CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

In recent years many power electronics converters utilizing switching devices have been widely
used in industrial as well as in domestic applications. It desires to draw purely sinusoidal currents
from the distribution network, but this is no longer the case with this new generation of receivers
that take advantage of all the recent advances and improvements in power electronics. These
power electronics systems such as high-power diode/thyristor rectifiers, arc furnaces, cyclo-
converters, and variable speed drives offer highly nonlinear characteristics [1] Some of the small
power domestic electrical appliances like TV sets and computers, multiple low-power diode
rectifier, and microwave ovens also draw distorted currents. These nonlinear loads lead to
generation of current/voltage harmonics and draw reactive power and are becoming troublesome
problems in ac power lines. The increase in such nonlinearity causes different undesirable
features like low system efficiency and poor power factor. It also causes disturbances to other
consumers and interference in nearby communication networks [3]. The effect of this
nonlinearity could become sizeable over the next few years. Hence it is very important to
overcome these undesirable features Electrical energy is the most efficient and popular form of
energy and the modern society is heavily dependent on the electric supply. The life cannot be
imagined without the supply of electricity. At the same time the quality of the electric power
supplied is also very important for the efficient functioning of the end user equipment .The term
power quality became most prominent in the power sector and both the electric power supply
company and the end users are concerned about it. The quality of power delivered to the
consumers depends on the voltage and frequency ranges of the power. If there is any deviation in
the voltage and frequency of the electric power delivered from that of the standard values then
the quality of power delivered is affected .Now-a-days with the advancement in technology there
is a drastic improvement in the semi-conductor devices. With this development and advantages,
the semi-conductor devices got a permanent place in the power sector helping to ease the control

[1]
of overall system [2]. Moreover, most of the loads are also semi-conductor based equipment. But
the semi-conductor devices are non-linear in nature and draws non-linear current from the
source. And also the semi-conductor devices are involved in power conversion, which is either
AC to DC or from DC to AC. This power conversion contains lot of switching operations which
may introduce discontinuity in the current [4]. Due to this discontinuity and non-linearity,
harmonics are present which affect the quality of power delivered to the end user. In order to
maintain the quality of power delivered, the harmonics should be filtered out. Thus, a device
named Filter is used which serves this purpose. Application of DC electrified railways as a
significant metropolitan means of transportation is increasing greatly. DC Electrified railways
play an important role for public transportation because of high efficiency, heavy ridership and
fast transportation. However, they result in great power quality problems for the power
distribution system which feeds the traction system. In DC electrified railways, the rectifiers of
the traction substations are a major cause of harmonic distortion in the AC supply High THD of
the system current, harmonics and inter harmonics, reactive power consumption, voltage
unbalance and flicker and low power factor problems can suffer the power distribution system
feeding the traction In anticipation of the proliferation of nonlinear load sand to limit the
problems, recommended guidelines like the IEEE Std. 519-1992 specify the allowable harmonic
associated in the currents drawn from the utility system. Different methods are utilized for
improving the power quality issues of the power distribution system such as dynamic voltage
regulators, Statcom and active or hybrid [2]-[5]
The consumption of reactive power in industrial and domestic loads presents also an important
issue in discussion of power quality problems .the reactive power consumed by non-resistive
loads cause higher rms current values in addition to extra heating of power transmissions and
distribution system. The use of batteries of capacitors or synchronous machines for local reactive
Power production has been proposed for a long time .the accelerated development of power
electronics and semiconductor production had encouraged the use of STATIC VAR
compensators for the reactive power compensation. However, these solutions looks inefficient
and can cause extra problems in power system in the case of high current and voltage harmonic
emissions. The fact that these systems are especially designed to compensate the fundamental
based reactive power, in addition to high possibilities of interaction between these compensation
elements and system harmonics make it unstable solutions in modern technologies.

[2]
During the last three decades the researchers were encouraged by the development of power
electronics industry the revolution in digital signal processing production and the increasing
demand for efficient solutions of power quality problems including harmonics problem .They
were encouraged to develop modern flexible, and more efficient solutions for power quality
problems .These modern solutions have been given the name of active compensators or active
power filter .The objective of dissertation of these active power filter abbreviation mostly APF is
to compensate harmonic and reactive power compensation and DC power generation was
proposed .The main advantages of the APFs are their flexibility to fit load parameters variations
and harmonic frequencies in addition to high compensation performance[3]-[4].
Many types of APF has been proposed and used in harmonic compensation .series APF are used
for voltage harmonics compensation shunt APF were proposed for current harmonics and
reactive power compensation .the Unified power quality filter or conditioner combines the two
types shunt and series APF in one device responsible for simultaneous compensation of voltage
current harmonics and reactive power [2].
Although there are different types of APF, the Shunt APF are still the most famous and used type
APF. The main function of shunt active power filter is to cancel harmonics current occurring in
power grids the principle of SAPF is to generate harmonics current equal in magnitude and
opposite in phase to those harmonics that circulate in the grids. The nonlinear loads absorb non-
sinusoidal form .In this dissertation work from the static power device SAPF is used with PI
controller for the power quality enhancement in distribution system .Here two different loads are
considered, nonlinear load and unbalanced nonlinear load to enhance the power quality in
distribution

1.2 TYPES OF LOAD

Loads can be characterized into many types according to their nature, function etc. The type of
load we are interested in are
1. Linear load
2. Non-linear load
1.2.1 LINEAR LOAD
Electrical loads whose current wave has a linear relation with the voltage wave are termed as
linear loads. These loads do not cause any harmonic in the electrical system.

[3]
1.2.2 NON-LINEAR LOAD
The nonlinear loads are referred to as the loads that distort the current waveform shape due to the
switching action and the current and voltage waveforms are not identical in shape, e.g.
fluorescent lamp, PC and TV etc. Figure 1.1 shows how harmonics injected by non-linear loads
distort the current waveform

Fig. 1.1 – Distortion in current waveforms due to harmonics

1.3 PROBLEMS CAUSED BY HARMONICS

Following are the problems that are caused by the presence of harmonics in power system.
1.3.1 EFFECT ON POWER SYSTEM ITSELF
The major effect of power system harmonics is to increase the current in the system. This is
particularly the case for the third harmonic, which causes a sharp increase in the zero sequence
current, and therefore increases the current in the neutral conductor.
1.3.2 EFFECT ON CONSUMER ITSELF
Non-linear loads also causes harmonics/distortions in utility supplied voltages due to which even
the linear loads draw non -linear current. Harmonics can also cause thyristor firing errors in
converter. The performance of consumer equipment, such as motor drives and computer power
supplies, can be adversely affected by harmonics.

