (pág. 575) Valor
reaction rate and concentration of reactant at a specific numérico que relaciona la velocidad de la reacción y la
temperature. concentración de reactivos a una temperatura específica.
spectator ion (p. 301) Ion that does not participate in a ion espectador (pág. 301) Ion que no participa en una
reaction. reacción.
spontaneous process (p. 542) A physical or chemical change proceso espontáneo (pág. 542) Cambio físico o químico que
that occurs without outside intervention and may require ocurre sin intervención externa; la iniciación del proceso
energy to be supplied to begin the process. puede requerir un suministro de energía.
standard enthalpy (heat) of formation (p. 537) The change entalpía (calor) estándar de formación (pág. 537) Cambio en
in enthalpy that accompanies the formation of one mole la entalpía que acompaña la formación de un mol de un
of a compound in its standard state from its constituent compuesto en su estado normal, a partir de sus elemen-
elements in their standard states. tos constituyentes en su estado normal.
standard hydrogen electrode (p. 711) The standard elec- electrodo normal de hidrógeno (pág. 711) Electrodo están-
trode against which the reduction potential of all elec- dar que sirve de referencia para medir el potencial de
trodes can be measured. reducción de todos los electrodos.
states of matter (p. 71) The physical forms in which all estados de la materia (pág. 71) Las formas físicas en las que
matter naturally exists on Earth—most commonly as a la materia existe naturalmente en la Tierra, más común-
solid, a liquid, or a gas. mente como sólido, líquido o gas.
stereoisomers (p. 766) A class of isomers whose atoms are estereoisómeros (pág. 766) Clase de isómeros cuyos átomos
bonded in the same order but are arranged differently in se unen en el mismo orden, pero con distinta disposición
space. espacial.
steroids (p. 839) Lipids that have multiple cyclic rings in esteroides (pág. 839) Lípidos con múltiples anillos en sus
their structures. estructuras.
stoichiometry (p. 368) The study of quantitative relation- estequiometría (pág. 368) El estudio de las relaciones cuan-
ships between the amounts of reactants used and prod- titativas entre las cantidades de reactivos utilizados y los
ucts formed by a chemical reaction; is based on the law productos formados durante una reacción química; se
of conservation of mass. basa en la ley de la conservación de la masa.
strong acid (p. 644) An acid that ionizes completely in ácido fuerte (pág. 644) Ácido que se ioniza completamente
aqueous solution. en solución acuosa.
strong base (p. 648) A base that dissociates entirely into base fuerte (pág. 648) Base que se disocia enteramente en
metal ions and hydroxide ions in aqueous solution. iones metálicos e iones hidróxido en solución acuosa.
strong nuclear force (p. 865) A force that acts on subatomic fuerza nuclear fuerte (pág. 865) Fuerza que actúa sólo en
particles that are extremely close together. las partículas subatómicas que se encuentran extremada-
mente cercanas.
structural formula (p. 253) A molecular model that uses fórmula estructural (pág. 253) Modelo molecular que usa
symbols and bonds to show relative positions of atoms; símbolos y enlaces para mostrar las posiciones relati-
can be predicted for many molecules by drawing the vas de los átomos; esta fórmula se puede predecir para
Lewis structure. muchas moléculas al trazar su estructura de Lewis.
structural isomers (p. 765) A class of isomers whose atoms isómeros estructurales (pág. 765) Clase de isómeros cuyos
are bonded in different orders with the result that they átomos están unidos en distinto orden, por lo que tienen
have different chemical and physical properties despite propiedades químicas y físicas diferentes a pesar de tener
having the same formula. la misma fórmula.
sublimation (p. 83) The energy-requiring process by which sublimación (pág. 83) Proceso que requiere de energía en el
a solid changes directly to a gas without first becoming a que un sólido se convierte directamente en gas, sin con-
liquid. vertirse primero en un líquido.
substance (p. 5) Matter that has a definite composition; also sustancia (pág. 5) Materia con una composición definida;
known as a chemical. también se conoce como sustancia química.
substituent groups (p. 753) The side branches that extend grupos sustituyentes (pág. 753) Las ramas laterales que se
from the parent chain; they appear to substitute for a extienden desde la cadena principal y parecen sustituir
hydrogen atom in the straight chain. un átomo de hidrógeno de la cadena recta.
substitution reaction (p. 790) A reaction of organic com- reacción de sustitución (pág. 790) Reacción de compuestos
pounds in which one atom or group of atoms in a mol- orgánicos en la cual un átomo o un grupo de átomos en
ecule is replaced by another atom or group of atoms. una molécula son sustituidos por otro átomo o grupo de
átomos.

Glossary/Glosario 1027
Glossary/Glosario

substrate/sustrato titration/titulación

substrate (p. 830) A reactant in an enzyme-catalyzed reac- sustrato (pág. 830) Reactivo en una reacción catalizada por
tion that binds to specific sites on enzyme molecules. enzimas que se enlaza a sitios específicos en las molécu-
las de la enzima.
supersaturated solution (p. 494) Contains more dissolved solución sobresaturada (pág. 494) Aquella que contiene más
solute than a saturated solution at the same temperature. soluto disuelto que una solución saturada a la misma
temperatura.
surface tension (p. 418) The energy required to increase the tensión superficial (pág. 418) Energía requerida para
surface area of a liquid by a given amount; results from aumentar el área superficial de un líquido en una canti-
an uneven distribution of attractive forces. dad dada; es producida por una distribución desigual de
las fuerzas de atracción.
surfactant (p. 419) A compound, such as soap, that low- surfactante (pág. 419) Compuesto, como el jabón, que
ers the surface tension of water by disrupting hydrogen reduce la tensión superficial del agua al romper los
bonds between water molecules; also called a surface enlaces de hidrógeno entre las moléculas de agua; lla-
active agent. mado también agente tensioactivo.
surroundings (p. 526) In thermochemistry, includes every- alrededores (pág. 526) En termoquímica, incluye todo el
thing in the universe except the system. universo a excepción del sistema.
suspension (p. 476) A type of heterogeneous mixture whose suspensión (pág. 476) Tipo de mezcla heterogénea cuyas
particles settle out over time and can be separated from partículas se asientan con el tiempo y pueden separarse
the mixture by filtration. de la mezcla por filtración.
synthesis reaction (p. 289) A chemical reaction in which reacción de síntesis (pág. 289) Reacción química en la que
two or more substances react to yield a single product. dos o más sustancias reaccionan para generar un solo
producto.
system (p. 526) In thermochemistry, the specific part of sistema (pág. 526) En termoquímica, se refiere a la parte
the universe containing the reaction or process being específica del universo que contiene la reacción o el pro-
studied. ceso en estudio.

T
technology (p. 9) The practical use of scientific information. tecnología (pág. 9) Uso práctico de la información científica.
temperature (p. 403) A measure of the average kinetic temperatura (pág. 403) Medida de la energía cinética pro-
energy of the particles in a sample of matter. medio de las partículas en una muestra de materia.
theoretical yield (p. 385) In a chemical reaction, the maxi- rendimiento teórico (pág. 385) La cantidad máxima de
mum amount of product that can be produced from a producto que se puede producir a partir de una cantidad
given amount of reactant. dada de reactivo, durante una reacción química.
theory (p. 16) An explanation supported by many experi- teoría (pág. 16) Explicación respaldada por muchos experi-
ments; is still subject to new experimental data, can be mentos; está sujeta a los resultados obtenidos en nuevos
modified, and is considered valid it if can be used to experimentos, se puede modificar y se considera válida si
make predictions that are proven true. permite hacer predicciones verdaderas.
thermochemical equation (p. 529) A balanced chemical ecuación termoquímica (pág. 529) Ecuación química equili-
equation that includes the physical states of all the reac- brada que incluye el estado físico de todos los reactivos y
tants and the energy change, usually expressed as the the el cambio de energía, este último usualmente expresado
change in enthalpy. como el cambio en entalpía.
thermochemistry (p. 525) The study of heat changes that termoquímica (pág. 525) El estudio de los cambios de calor
accompany chemical reactions and phase changes. que acompañan a las reacciones químicas y a los cambios
de fase.
thermonuclear reaction (p. 883) A nuclear fusion reaction. reacción termonuclear (pág. 883) Reacción de fusión nuclear.
thermoplastic (p. 813) A type of polymer that can be melted termoplástico (pág. 813) Tipo de polímero que se puede
and molded repeatedly into shapes that are retained fundir y moldear repetidas veces en formas que el
when it is cooled. plástico mantiene al enfriarse.
thermosetting (p. 813) A type of polymer that can be fraguado (pág. 813) Tipo de polímero que se puede mol-
molded when it is first prepared but when cool cannot be dear la primera vez que es producido, pero que no puede
remelted. fundirse de nuevo una vez que se ha enfriado.
titrant (p. 661) A solution of known concentration used to solución tituladora (pág. 661) Solución de concentración
titrate a solution of unknown concentration; also called conocida que se usa para titular una solución de concen-
the standard solution. tración desconocida; también conocida como solución
estándar.
titration (p. 660) The process in which an acid-base neu- titulación (pág. 660) Proceso en el que se usa una reacción
tralization reaction is used to determine the concentra- de neutralización ácido-base para determinar la concen-
tion of a solution of unknown concentration. tración de una solución de concentración desconocida.

1028 Glossary/Glosario
Glossary/Glosario

transition elements/elementos de transición viscosity/viscosidad

transition elements (p. 177) Elements in groups 3–12 of the elementos de transición (pág. 177) Elementos de los grupos
modern periodic table and are further divided into tran- 3 al 12 de la tabla periódica moderna; se subdividen en
sition metals and inner transition metals. metales de transición y metales de transición interna.
transition metal (p. 180) The elements in groups 3–12 that metal de transición (pág. 180) Elementos de los grupos 3 al
are contained in the d-block of the periodic table and, 12 del bloque d de la tabla periódica; con algunas excep-
with some exceptions, is characterized by a filled out- ciones, se caracterizan por tener lleno el orbital externo
ermost s orbital of energy level n, and filled or partially s del nivel de energía n y por tener orbitales d llenos o
filled d orbitals of energy level n −1. parcialmente llenos en el nivel de energía n −1.
transition state (p. 564) Term used to describe an activated estado de transición (pág. 564) Término que se usa para
complex because the activated complex is as likely to describir un complejo activado por su probabilidad de
form reactants as it is to form products. formar tanto reactivos como productos.
transmutation (p. 865) The conversion of an atom of one transmutación (pág. 865) Conversión de un átomo de un
element to an atom of another element. elemento a un átomo de otro elemento.
transuranium element (p. 876) An element with an atomic elemento transuránico (pág. 876) Elementos de la tabla
number of 93 or greater in the periodic table. periódica con un número atómico igual o mayor que 93.
triglyceride (p. 836) Forms when three fatty acids are triglicérido (pág. 836) Se forma cuando tres ácidos grasos
bonded to a glycerol backbone through ester bonds; can se enlazan a un cadena principal de glicerol por enlaces
be either solid or liquid at room temperature. éster; puede ser sólido o líquido a temperatura ambiente.
triple point (p. 429) The point on a phase diagram repre- punto triple (pág. 429) El punto en un diagrama de fase que
senting the temperature and pressure at which the three representa la temperatura y la presión en la que coexisten
phases of a substance (solid, liquid, and gas) can coexist. las tres fases de una sustancia (sólido, líquido y gas).
Tyndall effect (TIHN duhl • EE fekt) (p. 478) The scat- efecto Tyndall (pág. 478) Dispersión de la luz causada por
tering of light by colloidal particles. las partículas coloidales.

U
unit cell (p. 421) The smallest arrangement of atoms in a celda unitaria (pág. 421) El conjunto más pequeño de áto-
crystal lattice that has the symmetry as the whole crystal; mos en una red cristalina que posee la simetría de todo el
a small representative part of a larger whole. cristal; pequeña parte representativa de un entero mayor.
universe (p. 526) In thermochemistry, is the system plus the universo (pág. 526) En termoquímica, se refiere el sistema
surroundings. más los alrededores.
unsaturated hydrocarbon (p. 746) A hydrocarbon that con- hidrocarburo no saturado (pág. 746) Hidrocarburo que
tains at least one double or triple bond between carbon contiene por lo menos un enlace doble o triple entre sus
atoms. átomos de carbono.
unsaturated solution (p. 493) Contains less dissolved solute solución no saturada (pág. 493) Aquella que contiene menos
for a given temperature and pressure than a saturated soluto disuelto a una temperatura y presión dadas que
solution; has further capacity to hold more solute. una solución saturada; puede contener cantidades adi-
cionales del soluto.

V
valence electrons (p. 161) The electrons in an atom’s outer- electrones de valencia (pág. 161) Los electrones en el orbital
most orbitals; determine the chemical properties of an más externo de un átomo; determinan las propiedades
element. químicas de un elemento.
vapor (p. 72) Gaseous state of a substance that is a liquid or vapor (pág. 72) Estado gaseoso de una sustancia que es
a solid at room temperature. líquida o sólida a temperatura ambiente.
vaporization (p. 426) The energy-requiring process by vaporización (pág. 426) Proceso que requiere energía en el
which a liquid changes to a gas or vapor. que un líquido se convierte en gas o vapor.
vapor pressure (p. 427) The pressure exerted by a vapor presión de vapor (pág. 427) Presión que ejerce un vapor
over a liquid. sobre un líquido.
vapor pressure lowering (p. 499) The lowering of vapor disminución de la presión de vapor (pág. 499) Reducción de
pressure of a solvent by the addition of a nonvolatile sol- la presión de vapor de un disolvente por la adición de un
ute to the solvent. soluto no volátil al disolvente.
viscosity (p. 417) A measure of the resistance of a liquid to viscosidad (pág. 417) Medida de la resistencia de un líquido
flow, which is affected by the size and shape of particles, a fluir; es afectada por el tamaño y la forma de las partícu-
and generally increases as the temperature decreases and las y en general aumenta cuando disminuye temperatura
as intermolecular forces increase. y cuando aumentan las fuerzas intermoleculares.

Glossary/Glosario 1029
Glossary/Glosario

voltaic cell/pila voltaica X ray/rayos X

voltaic cell (p. 709) A type of electrochemical cell that con- pila voltaica (pág. 709) Tipo de celda electroquímica
verts chemical energy into electrical energy by a sponta- que convierte la energía química en energía eléctrica
neous redox reaction. mediante una reacción redox espontánea.
VSEPR model (p. 261) Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion modelo RPCEV (pág. 261) Modelo de Repulsión de los
model, which is based on an arrangement that minimizes Pares Electrónicos de la Capa de Valencia; se basa en un
the repulsion of shared and unshared pairs of electrons ordenamiento que minimiza la repulsión de los pares de
around the central atom. electrones compartidos y no compartidos alrededor del
átomo central.

W
wavelength (p. 137) The shortest distance between equiva- longitud de onda (pág. 137) La distancia más corta entre
lent points on a continuous wave; is usually expressed in puntos equivalentes en una onda continua; se expresa
meters, centimeters, or nanometers. generalmente en metros, centímetros o nanómetros.
wax (p. 838) A type of lipid that is formed by combining cera (pág. 838) Tipo de lípido que se forma al combinarse
a fatty acid with a long-chain alcohol; is made by both un ácido graso con un alcohol de cadena larga; son ela-
plants and animals. borados por plantas y animales.
weak acid (p. 645) An acid that ionizes only partially in ácido débil (pág. 645) Ácido que se ioniza parcialmente en
dilute aqueous solution. una solución acuosa diluida.
weak base (p. 648) A base that ionizes only partially in base débil (pág. 648) Base que se ioniza parcialmente en
dilute aqueous solution to form the conjugate acid of the una solución acuosa diluida para formar el ácido conju-
base and hydroxide ion. gado de la base y el ion hidróxido.
weight (p. 9) A measure of an amount of matter and also peso (pág. 9) Medida de la cantidad de materia y también
the effect of Earth’s gravitational pull on that matter. del efecto de la fuerza gravitatoria de la Tierra sobre esa
materia.

X
X ray (p. 864) A form of high-energy, penetrating electro- rayos X (pág. 864) Forma de radiación electromagnética
magnetic radiation emitted from some materials that are penetrante de alta energía que emiten algunos materiales
in an excited electron state. que se encuentran en un estado electrónico excitado.

1030 Glossary/Glosario
Absolute zero Anions

Index Key
Italic numbers = illustration/photo Bold numbers = vocabulary term
act. = activity prob. = problem

properties, 634–635; polyprotic, 640– prob.; hydrogenation reactions, 805;


A 641, 641 table; strength of, 644–647,
648 act.; strong, 644; titration of. See
naming, 751, 752–753, 754–755
prob.; nonpolarity of, 757, 758; physi-
Absolute zero, 445
Absorption spectrum, 145, 164 act. Titration; weak, 645 cal properties, 758; solubility, 758;
Actinide series, 180, 185, 921 straight-chain, 750–751
Accelerants, 91
Activated complex, 564 Alkenes, 759; addition reactions involv-
Accuracy, 47–48
Activation energy (E a), 564–566, ing, 804; naming, 760, 761 prob.; prop-
Acetaldehyde, 796
571–572 erties, 762; stereoisomers, 766; uses, 762
Acetaminophen, 800
Active site, 830 Alkyl groups, 752, 753 table
Acetic acid, 634, 798, 800
Activities. See CHEMLABs; Data Alkyl halides, 787; dehydrogenation
Acetone, 432 act., 797
Analysis Labs; Launch Labs; reactions, 803; naming, 788; parent
Acetylene. See Ethyne
MiniLabs; Problem-Solving Labs alkanes v., 789 table; substitution
Acid anhydrides, 643
Activity series, 293–294, 310 act. reactions, 791
Acid-base chemistry, 633 act., 634–668;
Actual yield, 385 Alkynes, 763–764; ethyne, synthesize
acid-base titration, 660–663, 664 prob.,
Addition: scientific notation and, 42, and observe, 762 act.; examples, 763
670 act.; acids, strength of, 644–647,
948; significant figures and, 53, 53 table; hydrogenation reactions, 805;
648 act.; Arrhenius model, 637, 642
prob., 952, 953 prob. naming, 763; properties, 764; uses, 764
table; bases, strength of, 648–649;
Addition polymerization, 811 Allotropes, 938
Brønsted-Lowry model, 638–640,
Addition reactions, 804 table, 804–805 Alloys, 81, 227–228; commercially
642 table; buffers, 666–667, 668 act.;
Adenine (A), 841 important, 228 table; interstitial, 228;
chemical properties of acids and bases,
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP), 845 magnesium, 913; substitutional, 228;
635; hydronium and hydroxide ions,
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 532, 845 transition metal, 916
636; ion-product of water and, 650
Adhesion, 419 Alnico, 228 table
prob., 650–651; Lewis model, 641–643,
Adipic acid, 798 Alpha decay, 867, 868 table
642 table; litmus paper and, 633 act.,
ADP (adenosine diphosphate), 845 Alpha particles, 123, 861 table, 862, 864,
635, 658; milestones in understanding,
Age of Polymers. See Polymers 888 table
636–637; molarity and pH, 656; mono-
Agitation, 492 Alpha radiation, 123, 124 table, 861, 861
protic and polyprotic acids, 640–641,
AIDS, 389 table, 862, 888 table
641 table; neutralization reactions,
Air masses, density of and weather, 37 Alternative energy specialist, 729
659–660; pH and, 633 act., 652, 653,
Air pressure, 406; deep sea diving and, Aluminum, 159 table, 226 table, 730–
653 prob., 654 prob.; physical proper-
408 act.; measurement of, 406–407; 731, 922, 923, 924
ties of acids and bases, 634–635; pOH
units of, 407 Aluminum oxide, 212
and, 652, 653; salt hydrolysis, 665
Alcoholic fermentation, 847 Amide functional group, 787 table
Acid-base indicators, 658, 663, 664
Alcohols, 792–793; denatured, 793; Amides, 787 table, 800, 800 table
Acid-base titration. See Titration
elimination reactions, 803; evapora- Amines, 787 table, 795, 795 table
Acid hydrolysis, 665
tion of, 432 act., 816 act.; functional Amino acids, 826–827, 827 table
Acidic solutions, 636
groups, 787 table; layering of in grad- Amino functional group, 787 table, 826
Acid ionization constant (K a), 647, 647
uated cylinder, 31 act.; naming, 793; Ammonia: as Brønsted-Lowry base,
table, 970 table; calculate from pH,
properties, 792–793, 816 act. 639; evaporation of, 432 act.; Lewis
656, 657 prob.
Aldehydes, 787 table, 796 table, 796–797 structure, 243, 255 prob.; polarity of,
Acid mine waste, biotreatment of, 920
Algal blooms, 250 268; production of, 290, 462, 594, 596,
Acidosis, 666
Algebraic equations, 954–955, 955 prob. 597; sigma bonds in, 244, 245
Acid rain, 637
Aliphatic compounds, 771. See also Ammoniated cattle feed, 601
Acids. See also Acid-base chemistry;
Alkanes; Alkenes; Alkynes Ammonium, 221 table
acid ionization constant (K a), 647,
Alkali metals (Group 1A), 177, 906–909 Amorphous solids, 424
647 table, 656, 657 prob.; anhydrides,
Alkaline batteries, 719 Amphoteric, 639
643; Arrhenius, 637; Brønsted-Lowry,
Alkaline earth metals (Group 2A), 177, Amplitude, 137
638–639, 646; chemical properties,
910–915 Anabolism, 844–845
635; conjugate, 638; electrical conduc-
Alkanes, 750–758; alkyl halides and, Analytical balance, 77, 79
tivity, 635; in household items, 633 789; branched-chain, 752–753, Analytical chemistry, 11 table, 79, 341
act.; ionization equations, 645, 645 754–755 prob.; burner gas analysis, Anhydrides, 643
table; molarity and pH of strong, 656; 776 act.; chemical properties, 758; Anhydrous calcium chloride, 354
monoprotic, 640, 640 table; naming, condensed structural formulas, 751; Aniline, 795
250–251, 252; pH of. See pH; physical cycloalkanes, 755–756, 756–757 Anions, 209

