Studies in Transfer Beams For High-Rise Buildings PDF

STUDIES IN TRANSFER BEAMS FOR
HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS
A THESIS
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree
of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in
CIVIL ENGINEERING
By
LONDHE RAJABHAU SUBARAO
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
R00RKEE-247 667 (INDIA)
JULY, 2006
© Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee 2006
All Rights Reserved
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
aj> ROORKEE
CANDIDATE'S DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the work which is being presented in the thesis entitled
STUDIES IN TRANSFER BEAMS FOR HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS in partial
fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
and submitted in the Department of Civil Engineering of the Indian Institute of
Technology Roorkee, Roorkee is an authentic record of my own work carried out
during a period from July 2003 to July 2006 under the supervision of Dr. Jagdish
Prasad and Dr. A. K. Ahuja.
The matter presented in this thesis has not been submitted by me for the award of
any other degree or any other Institute. [^ j-^
(LONDHE RAJABHAU SUBARAO)
This isto certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the
best of our knowledge.
(A. K. AHUJA) (JAGDISH^RASAD)

Associate Professor Associate Professor
Dept ofCivil Engineering Dept. of Civil Engineering
1.1. T. Roorkee , I- I.T. Roorkee,
Roorkee - 247 667 (INDIA) Roorkee - 247 667 (INDIA)
Date: July i°\, 2006
The Ph.D. Viva-Voce Examination of Mr. Londhe Rajabhau Subarao,
Research Scholar, has been held on
Signature of Supervisor(s) Signature of External Examiner

ABSTRACT
To provide for functional requirement of large column-free space in High-rise

buildings, the RC columns are placed at the periphery of the built-up plan area. With a
view to developing high flexural and torsional stiffness, these columns are very closely
spaced and connected through very stiff beams, called as Spandrel beams. These
closely spaced columns at the periphery, however, pose hindrance to the movement of
people and the goods at the ground floor and basement levels. To fulfill this
requirement, the columns at these floor levels have to be placed at larger spacing. As a
result, an interface has to be provided between the closely spaced columns of the upper
floor and the widely spaced columns at the ground/basement level. This interface has to
be a horizontal RC element and hence is referred to as Beam. Conventionally, a beam is
taken to be a flexural member of the structural system. The above mentioned interface
beam, however, does not behave as a flexural member since it gets sandwiched
between closely spaced upper columns and a little widely spaced supporting columns
below it. Also to transfer the high magnitude of loads collected from all the upper
floors of a high-rise building, the depth of the interface beam has to be kept much
higher than the conventional beams, ranging from 1 m to 4.5 m. As a result of this, the
load transfer mechanism through this beam becomes altogether different than the
conventional mechanism of the flexure. Such a beam is also referred to as Transfer
Beam.
Transfer beams transfer heavy concentrated gravity loads from columns

predominantly through shear and very little through flexure. As a result, failure of such
beams takes place in shear. Unlike flexure, shear failure is sudden, violent and hence
treacherous. This mode of failure has to be, therefore, transformed in to a ductile mode
of failure, wherever possible. In a beam, vertical steel called stirrups are provided to
build-up shear resisting capacity. These stirrups are discrete members and hence do not
provide a continuous medium in the body of concrete. Failure of concrete due to shear
generated tension, therefore, occurs in brittle mode. This mode of failure, being
*-
treacherous, should be avoided through appropriate measures, if possible. Inducing

ductility into the body of concrete, thus, becomes aprimary requirement. Ductility can
be induced in concrete by introducing steel bars in a continuous mode as against steel
stirrups which are non-continuous steel elements embedded into the body ofconcrete.
It is, therefore, considered imperative to study the growth of shear resistance through
longitudinal steel along with its influence on achieving a little ductile mode of failure.
As a result of this concept, shear resistance needs to be developed by a suitable
combination of vertical stirrups (efficient but brittle failure) and longitudinal steel (less
efficient but ductile failure). Experimental studies need to be carried-out intensively
with varying distribution of longitudinal and vertical steel towards development of
shear resistance.
The primary objective of the research is to build-up shear resisting capacity in