[4]
1.3.3 EFFECT ON COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Harmonic currents flowing on the utility distribution system or within an end-user facility can
create interference in communication circuits sharing a common path. Voltages included in
parallel conductors by the common harmonic currents often fall within the bandwidth of neutral
voice communications. Harmonic currents on the power system are coupled into communication
system by either induction or direct conduction.
1.3.4 EFFECT OF REVENUE BILLING
Electrical utility companies usually measure energy consumption in two quantities energy
consumed and the maximum power used for given period. Both energy and demand are
measured using the so-called watt -hour and demand meters. Harmonic currents from non -linear
loads can impact the accuracy of watt-hour and demand meter adversely. Traditional watt -hour
meters are based on the induction motor principle. Conventional magnetic disk watt -hour meters
tend to have a negative error at harmonic frequencies. That is, they register low for power at
harmonic frequencies if they are properly calibrated for fundamental frequency. This error
increases with increasing frequency

1.4 Literature Review

Singh, Bhim; Al-Haddad, K.; Chandra[1] -The use of active power filters for power quality
improvement is discussed in In this paper a review of active filter configuration for power
quality improvement is presented along with control strategies. It is found that the active filters
are facing some drawbacks when employed for power quality improvement. They are High
converter ratings are required, Costlier when compared to its counterpart, passive filter, Huge
size, Increased losses.

Rivas, D.; Moran, L.; Dixon, J.W.; Espinoza, J.R[2]-.This paper discusses how a combination
of both active and passive filters is an economical solution for power quality improvement To
enhance the characteristics of passive filter and also the system, the active filter should be
controlled properly. There are different control techniques for this purpose. The main aim of any
control technique is to make active filter inject a voltage in to the system that compensates the

[5]
harmonics. To achieve this output voltage of the active filter is controlled such that it is equal to
a pre-calculated reference value.
Herrera, R.S.; Salmeron, P.[3]-This is presented in and it discusses the different control
algorithms from the formulations of instantaneous reactive power theory. Finally it concludes
that vector based theory yields better results with sinusoidal currents when compared with other
algorithms
Salmeron, P.; Litran, S.P.[4]- The control of series active in conjunction with shunt passive
filter using dual instantaneous reactive power vector theory is presented in . In this paper the
proposed theory is validated by simulating it in MATLAB SIMULINK environment he proposed
control strategy is simulated for both balance and unbalanced load
M H J Bollen [5]- The quality of power is affected when there is any deviation in the voltage,
current or frequency . The common problems that affect the sensitivity of the equipment
Leszek S. Czarnecki [6] -This paper investigates how power phenomena and properties of
three-phase systems are described and interpreted by the Instantaneous Reactive Power (IRP) p-q
Theory This paper shows, moreover, that the IRP p-q Theory is not capable to identify power
properties of three-phase loads instantaneously. A pair of instantaneous values of and powers
does not allow us to conclude whether the load is resistive, reactive, balanced, or unbalanced. It
is known that a load imbalance reduces power factor. However, the IRP p-q Theory does not
identify the load imbalance as the cause of power factor degradation.
G. Satya Narayana, Ch. Narendra Kumar, Ch. Rambabu [7]- This paper presents a fuzzy
logic, PI controlled shunt active power filter used to compensate for harmonic distortion in three-
phase systems. The Hybrid active power filter employs a simple method for the calculation of the
reference compensation current based on Fast Fourier Transform. The presented Hybrid Active
Power filter is able to operate in balanced, load conditions. Classic filters may not have
satisfactory performance in fast varying conditions. But auto tuned active power filter gives
better results for harmonic minimization, and THD improvement. The proposed auto tuned
hybrid active power filter maintains the THD well within IEEE-519 standards. The proposed
methodology is extensively tested and with improved dynamic behavior of hybrid active power
Filter using fuzzy logic, PI controllers. The results are found to be quite satisfactory to mitigate
harmonic Distortions, and improve quality.

[6]
Shailendra Kumar Jain & Pramod Agarwal [8] - This paper presents complete design, on a 3-
phase shunt active power filter to compensate harmonics and the reactive power requirement of
nonlinear loads. The paper describes the completed ensign aspects of power circuit elements and
control circuit parameters. The compensation process is based on sensing line currents only, an
approach different from conventional methods that require the harmonics and reactive volt-
ampere requirement of the load. Various simulation results are presented to study the
performance during steady-state and transient conditions to validate the design. A lab oratory
prototype has been developed to verify the simulation results. The control scheme is realized on
a dedicated micro-controller based system. PWM pattern generation is based on carrier less
hysteresis-based current control to obtain the switching signals. Based on simulation and
experimental results it can be concluded that the compensation process is simple and easy to
implement. The spectral performance shows that the active filter brings the THD of the system
well below 5%, the limit imposed by the IEEE-519.
Bhim Singh,; Ambrish Chandra and Kainal Al-Haddad[9]-In this paper, a 3-phase active power
filter ('APF) is presented to eliminate harmonics and to compensate the reactive power of an
uncontrolled rectifier with active loading taken as non-linear load. APF is realized using 3-phase
voltage source inverter (VSI) with dc bus capacitor. Reference source currents are estimate- d
using P-I control over dc bus voltage and 3-phase source voltages. Command currents of the
APF are obtained with reference source currents and load currents. A hysteresis based carrier
less PWM current control over the command currents of the APF is used to derive gating signals
to the devices of APF. Modeling and performance characteristics of an I8 kW APF to meet the
IEEE-519 standards are presented.
W. M. Grady, M. J. Samotyj A. H. Noyola,[10]:- Active power line conditioning (APLC) is a
relative new concept that can potentially correct network distortion caused by power electronic
loads by injecting equal-but-opposite distortion at carefully selected points in a network. This
paper presents the results of an extensive literary survey on the subject of APLCs. Thirty-seven
key publications are identified and reviewed. Existing and proposed line conditioning
methodologies are compared, and a list of the advantages and limitations of each is presented.

[7]
1.4 ORGANIZATION OF DISSERTATION:
The whole dissertation is organized into six chapters including introduction and each chapter is
summarized below.
 Chapter 1- this chapter describe the introduction of custom power devices to mitigate the
power quality issues with literature review, and organization of dissertation.
 Chapter 2- this chapter describe the power quality term classification of power quality
problems, effect of power quality problem,
 Chapter 3-this chapter describe with the types of filters available for harmonic reduction.
It explains the merits and demerits of each type of filter with a circuit diagram.
 Chapter 4-this chapter describe the control technique of SAPF filter and modeling of
filter.
 Chapter 5-this chapter describe the simulation and results of dissertation work.
 Chapter 6-this chapter describe the conclusion and future scope.