Index 1031
Index

Anodes Blood

Anodes, 107, 710 Atomic solids, 422, 422 table Base ionization constant (K b), 649, 649
Antacids, 659 Atomic structure: Bohr model of, table, 970 table
Antarctica, ozone hole over, 7, 20–21 146–148, 150 act.; Dalton’s model Bases. See also Acid-base chemistry;
Anthracene, 772 of, 104 table, 104–105; Democritus’ antacids, 659; Arrhenius, 637; base
Antilogarithms, 966–967 early idea of, 103; Greek philosophers’ ionization constant (K b), 649, 649
Antimony, 932, 933, 935 views of, 102–103, 103 table; mile- table; Brønsted-Lowry, 638–639;
Applied research, 17 stones in understanding, 110–111; chemical properties, 635; conjugate,
Aqueous solutions, 299–308. See also nuclear atomic model, 112–114, 136; 638; in household items, 633 act.;
Solutions; electrolytes in and colliga- plum pudding model, 110; quantum molarity and pH of strong, 656; phys-
tive properties, 498–499; ionic com- mechanical model, 149–152; try to ical properties, 634–635; strength of,
pounds in, 300; ionic equations and, determine, 135 act. 648–649; strong, 649; titration of. See
301, 302 prob.; molecular compounds Atomic weapons, 111 Titration; weak, 649
in, 299; nonelectrolytes in and colliga- Atoms, 10, 106–107; atom-to-mass Base units, 33, 35–37
tive properties, 499; overall equations conversions, 331 prob.; determining Basic solutions, 636
for reactions in, 307; reactions produc- structure of. See Atomic structure; Batteries, 717, 718–723; dry cells, 718–
ing water in, 303, 304 prob.; reactions excited state, 146, 147; ground state, 720; fuel cells, 722–723; lead-acid,
that form gases, 281 act., 304–305, 306 146; mass-to-atom conversions, 720–721, 930; lemon battery, 707 act.;
prob.; reactions that form precipitates 329–330, 330 prob.; size of, 106, 112; lithium, 721–722
in, 300, 301 act., 302 prob.; solvation of stability of, 240; subatomic particles, Becquerel, Henri, 860–861, 885
ionic compounds in, 490; solvation of 113–114, 114 table; viewing, 107 Beetles, bioluminescent, 309
molecular compounds in, 491 ATP (adenosine triphosphate), 845 Bent molecular shape, 263 table
Aragonite, 214 Aufbau diagram, 156–157, 157 table, Benzaldehyde, 796 table, 797
Archaeologist, 891
160 Benzene, 770–771; carcinogenic nature
Argon, 159 table, 185 table, 944, 945
Aufbau principle, 156, 157 table of, 774; naming of substituted,
Aristotle, 103, 103 table, 416
Automobile air safety bags, 292 772–773
Aromatic compounds, 771–774; ben-
Average rate of reaction, 560–562, 562 Benzopyrene, 774
zene, 770–771; carcinogenic, 774;
prob. Bernoulli, Daniel, 416
fused-ring systems, 772; naming,
772–773, 773 prob. Avogadro’s number, 321, 326 act., 969 Beryl, 214
Arrhenius model of acid-base chemis- table Beryllium, 158 table, 161 table, 910–
try, 637, 642 table Avogadro’s principle, 452 911, 912
Arrhenius, Svante, 636, 637 Beryls, 912
Arsenic, 932, 933
Arson investigator, 91
B Best-fit line, 56–57
Beta decay, 867, 868 table
Art restorer, 23 Bacteria, nitrogen-fixing, 934 Beta particles, 123, 861 table, 863, 864,
Aryl halides, 788 Bakelite, 809, 810, 813 888 table
Aspirin, 810 Baker, 847 Beta radiation, 123, 124 table, 861, 861
Astatine, 940, 941 Baking, acid-base chemistry and, 669 table, 862, 863, 888 table
Asymmetric carbon, 768 Baking powder, 669 Binary acids, 250, 252
Atmosphere (atm), 407, 407 table Baking soda, 378 act., 669 Binary ionic compounds, 210, 219
Atmosphere, Earth’s: cycling of carbon Balanced chemical equations: conserva- Binary molecular compounds, 248–250,
dioxide in, 505; elements in, 901; tion of mass and, 285, 288; deriving, 249 prob., 252
layers of, 5; ozone layer and, 5–8 285–286, 286 table, 287 prob., 288, Binding energy, 877, 878
Atomic bomb, 879 288. See also Stoichiometry; mole Biochemist, 308
Atomic distances, 113 act. ratios and, 371–372; particle and mole Biochemistry, 11 table
Atomic emission spectrum, 144–145, relationships in, 368–369; relation- Biofuel cells, 724 act.
164 act. ships derived from, 369 table Biofuels, 774 act., 775
Atomic Force Microscope, 291 Balanced forces, 597 Biogas, 775
Atomic mass, 119–120, 121 prob., 126 Ball-and-stick molecular models, 253, 746 Biological metabolism. See Metabolism
act. Balmer (visible) series, 147, 148, 150 act. Bioluminescence, 309, 693
Atomic mass unit (amu), 119, 325, 969 Band of stability, 866
Biomolecules: carbohydrates, 825 act.,
table Bar graphs, 56
832–834; lipids, 835–839; nucleic
Atomic nucleus, 112; discovery of, 112; Barite, 214
acids, 840–843; proteins, 826–831
nuclear model of mass and, 326 act. Barium, 226 table, 910–911, 913, 914
Bioremediation, 920
Atomic number, 115, 116 prob., 118 Barium carbonate, 302, 302 prob.
Bismuth, 932, 933, 935
prob. Barium chloride, 913
Bismuth subsalicylate, 935
Atomic orbitals, 152, 154, 262 Barium sulfate, 621
Blocks, periodic table, 183–185. See also
Atomic radii, trends in, 187, 188, 189 Barometers, 407, 416
Specific blocks
prob. Base hydrolysis, 665
Blood, pH of, 666, 668 act.

1032 Index
Index

Bloodstains Chemical equilibrium

Bloodstains, detecting, 697 Calcium chloride, 913 887; research chemist, 185; science
Body temperature, reaction rate and, 583 Calcium hydroxide, 287 writer, 604; spectroscopist, 139
Bohr atomic model, 146–148, 150 act. Calibration technician, 56 Cast iron, 228 table
Bohr, Niels, 110, 146 Calorie (cal), 518 Catabolism, 844–845
Boiling, 427 Calorimeter, 523–524, 525 prob., 532 prob. Catalysts, 571–573. See also Enzymes;
Boiling point, 77, 427; of alkanes, 758; Calx of mercury, 79 chemical equilibrium and, 611;
of covalent compounds, 270; of halo- Cancer, 163, 887 hydrogenation reactions and, 805;
carbons, 789; as physical property, 73 Canola oil, hydrogenation of, 805 act. temperature and, 850 act.
Boiling point elevation, 500–501, 503 Capillary action, 419 Catalytic converters, 573
prob. Caramide, 800 Cathode rays, 108
Boltzmann, Ludwig, 402 Carbohydrates, 832–834; disaccharides, Cathode-ray tubes, 107–108
Bond angles, 261 833; functions of, 832; monosaccha- Cathodes, 107, 710
Bond character, 266 rides, 832–833; polysaccharides, 833– Cations, 207–208
Bond dissociation energies, 247 834; test for simple sugars, 825 act. Cattle feed, 601
Bonding pairs, 242 Carbolic acid, 636 Cave formation, 643
Bonds. See Chemical bonds Carbon. See also Organic compounds; CDs, 924
Book preservation, 661 abundance of, 84; analytical tests for, Cell membrane, 838
Borates, 214 926–927; atomic properties, 158 table, Cell notation, 713
Boron, 158 table, 161 table, 184, 922, 161 table, 926–927; common reactions Cell potential: applications of, 716;
923, 924 involving, 926–927; in human body, calculate, 713–714, 715 prob., 717;
Boron group (Group 13), 922–925 195; organic compounds and, 745; measure, 734 act.
Bose-Einstein condensate, 417 physical properties, 926; uses of, 928 Cellular respiration, 846
Bose, Satyendra Nath, 417 Carbonated beverages, 495 Celluloid, 490
Boyle, Robert, 442 Carbonates, 214 Cellulose, 834
Boyle’s law, 442–443, 443 prob., 444 act., Carbon dating, 873–874, 883 Celsius scale, 34
451 table Carbon dioxide, 256 prob., 430, 505 Centrifuge, 490
Branched-chain alkanes, 752–753; Carbon group (Group 4A), 926–931, CERN, 111
alkyl groups, 752; naming, 752–753, 932–935 Cesium, 194, 906, 907, 909
754–755 prob., 760, 761 prob. Carbonic acid, 634 Cesium clock, 909
Brass, 228 table Carbon tetrachloride, 20, 267–268 CFCs. See Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Breathing, Boyle’s law and, 444 act. Carbonyl compounds, 796–801; alde- Chadwick, James, 110, 113
Breeder reactors, 882 hydes, 796–797; carboxylic acids, 798; Chain reactions, 859 act., 879, 880
Brine, electrolysis of, 730 ketones, 797 Chance, scientific discoveries and, 18
Bromate, 221 table Carbonyl group, 787 table, 796 Charles, Jacques, 444
Bromine, 120, 180, 940, 941, 942 Carboxyl group, 787 table, 798, 798 Charles’s law, 441 act., 444–445, 446
Brønsted, Johannes, 638 table, 826 prob., 451 table
Brønsted-Lowry model, 638–640, 642 Carboxylic acids, 798, 798 table; con- Chelation therapy, 229
table, 646 densation reactions, 801; functional Chemical bonds, 206; character of, 266;
Bronze, 228 table groups, 787 table; naming, 798; covalent. See Covalent bonds; elec-
Brownian motion, 477 organic compounds derived from, tron affinity and, 265; ionic. See Ionic
Brown, Robert, 477 799–800, 800 act.; properties, 798 bonds; melting point and, 242 act.;
Buckminsterfullerene, 928 Carcinogens, 774 metallic. See Metallic bonds; valence
Buckyballs, 928 Cardiac scans, 925 electrons and, 207
Buffer capacity, 667 Careers. See Careers in Chemistry; In Chemical changes, 69 act., 77, 92 act.,
Buffers, 666–667, 668 act.
the Field 281 act. See also Chemical reactions
Buffer systems, 666–667, 668 act.
Careers in Chemistry: alternative energy Chemical engineer, 580
Bufotoxin, 839
specialist, 729; baker, 847; biochemist, Chemical equations, 285. See also
Burner gas analysis, 776 act.
308; calibration technician, 56; chemi- Ionic equations; Nuclear equations;
Butane, 750, 751, 751 table
cal engineer, 580; chemistry teacher, Redox equations; Stoichiometry;
1-Butene, 759 table
2-Butene, 759 table 123; environmental chemist, 7; flavor Thermochemical equations; balanc-
Butyl group, 753 table chemist, 267; food scientist, 219; heat- ing, 285–286, 286 table, 287 prob.,
ing and cooling specialist, 527; materi- 288; coefficients in, 369; interpreta-
als scientist, 81; medicinal chemist, tion, 370 prob.; mole ratios and,
C 342; metallurgist, 423; meteorologist,
447; nursery worker, 646; petroleum
371–372; products, 283; reactants,
283; relationships derived from, 369;
Cadaverine, 795
Cadmium, 920 technician, 748; pharmacist, 381; phar- symbols used in, 283, 283 table
Calcium, 177, 195, 910–911, 913, 914 macy technician, 483; polymer chem- Chemical equilibrium, 596; addition
ist, 813; potter, 682; radiation therapist, of products and, 608; addition of

Index 1033
Index

Chemical formulas Concentration

reactants and, 607; catalysts and, 611; 92 act.; products of, predict, 298, 298 Chloromethane, 787
changes affecting, 593 act.; charac- table, 807–808; rates of. See Reaction Chlorophyll, 912
teristics of, 604; common ion effect rates; redox. See Redox reactions; Chocolate, 431
and, 620–621; concentration and, 607; replacement, 293–294, 295 prob., Chromatograms, polarity and, 269 act.
determine point of, 593 act.; dynamic 296–297; spontaneity of, 542–545, Chromatography, 82 act., 83, 269 act.
nature of, 597–598; equilibrium con- 546–547, 548 prob., 566–567; stoi- Chrome, 328
stant (K eq), 599–600, 604, 605 prob.; chiometry in. See Stoichiometry; Chromium, 160, 328, 918, 919
equilibrium expressions, 600, 601 substitution, 790–791; synthesis, 289; Cinnameldehyde, 796 table, 797
prob., 602, 603 prob.; hemoglobin- theoretical yield from, 385 Circle graphs, 55
oxygen equilibrium in body, 623; law Chemical symbols, 84 cis- isomers, 766
of, 599–600; Le Châtelier’s principle Chemistry, 4, 11; benefits of studying, Clay, 476
and, 606–611; moles of reactant v. 22; branches of, 11, 11 table; symbols Clay roofing tiles, 302
moles of product and, 609; removal and abbreviations used in, 968 table Clouds, 428
of products and, 608; reversible reac- Chemistry & Health: elements of the Cloud seeding, 495
tions and, 595–596; temperature and, body, 195; evolution and HIV, 389; Cobalt, 918, 919
609–610, 611 act.; volume and pres- hemoglobin-oxygen equilibrium, 623; Coefficients, 285; balancing equations
sure and, 608–609 hyperbaric oxygen therapy, 465; laser and, 285; scientific notation and, 40–41
Chemical formulas, 85; for binary ionic scissors, 163; PA-457 anti-HIV drug, Cohesion, 419
389; rate of reaction and body tem-
compounds, 219, 220 prob.; empirical. Cold-packs, 515 act., 528
perature, 583; toxicology, 59
See Empirical formula; for hydrates, Collagen, 831
Chemistry teacher, 123
351 table, 352, 353 prob., 356 act.; Colligative properties, 498–504; boiling
CHEMLABs, 228. See also Data Analysis
for ionic compounds, 218–219, 220 point elevation, 500–501; electrolytes
Labs; Launch Labs; MiniLabs; absorp-
prob., 221, 222 prob.; molecular. See and, 498–499; freezing point depres-
tion and emission spectra, 164 act.;
Molecular formulas; mole relation- sion, 501–502, 502 act., 503 prob.;
alcohols, properties of, 816 act.; atomic
ship to, 333–334, 334–335 prob.; for osmotic pressure, 504; vapor pressure
mass of unknown element, 126 act.;
monatomic ions, 218–219; name of burner gas analysis, 776 act.; calorim- lowering, 499–500
molecular compound from, 251; per- etry, 550 act.; density, dating coins Collision theory, 563–564, 564 table
cent composition from, 342, 343 prob.; by, 60 act.; descriptive chemistry, 196 Colloids, 477, 477 table, 478
for polyatomic ionic compounds, 221, act.; enzyme action and temperature, Color: change in as evidence of chemical
222 prob.; structural. See Structural 850 act.; evaporation, compare rates reaction, 283; as physical property, 73
formulas of, 432 act.; gas, identify an unknown, Combined gas law, 449, 450 prob., 451
Chemical potential energy, 517 466 act.; hydrate, determine formula table, 454
Chemical properties, 74 for, 356 act.; hydrocarbon burner gas Combustion engines, 290
Chemical reaction rates. See Reaction analysis, 776 act.; ionic compounds, Combustion reactions, 290–291, 532
rates formation of, 230 act.; metals, reactiv- prob., 533
Chemical reactions, 77, 282–288; actual ity of, 310 act.; molar solubility, calcu- Common ion, 620
yield from, 385; addition, 804–805; late and compare, 624 act.; molecular Common ion effect, 620–621
in aqueous solutions, 299–301, 302 shape, 272 act.; mole ratios, determine, Complementary base pairs, 841, 842
prob., 303–305, 306 prob., 307–308; 390 act.; products of chemical reaction, Complete ionic equations, 301, 302
classification of, 291 prob.; com- identify, 92 act.; reaction rate, affect of prob., 304 prob.
bustion, 290–291, 532 prob., 533; concentration on, 584 act.; redox and Complex carbohydrates. See
condensation, 801; conservation of the damaging dumper, 698 act.; solu- Polysaccharides
mass and, 77, 78 prob., 79, 285, 288; bility rate, factors affecting, 506 act.; Complex reactions, 580
decomposition, 292, 292 prob.; dehy- vapor pressure and popcorn popping, Compounds, 85–87; compare melt-
dration, 803; dehydrogenation, 803; 466 act.; voltaic cell potentials, mea- ing points of, 242 act.; formulas for.
elimination, 802; endothermic, 216, sure, 734 act.; water analysis, 24 act. See Formulas; ionic. See Ionic com-
247; equations for, 283 table, 283–285; Chernobyl, 880, 883, 889 act. pounds; law of definite proportions
evidence of, 69 act., 77, 282–283, 367 Chewing gum, percent composition, and, 87–88; law of multiple propor-
act.; excess reactants in, 379, 384; 342 act. tions and, 89–90; mass-to-mole
exothermic, 216, 247; heat from. See Chimney soot, 774 conversions, 337, 337 prob.; molar
Thermochemistry; limiting reactants, Chirality, 767, 768 mass of, 335, 335 prob.; mole-to-mass
379–381, 382–383 prob.; milestones in Chlorate, 221 table conversions, 336, 336 prob.; percent
understanding, 290–291; neutraliza- Chlorine, 89–90, 119–120, 159 table, composition and. See Percent com-
tion, 659–660; nuclear reactions v., 180, 940, 941, 942 position; properties of, 86; separating
860 table; organic. See Organic reac- Chlorine bleach, 942 components of, 86; stability of, 240
tions; oxidation reduction reactions, Chlorite, 221 table Computer chips, 181, 929
806–807; percent yield from, 386, Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 7–8, 17, Concentration, 475 act., 480–488. See
386 prob., 388; products of, identify, 20, 291, 788 Solution concentration; calculate from