RC beams of high depth/s through a suitable combination of horizontal and vertical
steel bars which would impart both substantial ductility as well as high shear capacity.
In the present research study, an extensive experiments incorporating the
strength of concrete, percent longitudinal steel, percent vertical steel and varying shear
span-to-depth ratio have been carried-out. These have resulted into testing about 340
beams yielding alarge set of relevant and reliable data. The span of the beam has been
kept constant at lm with 0.1m overhang on either side of the supports. The spacing
between the top two Point-Loads has been kept at 200mm. The depth of the beam has
been varied at 150, 200, 250, 300, 350 and 400mm. The study on beams related to
varying shear span-to-depth ratio (a/d) has been carried-out by varying the depth ( d)
and not by varying the shear span( a). This has been consciously done to achieve the
flow of applied load through the entire depth of the body of concrete. This allows the
concrete to develop stresses over the full depth of the beam which varies non-linearly
across the depth. This aspect is very distinct, important and relevant from viewpoints of
li
the structural response of the beams. It is to be particularly noted that the same value of
a/d can be attained by varying the shear span (a ) which is easy to implement since it
simply demands shifting of the top loading points towards the supports. This way of
varying the shear span-to-depth ratio does not result in the true structural response as in
a deep beam to be used as a Transfer beam. The failure patterns are significantly
different in the two set of beams having the same a/d ratio but one obtained by varying
the depth( d ) and the second varying the shear-span( a ). Based on the actual
observations on the structural behavior of the beams, it is recommended with all the
emphasis at command that no attempt should be made to interpret the results of beams
wherein the shear arm(a) has been varied to obtain the variation of a/d. The deep beam
model of Arch-Strut-and-Tie never comes into action when the shear arm(a) is varied
keeping the depth constant. It may be easy to carry-out experiments with varying the
shear arm (a) while keeping the depth (d) constant but it fails to structurally simulate a
deep beam.
The results from the experiments have been processed suitably to come out with
empirical expressions for estimating the shear capacity of beams incorporating
variables such as compressive strength of concrete, percentage of longitudinal and
vertical steel/s, depth of beam in terms of shear span-to-depth ratio. These empirical
expressions will hence forth be referred to as proposed expression/s for shear capacity.
Further, the comparisons of shear design provisions of five National codes viz.:
(i) IS 456-2000, (ii) Euro code EC2-2002, (iii) BS 8110-1997, (iv) ACI 318-2002,
(v) CIRIA Guide-2, for the prediction of shear strength of Normal beam/s and Transfer
beam/s ( shear span-to-depth ratio < 1.8 ), have been made with a view to seeing their
goodness of fit against the experimental values.
in
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I would like to thank my respected supervisors, Dr. Jagdish Prasad
and Dr. A. K. Ahuja, Associate Professors, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian
Institute of Technology Roorkee, for their expert and valuable guidance, profound
advice, persistent encouragement and help during the completion of the thesis work.
They are excellent examples of professors who care about their students at a personal
^
level, and someone from I have certainly learned a lot, academically, professionally,
and most importantly - personally. Their encouraging remarks and positive attitude
have always given me a confidence. Thank you, Sir.
I would also like to acknowledge the financial support given by the Ministry of
the Technical Education Department, Govt, of Maharashtra, through a Q.I.P.
sponsorship, who deputed me for three years.
I extend my sincere thanks to Prof. N. B. Pasalkar, Honorable Director of
Technical Education, Mumbai, Govt, of Maharashtra, for extending all kind of help and
valuable cooperation. He has been serving as a symbol of inspiration throughout my
deputation period.
I am very much thankful to Dr. V. B. Gandhe, former Principal, and Dr. A. S.
Pant, Principal, Govt. College of Engineering, Karad, and all office staff, for their kind
help and cooperation given me from the start of the process of selection up to the entire
three years of deputation period.
I wish also to thank Mr. S.R. Mohite, former administrative officer, Govt.
College of Engineering, Karad and presently, Assistant Director , Director of