[8]
 CHAPTER 2

POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS

Both electric utilities and end users of electric power are becoming increasingly concerned
about the quality of electric power. The term power quality has become one of the most prolific
buzzwords in the power industry since the late 1980s. It is an umbrella concept for a multitude of
individual types of power system disturbances. The issues that fall under this umbrella are not
necessarily new. What is new is that engineers are now attempting to deal with these issues using
a system approach rather than handling them as individual problems.
There are four major reasons for the increased concern:
 Newer-generation load equipment, with microprocessor-based controls and power
electronic devices, is more sensitive to power quality variations than was equipment used
in the past.
 The increasing emphasis on overall power system efficiency has resulted in continued
growth in the application of devices such as high-efficiency, adjustable-speed motor
drives and shunt capacitors for power factor correction to reduce losses. This is resulting
in increasing harmonic levels on power systems and has many people concerned about
the future impact on system capabilities.
 End users have an increased awareness of power quality issues. Utility customers are
becoming better informed about such issues as interruptions, sags, and transients and are
challenging the utilities to improve the quality of power delivered.
 Many things are now interconnected in a network. Integrated processes mean that the
failure of any component has much more important consequences.

[9]
2.1 WHAT IS POWER QUALITY?
There can be completely different definitions for power quality, depending on one’s frame
of reference. For example, a utility may define power quality as reliability and show statistics
demonstrating that its system is 99.98 percent reliable. Criteria established by regulatory
agencies are usually in this vein. A manufacturer of load equipment may define power quality as
those characteristics of the power supply that enable the equipment to work properly. These
characteristics can be very different for different criteria. Power quality is ultimately a consumer-
driven issue, and the end user’s point of reference takes precedence. Therefore, the following
definition of a power quality problem is used in this report
Any power problem manifested in voltage, current, or frequency deviations that result in failure
or mal-operation of customer equipment.
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) Standard IEEE1100 defines power quality
as “The concept of powering and grounding sensitive electronic equipment in a manner
suitable for the equipment.”
2.2 PERCEPTION ABOUT POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS

Perception about power quality problem is different when it comes to customer and utility.
Fig.2.1 depicts this trend

Fig. 2.1 Results of a survey on the cause of power quality problems

2.3 GENERAL CLASSES OF POWER QUALITY PROBLEMS

Classification of power quality problems can be made as follows:

[10]
2.3.1 Transients:
The term transient has long been used in the analysis of power system variations to
denote an event that is undesirable and momentary in nature. The notion of a damped oscillatory
transient due to an RLC network is probably what most power engineers think of when they hear
the word transient. Other definitions in common use are broad in scope and simply state that a
transient is “that part of the change in a variable that disappears during transition from one steady
state operating condition to another.” Unfortunately, this definition could be used to describe just
about anything unusual that happens on the power system. Another word in common usage that
is often considered synonymous with transient is surge. A utility engineer may think of a surge
as the transient resulting from a lightning stroke for which a surge arrester is used for protection.
End users frequently use the word indiscriminately to describe anything unusual that might be
observed on the power supply ranging from sags to swells to interruptions. Because there are
many potential ambiguities with this word in the power quality field, we will generally avoid
using it unless we have specifically defined what it refers to. Broadly speaking, transients can be
classified into two categories, impulsive and oscillatory. These terms reflect the wave shape of a
current or voltage transient. We will describe these two categories in more detail.

2.3.1.1 Impulsive Transient:

An impulsive transient is a sudden non–power frequency change in the steady-state
condition of voltage, current, or both that is unidirectional in polarity (primarily either positive or
negative). Impulsive transients are normally characterized by their rise and decay times, which
can also be revealed by their spectral content. The most common cause of impulsive transients is
lightning. Fig. 2.2 illustrates a typical current impulsive transient caused by lightning. Because of
the high frequencies involved, the shape of impulsive transients can be changed quickly by
circuit components and may have significantly different characteristics when viewed from
different parts of the power system. They are generally not conducted far from the source of
where they enter the power system, although they may, in some cases, be conducted for quite
some distance along utility lines. Impulsive transients can excite the natural frequency of power
system circuits and produce oscillatory transients.

[11]
 Fig. 2.2 Lightning stroke current impulsive transient

2.3.1.2 Oscillatory Transient:

An oscillatory transient is a sudden, non–power frequency change in the steady-state

condition of voltage, current, or both, that includes both positive and negative polarity values. An
oscillatory transient consists of a voltage or current whose instantaneous value changes polarity
rapidly. It is described by its spectral content (predominate frequency), duration, and magnitude.
The frequency ranges for these classifications are chosen to coincide with common types of
power system oscillatory transient phenomena. Oscillatory transients with a primary frequency
component greater than 500 kHz and a typical duration measured in microseconds (or several
cycles of the principal frequency) are considered high-frequency transients. These transients are
often the result of a local system response to an impulsive transient. A transient with a primary
frequency component between 5 and 500 kHz with duration measured in the tens of
microseconds (or several cycles of the principal frequency) is termed a medium-frequency
transient. Back-to-back capacitor energization results in oscillatory transient currents in the tens
of kilohertz as illustrated in Fig. 2.3 Cable switching results in oscillatory voltage transients in
the same frequency range. Medium-frequency transients can also be the result of a system
response to an impulsive transient.

[12]
 Fig. 2.3 Oscillatory transient current caused by back-to-back capacitor switching

2.3.2 Long-Duration Voltage Variations:

Long duration voltage variations are as follows

2.3.2.1 Overvoltage:
An overvoltage is an increase in the rms ac voltage greater than 110 percent at the
power frequency for duration longer than 1 min. Over voltages are usually the result of load
switching (e.g., switching off a large load or energizing a capacitor bank). The over voltages
result because either the system is too weak for the desired voltage regulation or voltage controls
are inadequate. Incorrect tap settings on transformers can also result in system overvoltage.

2.3.2.2 Under Voltage:

An under voltage is a decrease in the rms ac voltage to less than 90 percent at the
power frequency for a duration longer than 1 min. Under voltages are the results of switching
events that are the opposite of the events that cause over voltages. A load switching on or a
capacitor bank switching off can cause an under voltage until voltage regulation equipment on
the system can bring the voltage back to within tolerances. Overloaded circuits can result in
under voltages also.

[13]
The term brownout is often used to describe sustained periods of under voltage initiated as a
specific utility dispatch strategy to reduce power demand. Because there is no formal definition
for brownout and it is not as clear as the term under-voltage when trying to characterize a
disturbance, the term brownout should be avoided.

2.3.2.3 Sustained Interruptions:

When the supply voltage has been zero for a period of time in excess of 1 min, the
long-duration voltage variation is considered a sustained interruption. Voltage interruptions
longer than 1 min are often permanent and require human intervention to repair the system for
restoration. The term sustained interruption refers to specific power system phenomena and, in
general, has no relation to the usage of the term outage. Utilities use outage or interruption to
describe phenomena of similar nature for reliability reporting purposes. However, this causes
confusion for end users who think of an outage as any interruption of power that shuts down a
process. This could be as little as one-half of a cycle. Outage, as defined in IEEE Standard 1008
does not refer to a specific phenomenon, but rather to the state of a component in a system that
has failed to function as expected. Also, use of the term interruption in the context of power
quality monitoring has no relation to reliability or other continuity of service statistics. Thus, this
term has been defined to be more specific regarding the absence of voltage for long periods.