1034 Index
Index

Concentration ratios Dissociation equations

equilibrium constant expression, 612, Lewis structures for, 253–260, 255 prob., tion of canola oil, 805 act.; microbes,
613 prob.; chemical equilibrium and, 256 prob., 257 prob., 258 prob., 260 electric current from, 724 act.; oxida-
607; qualitative descriptions of, 480; prob.; melting points of, 242 act., 270; tion rate of dichloroethene isomers,
ratios of. See Concentration ratios; naming, 248–251, 249 prob., 252; polar- 768 act.; oxygen in moon rocks, 387
reaction rate and, 569, 574–576, 584 ity of and chromatograms, 269 act.; act.; ozone levels in Antarctica, 21
act. properties of, 270; shape of (VSEPR act.; polarity and chromatograms, 269
Concentration ratios: molality, 480 model), 261–262, 263 table, 264 prob. act.; redox reactions and space shuttle
table, 487, 487 prob.; molarity, 480 Covalent gases, 270 launch, 691 act.; turbidity and Tyndall
table, 482, 483 prob.; mole fraction, Covalent molecular solids, 270 effect, 478 act.
480 table, 488; percent by mass, 480 Covalent network solids, 270, 422, 422 d-block elements, 185, 916
table, 481, 481 prob.; percent by vol- table, 423 de Broglie equation, 150
ume, 480 table, 482 Cracking, 748 de Broglie, Louis, 149
Conclusions, 15 CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Decane, 751 table
Condensation, 76, 428 Physics, 75, 77 Decomposition reactions, 292, 292
Condensation polymerization, 811 Crick, Francis, 637, 841–842 prob., 566 act.
Condensation reactions, 801 Crime-scene investigator, 697 Deep sea diving, gas pressure and, 408
Condensed structural formulas, 751 Critical mass, 880 act.
Conductivity: among types of elements Critical point, 429 Dehydration reactions, 803
177–181; as physical property, 73; Crookes, Sir William, 108 Delocalized electrons, 225
explanation of, 226; of ionic com- Crude oil. See Petroleum Democritus, 103, 103 table, 416
pounds in solution, 215, 498–499 Crust, Earth’s, 901 Denaturation, 829
Conjugate acid-base pair, 638 Cryosurgery, 934 Denatured alcohol, 793
Conjugate acids, 638, 641 table Cryotherapy, 934 Density, 36–37; calculate, 37; date coins
Conjugate bases, 638, 641 table Crystal lattices, 214, 270, 420–421, 422 by, 60 act.; of gases, 403, 456, 457 act.;
Conservation of energy. See Law of con- act. identification of unknowns by, 37, 38
servation of energy Crystalline solids, 420–421, 422 table; prob., 39 act.; of liquids, 31 act., 415;
Conservation of mass. See Law of con- categories, 422 table, 422–423; crystal as physical property, 73; of solids, 420;
servation of mass unit cells, 421, 422 act. units of, 36
Constant, 14 Crystallization, 83 Dental amalgams, 228 table
Controls, 14 Cube root, 949 Deoxyribonucleic acid. See DNA
Conversion factors, 44–46, 46 prob., Cubic unit cells, 421 table (deoxyribonucleic acid)
319 act. Curie, Marie, 861, 882, 915 Deoxyribose sugar, 841
Coordinate covalent bonds, 259 Curie, Pierre, 861, 882 Dependent variables, 14, 56
Copper: acid mine waste, 920; electron Cyanide, 221 table Deposition, 429
configuration, 160; in fireworks, 913; Cyclic hydrocarbons, 755 Derived units, 35–36, 44
flame test for, 92 act.; law of multiple Cycloalkanes, 755–756, 756–757 prob. Desalination, 730
proportions and, 89–90; melting and Cyclohexane, 755 Descriptive chemistry, 196 act.
boiling point, 226 table; in microchip Cyclohexanol, 793 Dessicants, 354
wiring, 919; as paint pigment, 919; Cyclohyexylamine, 795 Detergents, 13 act., 419, 924
properties of, 74 table; purification of, Cysteine, 827 table Deuterium, 904
731–732 Cytosine (C), 841 Diamonds, 423, 928
Core, iron in Earth’s, 919 Diatomic molecules, 241
Dichloroethene, 768 act.
Corn oil, 31 act.
Corrosion, 724–727, 726 act. D Dietary salt, 908
Diffusion, 404, 405
Counting units, 320 Dalton, John, 417
Covalent bonds, 241–247; bond angle, Dalton’s atomic theory, 104 table, Dilute solutions, 485, 486 prob.
261, 263 table; coordinate, 259; double, 104–105, 109 Dimensional analysis, 44–46, 46 prob.,
245; electron affinity and, 265; electro- Dalton’s law of partial pressures, 408, 956, 956 prob.
negativity and, 266; energy in, 247; for- 409 prob., 410 Dinitrogen pentoxide, 565 act.
mation of, 241; hybridization and, 262; Data, 13 Dipeptides, 828
length of, 246; nonpolar, 266; pi bonds Data Analysis Labs. See also Dipole-dipole forces, 269, 411, 412–413
and, 245; polar, 266, 267–268; sigma CHEMLABs; Launch Labs; MiniLabs; Direct relationships, 961
bonds and, 244, 245; single, 242–244; Problem-Solving Labs; antimicrobial Disaccharides, 833
strength of, 246–247; super ball prop- properties of polymers, 216 act.; Dispersion forces, 269, 411, 412
erties, 239 act.; triple, 245 atomic distances in highly ordered Dispersion medium, 477 table
Covalent compounds: boiling points pyrolytic graphite (HOPG), 113 act.; Dissociation energy, 247
of, 270; formulas from names of, 251; biofuel cells, 724 act.; gas pressure and Dissociation equations, strong bases,
intermolecular forces in, 269–270; deep sea diving, 408 act.; hydrogena- 648, 648 table

Index 1035
Index

Distillation Entropy

Distillation, 82 Electrochemistry: batteries, 717, 718– photoelectric effect and, 142; proper-
Distilled water: electrical conductivity 723; biofuel cells, 724 act.; corrosion, ties of, 114 table; quantum mechanical
of, 205 act.; evaporation of, 432 act. 724–727; electrochemical cell poten- model of atom and, 150–152; valence,
Diving, gas pressure and, 408 act. tials, 711–714, 715 prob., 716–717; 161
Division operations, 54 electrochemical cells, 707 act., 709; Electron sea model, 225
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 841–842, electrolysis, 728–732; lemon battery, Electroplating, 732
842 act., 843 707 act.; redox reactions in, 708–709; Electrostatic force, 865
Dobson, G. M. B., 6 voltaic cell chemistry, 710–711 Elements, 10, 84–85, 87; abundance
Dobson units (DU), 6 Electrolysis, 86, 728–732; aluminum of various, 84; in atmosphere, 901;
d orbitals, 154 production, 730–731; desalination by, atomic number of, 115, 116 prob., 118
Dose of radiation, 889–890 730; electroplating and, 732; of mol- prob.; chemical symbols for, 84; color
Dose-response curve, 59 ten NaCl, 729; ore purification and, key, 968 table; in Earth’s atmosphere,
Double covalent bonds, 245, 246 731–732 901; in Earth’s core, 919; in Earth’s
Double helix, DNA, 841 Electrolytes, 215; colligative properties crust, 84, 901; in Earth’s oceans, 901;
Double-replacement reactions, 296– of aqueous solutions and, 498–499; emission spectra of, 164 act.; in the
297, 297 prob., 297 table strong, 498; weak, 498 human body, 195; isotopes, 117; law
Down’s cells, 729 Electrolytic cells, 728; aluminum pro- of definite proportions, 87–88; law of
Drake, Edwin, 749 duction and, 730–731; electrolysis of multiple proportions, 89–90; periodic
Dry cells, 718–720; alkaline batteries, brine and, 730; electrolysis of molten table of. See Periodic table; physical
719; primary batteries, 720; second- NaCl and, 729; electroplating and, states of, 84; properties of, 180 act.,
ary batteries, 720; silver batteries, 719; 732; purification of ores and, 731–732 196 act., 971–974 table; representa-
zinc-carbon, 718–719 Electromagnetic radiation, 137–139, tive, 177, 196 act.
Dry ice, 428 140 prob., 861 table, 863–864 Elimination reactions, 802
Drywall, 914 Electromagnetic (EM) spectrum, Emeralds, 912
Ductility, 226 138–139 Emission spectra, 164 act.
DVDs, 924 Electromagnetic wave relationship, 137, Empirical formulas, 344; from mass
150 data, 349–350 prob.; from percent

E Electromotive force (emf), 710


Electron affinity, 265
composition, 344, 345 prob., 347
Endothermic reactions, 216, 247, 528,
Earth: atmosphere of, 5, 901; elements Electron capture, 868, 868 table 528 table
in core of, 919; elements in crust of, Electron configuration notation, 158– End point (titration), 663
84, 901; elements in oceans of, 901; 159; first period elements, 158 table; Energy, 516–522; bond dissociation, 247;
entropy and geologic changes on, 545 second period elements, 158 table; change during solution formation,
Effusion, 404–405, 405 prob. third period elements, 159 table 475 act., 492; changes of state and,
Egyptian cubits, 46 prob. Electron configurations, 156–162; 530–530, 531 act., 532 prob.; chemi-
Einstein, Albert, 143, 417, 877 aufbau principle and, 156–157, 157 cal cold pack and, 515 act.; chemical
Elastic collisions, 403 table; electron configuration notation, potential, 517; flow of as heat, 518. See
Electrical conductivity: of acids and 158–159; electron-dot structures, 161, also Heat; kinetic, 402, 403, 516–517,
bases, 635; of ionic compounds, 214– 162 prob.; exceptions to predicted, 710; lattice, 216–217; law of conserva-
215; of metals, 180, 226; of strong 160; ground state, 156; Hund’s rule tion of, 517; potential, 516–517; quan-
acids, 645; of various compounds, 205 and, 157; Noble-gas notation, 159; tized, 141–143, 146; solar, 522; units of,
act.; of weak acids, 645, 648 table orbital diagrams of, 158; Pauli exclu- 518, 518 prob., 518 table; uses of, 516;
Electric charge, observe, 101 act. sion principle and, 157; periodic table voltaic cells and, 710–711
Electrochemical cell potentials, 711– trends, 182–185, 186 prob.; valence Energy levels, 153
717, 734 act.; calculate, 713–714, 715 electrons, 161 Energy sublevels, 153–154
prob., 717; cell notation, 713; half-cell Electron-dot structures, 161, 161 table, English units, 32
potentials, 712, 712 table; of standard 162 prob., 207. See also Lewis struc- Enthalpy (H), 527; calculate changes
hydrogen electrode, 711 tures in (Hess’s law), 534–536, 536 prob.;
Electrochemical cells, 707 act., 709, Electronegativity, 194, 265; bond calorimetry measurement of, 550 act.;
709–711; alkaline batteries, 719; character and, 266, 266 table; bond changes of state and, 530–533, 531
chemistry of, 710–711; dry cells, polarity and, 266, 267; periodic table act., 532 prob.; thermochemical equa-
718–720; electrochemical cell poten- trends, 194, 265; redox and, 684 tions and, 529
tials, 711–714, 715 prob., 716–717; Electronegativity scale, 194, 212, 265 Enthalpy (heat) of combustion
electrolysis and, 728–732; half-cells, Electron mediator, 724 act. (∆H comb), 529, 529 table
710; lead-acid batteries, 720–721; Electrons, 108; charge of, 108–109; dis- Enthalpy (heat) of reaction (∆H rxn),
lithium batteries, 721–722; primary covery of, 107–109; energy levels and, 527–528
and secondary batteries, 720; silver 146–148; location of around nucleus, Entropy (S), 543; Earth’s geologic pro-
batteries, 719 152; mass of, 108–109, 119, 969 table; cesses and, 545; predict changes in,

1036 Index
Index

Environmental chemist Example Problems

544–545; reaction spontaneity and, Equivalence point, 661 equilibrium, 601 prob.; equilibrium
546–547, 548 prob.; second law of Error, 48 constants, value of, 605 prob.; formula
thermodynamics and, 543 Essential elements, 383 for polyatomic compound, 222 prob.;
Environmental chemist, 7 Essential oils, 770 formulas for ionic compound, 220
Environmental chemistry, 11 table Esterification, 806 table prob.; freezing point depression, 503
Enzymes, 826, 829–830. See also Esters, 787 table, 799, 799 table, 800 act. prob.; gas stoichiometry, 461 prob.;
Catalysts; Proteins; affect on reaction Ethanal, 796 Gay-Lussac’s law, 448 prob.; Graham’s
rate, 571; chirality and, 767, 768; tem- Ethanamide, 800 law of effusion, 405 prob.; half-reac-
perature and, 850 act. Ethane, 750, 751 table, 793 tion method, 695 prob.; heat absorbed,
Enzyme-substrate complex, 830 Ethanol, 432 act., 792–793, 816 act. calculate, 521 prob.; hydrates, deter-
Equations: algebraic, 954–955, 955 prob.; Ethene, 759 table, 762, 803 mine formula for, 353 prob.; ideal gas
atomic number, 115; average rate of Ether functional group, 787 table law, 455 prob.; induced transmutation
reaction, 562; boiling point elevation, Ethers, 787 table, 794, 794 table equations, 876 prob.; instantaneous
500; Boyle’s law, 443; cell potential, Ethylamine, 795 reaction rates, 579 prob.; ionic equa-
714; Charles’s law, 445; chemical. See Ethyl group, 753 table tions and precipitation reactions, 302
Chemical equations; Dalton’s law of Ethyne (acetylene), 762 act., 763, 763, prob.; ionic equations for aqueous
partial pressures, 409; density, 37; dilu- 764 solutions forming gases, 306 prob.;
tion, 485; Einstein’s (E=mc 2), 877; Evaporation, 426–427, 432 act., 816 act. ionic equations for aqueous solutions
electromagnetic wave relationship, 137, Everyday Chemistry: baking soda and forming water, 304 prob.; ion product
150; energy of a photon, 143; energy of baking powder and cooking, 669; constant, 651 prob.; ion product con-
a quantum, 142; error, 48; Gay-Lussac’s chocolate, manufacture of, 431; garlic stant Q sp, 619 prob.; Lewis structure
law, 447; general rate law, 575; Gibbs and pain receptors, 815; history in a for covalent compound with multiple
free energy, 515 act., 546; Graham’s glass of water, 355; killer fashion, 229 bonds, 256 prob.; Lewis structure for
law of effusion, 404; Henry’s law, 496; Example Problems: algebraic equations, covalent compound with single bond,
ideal gas law, 454; induced transmuta- 955 prob.; alkanes, naming, 754–755 255 prob.; Lewis structures, 244 prob.;
tion, 876 prob.; ionic, 301; ion-product
prob.; alkenes, naming, 761 prob.; limiting reactant, determine, 382–383
of water, 650; law of conservation of
aromatic compounds, naming, 773 prob.; mass number, 118 prob.; mass-
mass, 77; mass number, 117; molality,
prob.; atomic mass, 121 prob.; atomic to-atom conversions, 330 prob.; mass-
487; molarity, 482; mole fraction, 488;
number, 116 prob., 118 prob.; atomic to-mass stoichiometric conversion, 377
neutralization, 659–660; nuclear, 123,
radii trends, 189 prob.; atom-to-mass prob.; mass-to-mole conversions, 329
869, 869 prob.; overall, 307; percent by
mass, 87, 481; percent by mass from conversions, 330 prob.; average rate of prob.; mass-to-mole conversions for
the chemical formula, 342; percent by reaction, 562 prob.; balancing equa- compounds, 337 prob.; mass to moles
volume, 482; percent error, 48; percent tions, 287 prob.; boiling point eleva- to particles conversions, 338–339
yield, 386; pH, 652; pH and pOH, tion, 503 prob.; Boyle’s law, 443 prob.; prob.; molality, 487 prob.; molarity, 483
relationship between, 652; pOH, 652; branched-chain alkanes, naming, prob.; molarity from titration data, 664
quantum, energy of, 142; radiation, 754–755 prob.; cell potential, calculate, prob.; molar solubility, 616 prob.; molar
intensity and distance of, 890; radioac- 715 prob.; Charles’s law (gas tempera- volume, 453 prob.; molecular formula
tive element, remaining amount of, ture and volume relationship), 446 from percent composition, 348–349
871; rate law, 574; skeleton, 284; slope prob.; chemical equations, interpret, prob.; molecular shape, 264 prob.; mole
of a line, 57, 962; specific heat, 520; 370 prob.; combined gas law, 450 prob.; relationship from a chemical formula,
summation, 540; symbols used in, 283 combustion reactions, energy released 334 prob.; mole-to-mass conversion,
table; thermochemical, 529–533; word, by, 532 prob.; concentration from equi- 328 prob.; mole-to-mass conversions
284 librium constant expression, 613 prob.; for compounds, 336 prob.; mole-to-
Equilibrium. See Chemical equilibrium; conservation of mass, 78 prob.; conver- mass stoichiometric conversion, 376
Solubility equilibrium sion factors, 46 prob.; cycloalkanes, prob.; mole-to-mole stoichiometric
Equilibrium concentrations, calculate, naming, 756–757 prob.; density and conversion, 375 prob.; net ionic redox
612, 613 prob. volume to find mass, 38 prob.; dimen- equation, balance, 692; nuclear equa-
Equilibrium constant (K eq), 599–600, sional analysis, 956 prob.; electron tions, balancing, 869 prob.; oxidation
604, 605 prob. configuration and the periodic table, number, determine, 687 prob.; oxi-
Equilibrium constant expressions, 186 prob.; electron-dot structure, 162 dation-number method, 690 prob.;
599–600; calculate concentrations prob.; empirical formula from mass particles, convert to moles, 324 prob.;
from, 612, 613 prob.; for heteroge- data, 349–350 prob.; empirical formula percent by mass, 481; percent error,
neous equilibrium, 602, 603 prob.; for from percent composition, 345 prob.; 49 prob.; percent yield, 386 prob.; pH,
homogeneous equilibrium, 600, 601 energy of a photon, 143 prob.; energy calculate, 653 prob., 654 prob.; pOH,
prob.; Le Châtelier’s principle and, units, convert, 518 prob.; equilibrium calculate, 654 prob.; radioactive ele-
606–611; solubility product constant constant expression for heterogeneous ment, remaining amount of, 872 prob.;
expressions. See Solubility product equilibrium, 603 prob.; equilibrium reaction spontaneity, 548 prob.; redox
constant expressions constant expression for homogeneous reactions, identify, 685 prob.; scientific

Index 1037
Index

Excess reactants Gas laws

notation, 41 prob., 43 prob.; significant Fluorine: analytical tests for, 941; Free energy (G system), 546–547; calcu-
figures, 51 prob., 53 prob., 54 prob.; atomic properties, 941; common reac- late, 547, 548 prob.; sign of, 547, 547
significant figures and, 951 prob., 953 tions involving, 940; electron configu- table
prob.; single-replacement reactions, ration and orbital diagram, 158 table; Freezing, 428
295 prob.; standard enthalpy (heat) of electron-dot structure, 161 table; elec- Freezing point, 428
formation, 540 prob.; unit conversion, tronegativity of, 194, 265; isotopes, Freezing point depression, 501–502, 502
958 prob.; wavelength of EM wave, 140 120; physical properties, 940 act., 503 prob.
prob. Fluoroapatite, 622 act. Frequency, 137
Excess reactants, 379, 384 Fog, 428 Fructose, 832, 833
Exothermic reactions, 216, 247; activa- Foldables: acid-base chemistry, 633 act.; Fuel cells, 722–723, 905
tion energy and, 565; enthalpy and, atoms, 101 act.; biomolecules, 825 Fuel rods, nuclear reactor, 880–882
527, 528 table act.; bond character, 239 act.; chemi- Functional groups, 785 act., 786, 787
Expanded octets, 259 cal reactions, 281 act.; concentration table; amide group, 800; carbonyl
Experimental data, percent composition of solutions, 475 act.; electrochemical group, 796; carboxyl group, 798;
from, 341–342, 342 act. cells, 707 act.; electron configura- hydroxyl group, 792
Experiments, 14. See also CHEMLABs; tion, 135 act.; equilibrium, changes Fused-ring systems, 772
MiniLabs; Problem-Solving Labs; affecting, 593 act.; functional groups, Fusion, molar enthalpy (heat) of
laboratory safety and, 18, 19 table 785 act.; gas laws, 441 act.; Gibbs free (∆H fus), 530
Exponents, 40–41 energy equation, 515 act.; hydrocar- Fusion nuclear reactions, 883–884
Extensive properties, 73 bon compounds, 743 act.; hydrocar- Fusion (phase change), 425–426, See
Extrapolation, 57, 963 bons, 743 act.; ionic compounds, 205 also Melting
act.; mole conversion factors, 319 act.;