Technical Education, Mumbai, Govt, of Maharashtra, extending all kinds of help and
moral support. He stood behind me as a family member whenever I was in need and
trouble, despite his post and age.
All the experimental work was done at the Concrete Laboratory and Test hall of
the Civil Engineering Department, I.I.T.Roorkee. I thank all the laboratory staff for
iv
their cooperation and time-to-time help. Mr.Sarvajit has provided me ahelping hand on
the personal basis too.
s-
I sincerely acknowledge the cooperation and help from the all the staffs ofCAD
centre, particularly, Mr. Guar, Department ofCivil Engineering, I.I.T.Roorkee
Iam also thankful to all of my friends, colleagues of my institute, Mr. Pusadkar,
Sharik, Shahiq and Mr. Tantry, research scholars, department of civil engineering who
were involved and helped me directly or indirectly during my three-year research
work.
I would like to express my deepest appreciation and honest blessings and

encouragement of my parents and brothers, particularly elder brother, Mr. Madhukar, a
Deputy Engineer, Irrigation Department, Karad. Knowing my Maharashtra Public
Service Commission (MPSC) selection for the post ofan Assistant Professor in Applied
Mechanics, teaching services class-I, Govt, of Mahrashtra, Govt. Engineering Colleges,
and the completion ofmy final scrutiny pre-synopsis presentation, he organized agreat
ceremony at Karad at his residence, onApril 23,2006.
My sister Mrs. Sumitra and brother-in-law, Mr. Avinash Kamble, Manager of
State Bank of India, Solapur, gave me whole-hearted moral support and never-ending
endurance.
I, also, wish to thank my co-brother, Mr. G. K. Gaikawad, Executive Engineer,

Department of Irrigation and his wife Mrs. Sujata for their blessings, time to time help
and kind cooperation.
Finally, I would like to express my most sincere gratitude to my family

members, my wife Mrs. Sunita and daughters, Ms. Reshma (Goody) and Ms. Sonal
(Chikku), without them my Ph. Dwork was uncompleted. Ms. Reshama was looking
for all my typing and editing work ofmy thesis, despite her final XCBSE pattern study
as well as examination. Ms. Sonal was handling the computer related problems very
very quickly, efficiently and confidently. Ms. Pranjal, Pinkee, Monu, Anua, Babalee,
and Pojaa were the continuous source ofencouragement.
(R. S. LONDHE)
CONTENTS
Page No.
Candidate's Declaration
•
Acknowledgment i
Abstract iv
Contents vi
List of Figures xi
List of Tables xviii
List ofNotations xxii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1-10
1.1 General 1
1.2 Definition of the Problem 7
1.3 Objectives and Scope of the Research Study 7
1.4 Structure of the Thesis 9
CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW 11-38
2.1 General 11
2.2 Analytical Studies 12
2.3 Experimental Studies 19
2.4 Concluding Remarks 38
CHAPTER 3: ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR SHEAR IN RC 39-79
BEAMS
3.1 General 39
3.2 Elastic Solution - Uncracked RC Beams 39
3.3 Plastic Solution - Cracked RC Beams 40
3.3.1 Lower Bound Solutions 46
3.3.2 Upper Bound Solution 49
3.4 Plastic Theory of Shear Friction 54
vi
3.4.1 Upper Bound Solution 54
3.4.2 Lower Bound Solution 59
3.5 Exact Solutions- Compression Field Theories 61
3.5.1 Compression Filed Theory 61
3.5.2 Modified Compression Field Theory 66
(MCFT)
3.5.3 Extended Modified Compression Field 75
Theory (EMCFT)
CHAPTER 4 : BEHAVIOUR OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 80-128