2.3.3 Short-Duration Voltage Variations:

Short-duration voltage variations are caused by fault conditions, the energization of large
loads which require high starting currents, or intermittent loose connections in power wiring.
Depending on the fault location and the system conditions, the fault can cause either temporary
voltage drops (sags), voltage rises (swells), or a complete loss of voltage (interruptions).

2.3.3.1 Interruption:
An interruption occurs when the supply voltage or load current decreases to less than
0.1 pu for a period of time not exceeding 1 min. Interruptions can be the result of power system
faults, equipment failures, and control malfunctions. The interruptions are measured by their
duration since the voltage magnitude is always less than 10 percent of nominal. The duration of
an interruption due to a fault on the utility system is determined by the operating time of utility

[14]
protective devices. Instantaneous reclosing generally will limit the interruption caused by a non-
permanent fault to less than 30 cycles. Delayed reclosing of the protective device may cause a
momentary or temporary interruption. The duration of an interruption due to equipment
malfunctions or loose connections can be irregular.

2.3.3.2 Sags (dips):

Sag is a decrease to between 0.1 and 0.9 pu in rms voltage or current at the power
frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min.

Fig. 2.4 Three-phase rms voltages for a momentary interruption due to a fault and
Sub-sequent recloser operation
2.3.3.3 Swells:
A swell is defined as an increase to between 1.1 and 1.8 pu in rms voltage or current at
the power frequency for durations from 0.5 cycle to 1 min. As with sags, swells are usually
associated with system fault conditions, but they are not as common as voltage sags. One way
that a swell can occur is from the temporary voltage rise on the unfaulted phases during an SLG
fault.

Fig. 2.5 Instantaneous voltage swell caused by an SLG fault

[15]
2.3.4 Voltage Imbalance:
Voltage imbalance (also called voltage unbalance) is sometimes defined as the maximum
deviation from the average of the three-phase voltages or currents, divided by the average of the
three-phase voltages or currents, expressed in percent.

Fig. 2.6 Voltage imbalance trend for a residential feeder

2.3.5 Waveform Distortion:

Waveform distortion is defined as a steady-state deviation from an ideal sine wave of
power frequency principally characterized by the spectral content of the deviation.
There are five primary types of waveform distortion:
 DC offset
 Harmonics
 Inter-harmonics
 Notching
 Noise

[16]
2.3.5.1 Harmonics:
Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are integer
multiples of the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (termed the
fundamental frequency; usually 50 or 60 Hz). Periodically distorted waveforms can be
decomposed into a sum of the fundamental frequency and the harmonics. Harmonic distortion
originates in the nonlinear characteristics of devices and loads on the power system. Harmonic
distortion levels are described by the complete harmonic spectrum with magnitudes and phase
angles of each individual harmonic component. It is also common to use a single quantity, the
total harmonic distortion (THD), as a measure of the effective value of harmonic distortion.
IEEE Standard 519-1992 provides guidelines for harmonic current and voltage distortion levels
on distribution and transmission circuits.

Fig. 2.7 A typical fifth harmonic wave

2.3.5.2 Inter-Harmonics:
Voltages or currents having frequency components that are not integer multiples of the
frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (e.g., 50 or 60 Hz) are called inter-
harmonics.

[17]
2.3.6 Voltage Fluctuation:
Voltage fluctuations are systematic variations of the voltage envelope or a series of
random voltage changes, the magnitude of which does not normally exceed the voltage ranges of
0.9 to 1.1 pu.

Fig. 2.8 Voltage fluctuations caused by arc furnace operation

2.4 Conclusions:
In this chapter I have given an insight into power quality and effects on power quality by
problems associated with it e.g. waveform distortion, voltage imbalance and fluctuation, various
kind of interruptions and voltage variation to name a few. These are problems that we deal on
regular basis for betterment of power quality. With advancement of power electronic devices we
can reduce these disturbances by a large margin with a whole lot of efficient power electronic
devices.

[18]
 CHAPTER 3

ACTIVE POWER FILTER

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The electric power system is affected by various problems like transients, noise, voltage
sag/swell, which leads to the production of harmonics and affect the quality of power delivered
to the end user. The harmonics may exist in voltage or current waveforms which are the integral
multiples of the fundamental frequency, which does not contribute for the active power delivery.
Thus the response at these frequencies should be restricted from affecting the behavior of the
system. To achieve this filter is used at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC) where the load is
connected to the supply. This filter filters out the harmonics and improves the performance of the
system. There are different types of filters available for this purpose. Each of them is explained
in detail in this chapter

3.2 FILTER CLASSIFICATION

The different filters present in the literature are classified into three basic types. They are
Active Filters and Passive Filters and Hybrid filter

Fig.3.1 Classification of Filters

[19]
3.2.1 Passive Power Filters:
These filters consist of passive elements like- capacitor, inductor and resistor. These are widely
used because of their low cost and ease of control. The passive filters also provide reactive
power apart from filtering the harmonics [2-[3]. The performance of these filters is heavily
dependent on the system impedance. These are again classified into two types- low pass and high
pass.
3.2.1.1 Low Pass Filter:
The low pass filter is a tuned LC circuit that is tuned to provide low impedance for a particular
harmonic current. In addition these filters are also used for power factor correction [2]. In power
system network these are generally used to filter 5th and 7th order harmonics. The line diagram of
the low pass filter is shown in Fig. 3.2

Fig.3.2 Low Pass Filter

3.2.1.2 High Pass Filter

The high pass filters are also made of passive elements like inductor and capacitor but show low
impedance for harmonic current above a particular corner frequency. All the harmonics present
above that corner frequency are filtered using this filter.

Fig.3.3 High Pass Filter

[20]
This filter is again of many types like single-order, two-order, third-order etc., based on the
number of passive filters used in it. Among them the two-order filter is widely used. Fig. 2.3
shows the line diagram of a high pass filter .But there are some disadvantages with passive filter,
like

 The filter characteristics has strong dependence on the system impedance

 Possibility of over load in the passive filter because of harmonic current
 The change of the load impedance can detune the filter, so it is not suitable for variable
loads
 The problem of series and/or parallel resonances can be originated which causes of
instable operation
 Limited operation, that is used to eliminate either a particular order or fewer harmonics
 Component aging

Because of the above disadvantages the passive filters cannot provide an effective solution to
enhance the quality of the power system. Thus, the active power filters are employed to
overcome the above drawback.
3.2.2 Active Power Filters (APF):

To overcome the drawback of passive filter, active compensation known as Active Power Filter
is used recently. The APF is a Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) which injects the compensating
current or voltage based on the network configuration. It was proposed around 1970. APF‟s are
an up-to-date solution with fast switching devices, low power loss and fast digital processing
devices at an affordable price. Depending on the circuit configuration and function, APF‟s are
divided into three types and each one is explained in detail.