F periodic trends, 173 act.; properties


and changes, 69 act.; reaction rates, G
Fahrenheit scale, 34 559 act.; redox equations, balance, 679 Gadolinium, 921
Families, periodic table. See Groups act.; scientific method, 3 act.; states of Galactose, 832, 833
Faraday, Michael, 770 matter, 401 act.; stoichiometric calcu- Gallium, 922, 923, 924
Fasteners, arrange, 173 act. lations, 367 act.; types of graphs, 31 Galvanization, 727
Fats. See Lipids act.; types of radiation, 859 act. Gamma radiation, 124, 861, 861 table,
Fatty acids, 767, 835–836, 837 Food: from fermentation, 847; homog- 862, 863, 888 table
f-Block elements, 185, 916 enization, 490; measure calories in, Gamma rays, 124, 863, 864
Femtochemistry, 581 550 act.; preservation of, 571; test for Garlic, 815
Fermentation, 847–848; alcoholic, 847; simple sugars in, 825 act. Gases, 72, 402–410; compression and
lactic acid, 848 Food scientist, 219 expansion of, 72 act., 404; Dalton’s
Fermi, Enrico, 882 f orbitals, 154 law of partial pressures and, 408, 409
Fermionic condensate, 417 Forces: balanced, 597; dipole-dipole, prob., 410; density of, 403; diffusion
Ferromagnetism, 916 269, 411, 412–413; dispersion, 269, and effusion of, 404–405; formation
Fertilizers, 250, 388, 462 411, 412; intermolecular, 411–414 of in aqueous solutions, 281 act.,
Fiber-optic cable, 930 Forensic accelerant detection, 91 304–305, 306 prob.; gas laws. See Gas
Filtration, 82 Forensics CHEMLABs: density, dating laws; identify an unknown, 466 act.;
Fire extinguishers, ideal gas law and, coins by, 60 act.; hydrocarbon burner kinetic-molecular theory and, 402–
456, 457 act. gases, identify, 776 act.; identify the 403; molar volume of, 452, 453 prob.;
Firefly, bioluminescence, 309 damaging dumper, 698 act.; water pressure and volume relationship
Fireworks, 913 source, determine, 24 act. (Boyle’s law), 442–443, 443 prob., 444
First period elements: electron con- Forensics, luminol and, 697 act.; real v. ideal, 457–459; solubility
figuration notation, 158 table; orbital Formaldehyde, 796, 797 of, 495–496, 497 prob.; temperature
diagrams, 158 table Formic acid, 634 and volume relationship, 441 act.
Fission, 111 Formulas. See Chemical formulas; Gas grills, 375, 461
Flame retardant fabric, 935 Structural formulas Gas laws, 442–451; Boyle’s law (pressure
Flame tests, 92 act., 144 act., 907, 923 Formula unit, 218 and volume relationship), 442–443,
Flat-screen televisions, 925 Fossil fuels: natural gas, 416, 745, 747; 443 prob., 444 act.; Charles’s law
Flavor chemist, 267 petroleum, 747–748 (temperature and volume), 441 act.,
Fleming, Alexander, 18 Fractional distillation, 747–748 444–445, 446 prob.; combined gas law,
Flexible-fuel vehicles (FFV), 549 Fractionation, 747–748 449, 450 prob., 454; Gay-Lussac’s law
Fluidity, 416 Fractions, 964, 965–966 (temperature and pressure relation-
Fluids, 416 Francium, 84, 180 act., 194, 265, 906, ship), 447, 448 prob.; ideal gas law,
Fluoridation, 622 act., 942 907 454, 455 prob., 456; summary of, 451
Fluoride, 180 Franklin, Rosalind, 637 table; temperature scales and, 451

1038 Index
Index

Gasoline octane rating system Heterogeneous mixtures

Gasoline octane rating system, 748–749 Green fluorescent protein (GFP), 309 Halocarbons, 787 table, 787–789; alkyl
Gas particles, 403; kinetic energy of, Ground state, 146 halides, 787; aryl halides, 788; func-
403; motion of, 403; size of, 403 Ground-state electron configuration, tional group, 787, 787 table; naming,
Gas pressure, 406–410; air pressure and, 143 prob. 788; properties of, 789; substitution
406–407; Boyle’s law (pressure and Ground-state electron configurations, reactions forming, 790; uses of, 789
volume relationship), 442–443, 443 156–160; aufbau principle and, Halogenated hydrocarbons, 940
prob., 444 act.; Charles’s law (tempera- 156–157, 157 table; electron configu- Halogenation, 790
ture and volume), 441 act., 444–445, ration notation, 158–159; exceptions Halogen functional group, 787 table,
446 prob.; combined gas law, 449, 450 to predicted, 160; Hund’s rule and, 787–788
prob., 454; Dalton’s law of partial pres- 157; noble-gas notation, 159; orbital Halogen light bulbs, 942
sures and, 408, 409 prob., 410; deep diagrams of, 158; Pauli exclusion Halogens, 180
sea diving and, 408 act.; Gay-Lussac’s principle and, 157; problem-solving Halogens (Group 17 elements), 184, 207
law (temperature and pressure rela- strategy, 160 table, 209, 209 table, 218 table, 243,
tionship), 447, 448 prob.; ideal gas Group 1 elements (Alkali metals), 182 940–943
law, 454, 455 prob., 456 table, 182–184, 192, 207 table, 208, Halogens, 940–943; analytical tests for,
Gas stoichiometry, 460–464; industrial 208 table, 906, 906–909; (representa- 941; applications of, 942–943; atomic
applications of, 464; volume-mass tive elements), 177 properties, 941; common reactions
problems, 462, 462–463 prob.; volume- Group 2 elements (Alkaline earth involving, 940; covalent bonding in,
volume problems, 460–461, 461 prob. metals), 182, 183, 184, 207 table, 243; physical properties of, 940; predict
Gay-Lussac’s law, 447, 448 prob., 451 208, 208 table, 218 table, 219 table, reactivity of, 294 act.; single-replace-
table 910–915 ment reactions involving, 294, 294 act.
Geckos, grip of, 271 Group 13 elements (Boron group), 184, Halothane, 790, 791
Geiger counters, 885 207 table, 208, 208 table, 219 table, Hardness, as physical property, 73
Gemstones, 912 922–925 Hard water, 24 act.
Geometric isomers, 766 Group 14 elements (Carbon group), HD DVDs, 924
Germanium, 181, 926–927, 930 184, 207 table, 219 table, 243, 926–931 Heart stress test, 925
Germanium tetrachloride, 930 Group 15 elements (Nitrogen group), Heat (q), 518. See also
GFP (green fluorescent protein), 309 184, 207 table, 209, 209 table, 218 Thermochemistry; absorption of by
Gibbs free energy (G system), 515 act., table, 243, 932–935 chemical reactions. See Endothermic
546–547, 548 prob. Group 16 elements (Oxygen group), reactions; calorimetry and, 523–524,
Gibbs, J. Willard, 546 184, 207 table, 209 table, 218 table, 525 prob., 550 act.; release of by
Glass, 929 243, 936–939 chemical reactions. See Exothermic
Glucose, 532, 532 prob., 832, 833 Group 17 elements (Halogens), 184, 207 reactions; specific heat, 519–520, 521
Glutamic acid, 827 table table, 209, 209 table, 218 table, 243, prob., 522, 526 act.; thermochemical
Glutamine, 827 table 940–943 systems and, 523–524; units of, 518,
Glycerol, 31 act., 793 Group 18 elements (Noble gases), 180, 518 prob.
Glycine, 827 table, 828 184, 185 table, 192, 207 table, 944–945 Heating and cooling specialist, 527
Glycogen, 834. See also Polysaccharides Groups (families), periodic table, 177; Heating curves, 531 act.
Goiter, 943 atomic radii trends, 188, 189 prob.; Heat of combustion (∆H comb), 529,
Gold, 228 table, 920 electron configuration and position 529 table
Gold foil experiment, Rutherford’s, 110, on periodic table, 183; ionic radii Heat of reaction (∆H rxn), 527–528
111–112, 113, 862 trends, 191 Heat of solution, 475 act., 492
Gold leaf, 920 Grove, William, 722 Heat-pack reaction, 527, 542
Graduated cylinder, layers of liquids in, Guanine (G), 841 Heat-treated steel, 227 act.
31 act. Gypsum, 490, 491, 914 Heavy hydrogen (deuterium), 904
Graham’s law of effusion, 404–405, 405 Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 151
prob.
Graham, Thomas, 404 H Helium, 158 table, 159, 183, 185 table,
192, 944, 945
Grams (g), 34 Haber-Bosch process, 290 Hemoglobin, 623, 830
Graphite, 423 Hahn, Otto, 111 Henry’s law, 495–496, 497 prob.
Graphite golf shafts, 928 Half-cells, 710 Heptane, 751, 751 table
Graphs, 55–58; bar, 56; circle, 55; inter- Half-life, 870–871, 871 table Héroult, Paul L. T., 730
preting, 57–58; line, 56–57, 959–963 Half-reaction method, 693–694, 694 Hertz (Hz), 137
Gravimetric analysis, 341 table, 695 prob. Hess’s law, 534–536, 536 prob.
Gravitation, law of universal, 16 Half-reactions, 693 Heterogeneous catalysts, 573
Great Smog (London), 291 Halides, 214 Heterogeneous equilibrium, 602, 603
Greek philosophers, ideas on structure Hall, Charles Martin, 730 prob.
of matter, 102–103, 103 table Hall-Héroult process, 730–731 Heterogeneous mixtures, 81, 87,

Index 1039
Index

Hexagonal unit cells Ionization energy

476–478; colloids, 477, 477 table; Hydrogenation reactions, 804 table, Intermediates, 580
separating components of, 82–83; 804–805, 805 act. Intermolecular forces, 411–414; cova-
suspensions, 476 Hydrogen bonds, 411, 413–414 lent compounds and, 269–270;
Hexagonal unit cells, 421 table, 422 act. Hydrogen carbonate, 221 table dipole-dipole, 411, 412–413; disper-
Hexane, 751 table Hydrogen cyanide, 647 sion, 411, 412; evaporation and, 432
HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons), 788 Hydrogen fluoride, 244, 244 prob., 639 act.; grip of a gecko and, 271; hydro-
Hill, Julian, 18 Hydrogen fuel cells, 905 gen bonds, 411, 413–414
HIV, 389 Hydrogen peroxide, 89 International Union of Pure and
Homogeneous catalysts, 573 Hydrometers, 37 Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), naming
Homogeneous equilibrium, 600, 601 Hydronium ions, 636, 652; calculate conventions. See Naming conventions
prob. concentration of from pH, 655 prob.; Interpolation, 57, 963
Homogeneous mixtures, 81, 82–83, 87, calculate concentrations from, 651, Interstitial alloys, 228
478–479 651 prob.; calculate pH from concen- In the Field: archaeologist, 891; arson
Homogenization, 490 tration of, 653 prob., 654 prob. investigator, 91; art restorer, 23;
Homologous series, 751 Hydroxide ions, 221 table, 636, 652; crime-scene investigator, 697; envi-
Hope Diamond, 40 calculate concentration of from pH, ronmental chemist, 505; molecular
HOPG, atomic distances in, 113 act. 655 prob.; calculate concentrations paleontologist, 849
Hormones, 831, 839 from, 651, 651 prob.; calculate pOH Intramolecular forces, comparison of,
Household items, acidity of, 633 act. from concentration of, 654 prob. 411 table
How It Works: bioluminescence, 309; Hydroxyl group, 787 table, 792, 816 act. Inverse relationships, 961
flexible-fuel vehicles (FFV), 549; Hyperbaric oxygen therapy, 465 Iodate, 221 table
gecko grip, 271; mass spectrometer, Hyperthermia, 583 Iodine, 86, 940, 941, 943
125; methane digester, 775; pace- Hypochlorite, 221 table Iodine-131, 887
maker, 733 Hypothermia, 583 Iodine deficiency, 943
Hubble Space Telescope, 912 Hypotheses, 13 Ion concentration: from K sp, 617 prob.,
Human body, elements in, 84, 195 618–619; from pH, 655, 655 prob.
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV),
389 I Ionic bonds, 210; electronegativity and,
266; energy in, 216–217, 217 table
Hund’s rule, 157 Ice, 420, 425–426 Ionic compounds, 210–215; in aqueous
Hybridization, 262 Ideal gas constant (R), 454, 969 table solutions, 300; binary, 210; formation
Hybrid orbitals, 262 Ideal gases, real versus, 457–459 of, 211–212, 212 prob., 216, 230 act.;
Hydrates, 351–354; formulas for, 351 Ideal gas law, 454, 455 prob., 456; formulas for, 218–219, 220 prob., 221,
table, 352, 353 prob., 356 act.; naming, density and, 456; derive other laws 221 prob., 222 prob.; lattice energies
351; uses for, 354 from, 458; exceptions to, 458–459; of, 216–217, 217 table; melting point
Hydration (solvation in water), 489 fire extinguishers and, 457 act.; molar of, 242 act.; milestones in understand-
Hydration reactions, 804, 804 table mass and, 456 ing, 212–213; naming, 222, 223–224;
Hydrocarbons, 291, 745–749. See also Immiscible, 479 oxidation number of, 219; physical
specific types; alkanes. see Alkanes; Independent variables, 14, 56 properties, 212, 214–215, 230 act.;
alkenes. See Alkenes; alkynes, 763–764; Indicators, acid-base, 658, 663, 664 physical structure, 212–214; poly-
aromatic. See Aromatic compounds; Indium, 922, 923, 925 atomic. See Polyatomic ions; solvation
burner gas analysis, 776 act.; chirality Indium-tin oxide, 925 of aqueous solutions of, 490; study
of, 767; Foldable, 743 act.; halogenated, Induced fit, 830 organizer, 205 act.
940; isomers of, 765–766, 768–769; Induced transmutation, 875, 882; equa- Ionic crystals, 215
models of, 743 act., 746; refinement of tions representing, 876 prob.; trans- Ionic equations, 301, 302 prob., 304
uranium elements, 876
petroleum, 747–748; saturated, 746; prob.; complete, 301; for reactions
Industrial chemistry, 11 table, 341, 464
substituted. See Substituted hydrocar- forming gases, 304–305, 306 prob.;
Infrared (Paschen) series, 147, 148, 150
bons; unsaturated, 746 for reactions forming water, 303, 304
act.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), 788 prob.; net, 301
Inhibitors, 571
Hydrogen, 904–905; abundance of, 84; Ionic liquids, 229
Initial rates, method of, 576, 577 prob.
atomic properties, 153–155, 158 table, Ionic radii, periodic table trends, 189–
Inner transition metals, 180, 185, 916,
904; Bohr model of, 146–148, 147 191, 189–191
917
table; emission spectrum, 144, 145, Ionic solids, 422, 422 table, 423
Inorganic chemistry, 11 table
147–148, 150 act.; in human body, Ionization constants. See Acid ioniza-
Insoluble, 479
195; isotopes of, 904; physical proper- tion constant; base ionization
Instantaneous reaction rates, 578–579,
ties, 904; single-replacement reactions constant
579 prob.
involving, 293; in stars, 905 Ionization energy, 191–194; chemical
Insulin, 831
Hydrogenated fats, 805 bonds and, 207; periodic table trends,
Intensive properties, 73, 77
Hydrogenation, 767, 836 193

1040 Index
Index

Ionizing radiation Lithium batteries

Ionizing radiation, 885, 886; biological expansion of gases and, 404; density of Lead, 229, 926–927, 930; poisoning, 229
effects of, 888–890; medical uses of, gases and, 403; diffusion and effusion Lead-acid storage batteries, 720–721,
886–887 of gases and, 404–405; liquids and, 415 930
Ion product constant (Q sp), 618–619, Knocking, 748 Lead shot, 228 table
619 prob. Krypton, 185 table, 944, 945 Le Châtelier, Henri-Louis, 607
Ion product constant for water, 650– Kwolek, Stephanie, 491 Le Châtelier’s principle, 607; chemical
651, 651 prob. equilibrium and, 606–611; common
Ions, 189; anion formation, 209; cation
formation, 207; formula for mona- L ion effect and, 620–621; ion-product
of water and, 650, 650 prob.; molar
tomic, 218–219; ionic radii periodic Lab activities. See CHEMLABs; solubility and, 624 act.
table trends, 189–191; metal, 208; Data Analysis Labs; Launch Labs; Lecithin, 431
monatomic. See Monatomic ions; MiniLabs; Problem-Solving Labs Lemon battery, 707 act.
naming, 222–223; oxidation number Laboratory safety, 18, 19 table Length, 33, 33 table
of, 219; polyatomic, 221, 222 prob.; Lactic acid fermentation, 848 LEO GER, 681
pseudo-noble gas configuration, 208; Lactose, 833 Lewis, G. N., 161, 212, 641
stability of, 240; transition metal, 208 Lanthanide series, 180, 185, 916 Lewis model, 641–643, 642 table
Iron: in acid mine waste, 920; Earth’s Large Hadron Collider, 111 Lewis structures, 242, 244 prob., 253–
core and, 919; as paint pigment, 919; Laser scissors, 163 260. See also Electron-dot structures;
redox reactions oxidizing, 693 table; Lattice energy, 216–217, 217 table covalent compound with multiple
rust formation, 74, 77, 679 act. Launch Labs: arrange items, 173 act.; bond, 256 prob.; covalent compound
Iron oxide. See Rusting atomic structure, 135 act.; chemical with single bond, 255 prob.; modeling,
Isobutane, 752 change, evidence of, 281 act.; chemi- 272 act.; octet rule exceptions and,
Isomers, 765; cis-, 766; geometric, 766; cal change, observe, 69 act.; chemical 258–259, 260 prob.; polyatomic ions,
optical, 768–769; stereoisomers, 766; cold pack, 515 act.; chemical reaction, 256, 257 prob.; resonance and, 258
structural, 765; trans-, 766; trans-fatty observe, 367 act.; covalent bond- Light: continuous spectrum of, 138;
acid, 767 ing (super ball properties), 239 act.; dual nature of, 143; electromagnetic
Isopropyl alcohol, 432 act. electrical conductivity of solutions, spectrum, 138–139; particle nature
Isopropyl group, 753 table 205 act.; electric charge, observe, of, 141–143; speed of (c), 137; visible
Isotopes, 117, 118 prob.. See also 101 act.; equilibrium point, 593 act.; spectrum of, 139; wave nature of,
Radioactivity; abundance of, 117, hydrocarbons, model, 743 act.; lemon 137–139, 140 prob., 143
120; atomic mass and, 117, 118 act., battery, 707 act.; liquids, layering of “Like dissolves like”, 489
119–120, 121 prob., 126 act.; mass of, (density), 31; liquids, properties of, Limestone, 635, 643
117; modeling, 120 act.; notation for, 401 act.; mole conversion factors, Limiting reactants, 379–381; calculat-
117; radioactive. See Radioisotopes 319 act.; nuclear chain reactions, 859 ing product with, 380–381, 382–383
IUPAC naming conventions. See act.; reaction rates, speeding, 559 act.; prob.; determining, 380
rust formation, 679 act.; slime, make,
Naming conventions Linear molecular shape, 261, 263 table
785 act.; solution formation, energy
Line graphs, 56–57, 58, 959–963
change and, 475 act.; sugars, test for
J simple, 825 act.; temperature and gas
volume (Charles’s Law), 441 act.; vis-
Line, slope of, 57, 962
Line spectra. See Emission spectra
James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), 912 Lipid bilayer, 838
cosity of liquids, 401 act.; Where is it?
Jin, Deborah S., 417 Lipids, 13 act., 830, 835–839; fatty
(conservation of matter), 3 act.
Joule (J), 142, 518 acids, 835–836, 837; phospholipids,
Lavoisier, Antoine, 79, 174, 174 table,
838; saponification of, 837, 837 act.;
184, 290
K Law, 16
Law of chemical equilibrium, 599–600
steroids, 839; triglycerides, 836–837;
waxes, 838
Kekule, Friedrich August, 771 Liquids, 71, 415–419; adhesion and
Law of conservation of energy, 517
Kelvin (K), 35, 451 cohesion of, 419; attractive forces in,
Law of conservation of mass, 77, 78
Kelvin scale, 35, 451 417; capillary action, 419; compres-
prob., 79; balancing equations and,
Ketones, 787 table, 797, 797 table sion of, 415; density of, 31 act., 415;
285, 288; Dalton’s experimental evi-
Kilns, 461 evaporation of, 426–427, 432 act.; flu-
dence of, 105; molar mass and, 335;
Kilocalorie (kcal), 518 idity of, 416; properties of, compare,
stoichiometry and, 368
Kilogram (kg), 34 401 act.; shape and size of particles in,
Law of definite proportions, 87–88
Kilometer (km), 33 417; surface tension, 418–419; viscos-
Law of multiple proportions, 89–90
Kinetic energy (KE), 516–517; kinetic- ity of, 401 act., 417, 418
Law of octaves, 175
molecular theory and, 402, 403, 517; Liter (L), 35
Law of universal gravitation, 16
voltaic cells and, 710 Lithium, 136, 158 table, 161 table, 177,
Lawrencium, 921
Kinetic-molecular theory, 402–403; 226 table, 906, 907, 913
LCD panels, 925
assumptions of, 403; compression and Lithium batteries, 721–722, 908