BEAMS UNDER SHEAR
4.1 General 80
4.2 Shear Failure in Beams Reinforced for Moment 81
4.2.1 General 81
4.2.2 Influence of Shear and Moment on the 82 %.
Shape of Shear Crack
4.2.3 Modes of Failure in Shear 84
4.3 Shear Strength of Reinforced Concrete Beams 89
Without Web Reinforcement
4.3.1 Mechanisms of Shear Transfer 89

4.3.2 Factors Influencing Shear Strength 91
4.4 Codal Provisions for Shear in Beams 92 v
4.4.1 General 92
4.4.2 Critical Section for Shear Design 93
4.4.3 Indian Standards: IS 456-2000 94
4.4.3.1 Shear design for normal beams 94
4.4.3.2 Shear design for deep beams 101
4.4.4 British Standards: BS 8110-1997 103
4.4.5 Eurocode 2 : April 2002 Final Draft 107
vii
4.4.6 American Concrete Institute Building 109
Code: ACI 318-2002

4.4.7 The UK's CIRIA Guide-2-1997 114
4.4.7.1 The CIRIA Guide-2 : " Simple 115

Rule" Design Model
4.4.7.1 The CIRIA Guide-2 : 116
"Supplementary Rules" Design

Model
4.4.8 The Canadian Standards: CAN 3 -A 23.3 118
-M94
4.4.8.1 General design method 119
4.4.8.2 Simplified design method 121
4.4.9 Design Based on Euro Code and CEB-FIP 122
Model Code
4.4.10 Design Example 123
CHAPTER 5 : EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME 129-169
5.1 General 129
5.2 Objectives of the Experimental Campaign 130
5.3 Methodology 131
5.4 Design of the Test Specimens 132
5.5 Test Program 144
5.6 Material Properties 154
5.6.1 Cement 154
5.6.2 Aggregate 155
5.6.3 Reinforcing Steel 156
5.6.4 Water 158
5.6.5 Plasticizer 158
5.7 Concrete Mix Design 158
Vlll
5.8 Mixing and Casting 159
5.9 Compaction and Curing 160
5.9.1 Cubes 160
5.9.2 Cylinders 161

5.9.3 Prisms 161
5.9.4 Beams 161

5.10 Testing of Specimens 165
5.10.1 Cubes and Cylinders 165
5.10.2 Prisms 165
5.10.3 Beams 166
CHAPTER 6 : TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 170-244

6.1 General 170
6.2 Experimental Observations 173
6.3 Reinforced Concrete Members Without Shear 218
Reinforcement
6.3.1 Influence of Shear Span-to-Effective 218

Depth Ratio
6.3.2 Modes of Failure 219
6.3.3 Influence of the Amount of Longitudinal 222
Tension Reinforcement
6.3.4 Transfer Beam Specimens with 226

Distributed Longitudinal Reinforcement
6.3.5 Influence of the Concrete Compressive 229
Strength
6.4 Reinforced Concrete Members with Shear 230
Reinforcement
6.4.1 Influence of the Amount of Shear 230

Reinforcement
6.4.2 Influence of the Amount of Longitudinal 233

Tension Reinforcement
IX
6.4.3 Influence of the Distributed Longitudinal 236
Reinforcement
6.4.4 RC Transfer Beam Specimens with 239

Orthogonal Reinforcement
6.4.4 Influence of Shear Span-to-Depth Ratio 242
CHAPTER 7 : PROPOSAL FOR A NEW SIMPLIFIED SHEAR 245-278
*
CAPACITY EXPRESSION
7.1 General 245
7.2 Beams Without Web Reinforcement 245
7.2.1 Summary of the Observed Behavior 245

7.2.2 A New Simplified Shear Strength 246
Expression for Normal Beams
7.2.3 Verification of the Proposed Expression 247
7.3 The Proposed Shear Capacity Expression for 261
Transfer Beams
7.3.1 The Necessity of the Proposed Formula 261

7.3.2 Shear Capacity of Transfer Beams 261
7.3.3 The Proposed Empirical Expression for 262
Transfer Beams
7.3.4 Verification of the Proposed Empirical 263