3.2.2.1 Shunt Active Power Filter:

The voltage sourced inverter based Shunt APF is similar to STATCOM. It is connected in shunt
at the PCC. It injects the current which is equal and opposite to the harmonic current. It acts as a
current source injecting harmonics and is suitable for any type of load. It also helps in improving
the load power factor [2] [9]. The circuit diagram of the power system with shunt connected APF
is shown in Fig. 3.4. The cost of these filters is relatively higher and so not preferred for large
scale systems

[21]
 Fig.3.4 Circuit Diagram of Shunt active power filter
3.2.2.2 Series Active Power Filter:
As the name indicates, these filters are connected in series with the line through a matching
transformer. This filter injects the compensating voltage in series with the supply voltage. Thus,
it acts as a voltage source which can be controlled to compensate the voltage sag/swell [6][10]
These filters have their application mainly where the load contains voltage sensitive devices. The
circuit diagram of the power system with series connected APF is shown in Fig. 3.5. These filters
are not used practically since they are required to handle high current ratings

Fig.3.5 Circuit Diagram of Series active power filter

Which increase the size of the filter as well as the losses occurring in the filter.

[22]
3.2.2.3. Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC):
The UPQC is a combination of series and shunt active power filters. It has the advantage of both
series APF and shunt APF. That means, it compensates both the voltage and current harmonics.
Therefore, this filter can compensate almost all types of power quality problems faced by a
power system network [7]. The circuit diagram of power system with UPQC is shown in Fig.
2.6.

Fig.3.6 Circuit Diagram with UPQC

3.2.3 Hybrid Power Filters:

The active power filters are better solution for power quality improvement but they require high
converter ratings. So to overcome the above drawback, hybrid power filters are designed. The
hybrid power filters are the combination of both active and passive power filters. They have the
advantage of both active and passive filters [2][15] .There are different hybrid filters based on
the circuit combination and arrangement. They are-
 Shunt Active Power Filter and Series Active Power Filter
 Shunt Active Power Filter and Shunt Passive Filter
 Active Power Filter in series with Shunt Passive Filter
 Series Active Power Filter with Shunt Passive Filter

[23]
3.2.3.1 Shunt APF and Series APF:

Fig.3.7 Shunt APF and Series APF Combination

This filter combination has the advantage of both series connected APF i.e., elimination of
voltage harmonics and that of shunt connected APF of eliminating current harmonics. The circuit
diagram is shown in Fig. 3.7. This combination finds its application in Flexible AC Transmission
Systems (FACTS) [12]. But the control of APF is complex and this combination involves two
APF and hence the control of this filter configuration is even more complex. Thus, this filter
combination is not used widely.
3.2.3.2 Shunt APF and Shunt Passive Filter:
The power rating of the APF depend on the order of frequencies it is filtering out. Thus an APF
used for filtering out low order harmonics have low power rating with reduced size and cost.
This logic is used in designing this filter combination [15] .The shunt connected APF filters out
the low order current harmonics while the shunt connected passive filter is designed to filter out
the higher order harmonics. The circuit configuration of this filter topology is shown in Fig. 2.8.

Fig.3.8 Shunt APF and Shunt Passive Filter Combination

[24]
But the main disadvantage of this filter configuration is it cannot be suited for variable loading
conditions. Since, the passive filter can be tuned only for a specific predetermined harmonic.
3.2.3.3. APF in Series with Shunt Passive Filter:
In this filter configuration, the Active Power Filter is connected in series with a Shunt connected
Passive Filter. The circuit diagram of this filter configuration is shown in Fig.2.9. The advantage
of this configuration is that the passive filter reduces the stress on the power electronic switches
present in the APF. This filter has its application in medium to high voltage ranges

Fig.3.9 APF in series with Shunt Connected Passive Filter

3.2.3.4. Series APF with Shunt Connected Passive Filter:
The Series APF and Shunt APF combination seen in Fig. 3.7 has the problem of complex control
strategy. To overcome this drawback, the shunt APF is replaced by a shunt connected passive
filter [16]. The passive power filter does not require any additional control circuit and the cost is
also less. This filter combination is shown in Fig. 3.10

Fig.3.10 Series APF with Shunt Connected Passive Filter

[25]
Here the series connected APF provides low impedance (almost zero) for low frequency
components whereas the shunt connected APF provides less impedance for high frequency
components and filters out all higher order harmonics. So this filter configuration is the most
beneficial of all others and has the advantage of reducing both current and voltage harmonics.
3.3 Conclusion:
This chapter deals with different filter topologies that are used for the improvement of electric
power quality. It explains in detail each filter configuration along with their merits and demerits.
From the above discussion, it is clear that the passive filters are low cost solution but are not
effective. The active power filters can overcome the draw backs of passive filter but their control
is complex and difficult to implement.

[26]
 CHAPTER4

CONTROL TECHNIQUE OF SAPF

4.1 The P-Q Theory In Three-Phase, Three-Wire System

This concept is very popular and, basically consists of a variable transformation from a, b, c,
reference frame of the instantaneous power, voltage, and current signals to the α β reference
frame [17],[21]. The transformation equations from the a, b, c, reference frame to the α, β, 0
coordinates can be derived from the phasor diagram shown in Fig.3.1

Fig.4.1. Transformation from the phase reference system (a, b, c) to (α, β, 0) system

The instantaneous values of voltages and currents in the α, β coordinates can be obtained from
the following equations, the Clarke transformation and inverse Clarke transformation of three
phase generic voltage given by, Similarly three phase generic instantaneous line currents ia, ib, ic
can be transform on the α-β axis by This transformation is valid if and only if Va(t)+ Vb(t)+ Vc(t)
is equal to zero, and also if the voltages are balanced and sinusoidal. The instantaneous active
and reactive power in the α-β coordinates are calculated with the following expressions. The
instantaneous complex power is possible using the instantaneous vectors of voltage and current.
The instantaneous complex power is defined as the product of
The voltage V and the conjugate of the current vector i*, given in the form of complex numbers.