Index 1041
Index

Litmus paper Molal boiling point elevation constant

Litmus paper, 633 act., 635, 658 77; chemical properties of, 74; Greek Methane, 243, 244, 245, 291, 745, 747,
Logarithms, 966–967 philosophers’ theories of, 102–103; 750, 751, 751 table
London forces. See Dispersion forces mixtures of. See Mixtures; physical Methane digester, 775
London, Fritz, 412 changes in, 76–77; physical properties Methanol, 793, 816 act.
Lowry, Thomas, 638 of, 73; properties of, observe, 74–75; Method of initial rates, 576, 577 prob.
LP (liquefied propane) gas, 750 pure substances. See Pure substances; Methylbenzene, 772
Luciferin, 309 states of. See States of matter; study of Methyl chloroform, 20
Luminol, 697 chemistry and, 4 Methyl group, 753 table
Lunar missions, oxygen in moon rocks, Maxwell, James, 402 Methyl red, 662
387 act. Measurement, 295; accuracy of, 47–48; Meyer, Lothar, 175, 176 table, 184
Lyman (ultraviolet) series, 147, 148, precision of, 47–48; significant figures Microbes, electric current from, 724 act.
150 act. and, 50–51; units of, 32–37 Microchips, 919
Lysine, 827 table Medicinal chemist, 342 Microwaves, 137, 140 prob.
Meitner, Lise, 111 Midgley, Thomas Jr., 7
Milligrams (mg), 34
M Melting, 425–426, 530
Melting point, 77, 426 Millikan, Robert, 109
Milliliters (ml), 33 table, 36
Magnesium, 159 table, 177, 910–911, Melting points: of alkanes, 758; bond
Millimeter (mm), 33, 33 table
912, 913 type and, 242 act.; of covalent com-
Mineralogists, 214
Magnesium oxide, 210, 217 table pounds, 270; of metals, 226, 226 table;
Minerals, 383; classification of, 214;
Magnetic resonance imaging, 921 as physical property, 73
crystal lattice structure, 214
Malleability, 226 Mendeleev, Dmitri, 85, 175, 176 table,
Mineral supplements, 220
Manganese, 918, 920 184 MiniLabs. See also CHEMLABs; Data
Manhattan Project, 882 Mercury, 73 table, 226 Analysis Labs; Problem-Solving Labs;
Manometers, 407 Mercury(II) oxide, 79 acid strengths, compare, 648 act.;
Mass, 9–10; determine from density Metabolism, 844–848; anabolism, bond type and melting point, 242
and volume, 38 prob.; identify an 844–845; ATP and, 845; catabolism, act.; chemical equilibrium, stress and,
unknown by, 50 act.; law of conserva- 844–845; cellular respiration, 846; 611 act.; corrosion, 726 act.; crystal
tion of, 77, 78 prob., 79, 105; mass- fermentation, 847–848; photosynthe- unit cells, model, 422 act.; density
to-atom conversions, 329–330, 330 sis, 846 of unknown objects, 39 act.; esters,
prob.; mass-to-mole conversions, 329 Metal alloys, 227–228 recognize, 800 act.; ethyne, synthesize
prob.; mass-to-mole conversions for Metal carbonates, 635 and observe, 762 act.; flame test, 144
compounds, 337, 337 prob.; mass-to- Metal ions: formation of, 208; mona- act.; freezing point depression, 502
moles-to-particles conversions, 338, tomic, 218, 219, 219 table act.; halogens, predict reactivity of,
338–339 prob.; molar. See Molar mass; Metallic bonds, 225 294 act.; heat-treated steel, proper-
mole-to-mass conversions, 328 prob.; Metallic hydroxids, 648 ties of, 227 act.; isotopes, model, 120
SI base unit for, 33 table, 34; volume- Metallic solids, 422, 422 table, 423 act.; molar volume and mass (fire
mass gas stoichiometry, 462, 462–463 Metalloids, 181, 196 act. extinguisher), 457 act.; observation
prob.; weight v., 9–10 Metallurgist, 423 skills, develop, 13 act.; paper chroma-
Mass defect, 877 Metals, 177. See also Alkali metals; tography, 82 act.; percent composition
Mass number, 117, 118 prob. Alkaline earth metals; Inner transi- of chewing gum, 342 act.; periodic
Mass spectrometry, 125, 327 tion metals; Transition metals; acid- trends, model, 193 act.; precipitate-
Mass-to-mass stoichiometric conver- base reactions and, 635; activities of, forming reaction, observe, 301 act.;
sions, 374, 377, 377 prob. 310 act.; boiling points, 226, 226 table; radioactive decay, model, 873 act.;
Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS), 59 bonding in, 225; ductility of, 177, 226; reaction rate and temperature, 571
Materials scientist. See Careers in durability of, 226; electrical conduc- act.; saponification (soap making),
Chemistry; In the Field tivity of, 177, 226; fireworks and, 913; 837 act.; specific heat, 526 act.; stoi-
Math Handbook, 946–967; algebraic hardness and strength of, 226; mal- chiometry of baking soda decomposi-
equations, 954–955, 955 prob.; anti- leability of, 177, 226; melting points, tion, 378 act.; tarnish removal (redox
logarithms, 967; dimensional analysis, 226, 226 table; periodic table position, reaction), 683 act.
956 prob.; fractions, 964, 965–966; 177; properties of, 177, 196 act., 226, Miscible, 479
line graphs, 959–963; logarithms, 226 table; purification of by electroly- Mixtures, 80–83, 87; heterogeneous, 81,
sis, 731–732; reactivity of, 293–294, 476–478; homogeneous, 81, 478–479;
966–967; percents, 965; ratios, 964;
separate components of, 80, 82 act.,
scientific notation, 946–948; sig- 310 act.; single-replacement reactions
82–83
nificant figures, 949–950, 951 prob.; involving, 293–294; specific heat of,
Mobile phase, chromatography, 83
square and cube roots, 949; unit con- 526 act.; thermal conductivity of, 226
Model, 10, 15
version, 957–958, 958 prob. Meteorologist, 447
Molal boiling point elevation constant
Matter: categories of, 87; characteristics Meter (m), 33, 33 table
(K b), 500, 500 table, 976 table
of, 9–10; chemical changes in, 69 act., Methanal, 796

1042 Index
Index

Molal freezing point elevation constant Nylon

Molal freezing point elevation constant Molecules, 241; diatomic, 241; shape Neutron activation analysis, 886, 891
(K f), 502, 502 table, 976 table of, 261–262, 263 table, 264 prob., Neutrons, 113, 114 table, 119, 969 table
Molality (m), 480 table, 487, 487 prob. 267–268 Neutron-to-proton ratio, nuclear stabil-
Molar calculations, history in a glass of Mole fraction, 480 table, 488, 488 prob. ity and, 865, 866
water and, 355 Mole ratios, 371–372, 390 act. Newlands, John, 175, 176 table
Molar enthalpy (heat) of condensation, Mole-to-mass stoichiometric conver- Newton, Sir Isaac, 16
530 sions, 374, 376, 376 prob. NiCad batteries, 720
Molar enthalpy (heat) of fusion, 530 Mole-to-mole stoichiometric conver- Nickel, 919
Molar enthalpy (heat) of vaporization, sions, 373–374, 375 prob. Night-vision lenses, 930
530, 531 act. Monatomic ions, 218; formulas for, Nitrate, 221 table
Molarity (M), 480 table, 482, 483 prob.; 218–219; oxidation number of, 219 Nitrite, 221 table
from titration, 663, 664 prob., 670 act. Monoclinic unit cells, 421 table, 422 act. Nitrogen, 158 table, 161 table, 195, 932,
Molar mass, 326–332; atom-to-mass Monomers, 810 933, 934
conversions, 331 prob.; of compounds, Monoprotic acids, 640, 641 table Nitrogen cryotherapy, 934
335, 335 prob.; effusion rate and, 404, Monosaccharides, 825 act., 832–833 Nitrogen-fixation, 462, 934
405 prob.; ideal gas law and, 456; Montreal Protocol, 20 Nitrogenous bases, 841, 843
mass-to-atom conversions, 329–330, Moon rocks, oxygen in, 387 act. Noble gases (Group 18), 180, 183, 184,
330 prob.; mass-to-mole conversions, Moseley, Henry, 115, 176, 176 table, 184 185 table, 207, 944–945
329 prob.; mole-to-mass conversions, Mothballs, 428 Noble-gas notation, 159
327–328, 328 prob.; nuclear model of Motor oil, viscosity of, 417, 418 Nonane, 751 table
mass and, 326 act. Multidrug therapy, 389 Nonmetals, 180; ions of, 209; periodic
Molar solubility, 615–617, 616 prob., Multiple covalent bonds, 245–246 table position, 177; properties of,
621, 624 act. Multiplication, 54, 54 prob. 196 act.
Molar solutions, preparation of, 484, Nonpolar covalent bonds, 266
485, 486 prob.
Molar volume, 452, 453 prob., 969 table N Nonpolar molecules, 267–268, 269
Nuclear atomic model, 112–113, 136
Mole (mol), 321–324; chemical for- Naming conventions: acids, 250–251, Nuclear chain reactions. See Chain
mulas and, 333–334, 334–335 prob.; 250–251, 252; alcohols, 793; alde- reactions
conversion factors, 319 act.; convert hydes, 796; alkenes, 760, 761 prob.; Nuclear equations, 123, 869, 869 prob.
particles to, 323, 323 prob., 324 prob.; alkynes, 764; amides, 800; amines, 795; Nuclear fission, 878–880; chain reac-
convert to particles, 322; as count- aromatic compounds, 772–773, 773 tions and, 879–880; nuclear reactors
ing unit, 319 act., 320; mass-to-mole prob.; binary molecular compounds, and, 880–882
conversions, 329 prob.; mass-to-mole 248–250, 249 prob., 252; branched- Nuclear fusion, 883–884
conversions for compounds, 337, 337 chain alkanes, 752–753, 754–755 prob.; Nuclear power plants, 878, 880–882
prob.; mass to moles to particles con- carboxylic acids, 798; cycloalkanes, Nuclear reactions, 122; balanced equa-
versions, 338, 338–339 prob.; molar 756, 756–757 prob.; esters, 799; halo- tions representing, 863, 869, 869
mass and, 326–332; mole-to-mass carbons, 788; hydrates, 351; ionic prob.; chain reactions, 859 act., 879–
conversions, 327–328, 327–328, 328 compounds, 223–224; ions, 222–223; 880; chemical reactions vs., 860 table;
prob.; mole-to-mass conversions for ketones, 797; oxyanions, 222 table, induced transmutation, 875–876,
compounds, 336, 336 prob. 222–223; straight-chain alkanes, 751 876 prob.; mass defect and binding
Molecular compounds: in aqueous solu- Nanoparticles, 216 act. energy, 877–878; milestones in under-
tions, 299; formation of, 241; formulas Nanotechnology, 107 standing, 882–883; nuclear fission,
from names of, 251; Lewis structures Nanotubes, 928 878–880; nuclear fusion, 883–884;
for, 253–260, 255 prob., 256 prob., Naphthalene, 772 radioactive decay series, 870; thermo-
257 prob., 258 prob., 260 prob.; nam- National Oceanic and Atmospheric nuclear reactions, 883
ing, 248–251, 249 prob., 252; shape of Administration (NOAA), 20, 21 act. Nuclear reactors, 878, 880–882
(VSEPR model), 261–262, 263 table, Natural gas, 416, 745, 747 Nuclear stability, 124, 865–866
264 prob., 272 act.; solvation of aque- Negatively charged ions. See Anions Nuclear waste, storage of, 882
ous solutions of, 491 Neon, 143, 158 table, 161 table, 185 Nucleic acids, 636, 840–843; DNA,
Molecular formulas, 253, 346–347; of table, 944, 945 841–842, 842 act.; RNA, 843
organic compounds, 746; from per- Net ionic equations, 301, 302 prob., 304 Nucleons, 865
cent composition, 346–347, 348–349 prob. Nucleotides, 840
prob. Net ionic redox equations, balancing, Nucleus (atomic), 112; discovery of,
Molecular manufacturing, 107 691, 692 prob. 112; nuclear model of mass and, 326
Molecular paleontologist, 849 Network solids, 270 act.; size of, 112
Molecular shape, 261–262, 263 table, Neutralization equations, 659–660 Nutritional calories, 518
264 prob., 267–268 Neutralization reactions, 659–660 Nylon, 18, 594, 811
Molecular solids, 422, 422 table Neutral solutions, 636

Index 1043
Index

Observation Phase changes

tests for, 937; atomic properties, 937; Peptides, 828


O common reactions involving, 936–
937; diatomic, 241; electron configu-
Percent by mass concentration ratio,
87–88, 480 table
Observation, 13, 13 act.
Oceans: elements in, 901; sequestration ration and orbital diagram, 158 table; Percent by volume concentration ratio,
of carbon dioxide in, 505 electron-dot structure, 161 table; in 480 table, 482, 482 prob.
Octahedral molecular shape, 261, 263 human body, 195, 623; photosynthesis Percent composition, 341–342; from
table and, 846, 912, 938; physical proper- chemical formula, 342, 343 prob.;
Octane, 751, 751 table ties, 73 table, 936 empirical formula from, 344, 345
Octane rating system, 748–749 Oxygen group (group 16), 184, 207 prob.; from experimental data,
Octet rule, 193, 240; exceptions to, table, 209 table, 218 table, 243, 341–342, 342 act.; molecular formula
258–259, 260 prob. 936–939 from, 346–347, 348–349 prob.
Odor, 73, 283 Ozone, 5, 6, 21 act., 938 Percent error, 48–49, 49 prob.
Oil drop experiment, Milikan’s, 109 Ozone depletion, 20–21 Percents, 965; as conversion factors, 44
Oil of wintergreen, 800 act. Ozone hole, 7, 20–21, 21 act. Percent yield, 386, 386 prob., 388
Oleic acid, 835 Ozone layer, 5–8, 938; chlorofluorocar- Perchlorate, 221 table
Optical isomers, 768–769 bons (CFCs) and, 7–8, 20; formation of Perfumes, 770
Optical rotation, 769 ozone in, 6; thinning of, 7, 20, 21 act. Periodic law, 176
Orbital diagrams, 158, 158 table, 159 Periodic table of the elements, 85, 173
table
Orbitals, 152, 154, 262
P act., 174–177, 178–179, 180–181;
atomic radii trends, 187–188, 189
Order of operations, algebraic, 954–955, PA-457 anti-HIV drug, 389 prob.; blocks on, 183–185; boxes on,
955 prob. Pacemakers, 733 177; electron configuration of ele-
Ores, 731–732 Pain receptors, temperature and, 815 ments and, 182–185, 186 prob.; elec-
Organic chemistry, 11 table, 745 Painting restoration, 23 tronegativity trends, 194, 265; groups
Organic compounds, 744–745. See also Paint pigments, 919 (families), 177; history of develop-
Hydrocarbons; carbon-carbon bonds Paleontologist, 849 ment of, 174–177, 176 table, 184–185;
in, 746; models of, 746; reactions Papain, 829 ionic radii trends, 189–191; ionization
forming. See Organic reactions Paper chromatography, 82 act., 83, 269 energy trends, 193; model periodic
Organic reactions: addition reactions, act. trends, 193 act.; model trends, 173
804–805; condensation reactions, 801; Paraffin, 270 act.; nonmetals, 180; periods (rows),
dehydration reactions, 803; dehydro- Paramagnetism, 916, 917 177, 182; predict element properties
genation reaction, 803; elimination Parent chain, 752 from, 180 act.
reactions, 802; oxidation reduction Partial pressure, Dalton’s law of, 408, Periods, periodic table, 85, 177; atomic
reactions, 806–807; products of, pre- 409 prob., 410 radii trends, 188, 189 prob.; electron
dict, 807–808; substitution reactions, Particle accelerators, 875 configuration, 182 table; ionic radii
790–791 Particle model of light, 141–143 trends, 190; ionization energies, 192
Organosilicon oxide, 239 act. Particles: convert moles to, 322, 323 table; valence electrons and, 182
Orthorhombic unit cell, 421 table, 422 prob.; convert to moles, 323, 324 Permaganate, 221 table
act. prob.; counting, 320–321; mass-to- Perspiration, 426
Osmosis, 504 moles-to-particles conversions, 338, Petroleum, 747–749, 790
Osmotic pressure, 504 338–339 prob.; representative, 321 Petroleum technician, 748
Overall equations, 307 Pascal (Pa), 407 PET scans, 888
Oxalic acid, 798 Paschen (infrared) series, 147, 148, 150 Pewter, 228 table
Oxidation, 681 act. pH, 652, 653; acid ionization constant
Oxidation number, 219, 682; determine, Pasteur, Louis, 767 (K a) from, 656, 657 prob.; of familiar
686, 686 table, 687 prob.; monatomic Pauli exclusion principle, 157 substances, 652; of household items,
ion formulas and, 219; in redox reac- Pauling, Linus, 194, 771 633 act.; ion concentration from, 655,
tions, 688; of various elements, 688 Paulings, 194 655 prob.; from ion concentrations,
table Pauli, Wolfgang, 157 653 prob., 654 prob.; measurement of,
Oxidation-number method, 689, 689 p-Block elements, 184 633 act., 635, 658
table, 690 prob. Penetrating power, 864; of alpha par- Pharmacist, 381
Oxidation reduction reactions, 680. See ticles, 862; of beta particles, 863; of Pharmacy technician, 483
also Redox reactions X rays, 864 Phase changes, 76–77, 425–430; boiling,
Oxidizing agent, 683 Penicillin, 18 427; condensation, 428; deposition,
Oxyacids, 250–251, 252 Pennies: dating by density, 60 act.; 429; evaporation, 426–427, 432 act.;
Oxyanions, 222, 223 model isotopes with, 120 act. freezing, 428; melting, 425–426; phase
Oxygen: abundance of, 84; analytical Pentane, 751, 751 table diagrams and, 429–430; six possible
Peptide bond, 827–828 transitions, 425; sublimation, 428;