Expression for Transfer Beams
CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSIONS 279-285
8.1 General 279
8.2 Conclusions 280
8.3 Suggestions for Further Research Study 284
REFERENCES 286-295
LIST OF PAPERS PUBLISHED 296

LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. No. Title Page No.
Fig. 1.1 500 North Michigan Avenue 2
Fig. 1.2 Chestnut-Dewitt Apartment, Chicago 3
Fig. 1.3 Connaught Building, Hong-Kong 3
Fig. 1.4 Union Bank Building, San Francisco 4
Fig. 1.5 Rockefeller Centre, New York 4
Fig. 1.6(a) The 13 - Storey Building in Sydney, Australia 5
Fig. 1.6(b) Large-scale figure of Transfer beam, like a RCC wall which 5
is 4m deep, 0.50m thick and 3.0m span
Fig. 1.7 Structural functions of transfer beams in high-rise 7

buildings
Fig. 2.1 Reinforced concrete beam under shear loading 13
Fig. 2.2 Simply supported deep beam with shear element 15
Fig. 2.3 Stresses in shear element 15
Fig. 2.4 Sample of equilibrium strut-and-tie mode 17
Fig. 2.5 Schematic diagram of micro- truss model 17
Fig. 2.6 Truss analogy model for concrete beams in shear 18
Fig. 2.7 Contribution of fibers to shear resistance of FRC beams 23
without stirrups
Fig. 2.8 Meanings of the symbols in the formula 25
Fig. 2.9 Position of openings 26
xi
Fig. 2.10 Beam dimensions and reinforcement detail 30
Fig. 2.11 Meanings of symbols inthe proposed equation 35
Fig. 3.1 (a) Principal stress trajectories for a simply supported beam; 40
(b) reinforcement layout to carry principal tensile stresses
Fig. 3.2 Schematic stress strain curves: (a) structural steel; 42

(b) concrete with different compressive strengths; and
(c) rigid-plastic idealization of concrete used in plasticity
analysis.
Fig. 3.3(a) Mohr-Coulomb envelope for sliding failure 44
Fig. 3.3(b) Modified Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria with tension cut-off 44

showing failure under uniaxial tension, uniaxial
compression, and triaxial compression
Fig. 3.4 Biaxial stress failure envelopes based on modified Mohr- 45

Coulomb failure theory; (a) tensile strength included, and
(b) tensile strength neglected.
Fig. 3.5 Lower bound solution ofbeam under shear loading 47

Fig. 3.6 Relationship between shear strength and reinforcement ratio 49
compared with test results
Fig. 3.7 Shear failure mechanism of beam subjected to concentrated 50

loads r
Fig. 3.8 Strain energy ofstirrups 50

Fig. 3.9 Internal work of concrete 53
Fig. 3.10 Yield line (crack) in concrete web 54
Fig. 3.11 (a) Disk subjected to shear and (b) failure mechanism 56
Fig. 3.12 Test results for monolithic concrete 57
Fig. 3.13 Test results for a cracked specimen 59
Xll
Fig. 3.14 Dissipation in a yield a Modified Mohr-Coulomb material 60
with a circular tension cut-off
Fig. 3.15 Equilibrium condition for variable angle truss used in the 62
compression field theory
Fig. 3.16 Strain compatibility for cracked web 63
Fig. 3.17 Compressive stress-strain relationships for cracked concrete 65
Fig. 3.18 Comparison of principal stress and principal strain directions 67
Fig. 3.19 (a) Beam cross section, (b) Principal stresses in concrete 67
Fig. 3.19 (c) Stressed element A, (d) Mohr's circle of average concrete 68
stress
Fig. 3.19 (e) Equilibrium conditions for modified compression field 69

theory
Fig. 3.20 Force transmission across cracks 72
Fig. 3.21 Crack spacings in reinforced concrete 72
Fig. 3.22 Parameters affecting crack spacing 73
Fig. 3.23 Comparison of measured and predicted stirrup strains 74
Fig. 4.1 Principal stress-strain curves for cement paste, aggregates 82