[27]
4.2 Instantaneous Power Theory
S  V * i *  v  jv * i  ji   v i  v i   j v i  v i  (4.1)

From this active and reactive power components are

p  v i  v  i (4.2)

q  v i  v  i (4.3)

For systems that do not have a neutral connection, the zero sequence does not exist and the
mathematical equation will be presented in matrix form
 1 1 
 1   Va 
V  2 2 2  
V     Vb (4.4)
  3 3 3  
 Vc 
0 2 2   
 1 1 i
i   1    a 
 ib 
2 2 2
i    (4.5)
 3 3 3  
 i c 
0 2 2   

From this active and reactive components are

p  v i  v  i (4.6)

q  v i  v  i (4.7)

The active and reactive powers in matrix form is given below

 p  V V  i 
 q    V V  i 
(4.8)
   
Active and reactive powers can be separated into two parts which are AC part and DC part as
shown below
p p ~
p (4.9)
q  q  q~ (4.10)

[28]
In order to get the DC part of the active and reactive power, the signals need to be filtered using
low pass filter. The low-pass filter will remove the high frequency component and give the
fundamental part.
Where p DC component of the instantaneous power p is is related to the conventional
fundamental active current. ~p is the ac component of the instantaneous power p, it does not have
average value, and is related to the harmonic currents caused by the ac component of the
instantaneous real power q is the dc component of the imaginary instantaneous power q, and is
related to the reactive power generated by the fundamental components of voltages and currents.
q~ is the ac component of the instantaneous imaginary power q, and it is related to the harmonic
currents caused by the ac component of instantaneous reactive power. In order to compensate
reactive power and current harmonics generated by non-linear loads, the reference signal of the
shunt active power filter must include the values of ~p , q 𝑎𝑛𝑑 q~ . In this case the reference
currents required by the shunt active power filters are calculated with the following expression:

i *C  1 V V   p
*  2 2 
 V    q 
(4.11)
i C  V  V V
The final compensating currents components in a, b, c reference frame in terms of αβ given as

iCa   1 1 
1  
*

*  2  2 2  iC 
*

iCb   3   *  (4.12)
iCc   3 3  iC 
*
0 
  2 2 
These are the compensation current injected by the shunt active filter to reduce harmonics in
three phase-three wire systems.
4.3 Hysteresis Current Controller
Hysteresis current controller can also be implemented to control the inverter currents. The
controller will generate the reference currents with the inverter within a range which is fixed by
the width of the band gap. In this controller the desired current of a given phase is summed with
the negative of the measured current. The error is fed to a comparator having a hysteresis band.
When the error crosses the lower limit of the hysteresis band, the upper switch of the inverter leg
is turned on. But when the current attempts to become less than the upper reference band, the

[29]
bottom switch is turned on. Figure 4.2 shows the hysteresis band with the actual current and the
resulting gate signals [11]. This controller does not have a specific switching frequency and
changes continuously but it is related with the band width.

Fig4.2. Hysteresis Current Controller

4.4 Capacitors:
Capacitors are discharged through the inverter to generate compensation currents. These
Capacitors then become the source of harmonics rather than the main source. The value of the
DC capacitor depends upon the rise and fall of the capacitor voltage on the removal and addition
of the loads [21]. It formula is basically governed by the energy conversion between capacitor
and the system. The value of the DC capacitor may be given

0.9  I rms
C
4    f  Vdc   (4.13)
Where =DC voltage f=frequency 𝑎𝑑 𝑛

[30]
4.5 PI Controller:
PI controller is used to remove steady sate error. Here we want it to maintain by comparing
It with a constant value of . If is lesser than Vref then it would create a positive p loss
signal and if is greater than it would create negative p loss signal.

4.6 Coupling Inductor:

An inductor is used to couple power inverter with point of common coupling (PCC). Its job is to

limit effects. Leakage inductance of a coupling transformer can also be used [22]. The value

of the AC inductance depends upon the value of the switching frequency f s and the ripple
current I crp . It may be given as,

√
4.14

Where = DC Link Voltage = supply frequency = ripple current

4.7 DC Bus Voltage ( ):

The DC bus voltage basically depends upon voltage at the PCC. Its value must be higher than the
ac mains voltage for proper control of the VSI based SAPF [22]. The relation between PCC and
DC bus voltage can be given as

𝑑 √ 4.15

Where, = supply voltage

[31]
 CHAPTER 5

MODELLING & SIMULATION RESULTS

INTRODUCTION:
After having a lot of theoretical background, let’s have some simulation results that helps in
better understanding of theory and versatile behavior of Active Power Filter (APF).Following are
the cases differ by nature of load connected across the source. All the simulations are performed
in the SIMULINK environment; proprietary software from Mathworks Inc.

5.2 System Parameters:

The parameter used in the system are shown in table 5.1

S.NO. Parameters Value

1 Supply voltage & frequency 100V , 50Hz

2 Source Impendence R= 0.1Ohm L= .15mH

3 DC Link Capacitor Voltage 300V

4 Coupling Inductance 1.5mH

5 SAPF DC Capacitor 1120e-6

6 Non Linear Balanced Load DC side R=20 Ohm L=20mH

7 Non-Linear Unbalanced Load DC side R=20 Ohm L=30mH

R=10 Ohm L=100mH
R=5 Ohm L=0.3mH

[32]
5.3 Simulation Model of SAPF:

Fig.5.1 Simulation model with SAPF

5.4 Simulation Model of Control Scheme

Fig5.2 Simulation model of control scheme

[33]
5.5 Non-Linear Balanced Load:

Fig5.3 Non-linear balanced load

5.6 NON-LINEAR UNBALANCED LOAD:

Fig5.4 Nonlinear Unbalanced Load

[34]
5.7 Case-1 Nonlinear Balanced Load

5.7.1 Performance without SAPF:

The waveform of supply voltage, supply current and load current without SAPF is shown. In the
figure 5.6 for nonlinear balanced load. In this case R=20ohm, L=20mH are taken with 3-phase
diode rectifier circuit consider as a nonlinear load balanced load.

Fig.5.5 Waveform of supply voltage, supply current & load current (8A)

[35]
 Fig.5.6 FFT analysis of phase A current without SAPF

5.7.2 Performance with SAPF:

200
Vs

-200
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time(sec)
20

0
Is

-20
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time(sec)
10
current
Load

-10
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time(sec)

Fig.5.7 Waveform of supply voltage, supply current & load current

[36]
 10

2
(current)
APF

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time(sec)

Fig 5.8 SAPF cuurent

500

400

300
Vdc

200

100

-100
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time(sec)

Fig 5.9 Capacitor DC link voltage

Fig 5.10 Instantaneous power P and Q

[37]
 Fig 5.11 FFT analysis of Phase (A) current

100

50
Voltage & Current

-50

-100
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time(sec)

Fig 5.12 voltage & current without SAPF

100

50
Voltage & current

-50

-100
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time(sec)

Fig 5.13 voltage & current with SAPF

[38]
In the fig 5.6 without SAPF it can be seen that the supply current is not in sinusoidal in nature
which is due to the non-linear load. Its THD is 21.66% which is not permissible according to
IEEE-519 standards and voltage and current crossing zero point is not same as shown in the fig
5.12. In the fig 5.8 , with SAPF Supply current is in proper sinusoidal form in nature and its
THD is 1.19% which is permissible according to IEEE-519 standards 5.13.