1044 Index
Index

Phase diagrams Practice Problems

thermochemical equations for, 530– Polyethylene, 762, 810, 811 dot structures, 162 prob.; empirical
531, 531 act.; vaporization, 426–427 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), 810, formula from mass data, 350 prob.;
Phase diagrams, 429–430 812 table empirical formula from percent com-
Phenanthrene, 772 Polymer chemist, 813 position, 346 prob.; energy released
Phenolthphalein, 658, 662 Polymer chemistry, 11 table by reaction, 532 prob.; energy units,
Phenylalanine, 827 table, 828 Polymerization reactions, 810–811 convert, 519 prob.; equilibrium con-
pH meters, 637, 658 Polymers, 809–814; antimicrobial centrations, 613 prob.; equilibrium
Phosphate ion structure, 257 prob. properties of, 216 act.; common, 812 constant expressions, 601 prob., 603
Phosphates, 250 table; milestones in understanding, prob.; equilibrium constants, value of,
Phospholipases, 838 810–811; properties of, 813; reactions 605 prob.; expanded octets, 260 prob.;
Phospholipids, 838 forming, 810–811; recycling of, 814; formulas from names of molecular
Phosphoric acid, 634 synthetic, 809 compounds, 251 prob.; freezing and
Phosphors, 180, 886 Polymethyl methacrylate, 812 table boiling point depressions, 503 prob.;
Phosphorus, 159 table, 932, 933, 934 Polypeptides, 828 gas-forming reactions, 306 prob.;
Phosphorus trihydride, 264 prob. Polyphenols, 662 Gay-Lussac’s law, 448 prob.; Graham’s
Photocopies, 939 Polypropylene, 812 table law of effusion, 405 prob.; ground-
Photoelectric effect, 142–143 Polyprotic acids, 640–641, 641 table state electron configuration, 160
Photoelectrons. See Electrons Polysaccharides, 833–834 prob.; half-cell potentials, 716 prob.;
Photons, 143, 143 prob. Polyurethane, 812 table half-reaction method, 695 prob.; halo-
Photosynthesis, 846, 912, 938 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 812 table carbons, naming, 788 prob.; Henry’s
Photovoltaic cells, 142, 522 Polyvinylidene chloride, 812 table law, 497 prob.; Hess’s law, 537 prob.;
pH paper, 633 act., 635, 658 Popcorn, 466 act. hydrate, determine formula for, 353
pH scale, 636 p orbitals, 154 prob.; ideal gas law, 455 prob.; induced
Physical changes, 76–77 Positive ions. See Cations transmutation, 876 prob.; instanta-
Physical chemistry, 11 table Positron, 868 neous reaction rates, 579 prob.; ion
Physical constants, 969 table Positron emission, 868, 868 table, 888 concentrations, 617 prob.; ion con-
Physical properties, 73; of common Positron emission transaxial tomogra- centrations from pH, 655 prob.; ionic
substances, 73 table; extensive, 73; phy (PET), 888 compound formation, 212 prob.; ionic
intensive, 73, 77; mineral identifica- Potassium, 86, 117, 136, 906, 907 compounds, formulas for, 221 prob.,
tion by, 73; observe, 74–75 Potential energy, 516–517 222 prob.; ionic compounds, nam-
Pi bond, 245–246 Potter, 682 ing, 223 prob.; ionization constant of
Pie charts, 55 Pottery kilns, 461 water, 651 prob.; ionization equations
Planck, Max, 141–142 Practice Problems: acid-metal reactions, and base ionization constants, 649
Planck’s constant, 142, 969 table 635 prob.; acids, naming, 251 prob.; prob.; isotopes, amount of remain-
Plants: hydrogen cyanide in, 647; nitro- aromatic compounds, naming, 773 ing, 872 prob.; law of conservation of
gen-fixation, 462, 934; photosynthe- prob.; atomic mass, 121 prob.; atomic mass, 78 prob.; law of definite pro-
sis, 846, 912, 938; waxes, 838 number, 116 prob., 118 prob.; atomic portions, 88 prob.; Lewis structures,
Plasma, 71, 417 radii trends, 189 prob.; atoms-to- 244 prob., 255 prob., 256 prob., 257
Plastics, 789, 802, 810–811, 814 mass conversions, 331 prob.; average prob., 258 prob., 260 prob.; limiting
Plastic viscosity, 431 reaction rates, 563 prob.; balanced reactant, determine, 383 prob.; mass
Platinum, 918 chemical equations, interpret, 371 number, 118 prob.; mass-to-mass
Plum pudding model, 110 prob.; binary molecular compounds, stoichiometry, 377 prob.; mass-to-
pOH, 652, 653, 654 prob. naming, 249 prob.; Boyle’s law (pres- mole conversions, 329 prob.; mass-
Polar covalent bonds, 266, 267–268 sure and volume relationship), to-mole conversions for compounds,
Polarized light, 769 443 prob.; branched-chain alkanes, 337 prob.; mass-to-moles-to-particles
Polar molecules, 267–268; chromato- naming, 755 prob.; branched-chain conversions, 339 prob.; molality, 487
grams and, 269 act.; ideal gas law and, alkenes, naming, 761 prob.; calorim- prob.; molarity, 483 prob.; molarity
459; shape of, 267–268; solubility of, etry data, 525 prob.; Charles’s law, from titration data, 664 prob.; molar
268 446 prob.; chemical equations, write, mass and, 335 prob.; molar solubility,
Polonium, 882, 936, 937 287 prob.; chemical reactions, clas- 616 prob.; molar solutions, 484 prob.;
Polyacrylonitrile, 812 table sify, 291 prob.; combined gas law, molar volume, 453 prob.; molecular
Polyatomic ions, 221, 970 table; 450 prob.; conjugate acid-base pairs, shape, 264 prob.; mole fraction,
common, 221 table; formulas for, 221, 640 prob.; cycloalkanes, naming, 757 488 prob.; mole ratios, 372 prob.;
222 prob.; Lewis structures, 256, 257 prob.; decomposition reactions, 292 mole relationships from a chemical
prob.; naming, 222–223 prob.; dilute stock solutions, 486 prob.; formula, 335 prob.; moles, convert
Polycarbonate, 809 double-replacement reactions, 297 to particles, 323 prob.; mole-to-mass
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons prob.; electron configuration and the conversions, 328 prob.; mole-to-mass
(PAHs), 807 periodic table, 186 prob.; electron- conversions for compounds, 336

Index 1045
Index

Precipitates Rate constant

prob.; mole-to-mass stoichiometry, act.; gas, release of compressed, 72


376 prob.; mole-to-mole stoichiom-
etry, 375 prob.; nuclear equations, bal-
act.; identify an unknown by mass
and volume, 50 act.; molar enthalpy
Q
Qualitative data, 13
ancing, 869 prob.; oxidation number, (heat) of vaporization, 531 act.; molar Quantitative data, 13
687 prob.; oxidation-number method, mass, Avogadro’s number, and atomic Quantized energy, 141–143, 146
690 prob., 692 prob.; oxidation-reduc- nucleus, 326 act.; pH of blood, 668 Quantum, 141–142
tion reactions, 685 prob.; partial act.; radiation exposure, distance and, Quantum mechanical model of atom,
pressure of a gas, 409 prob.; particles, 890 act.; rate of decomposition of 149–152
convert to moles, 324 prob.; percent dinitrogen pentoxide, 566 act. Quantum number (n), 147
by mass, 481 prob.; percent by vol- Problem-Solving Strategies: ground- Quarks, 111, 114
ume, 482 prob.; percent composition, state electron configuration, 160;
344 prob.; percent yield, 387 prob.; halogens, predict reactivity of, 294
pH, acid dissociation constant from,
657 prob.; pH from [H +], 653 prob.;
act.; ideal gas law, derive other laws
from, 458; ionic compound naming
R
Rad, 889
photon, energy of, 143 prob.; pOH flowchart, 224; Lewis structures, 254; Radiation, 122; alpha, 123, 124 table,
and pH from [OH -], 654 prob.; pre- mass defect and binding energy, 878; 861, 861 table, 862, 888 table; average
cipitate-forming reactions, 302 prob.; molarity from titration, 663; molar annual exposure to, 890 table; beta,
precipitates, predicting, 619 prob.; rate solubility, streamlining calculation 123, 124 table, 861, 861 table, 862,
laws, 577 prob.; reaction spontane- of, 621; potential of voltaic cell, 717; 863, 888 table; biological effects of,
ity, 545 prob., 548 prob.; resonance redox equations, balance, 696; round- 888–890, 889 table; detection of, 885–
structures, 258 prob.; salt hydrolysis, ing numbers, 52; significant figures, 886; discovery of, 860–861; distance
665 prob.; single-replacement reac- recognizing, 51; stoichiometry, 374 and, 889 act., 890; dose of, 889–890;
tions, 295 prob.; skeleton equations, Products, 77, 283; addition of and gamma, 124, 861, 861 table, 862, 863,
284 prob.; specific heat, 521 prob.; chemical equilibrium, 608; calculating 888 table; intensity of and distance,
standard enthalpies of formation, 541 when reactant is limiting, 380–381, 889 act., 890; ionizing, 885; medical
prob.; volume-mass gas stoichiometry, 382–383 prob.; identifying, 92 act.; uses of, 886–887; neutron activation
463 prob.; volume-volume problems, predicting, 298, 298 table; removal of analysis, 891; scientific uses of, 886;
461 prob.; water-forming reactions, and chemical equilibrium, 608 types of, 123–124, 859 act., 861 table,
304 prob.; wavelength, 140 prob. Propane, 750, 751, 751 table; chemical 861–864
Precipitates, 296; determine with K sp, equation for, 370 prob.; gas grills and, Radiation-detection tools, 885–886
618, 619 prob.; reactions in aqueous 375 Radiation therapist, 887
solutions forming, 300, 301 act., 302 Propanol, 816 act. Radiation therapy, 887
prob. Propene, 759 table Radioactive decay, 122, 861; model, 873
Precipitation, 428 Propyl group, 753 table act.; nuclear stability and, 865–866;
Precision, 47–48, 50 Proteins, 826–831; amino acid build- radiochemical dating and, 873–874;
Pressure, 406; chemical equilibrium ing blocks, 826–827; denaturation of, rate of, 870–871, 872 prob., 873–874;
and, 608–609; combined gas law and, 829; enzymes, 826, 829–830; peptide transmutation, 865; types of, 866–868,
449, 450 prob.; extreme and ideal gas bonds in, 827–828; polypeptides, 828; 868 table
law, 458, 466 act.; gas temperature and protein hormones, 831; structural Radioactive decay series, 870
(Gay-Lussac’s law), 447, 448 prob.; gas proteins, 831; three-dimensional Radioactivity, 122. See also Radiation;
volume and (Boyle’s law), 442–443, structure, 829; transport proteins, 830 detection of, 885–886; discovery of,
443 prob., 444 act.; partial pressure Protium, 904 860–861, 915
of a gas, 408, 409 prob., 410; popcorn Protons, 113, 114 table, 119, 969 table Radiocarbon dating. See Carbon dating
popping and, 466 act.; solubility of Prussian blue, 916 Radiochemical dating, 873–874
gases and (Henry’s law), 495–496, 497 Pseudo-noble gas configurations, 208 Radioisotopes, 861; half-life of,
prob.; units of, 407, 407 table PTFE (nonstick coating), 811 870–871, 871 table; medical uses of,
Primary batteries, 720 Pure covalent bond, 266 887–888; radioactive decay of. See
Principle energy levels, 153, 154 Pure research, 17 Radioactive decay; radiochemical dat-
Principle quantum numbers (n), 153 Pure substances, 70, 87. See also ing and, 873–874
Problem-Solving Labs: Bohr model of Substances; compounds. See Radiotracers, 887
the atom, 150 act.; Boyle’s law and Compounds; elements. See Elements; Radium, 882, 910–911, 915
breathing, 444 act.; decomposition mixtures of. See Mixtures; physical Radium-226, 862
rate, variation in, 566 act.; DNA properties of, 73 Radon, 944
replication, 842 act.; elements, pre- Putrescine, 795 Radon gas, 915
dict properties of by periodic table Rainbows, 138
position, 180 act.; fluoride ions and Rare Earth elements. See f-Block
prevention of tooth decay, 622 act.; elements
francium, predict properties of, 180 Rate constant (k), 574

1046 Index
Index

Rate-determining steps Sigma bonds

Rate-determining steps, 581–582 UV radiation, 5; trans-fatty acids, 767;


Rate laws, 574–576
Rates, reaction. See Reaction rates
zinc-plating, 295
Reaumur scale, 451
S
Saccharin, 810
Ratios, 964 Recycling, 814 Sacrificial anodes, 726
Reactants, 77, 283; addition of and Redox equations, balancing, 679 act., Safety, lab, 18, 19 table
chemical equilibrium, 607; calculate 689–696; half-reaction method, Safety matches, 934
product when limited, 380–381, 693–693, 695 prob.; net ionic redox Salicylaldehyde, 796 table, 797
382–383 prob. equations, 691, 692 prob.; oxidation- Salt bridges, 709
Reaction mechanisms, 580–582; com- number method, 689, 689 table, 690 Salt hydrolysis, 665
plex reactions, 580; intermediates, prob.; problem-solving flow-chart, 696 Saltwater fish, 503
580; rate-determining steps, 581–582 Redox reactions, 680–688, 806–807; Saponification, 837, 837 act.
Reaction order, 575–577; determination bioluminescence, 693; in electro- Saturated fats, 805
of, 576, 577 prob.; first-order reaction chemistry, 707 act., 708–709, 711;
Saturated fatty acids, 835–836
rate laws and, 575; other-order reac- electronegativity and, 684; electron
Saturated hydrocarbons, 746
tion rate laws and, 575–576 transfer and, 680–682; forensics and,
Saturated solutions, 493
Reaction rate laws. See Rate laws 697, 698 act.; identify, 685 prob.;
s-Block elements, 184
Reaction rates, 561–567; activation oxidation, 681; oxidation number,
Scandium, 185
energy and, 564–566; average rate 219, 682, 686, 686 table, 687 prob.,
Scanning tunneling microscope (STM),
of, 560–562, 562 prob.; catalysts and, 688; oxidizing agents, 683; reducing
107, 213
571–573; collision theory and, 563, agents, 683; reduction, 681; reversal
Schrodinger wave equation, 152
564; concentration and, 569, 584 of (electrolysis), 728; rust formation,
Science writer, 604
act.; decomposition of dinitrogen 679 act.; space shuttle launch and, 691
Scientific investigations. See also
pentoxide, 565 act.; factors affecting, act.; summary of, 683 table; tarnish
CHEMLABs; Data Analysis Labs;
559 act.; inhibitors and, 571; instan- removal, 683 act.
MiniLabs; Problem-Solving Labs;
taneous, 578–579, 579 prob.; rate- Reduction, 681
accidental discoveries and, 18; applied
determining steps, 581–582; rate laws, Reduction agent, 683
research, 17; pure research, 17; safety
574–576; reactivity of reactants and, Reduction potential, 711
and, 18; scientific method and, 12–16
566–567; speeding, 559 act.; sponta- Reef aquariums, 287
Scientific law, 16
neity and, 542–545, 566–567; surface Refrigerators, CFCs and, 7–8
Scientific methods, 12–16; conclusion,
area and, 569–570; temperature and, Rem, 889
15; experiments, 14–15; hypothesis,
570, 571 act. Replacement reactions, 293–294, 296–
13; observation, 13, 13 act.; scientific
Reaction spontaneity (∆G), 542–545; 297; double-replacement, 296–297;
law and, 16; theory and, 16
Earth’s geologic processes and, 545; single-replacement, 293–294, 295
entropy and, 544–545, 545 prob.; free prob. Scientific notation, 40–43, 946–948;
energy and, 548 prob.; Gibbs free Representative elements, 177, 184, 196 addition and subtraction and, 41
energy and, 546–547; reaction rate act. prob., 42, 948; multiplication and
and, 566–567 Representative particles, 321; convert division and, 43, 43 prob., 948
Real-World Chemistry: algal blooms moles to, 322; convert to moles, 323, Scintillation counter, 886
and phosphates, 250; ammoniated 323 prob., 324 prob.; mass to moles to Scuba diving, helium and, 192
cattle feed, 601; book preservation particles conversions, 338, 338–339 Seaborg, Glenn, 921
and, 661; cathode ray, 108; chrome prob. Second (s), 33
and chromium, 328; clay roofing tiles, Research: applied, 17; pure, 17 Secondary batteries, 720
302; enzymes (papain), 829; food Research chemist, 185 Second ionization energy, 192
preservation, 571; fuel cells, 722; gas Resonance, 258 Second law of thermodynamics, 543,
grills, 375, 461; Gay-Lussac’s law and Reversible reactions, 595 546
pressure cookers, 448; hydrogen cya- Rhombohedral unit cells, 421 table, 422 Second period elements, 158 table,
nide, 647; iron oxidation, 685; kilns, act. 161 table
461; liquid density measurement, 37; RNA (ribonucleic acid), 843 Seed crystal, 495
mineral identification, 73; mineral Roentgen, Wilhelm, 860, 889 Selenium, 936, 937, 939
supplements, 220; perspiration, 426; Rubber, 762 Semimetals. See Metalloids
photoelectric effect, 142; polycyclic Rubidium, 906, 907 Sensitive teeth, 914
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 807; Rusting, 74, 77, 724–727; observe, 726 Serine, 827 table
reef aquariums, 287; saltwater fish act.; prevent, 685, 725–727; redox Sex hormones, 839
and freezing point depression, 503; reactions in, 679 act., 724–725; as Shape-memory alloys, 213
scuba diving and helium, 192; solar spontaneous process, 542–543 Ships, corrosion of hulls of, 725–726
energy, 142; solar fusion, 883; specific Rutherford, Ernest, 110, 111–112, 112– Side chains, amino acid, 827
heat, 521; sunscreen, protection from 113, 862, 875 Sigma bonds, 244, 245
Rutherfordium, 185

Index 1047
Index

Significant figures Strong electrolytes

Significant figures, 50–51, 51 prob., Solubility product constant expres- Square root, 949
949–950, 951 prob.; adding and sub- sions, 614–619; ion concentrations Stainless steel, 228 table
tracting, 53, 53 prob., 952, 953 prob.; from, 617, 618–619, 619 prob.; molar Standard enthalpy (heat) of formation,
atomic mass values and, 328; multipli- solubility from, 616 prob., 616–617; 537–541, 538 table, 540 prob.
cation and division and, 54, 54 prob., predicting precipitates, 618, 619 prob.; Standard hydrogen electrode, 711
952; rounding numbers and, 52, 952 writing, 614–615 Standardized Test Practice, 28–29,
Silicates, 214 Soluble, 479 66–67, 98–99, 132–133, 170–171,
Silicon, 84, 159 table, 181, 926–927, 929 Solutes, 299 202–203, 236–237, 278–279, 316–317,
Silicon computer chips, 929 Solution concentration. See 364–365, 398–399, 438–439, 472–473,
Silicon dioxide, 929 Concentration 512–513, 556–557, 590–591, 630–631,
Silver, 226 table, 920 Solution formation. See Solvation 676–677, 704–705, 740–741, 782–783,
Silver batteries, 719 Solutions, 81, 478–479; acidic. See 822–823, 856–857, 898–899
Silver nitrate flame test, 92 act. Acidic solutions; aqueous. See Standard reduction potentials, 712;
Simple sugars. See Monosaccharides Aqueous solutions; basic. See Basic applications of, 716; calculate, 713–
Single covalent bonds, 242–244 solutions; boiling point elevation, 714, 715 prob.; determine, 712, 712
Single-replacement reactions, 293–294, 500–501, 503 prob.; concentration, table; measure, 734 act.
295 prob.; metal replaces hydrogen, 475 act., 480–488; dilution of, 485, Standard temperature and pressure
293; metal replaces metal, 293–294, 486 prob.; electrolytes and colliga- (STP), 452
310 act.; nonmetal replaces nonmetal, tive properties, 498–499; formation Starch, 834
294, 294 act. (solvation), 489–492; freezing point States of matter, 71–72; gases, 72, 72
SI units, 32–37, 958 table depression, 501–502, 502 act., 503 act., 402–410; liquids, 71, 401 act.,
Skeleton equations, 284 prob.; heat of solution, 475 act., 415–419; milestones in understand-
Slime, 785 act. 492; milestones in understanding, ing, 416–417; phase changes, 76–77,
Slope, line, 57, 962 490–491; molar. See Molar solutions; 425–430; solids, 71, 420–424; summa-
Soap, 419, 634, 837 act. neutral, 636; osmotic pressure and, rize information on, 401 act.
Sodium, 136, 159, 159 table, 177, 906, 504; saturated, 493; solubility and. See Stationary phase, chromatography, 83
907, 908, 913 Solubility; supersaturated, 494–495; Stearic acid, 835
Sodium bicarbonate, 308 types of, 81 table, 479 table; unsatu- Steel, 227, 227 act.
Sodium carbonate, 378 act. rated, 493; vapor pressure lowering Stereoisomers, 766. See also Optical
Sodium chloride, 70, 73 table, 85, 205 and, 499–500 isomers
act., 210, 211 table, 213, 729 Solution systems, 81, 81 table Sterling silver, 228 table
Sodium hypochlorite, 683 Solvation, 489–492; aqueous solutions Steroids, 839
Sodium perborate, 924 of ionic compounds, 490; aqueous Steroid toxins, 839
Sodium/potassium ATPase, 909 solutions of molecular compounds, Stock solutions, dilution of, 485, 486
Sodium-potassium pump, 909 491; factors affecting, 492–494, 506 prob.
Soft water, 24 act. act.; heat of solution, 475 act., 492; Stoichiometry, 368–378; actual yield
Solar energy, 142, 354, 522 “like dissolves like”, 489 and, 385; baking soda decomposition,
Solar fusion, 883 Solvents, 299 378 act.; interpret chemical equa-
Solidification, 76. See also Freezing s orbitals, 154 tions, 370 prob.; mass-to-mass con-
Solids, 71, 420–424; amorphous, 424; Space-filling molecular model, 253, 746 versions, 377, 377 prob.; mole ratios
crystalline, 420–423, 422 act., 422 Space shuttle, 691 act., 722 and, 371–372, 390 act.; mole-to-mass
table; density of, 39 act., 420; molecu- Space telescopes, 912 conversions, 376, 376 prob.; mole-
lar, 422 Spandex, 811 to-mole conversions, 373–374, 375
Solubility, 479, 493–497; factors affect- Species, 693 prob.; particle and mole relationships
ing, 492–494, 506 act.; of gases, Specific heat, 519–520, 522, 976 table; and, 368–369; percent yield and, 386,
495–496, 497 prob.; guidelines for, calorimetry and, 523–524, 525 prob., 386 prob., 388; problem-solving flow
975 table; of polar molecules, 268; 526 act.; heat absorbed, calculate, 520, chart, 374; product, calculate when
saturated solutions and, 493; super- 521 prob.; heat released, calculate, reactant is limiting, 380–381, 382–383
saturated solutions and, 494–495; 520; solar energy and, 522; of various prob.; reactions involving gases. See
temperature and, 493–494, 494 table; substances, 520 table Gas stoichiometry; theoretical yield
unsaturated solutions and, 493 Specific rate constant (k), 574 and, 385; titration and. See Titration
Solubility product constant (K sp), Spectator ions, 301 Storage batteries, 720
614–619, 969 table; compare, 624 act.; Spectroscopist, 139 Straight-chain alkanes, 750–751
ion concentrations from, 617, 617 Speed of light (c), 137, 969 table Stratosphere, 5
prob., 618–619; ion product constant Spontaneous processes, 542. See also Straussman, Fritz, 111
(Q sp) and, 618–619, 619 prob.; molar Reaction spontaneity (∆G) Strong acids, 644, 656
solubility from, 615–617, 616 prob.; Spontaneity, reaction rate and. See Strong bases, 648, 656
predicting precipitates, 618 Reaction spontaneity (∆G) Strong electrolytes, 498

1048 Index
Index

Strong nuclear force Tyndall effect

Strong nuclear force, 865 Taste, 262 Three Mile Island, 880, 883
Strontium, 186 prob., 910–911, 913, 914 Taste buds, 262 Thymine (T), 841
Strontium-90, 870, 871 table Television, 108 Time, 33
Strontium carbonate, 913 Tellurium, 936, 937 Tin, 226 table, 926–927, 930
Strontium chloride, 914 Temperature, 403; change in as evidence Tinplate, 930
Structural formulas, 253, 253, 746, 751 of chemical reaction, 282; chemical Titanium, 180, 181, 228, 918, 919
Structural isomers, 765 equilibrium and, 609–610, 611 act.; Titrant, 661
Structural proteins, 831 combined gas law and, 449, 450 prob.; Titration, 660–663; acid-base indica-
Subatomic particles, 114 table, 119 table enzyme action and, 850 act.; evapora- tors and, 662, 663; end point of, 663;
Sublimation, 83, 428 tion rate and, 432 act.; extreme and molarity from, 663, 664 prob., 670
Suboctets, 259 ideal gas law, 458; gas pressure and act.; steps in, 661
Substances, 5, 70 (Gay-Lussac’s law), 447, 448 prob.; gas Tokamak reactor, 884
Substituent groups, 752 volume and (Charles’s Law), 441 act., Tolerances, 49
Substituted cycloalkanes, naming, 756, 444–445, 446 prob.; pain receptors Toluene, 774
756–757 prob. and, 815; reaction rate and, 570, 571 Tools, zinc plating of, 295
Substituted hydrocarbons: alcohols, act., 583; solubility and, 493–494, 494 Tooth decay, fluoride and, 622 act.
792–793; aldehydes, 796–797; amides, table; viscosity and, 418 Torricelli, Evangelista, 406
800; amines, 795; carboxylic acids, Temperature inversion, 428 Touch sensors, 920
798; chemical reactions involving. See Temperature scales, 34–35; convert Toxicologist, 59
Organic reactions; crosslinks (make between, 34, 35; gas laws and, 451 Toxicology, 59
slime), 785 act.; esters, 799, 800 act.; Tetraethyl lead, 930 Trace elements, 195
ethers, 794; functional groups, 785 Tetragonal unit cell, 421 table, 422 act. Transactinide elements, 185
act., 786, 787 table; halocarbons, Tetrahedral molecular shape, 261, 263 Trans-fatty acids, 767
787–791; ketones, 797 table trans- isomers, 766
Substitutional alloys, 228 Thallium, 922, 923, 925 Transition elements, 177, 916–921;
Substitution reactions, 790–791 Theoretical chemistry, 11 table analytical tests for, 917; applications
Substrates, 830 Theoretical yield, 385 of, 918–921; atomic properties, 917;
Subtraction: scientific notation and, 42; Theory, 16 common reactions involving, 916;
significant figures and, 53 Thermal conductivity, 226 inner transition metals, 180; locations
Sucrose, 73 table, 88, 205 act., 833 Thermochemical equations, 529–533; of strategic, 918; physical properties
Sulfur, 159 table, 195, 936–937, 939 for changes of state, 530–531, 531 of, 916; transition metals, 180
Sulfuric acid, manufacture of, 388, 939 act.; Hess’s law, 534–536, 536 prob.; Transition metal ions, 208, 219, 219
Sunburn, 5 standard enthalpy (heat) of formation, table
Sunlight, continuous spectrum of, 138 537–541, 540 prob.; writing, 529 Transition metals, 180, 185
Sunscreen, 5 Thermochemical universe, 526, 546 Transition state, 564
Sun, solar fusion in, 883 Thermochemistry, 523–528; combus- Transmutation, 865, 875
Superacids, 637 tion reactions, 532 prob., 533; enthalpy Transport proteins, 830
Super ball, properties of, 239 act. and enthalpy changes, 526–528; Transuranium elements, 876
Supercritical mass, 880 enthalpy (heat) of reaction, 527–528; Triclinic unit cells, 421 table
Supersaturated solutions, 494–495 Hess’s law, 534–536, 536 prob.; molar Triglycerides, 836–837, 837 act.; phos-
Surface area: reaction rate and, 569– enthalpy (heat) of fusion, 530–531; pholipids, 838; saponification of, 838,
570; solvation and, 492 molar enthalpy (heat) of vaporization, 838 act.
Surface tension, 418–419 530; phase changes and, 530–531; sur- Trigonal bipyramidal molecular shape,
Surfactants, 419 roundings, 526; systems, 526; thermo- 263 table
Surroundings (thermochemical), 526 chemical equations, 529–533 Trigonal planar molecular shape, 261,
Suspensions, 476 Thermocouples, 34 263 table
Synthesis reactions, 289 Thermodynamics, second law of, 543 Trigonal pyramid molecular shape, 261,
System (thermochemical), 526 Thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD), 263 table
Systeme International d’Unites. See SI 885 Triple covalent bonds, 245, 246
units Thermonuclear reactions, 883 Triple point, 429
Thermoplastic polymers, 813 Tritium, 904

T Thermosetting polymers, 813


Third ionization energy, 192
Troposphere, 5
Tungsten, 226, 918
Table salt. See Sodium chloride Third period elements, 159 table Turbidity, 478 act.
Tap water, hard and soft, 24 act. Thixotropic substances, 476 Tyndall effect, 478, 478 act.
Tarnish removal, 683, 683 act. Thomson, J. J., 108–109, 110, 212
Tartaric acid, 767 Thomson, William (Lord Kelvin), 35
Thorium, 921

Index 1049
Index

Ultraviolet radiation Zinc plating

charide, 833; element, 85; eliminate, v. soft, 24 act.; history in a glass of,
U 751; environment, 75; evolve, 5; force,
419; formula, 284; gases, 403; generate,
355; hydration reactions forming, 804;
hydrogen bonds in, 413–414; ion prod-
Ultraviolet radiation: overexposure to,
damage from, 5; ozone layer and, 5, 6 878; homologous, 751; indicators, 663; uct constant for (K w), 650–651, 651
Ultraviolet (Lyman) series, 147, 150 act. initial, 576; investigate, 566; meter, 33; prob.; law of multiple proportions and,
Unbalanced forces, 597 method, 694; mixture, 81; mole, 321, 89; layering of in graduated cylinder,
Unit cell, 421, 421 table, 422 act. 456; monosaccharide, 833; neutral, 31 act.; Lewis structure, 243; melting
Units, 32–37; base SI, 33–35; converting 113; orient, 412; overlap, 244; ozone, of, 425–426; phase diagram, 429, 430;
between, 957–958, 958 prob.; derived 5; percent, 48; period, 159; periodic, physical properties, 73 table, 75; polar-
SI, 35–37; English, 32 176; phenomenon, 141; polysaccha- ity of, 267–268; as pure substance, 70;
Universe (thermochemical), 526, 546 ride, 833; potential, 714; pressure, 495; sigma bonds in, 244, 245; solutions of.
Unsaturated fatty acids, 835–836 product, 381; radiation, 863; random, See Aqueous solutions; surface tension
Unsaturated hydrocarbons, 746 544; ratio, 333, 462; recover, 21; reduce, of, 419; thermochemistry, 530–531,
Unsaturated solutions, 493 730; reduction, 681; resonance, 258; 531 act.; turbidity and Tyndall effect,
Ununquadium, 185 saturated, 494; species, 693; specific, 478 act.; vaporization of, 426
Uranium-235, 878–879, 880 119; stoichiometry, 369; stress, 607; Watson, James, 637, 841–842
Uranium-238, 863, 880 structure, 184; sum, 42; system, 543; Wavelength, 137, 140 prob.
Urea, 800 trans-, 766; transfer, 219; trigonal pla- Wave mechanical model of the atom.
UV-B radiation, 5 nar, 262; unstable, 867; weight, 10 See Quantum mechanical model of
Volt, 710 atom
Volta, Alessandro, 709 Wave model of light, 137–139; atomic
V Voltaic cell potentials. See
Electrochemical cell potentials
emission spectrum and, 144–145;
dual nature of light and, 143
Valence electrons, 161; chemical bonds
and, 207; periodic table trends, 182– Voltaic cells, 709–711; chemistry of, Waves, 137–138; amplitude of, 137;
185, 186 prob. 710–711; electrochemical cell poten- electromagnetic wave relationship,
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion tials, 711–714, 715 prob., 716–717, 137; frequency of, 137; wavelength of,
(VSEPR) theory. See VSEPR model 734 act.; half-cells, 710 137, 140 prob.
Valine, 827 table Voltaic pile, 709 Waxes, 838
van der Waals forces, 269–270, 271 Volume: chemical equilibrium and, Weak acids, 645, 648 table
Vapor, 72 608–609; combined gas law and, 449, Weak bases, 649
Vaporization, 426–427; molar enthalpy 450 prob.; determine mass of object Weak electrolytes, 498
(heat) of vaporization, 530, 531 act. from, 38 prob.; gas pressure and Weather balloons, 449
See also Boiling, Evaporation (Boyle’s law), 442–443, 443 prob., 444 Weather patterns, density of air masses
Vapor pressure, 427 act.; gas stoichiometry and, 460–461, and, 37
Vapor pressure lowering, 499–500 461 prob., 462, 462–463 prob.; gas Weight, 9–10
Variables, 14; controlling, 14–15; temperature and (Charles’ Law), 441 Willstater, Richard, 912
dependent, 14, 56; independent, 14 act., 444–445, 446 prob.; identify an Wohler, Friedrich, 744
Venom, 838 unknown by, 50 act.; SI units for, Word equations, 284
Vinegar-baking soda volcano, 669 35–36
Viscosity, 401 act., 417, 418
Visible (Balmer) series, 147, 148, 150 act.
Volumetric analysis, 341
VSEPR model, 261–262, 263 table, 264 X
Visible spectroscopy, 917 prob., 272 act. Xenon, 944, 945
Visible spectrum, 138–139 X-ray crystallography, 212
Vitalism, 744
Vitamins, 383
W X rays, 137, 864, 914
Xylene, 772, 774
Vocabulary margin features: alloy, 227; Warfarin, 59
anhydrous, 352; aromatic, 771; atom,
103; attain, 243; aufbau, 157; bond,
Water: adhesion and cohesion of, 419;
amphoteric nature of, 639; boiling of, Z
794; buffer, 667; capacity, 721; cis-, 766; 427, 969 table; capillary action, 419; Zewail, Ahmed, 581
class, 799; combustion, 290; comple- changes of state and, 76, 425–428; Zinc, 208, 920
tion, 599; complex, 845; compound, chemical properties, 75; condensation Zinc-carbon dry cells, 718–719
300; concentrated, 485; concentra- of, 428; covalent bonds in, 240, 243; Zinc plating, 295
tion, 561; concept, 113; conceptualize, density of solid, 420; electrical con-
845; conduct, 215; conductor, 180; ductivity of, 205 act.; electrolysis of,
conform, 642; conjugate, 639; convert, 86; evaporation of, 426–427, 432 act.;
595; correspond, 711; demonstrate, formation of in aqueous solutions, 303,
547; deposit, 747; derive, 372; disac- 304 prob.; freezing, 428, 969 table; hard