5.8 CASE-2 Nonlinear Unbalanced Load:

In this case single phase rectifier circuit is connected with each phase with different R and L
value which is mention in Table no.5.1

5.8.1 Performance without SAPF

100
Vs

-100
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time(sec)
20

0
Is

-20
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time(sec)
20
current
load

-20
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time(sec)

Fig 5.14 Waveform supply voltage,current and load current

[39]
Fig5.15 FFT analysis of phase(A) line current

Fig5.16 FFT analysis of phase(C) line current

Fig5.17 FFT analysis of phase(B) line current

[40]
5.8.2 Performance with SAPF:

200
Vs

-200
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time (sec)
20
Is

-20
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time(sec)
20
current
Load

-20
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time(sec)
20

10
current
APF

-10
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time(sec)

Fig 5.18 Waveform of supply voltage, current and load current with SAPF

500

400

300
Vdc

200

100

-100
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Time(sec)

Fig 5.19 DC link capacitor voltage

[41]
Fig5.20 FFT analysis of phase(A) line current with SAPF

Fig5.21 FFT analysis of phase(B) line current with SAPF

Fig5.22 FFT analysis of phase(C) line current with SAPF

[42]
 Fig 5.23 Instantaneous power P and Q

In case of nonlinear unbalance load the supply current is not sinusoidal in nature and unbalanced
which is shown in the fig.5.14. THD of phase A 8A line current is 9.77% for phase B 10A line
current is 26.11% and for phase C 14A line current is 19.29 % which is not permissible
according to the IEEE -519 standards but with SAPF current is sinusoidal in nature and current is
balanced in each phases current is 10A which is shown in the fig.5.18 . THD of phase A phase B
and phase C are 1.23%, 1.19% and 1.00% respectively which is permissible according to the
IEEE-519 standards and SAPF current makes the supply current balanced and makes it in proper
sinusoidal form in nature.

[43]
5.9 Case-3 Compensation Of Current With SAPF:

This is the unique case, simulated to show that even the load is connected between the single
phase and the ground, but after compensation the balanced three phase current is supplied by the
source i.e. the APF is acting as a load for the remaining two open phases.

Fig5.24 Load of case compensation of SAPF

200
Vs

-200
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time(sec)
100

50
Is

-50
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time(sec)
50
current
APF

-50
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time(sec)
50
current
Load

-50
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
Time(sec)

Fig.5.25 Waveform of supply voltage, current, filter current & load current waveform

[44]
 Fig 5.26 Instantaneous power P and Q

In this case two phases are kept open, only one phase is connected. It is found that SAPF is
working as a load for remaining open phase. which is shown in the Fig.5.24 and instantaneous
power P and Q is shown in figure 5.26

5.10 Case-4 Nonlinear load in Dynamic condition

In this case we change the load at 0.3 sec all the simulation results shown in below figure. and
here consider R=20ohm and L=10mH for first nonlinear load and R=50 ohm and L=20mH for
second load

Fig 5.27 Dynamic load condition load change at 0.3 second

[45]
Fig 5.28 Waveform of Dynamic load condition load change at 0.3 second Vs (supply voltage),

Is (supply current), load current, and If (filter current)

Fig 5.29 Capacitor DC link voltage load change at 0.3 second

[46]
Fig.5.30 Instantaneous power P and Q

Fig.5.31 FFT analysis of load current

[47]
 Fig.5.32 FFT Analysis of supply Phase current (A)

In this case load is change at 0.3 second, as shown in figure-5.28 load current increase and
supply current in sinusoidal in nature due to filter current compensate the harmonic current of
supply current .DC link voltage maintain at 300V after dip at 0.3 sec and settle very soon after
few second at reference voltage shown in figure (5.29) . The THD of load current at 0.4 second
is 20.13% in figure. (5.31) and THD of Supply phase (A) current is 1.04% shown in figure. 5.32
Which is permissible according to IEEE-519 standards. and instantaneous power P and Q is
change at 0.3 second shown in figure.5.32.So we can say that Shunt active power filter work in
the case of dynamic load condition very effective.

[48]
Comparison of THD for nonlinear balanced, unbalanced load and dynamic load is shown in
Table 5.2.

Table .5.2 Comparison of THD for nonlinear balanced load, unbalanced load and dynamic load .

FOR NON LINEAR BALANCED LOAD

PHASE WITHOUT SAPF WITH SAPF

A 21.66% 1.19%
B 21.66% 1.15%
C 21.66% 1.17%

FOR NON LINEAR UNBALANCED LOAD

PHASE WITHOUT SAPF WITH SAPF

A 9.77% 1.23%

B 26.11% 1.19%

C 19.29% 1.00%

FOR NONLINEAR DYANAMIC LOAD

PHASE WITHOUT SAPF WITH SAPF

A 20.13% 1.04%

B 20.13% 1.02%

C 20.13% 1.05%

Comparison table of Input Power Factor for balanced load, unbalanced load and dynamic load
are shown in table 5.3.

[49]
 Table .5.3 Comparison of Input Power Factor for nonlinear balanced load, unbalanced load and
dynamic load .

WITHOUT SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTER

TYPES OF LOAD INPUT POWER FACTOR

Nonlinear Balanced Load .9535

Nonlinear Unbalanced Load .9541

Nonlinear Dynamic Load .9547

WITH SHUNT ACTIVE POWER FILTER

Nonlinear Balanced Load .9982

Nonlinear Unbalanced Load .9989

Nonlinear Dynamic Load .9997

In Case-1 without SAPF it can be seen that the supply current is not in sinusoidal in nature
which is due to the non-linear load. Its THD is 21.66% which is not permissible according to
IEEE-519 shown in the table 5.2.but, With SAPF Supply current is in proper sinusoidal form in
nature and its THD is 1.19% for phase A and 1.15% for phase B and 1.17% for phase C which is
permissible according to IEEE-519. And power factor has been improved to .9982 from .9535.

In Case-2 of nonlinear unbalance load the supply current is not sinusoidal in nature and
unbalanced which is shown in the table.5.2 THD of phase A 8A line current is 9.77% for phase
B 10A line current is 26.11% and for phase C 14A line current is 19.29 % which is not
permissible according to the IEEE -519 standards but with SAPF current is sinusoidal in nature
and current is balanced in each phases current is 10A which is shown in the fig.5.18 .THD of
phase A phase B and phase C are 1.23%, 1.19% and 1.00% respectively which is permissible
according to the IEEE-519 standards and SAPF current makes the supply current balanced and
makes it in proper sinusoidal form in nature. and power factor has been improved to .9982 from
.9541.

[50]
In Case-3 two phases are kept open, only one phase is connected. It is found that SAPF is
working as a load for remaining open phase.

In Case-4 nonlinear dynamic load condition THD has been considered 20.13% and power factor
is .9547 without SAPF but with SAPF THD has been improved to1.04% from 20.13% and power
factor improved to .9997 from .9547.

[51]
 CHAPTER6

CONCLUSION & FUTURE SCOPE

The system of Shunt Active Power Filter proposed in this work has following concluding points.