1050 Index
Researchers, (tc bl br)Mark A. Schneider/Visuals Unlimited, (tr)Jeff J. Daly, Fundamental
Photo Credits Photography, NYC, (bcl)Carl Frank/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (bcr)Roberto De
Gugliemo/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 422 Ross Frid/Visuals Unlimited; 423
Cover SPL/Photo Researchers; iv (t)courtesy of Thandi Buthelezi, (tc)courtesy of Laurel
Deborah Davis/PhotoEdit; 424 Wally Eberhart/Visuals Unlimited; 426 CORBIS; 428 (t)Richard
Dingrando, (bc)courtesy of Nicholas Hainen, (b)courtesy of Dinah Zike; 2 (t)Ted Kinsman/
Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC, (b)Alissa Crandall/CORBIS; 431 Peter Scholey/Getty
Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (c)Beateworks Inc./Alamy, (b)Daniel Sambraus/
Images; 432 Matt Meadows; 440 (t)Patrick Ward/CORBIS, (b)Elizabeth Opalenik/CORBIS,
Photo Researchers, (bkgd)BL Images Ltd/Alamy; 3 Tom Pantages; 4 (l)STScI/NASA/CORBIS,
(bkgd)CORBIS; 441 Matt Meadows; 448 Marie-Louise Avery/Alamy; 449 Roger Ressmeyer/
(r)Atlantide Phototravel/CORBIS; 5 CORBIS; 6 David Hay Jones/Science Photo Library/Photo
CORBIS; 454 unlike by STOCK4B; 456 Cordelia Malloy/Science Photo Library; 457 Matt
Researchers; 7 NASA/Photo Researchers; 9 David Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit; 10 (l)AFP/Getty
Meadows; 458 (l)Pasquale Sorrentino/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (r)Paul
Images, (r)NASA Ames Research Center/Photo Researchers; 13 Art Vandalay/Getty Images;
Broadbent/Alamy Images; 459 (l)Barry Runk/Grant Heilman Photography, (r)Lee Pengelly/
14 (t)Matt Meadows, (b)Martyn F. Chillmaid/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 15
Alamy Images; 461 Thomas R. Fletcher/www.proseandphotos.com; 462 Denny Eilers/Grant
Chuck Bryan/epa/CORBIS; 17 Hank Morgan/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 18
Heilman Photography; 464 Janet Horton Photography; 465 Jason Cohn/Reuters/CORBIS;
(l)Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, (r)Dr Jeremy Burgess/Science Photo Library/Photo
466 Matt Meadows; 474 (t)David Papazian/Beateworks/CORBIS, (b)Peter Bowater/Alamy,
Researchers; 19 Matt Meadows; 21 NASA/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 22
(bkgd)Tom Feiler/Masterfile; 475 Matt Meadows; 476 Tom Pantages; 478 Matt Meadows/Peter
(l)Philippe Psaila/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (r)Eye Of Science/Science Photo
Arnold, Inc.; 480 Tom Pantages; 482 AP Photo/L.G. Patterson; 484 Matt Meadows; 485 Richard
Library/Photo Researchers; 23 (tl)The Andy Warhol Foundation, Inc./Art Resource, NY,
Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC; 489 Matt Meadows; 490 (l)Hulton-Deutsch Collection/
(tr)courtesy of Sharon Miller/NASA; 26 STScI/NASA/CORBIS; 30 Photri/T.Sanders; 31 Matt
CORBIS, (r)SuperStock; 491 (t)Richard Megna/Fundamental Photography, NYC, (b)courtesy of
Meadows; 32 (l)Rhoda Peacher, (r)Janet Horton Photography; 34 Robert Rathe; 37 (t)Matt
DuPont; 492 (t b)Tiercel Photographics, (c)Rhonda Peacher Photography; 493 Andrew Lambert
Meadows, (b)B. Runk/S. Schoenberger/Grant Heilman Photography; 40 The Hope Diamond/
Photography/Science Photo Library; 494 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch,
Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC/The Bridgeman Art Library; 42 Ed Young/CORBIS; 44
photographer; 495 Theo Allofs/Visuals Unlimited; 496 (t)Marilyn Genter/The Image Works,
CORBIS; 49 Chris Gibson/Alamy; 52 Matt Meadows; 59 Jonathan Nourok/PhotoEdit; 68 Magnus
(bl)Rachel Epstein/PhotoEdit, (br)CORBIS; 498 FP, Fundamental Photography, NYC; 501 (l)AP
Hjorleifsson/Getty Images; 70 (l)Luca Trovato/Getty Images, (r)Thomas Raupach/Peter Arnold,
Photo/Gerry Broome, (r)Tom Pantages; 505 Courtesy of Dr. Christopher L. Sabine, National
Inc.; 71 (t)Michael Newman/PhotoEdit, (b)Colin Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit; 72 (t)Richard T.
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; 506 Tom Pantages; 508 Leonard Lessin/Peter Arnold,
Nowitz/CORBIS, (b)Spencer Grant/PhotoEdit; 73 (l)Sydney James/Getty Images, (r)Scientifica/
Inc.; 511 Courtesy NODC; 514 Purestock/Getty Images; 515 Matt Meadows; 516 (l)Agence
Visuals Unlimited; 74 (l)Gibson Stock Photography, (r)Richard Megna, Fundamental
Zoom/Getty Images, (r)Donald Miralle/Getty Images; 517 Alan Sirulnikoff/Photo Researchers;
Photography, NYC; 75 British Antarctic Survey/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 76
519 (l)Stephen Chernin/Getty Images, (r)Bob Krist/CORBIS; 521 Matt Meadows; 522 Eurelios/
(l)Ilianski/Alamy, (r)Design Pics Inc./Alamy; 77 (t)Alan Schein/zefa/CORBIS, (b)Astrid & Hanns-
Phototake; 524 Tom Pantages; 526 Matt Meadows; 527 Tim Fuller; 528 Phil Degginger/Alamy;
frieder Michler/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 79 (l r)Richard Megna, Fundamental
533 Janet Horton Photography; 534 (l)CORBIS, (r)Mark A. Schneider/Visuals Unlimited; 537 Will
Photography, NYC; 80 (l)Custom Medical Stock Photo, (r)Envision/CORBIS; 81 Robert Fournier/
& Deni McIntyre/Photo Researchers; 539 Jeff Maloney/Getty Images; 542 Ton Koene/Visuals
Visuals Unlimited; 82 Martyn F. Chillmaid/Photo Researchers; 83 Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit; 84
Unlimited; 544 Dinodia Photo Library/PixtureQuest; 545 Matt Meadows; 546 Jon Arnold
(l)Barry Mason/Alamy, (c)Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit, (r)AP Photo/Breakthrough Films &
Images/Alamy; 549 (t)AP Photo, (b)Joshua Matz/Grant Heilman Photography; 550 Matt
Televisions Inc., Randy Brooke; 85 Science Museum/SSPL/The Image Works; 86 (tl)Andrew
Meadows; 552 Wesley Hitt/Alamy; 554 Frank Cezus/Getty Images; 554 Marc Muench/Getty
Lambert Photography/Photo Researchers, (tr)Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, (b)Larry
Images; 558 (inset)PhotriMicroStock/J.Greenberg, (bkgd)Transtock Inc/Alamy; 559 Matt
Stepanowicz/Fundamental Photography, NYC; 90 Matt Meadows/Peter Arnold, Inc.; 91 Robert
Meadows; 560 (l)Motoring Picture Library/Alamy, (cl)The Car Photo Library, (cr)John Terence
Corry; 100 (inset)Colin Cuthbert/Photo Researchers, (bkgd)CORBIS; 101 Tom Pantages; 102
Turner/Taxi/Getty Images, (r)Getty Images; 563 Masterfile Corporation; 567 Charles D. Winters/
(l)PhotoLink/Getty Images, (t)Andre Jenny/Alamy, (r)Digital Vision/PunchStock, (b)Sean Daveys/
Photo Researchers; 568 Tom Pantages; 569 Richard Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC;
Australian Picture Library/CORBIS; 103 (t)Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (b)The Art
570 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; 571 Tom Pantages;
Archive/Museo Nazionale Palazzo Altemps Rome/Dagli Ort; 104 (t)Rischgitz/Getty Images,
572 (l)Arco Images/Alamy, (r)SuperStock; 574 (l)Mark Thomas/Science Photo Library/Photo
(b)Wellcome Library, London; 106 (l)Stockdisc/PunchStock, (r)European Space Agency/Science
Researchers, (r)Dr Jurgen Scriba/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 581 Stephen Wilkes/
Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 107 Philippe Plailly/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers;
Getty Images; 584 Matt Meadows; 592 Stock Connection Distribution/Alamy; 593 Matt
110 SSPL/The Image Works; 111 (l)Bettmann/CORBIS, (r)CERN/Photo Researchers; 113
Meadows; 594 Randall Hyman Photography; 597 Tim Fuller; 598 Oote Boe/Alamy; 600 Martyn
Research Group of Professor C. J. Zhong/SUNY-Binghamton/Supported by NSF; 117 Dan Peha/
Chillmaid /Photolibrary; 601 Dr. A. Leger/ISM/Phototake; 603 Plowes ProteaPix; 606 Shalom
viestiphoto.com; 120 Eitan Simanor/Alamy; 122 (l r)Image Source/Getty Images; 125 Mauro
Ormsby/Blend Images/Getty Images; 608 Getty Images; 610 Richard Megna, Fundamental
Fermariello/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 126 Janet Horton Photography; 134
Photography, NYC; 612 Tim Brakemeier/dpa/CORBIS; 614 (l)James L. Amos/CORBIS, (r)1996-
Roger Ressmeyer/CORBIS; 135 Matt Meadows; 136 137 Richard Megna, Fundamental
98 AccuSoft Inc., All right/Robert Harding World Imagery/CORBIS; 615 Yoav Levy/Phototake;
Photography, NYC; 138 David Parker/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 141 CORBIS;
618 620 Tom Pantages; 623 Mount Everest from the South. AlpineAscents.com Collection;
142 Andrew Fox/CORBIS; 145 (t b)Richard Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC; 149 John
624 Matt Meadows; 625 David Taylor/Photo Researchers; 627 Matt Meadows; 629 Marie-
D. Norman/CORBIS; 153 Alberto Biscaro/Masterfile; 164 Matt Meadows; 172 Jim Sugar/Science
Louise Avery/Alamy; 632 (t b)Tim Fuller, (bkgd)Jane Faircloth/TRANSPARENCIES, Inc.; 633 Matt
Faction/Getty Images; 173 Tom Pantages; 175 Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 177
Meadows; 634 (l)Pat O’Hara/CORBIS, (r)W. Wayne Lockwood, M.D./CORBIS; 635 (l cl r)Tom
Courtesy of Dell Inc.; 181 Miyoko Oyashiki/CORBIS Sygma; 185 Lawrence Berkley National
Pantages, (cr)Eric Fowke/PhotoEdit; 636 With kind permission of the University of Edinburgh/
Laboratory; 192 Brandon D. Cole/CORBIS; 195 3D4Medicalcom/Getty Images; 204 CORBIS;
The Bridgeman Art Library; 637 (tl)courtesy of the Archives, California Institue of Technology,
205 Matt Meadows; 206 David Nardini/Getty Images; 208 Richard Megna, Fundamental
(r)Kazuyoshi Nomachi/CORBIS, (bl)Pasieka/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 638
Photography, NYC; 210 (l)Andrew Lambert Photography/Photo Researchers, (r)Charles D.
Spencer Grant/PhotoEdit; 639 Ciaran Griffin/Getty Images; 643 Jim Wark/Peter Arnold, Inc.; 644
Winters/Photo Researchers; 212 Colin Woods/Alamy; 213 (t)Manfred Kage/Peter Arnold, Inc.,
645 Matt Meadows; 646 Louise Lister/Getty Images; 652 (t)Ingram Publishing/Alamy, (cl)Sue
(c)Cat Gwynn/CORBIS, (b)Philippe Plailly/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 214
Wilson/Alamy, (cr)foodfolio/Alamy, (bl)Eric Fowke/PhotoEdit, (br)Janet Horton Photography;
(l r)Traudel Sachs/Phototake, (c)Mark A. Schneider/Photo Researchers; 220 Richard Megna,
654 Peter Dean/Grant Heilman Photography; 656 Matt Meadows; 658 (l)Matt Meadows,
Fundamental Photography, NYC; 228 Greg Huglin/SuperStock; 229 Macduff Everton/CORBIS;
(r)Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 659 660 661 662
230 Matt Meadows; 238 BIOS Gilson FranÁois/Peter Arnold, Inc.; 239 Matt Meadows; 240
663 664 665 Matt Meadows; 666 Sisse Brimberg/Getty Images; 668 Dr. Dennis Kunkel/Visuals
Charles Krebs/Getty Images; 244 Visual Arts Library (London)/Alamy; 247 Charles O’Rear/
Unlimited; 669 (l)Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, (r)CORBIS; 672 673 674 Matt
CORBIS; 257 Suzanne Long/Alamy; 261 Matt Meadows; 268 Tony Craddock/Photo Researchers;
Meadows; 678 (inset)Tom Pantages, (bkgd)Jeff Daly/Fundamental Photography, NYC; 679
270 Scientifica/Visuals Unlimited; 271 (t)Peter Weber/Getty Images, (tcl)Perennou Nuridsany/
Tom Pantages; 680 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; 681 Tom
Photo Researchers, (cr)Susumu Nishinaga/Photo Researchers, (b bcl)Prof. Kellar Autumn, Lewis
Pantages; 682 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc./Stephen Frisch, photographer; 685 Dean
& Clark College; 272 Matt Meadows; 280 (t)Robert Clay/Alamy, (b)Terry W. Eggers/CORBIS,
Conger/CORBIS; 686 John Cancalosi/Peter Arnold, Inc.; 689 L. S. Stepanowicz/Visuals Unlimited;
(bkgd)Woodfall Wild Images/Alamy; 281 Matt Meadows; 282 Charles D. Winters/Photo
693 E. R. Degginger/Photo Researchers; 694 Tom Pantages; 697 (t)Mikael Karlsson/Alamy,
Researchers; 283 (l)Mihaela Ninic/Alamy, (c)Phototake Inc./Alamy, (b)VStock/Alamy; 284
(b)Adrian Neumann/adrian_neumann@gmx.de; 700 Tom Pantages; 701 (t)Peticolas/Megna,
Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers; 287 Marilyn Genter/The Image Works; 290 (t)Josh
Fundamental Photography, NYC, (cl)Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit, (cr)Ian Pilbeam/Alamy; 702 Tom
Westrich/zefa/CORBIS, (bl)Jeff Vanuga/CORBIS, (br)Mary Evans Picture Library/The Image
Pantages; 703 (t)Richard Megna, Fundamental Photography, NYC, (bl br)Yuliya Andrianova/
Works; 291 (l)Bettmann/CORBIS, (r)David Tipling/Alamy; 292 Courtesy of Mercedes-Benz
Echo Ceramics; 706 (l)Tom Pantages, (tr) bobo/Alamy, (br)Khalid Ghani/NHPA, (bkgd)Michael
Canada; 293 (l)Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers, (r)Yoav Levy/Phototake; 295 Donald
Durham/Nature Picture Library; 707 Matt Meadows; 709 Royal Institution/SSPL/The Image
Pye/Alamy; 296 Andrew Lambert Photography/Photo Researchers; 299 Tom Pantages; 300
Works; 710 (t)Rafael Macia/Photo Researchers, (b)Chuck Franklin/Alamy; 719 (l)Tom Pantages,
303 Matt Meadows; 305 Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers; 309 (l)Darwin Dale/Photo
(r)Sami Sarkis/Alamy; 721 Stockbyte Platinum/Alamy; 722 (tl)Paul Silverman, Fundamental
Researchers, (r)Eye of Science/Photo Researchers, (bkgd)E.R. Degginger/Animals Animals -
Photography, NYC, (tr)Paul Rapson/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (r)Ferruccio/
Earth Scenes; 310 Matt Meadows; 318 (t)Tom Pantages, (b)CORBIS, (bkgd)Tom Stack/Tom
Alamy; 723 Pasquale Sorrentino/Photo Researchers; 724 Ilianski/Alamy; 725 Roger Ressmeyer/
Stack & Associates; 319 320 321 Matt Meadows, 322 CORBIS; 325 326 327 Matt Meadows;
CORBIS; 726 Geoff Butler; 730 Tom Pantages; 731 Jeff Greenberg/PhotoEdit; 733 Tom
328 Jeff Greenberg/PhotoEdit; 335 Matt Meadows; 341 (l)Comstock Images/Alamy, (r)GECO
Pantages; 742 Steve Starr/CORBIS; 743 Andrew Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library/
UK/Photo Researchers; 346 Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit; 351 Alfred Pasieka/Photo Researchers;
Photo Researchers; 744 Panorama Media (Beijing)Ltd./Alamy; 745 A. T. Willett/Alamy; 748
352 354 356 Matt Meadows; 366 Clive Schaupmeyer/AGStockUSA/Science Photo Library/Photo
Keith Dannemiller/Alamy; 749 Rachel Epstein/PhotoEdit; 752 (l)Michael Newman/PhotoEdit,
Researchers; 368 Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers; 371 Division of Chemical Education,
(r)Janet Horton Photography; 757 Robin Nelson/PhotoEdit; 762 Michael Newman/PhotoEdit;
Inc., American Chemical Society; 373 Richard Megna/Fundamental Photography, NYC; 375
764 Paul A. Souders/CORBIS; 767 (l)Masterfile, (r)Beth Galton/Getty Images; 770 R H
Rhonda Peacher Photography; 379 Aaron Haupt; 380 Chris McElcheran/Masterfile; 384 385
Productions/Getty Images; 772 (tl)Paul Silverman, Fundamental Photography, NYC, (tr)CORBIS,
Matt Meadows; 388 Gunter Marx Photography/CORBIS; 389 3D4Medicalcom/Getty Images; 390
(bl)Colin Garratt, Milepost 92½/CORBIS, (br)SSPL/The Image Works; 774 PicturePress/Getty
Matt Meadows; 400 Richard W. Ramette; 401 Matt Meadows; 402 (l)Steve McCutcheon/Visuals
Images; 775 Peter Titmuss/Alamy; 776 Matt Meadows; 784 (inset)Science Pictures Ltd/Science
Unlimited, (c)Lester V. Bergman/CORBIS, (b)Dirk Wiersma/Photo Researchers; 406 H. Turvey/
Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (bkgd)Waina Cheng/Photolibrary; 785 786 Matt Meadows;
Photo Researchers; 410 Tom Pantages; 415 Richard Megna/Fundamental Photography, NYC;
787 David Hoffman Photo Library/Alamy; 789 DK Limited/CORBIS; 790 Keith Wood/Getty
416 (t)Gabe Palmer/Alamy, (b)SSPL/The Image Works; 417 (l)Kent Wood/Photo Researchers,
Images; 791 Paul Almasy/CORBIS; 797 Bill Aron/PhotoEdit; 798 Norm Thomas/Photo
(r)Geoffrey Wheeler/Submission from National Institute of Standards and Technology; 418 Pier
Researchers; 799 (l)Masterfile, (r)J.Garcia/photocuisine/CORBIS; 802 Cordelia Molloy/Photo
Munstermanu/Foto Nature/Minden Pictures; 419 Richard Megna, Fundamental Photography,
Researchers; 803 Chuck Franklin/Alamy; 807 (t)NASA/ESA/STScI/Science Photo Library/Photo
NYC; 420 Daryl Benson/Masterfile; 421 (tl)Charles D. Winters/Science Photo Library/Photo

Credits 1051
Credits

Researchers, (b)CORBIS; 809 Alan L. Detrick/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 810 CORBIS, (b)Michael Dalton, Fundamental Photography, NYC; 909 Geoffrey Wheeler;
(t)Myrleen Ferguson Cate/PhotoEdit, (bl)SSPL/The Image Works, (br)Victor De Schwanberg/ 910 Charles D. Winters/Photo Researchers; 911 (l)Andrew Lambert/Photo Researchers,
Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 811 (l)Bettmann/CORBIS, (r)Danita Delimont/Alamy; (r)Fundamental Photography, NYC; 912 (l)Mark A. Schneider/Photo Researchers, (r)courtesy of
812 (t)Siede Preis/Photodisc Green/Getty Images, (tc)David Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit, (b)CORBIS, Northrop Grumman Space Technology; 913 (t)Paul Freytag/zefa/CORBIS, (b)Rebecca Cook/
(bc)Dorling Kindersley/Getty Images; 813 David R. Frazier Photolibrary, Inc.; 815 Neil CORBIS; 914 (t)Dung Vo Trung/CORBIS, (b)Neil Borden/Photo Researchers; 915 (l)Fred
Emmerson/Robert Harding World Imagery/Getty Images; 816 Matt Meadows; 824 (t)Eye Of Haebegger/Grant Heilman Photography, (r)Bettmann/CORBIS; 916 Cordelia Molloy/Science
Science/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (c)Dr. Kessel & Dr. Kardon/Tissues & Organs/ Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 917 Martyn F. Chillmaid/Photo Researchers; 918 Colin
Visuals Unlimited, (b)Steve Gschmeissner/Photo Researchers, (bkgd)AK PhotoLibrary/Alamy; Walton/Alamy; 919 (t)Roger Harris/Photo Researchers, (c)Tom Pantages, (b)Kalicoba/Alamy;
825 Matt Meadows; 826 (l) John Conrad/CORBIS, (r)Ron Niebrugge/Alamy; 829 Janet Horton 920 (t)The Art Archive/Egyptian Museum Cairo/Dagli Orti, (b)Theodore Clutter/Photo
Photography; 831 (l)CORBIS, (r)Medical-on-Line/Alamy; 833 IndexStock; 834 (l)Foodcollection. Researchers; 921 (t)ISM/Phototake, (b)Fritz Goro/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images; 924 (t)Tom
com/Alamy, (r)Brand X Pictures/Alamy; 835 D. Hurst/Alamy; 836 Michael Newman/PhotoEdit; Pantages, (tc)Greg Stott/Masterfile, (b)Toshiba Corporation images, (bc)Eye of Science/Photo
838 Pat O’Hara/CORBIS; 839 Joe Mc Donald/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes; 846 (t)CORBIS, Researchers; 925 (t)Judith Collins/Alamy, (b)Collection CNRI/Phototake; 926 Andrew Lambert
(b)AP Photo/Joe Cavaretta; 847 (t)David Young-Wolff/PhotoEdit, (b)Alex Farnsworth/The Image Photography/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 927 David Taylor/Photo Researchers;
Works; 848 Wally McNamee/CORBIS; 849 (t)epa/CORBIS, (b)Mary Schweitzer; 855 CORBIS; 928 (tl)Chemical Design/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (tr)Johner Images/Getty
858 (t)ADEAR/RDF/Visuals Unlimited, (c)ISM/Phototake, (b)Science Photo Library/Photo Images, (b)Dr Tim Evans/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers; 929 Phil Schermeister/
Researchers, (bkgd)John Terence Turner/Taxi/Getty Images; 859 Comstock Images/Alamy; 860 CORBIS; 930 (t)Martin Dohrn/naturepl.com, (c)Goodshoot-Jupiterimages France/Alamy,
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About the Photo:


When a piece of sodium metal is dropped into
a flask of bromine gas, the vigorous reaction
produces heat and sparks of light.
Safety Symbols
These safety symbols are used in laboratory and investigations in this book to indicate possible hazards.
Learn the meaning of each symbol and refer to this page often. Remember to wash your hands thoroughly
after completing lab procedures.

SAFETY SYMBOLS HAZARD EXAMPLES PRECAUTION REMEDY


Special disposal certain chemicals, Do not dispose of these Dispose of wastes as
DISPOSAL procedures need to be living organisms materials in the sink or directed by your teacher.
followed. trash can.

Organisms or other bacteria, fungi, blood, Avoid skin contact with Notify your teacher if you
BIOLOGICAL biological materials that unpreserved tissues, plant these materials. Wear suspect contact with
might be harmful to materials mask or gloves. material. Wash hands
humans thoroughly.

EXTREME Objects that can burn boiling liquids, hot plates, Use proper protection Go to your teacher for
skin by being too cold or dry ice, liquid nitrogen when handling. first aid.
TEMPERATURE too hot

SHARP Use of tools or glassware razor blades, pins, Practice common-sense Go to your teacher for
that can easily puncture or scalpels, pointed tools, behavior and follow first aid.
OBJECT slice skin dissecting probes, guidelines for use of
broken glass the tool.

Possible danger to ammonia, acetone, nail Make sure there is good Leave foul area and
FUME respiratory tract from polish remover, heated ventilation. Never smell notify your teacher
fumes sulfur, moth balls fumes directly. Wear a immediately.
mask.

Possible danger from improper grounding, liquid Double-check setup with Do not attempt to fix
ELECTRICAL electrical shock or burn spills, short circuits, teacher. Check condition electrical problems. Notify
exposed wires of wires and apparatus. your teacher immediately.

Substances that can pollen, moth balls, steel Wear dust mask and Go to your teacher for
IRRITANT irritate the skin or mucous wool, fiberglass, potassium gloves. Practice extra care first aid.
membranes of the permanganate when handling these
respiratory tract materials.

Chemicals that can react bleaches such as Wear goggles, gloves, Immediately flush the
CHEMICAL with and destroy tissue hydrogen peroxide; acids and an apron. affected area with water
and other materials such as sulfuric acid, and notify your teacher.
hydrochloric acid; bases
such as ammonia,
sodium hydroxide

Substance may be mercury, many metal Follow your teacher’s Always wash hands
TOXIC poisonous if touched, compounds, iodine, instructions. thoroughly after use.
inhaled, or swallowed. poinsettia plant parts Go to your teacher for
first aid.

Open flame may ignite alcohol, kerosene, Avoid open flames and Notify your teacher
FLAMMABLE flammable chemicals, potassium permanganate, heat when using immediately. Use fire
loose clothing, or hair. hair, clothing flammable chemicals. safety equipment if
applicable.

Open flame in use, may hair, clothing, paper, Tie back hair and loose Always wash hands
OPEN FLAME cause fire. synthetic materials clothing. Follow teacher's thoroughly after use.
instructions on lighting Go to your teacher for
and extinguishing flames. first aid.

Eye Safety Clothing Animal Radioactivity Handwashing


Proper eye Protection Safety This symbol After the lab, wash
protection should This symbol This symbol appears when hands with soap
be worn at all appears when sub- appears when radioactive and water before
times by anyone stances could stain safety of animals materials are used. removing goggles
performing or or burn clothing. and students
observing science must be ensured.
activities.
PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS

1 Gas
Element Hydrogen
1 State of Liquid
Atomic number
Hydrogen
matter Solid
1
1
2 Symbol H
H
1.008 Atomic mass 1.008 Synthetic
Lithium Beryllium
3 4
2 Li Be
6.941 9.012

Sodium Magnesium
11 12
3 Na Mg 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
22.990 24.305

Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt


19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co
39.098 40.078 44.956 47.867 50.942 51.996 54.938 55.847 58.933

Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium


37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh
85.468 87.62 88.906 91.224 92.906 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.906

Cesium Barium Lanthanum Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium


55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77
6
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir
132.905 137.327 138.905 178.49 180.948 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.217

Francium Radium Actinium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium


87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109
7
Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
(223) (226) (227) (261) (262) (266) (264) (277) (268)

The number in parentheses is the mass number of the longest lived isotope
for that element.

Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium


58 59 60 61 62 63
Lanthanide series Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu
140.115 140.908 144.242 (145) 150.36 151.965

Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium


Actinide series 90 91 92 93 94 95
Th Pa U Np Pu Am
232.038 231.036 238.029 (237) (244) (243)
Metal
18
Metalloid

Nonmetal Helium
2
Recently 13 14 15 16 17 He
observed 4.003

Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon


5 6 7 8 9 10
B C N O F Ne
10.811 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998 20.180

Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon


13 14 15 16 17 18
10 11 12 Al Si P S Cl Ar
26.982 28.086 30.974 32.066 35.453 39.948

Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton


28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
58.693 63.546 65.39 69.723 72.61 74.922 78.96 79.904 83.80

Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon


46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
106.42 107.868 112.411 114.82 118.710 121.757 127.60 126.904 131.290

Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon


78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
195.08 196.967 200.59 204.383 207.2 208.980 208.982 209.987 222.018

Darmstadtium Roentgenium Ununbium Ununtrium Ununquadium Ununpentium Ununhexium Ununoctium


110 111 112 113 114 115 116 118
Ds Rg
* Uub * Uut * Uuq * Uup * Uuh * Uuo
(281) (272) (285) (284) (289) (288) (291) (294)

*The names and symbols for elements 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, and 118 are temporary. Final names will be
selected when the elements’ discoveries are verified.

Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium


64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
157.25 158.925 162.50 164.930 167.259 168.934 173.04 174.967

Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium


96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
(247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)

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