 Without SAPF it can be seen that the supply current is not in sinusoidal in nature which is
due to the non-linear load. Its THD is 21.66% which is not permissible according to
IEEE-519 but, with SAPF Supply current is in proper sinusoidal form in nature and its
THD is 1.19% and power factor has been improved to .9982 from .9535
 In case of nonlinear unbalance load the supply current is not sinusoidal in nature and
unbalanced. THD of phase A 8A line current is 9.77% for phase B 10A line current is
26.11% and for phase C 14A line current is 19.29 % which is not permissible according
to the IEEE -519 standards but with SAPF current is sinusoidal in nature and current is
balanced in each phases current is 10A.THD of phase A phase B and phase C are 1.23%,
1.19% and 1.00% respectively which is permissible according to the IEEE-519 standards
and. power factor has been improved to .9989 from .9541
 In case of two phases are kept open, only one phase is connected. It is found that SAPF is
working as a load for remaining open phase
 In Case-4 nonlinear dynamic load condition THD has been considered 20.13% and power
factor is .9547 without SAPF but with SAPF THD has been improved to1.04% from
20.13% and power factor improved to .9997 from .9547

Conventional way of harmonics elimination by using passive filter might suffer from parasitic
problem. It has been shown that three phase active filter based on p-q theory can be implemented
for harmonic mitigation. Harmonics mitigation carried out by the active filter was showed in this
dissertation and we clearly calculate the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) with active filters and
without active filters.

[52]
6.2 Future Scope:

The work done in this project can be further extended such new improvements can be found. The
feasible options are-
 To implement the control strategy using Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques
 Experimental investigation can be done on shunt active power filters by developing a
prototype model in the laboratory to verify this simulation results for controller

[53]
 REFERENCES
[1] Awad, H.; Bollen, M. H J, "Power electronics for power quality improvements," Industrial
Electronics 2003. ISIE - '03. 2003 IEEE International Symposium on vol.2, no., pp.1129,
1136 vol. 2, 9-11 June 2003.
[2] Singh, Bhim; Al-Haddad, K.; Chandra, A., "A review of active filters for power quality
improvement," Industrial Electronics, IEEE Transactions on vol.46, no.5, pp.960, 971, Oct
1999
[3] Rivas, D.; Moran, L.; Dixon, J.W.; Espinoza, J.R., "Improving passive filter compensation
performance with active techniques," Industrial Electronics, IEEE Transactions on , vol.50
, no.1, pp.161,170, Feb. 2003
[4] Herrera, R.S.; Salmeron, P., "Instantaneous Reactive Power Theory: A Comparative
Evaluation of Different Formulations," Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions on vol.22, no.1,
pp.595, 604, Jan. 2007
[5] Salmeron, P.; Litran, S.P., "Improvement of the Electric Power Quality Using Series Active
and Shunt Passive Filters," Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions on , vol.25, no.2, , April
2010
[6] M H J Bollen, Understanding Power Quality Problems Voltage Sags and interruptions, New
York, IEEE Press, 1999
[7] Axente, N. G. Jayanti, M.Basu, and M. F. Conlon, “A 12 kVA DSP controlled laboratory,”
prototype UPQC capable of mitigating unbalance in source voltage and load current IEEE
. Trans. Power Electron. , vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 1471–1479, Jun. 2010
[8] H. Akagi, “Active harmonic filters,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 93, no. 12, pp. 2128– 2141, Dec. 2005.
[9] B. Singh, K. Al-Haddad, and A. Chandra, “A review of active filters for power quality
improvement,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 46, no. 5, pp. 960–971, Oct. 1999.

[10] J. W. Dixon, G. Venegas, and L. A. Moran, “A series active power filter based on a
sinusoidal current-controlled voltage-source inverter,” IEEE-Trans. Ind. Electron vol. 44,
no. 5, pp. 612–620, Oct. 1997.

[54]
[11] E. Engineering, V. Hills, D. Village, P. Mandal, E. Engineering, V. Hills, D. Village, and
P. Mandal “Mitigation of Harmonics by Hysteresis Control Technique of VSI Based
Statcom,” vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 146–160, 2013
[12] A. Luo, Z. Shuai, W. Zhu, R. Fan, and C. Tu, “Development of hybrid active power filter
based on the adaptive fuzzy dividing frequency-control method,” IEEE Trans Power Del.,
vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 424–432, Jan. 2009.
[13] Kneschke, T., "Distortion and power factor of nonlinear loads," Power Engineering Society
Summer Meeting, 1999. IEEE vol.1, no., pp.457,462 vol.1,18-22 Jul 1999
[14] F. Z. Peng and D. J. Adams, “Harmonics sources and filtering approaches,” in Proc.
Industry Applications Conf., Oct. 1999, vol. 1, pp. 448–455.
[15] H. Yang and S. Ren, “A practical series-shunt hybrid active power filter based on
fundamental magnetic potential self-balance,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 23, no. 4, pp.
2089–2096, Oct. 2008.
[16] A. Luo, Z. Shuai, W. Zhu, R. Fan, and C. Tu, “Development of hybrid active power filter
based on the adaptive fuzzy dividing frequency-control method, ”IEEE Trans Power Del.,
vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 424–432, Jan. 2009.
[17] F. Z. Peng, H. Akagi, and A. Nabae, “A new approach to harmonic compensation in power
systems-a combined system of shunt passive and series active filters,” IEEE Trans. Ind.
Appl., vol. 26, no. 6, pp. 983–990, Nov./Dec. 1990.
[18] H. Zhong, P. Chen, Z. Lu, Z. Qian, and H. Ma, “Three phase four wire series hybrid active
power filter with fundamental current bypass channel,” in Proc. Industrial Electronics
Society (IECON), Nov. 2004, vol. 1, pp. 536–539.
[19] G.-M. Lee, D.C. Lee, and J.K. Seok, “Control of series active power filters compensating
for source voltage unbalance and current harmonics,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 51,
no. 1, pp. 132–139, Feb. 2004.
[20] P. Salmerón, R. S. Herrera, and J. R. Vázquez, “Mapping matrices against vectorial frame
in the instantaneous reactive power compensation,” IET Elect. Power Applic., vol. 1, no. 5,
pp. 727–736, Sep. 2007.
[21] H. Akagi, Y. Kanazawa, and A. Nabae, “Instantaneous reactive power compensators
comprising switching devices without energy storage components,” IEEE Trans. Ind.
Appl., vol. IA-20, no. 3, pp. 625–630, May/Jun. 1984.

[55]
[22] A. Horn, L. A. Pittorino, and J. H. R. Enslin, “Evaluation of active power filter control
algorithms under non-sinusoidal and unbalanced conditions,” in Proc. 7th Int. Conf.
Harmonics and Quality Power, Oct. 16–18, 1996, pp.217–224.
[23] J. K. Phipps, J.P. Nelson, P. K. Sen, “Power Quality and Harmonic Distortion on
Distribution Systems”, in IEEE Trans. on Ind. Appl., vol. 30, No 2, March/April 1994, pp.
176-184.

[56]