and concrete in compression for normal strength concrete.
Fig. 4.2 Influence of shear and moment on the shape of crack 83
Fig. 4.3 Typical shear failure modes 87-88
Fig. 4.4 Internal forces in a cracked beam without stirrups 89
Fig. 4.5 Critical sections for shear at support 94
Fig. 4.6 Truss analogy for action of web reinforcement 97
Fig. 4.7 The meanings of the symbols in the ACI Code 112
Xlll
Fig. 4.8 Effectiveness coefficients for vertical and horizontal web 114
steel in deep beams
Fig. 4.9 Meanings of the symbols in the CIRIA Guide- 2 118
Fig. 4.10 The meanings of the symbols in the Canadian Code 121
Fig. 4.11 Shear force and bending moment 124
Fig. 5.1(a) Beams without web reinforcement. The reinforcement details 145-148
to 5.1(d) of the RC beam specimens of different depths with two
longitudinal bars of different diameters.
Fig. 5.1 (e) Beams with web reinforcement. The reinforcement details of 149
the RC beam specimens of 250mm depths.
Fig. 5.1(f) Beams with web reinforcement. The reinforcement details of 150
the RC beam specimens of 300 mm depths.
Fig. 5.1 (g) Beams with web reinforcement. The reinforcement details of 151
Fig. 5.1 (h) Beams with web reinforcement. The reinforcement details of 152
Fig. 5.1 (i) Beams with orthogonal web reinforcement. The 153
reinforcement details of the RC beam specimens of 400 mm
depths.
r
Fig. 5.2 4- point loading test set-up 154
Fig.5.3(a) Moulds (Form work) ofbeam specimens (Depth 300 to 400 163
mm)
Fig. 5.3(b) Moulds (Form work) ofbeam specimens (Depth 150 to 250 164
mm
Fig. 5.4 Test configuration (Loading frame) 167
Fig. 5.5 Tested beam specimens 168
XIV
Fig. 6.1 RC beams without transverse reinforcement Influence of 220
shear span-to-depth ratio
Fig. 6.2 Typical crack patterns for RC beam specimens of different 221
a/d ratio
Fig. 6.3 RC beam without transverse reinforcement Shear crack 222

surface in a beam of 300 mm depth
Fig. 6.4 Beam specimens without web reinforcement. Influence of 224

the longitudinal tension steel.
Fig. 6.5 Transfer beams without web reinforcement. Influence of 225

percent longitudinal tension reinforcement on shear strength
of concrete
Fig. 6.6 Transfer beams without web reinforcement. Influence of 227

of concrete
Fig. 6.7 Transfer beams without web reinforcement Influence of 228

of concrete
Fig. 6.8 Transfer beam specimens without web reinforcement 230

- Influence of the concrete compressive strength
Fig. 6.9 Transfer beams with web reinforcement - Influence of 232

percentage of transverse steel
Fig. 6.10 Transfer beam with web reinforcement - Influence of the 233
amount of shear reinforcement

percent longitudinal tension steel
f
Fig. 6.12 Transfer beams with web reinforcement. The failure pattern 235
as an influence of percent longitudinal tension steel
xv
percent longitudinal distributed reinforcement a.
Fig. 6.14 Transfer beams with web reinforcement. Cracking pattern 238
for longitudinal distributed reinforcement
Fig. 6.15 Transfer beam with web reinforcement - Influence of 240

amount of orthogonal web reinforcement
Fig. 6.16 Transfer beam with web reinforcement - Influence of 241

amount of orthogonal web reinforcement *
Fig. 6.17 Transfer beams with web reinforcement - Influence ofshear 243
span-to-depth ratio
Fig. 7.1 (a) Shear strength ofnormal beams without shear reinforcement 248
- Influence of shear span-to-depth ratio
Fig. 7.1 (b) Shear strength ofnormal beams without shear reinforcement 249
Influence of shear span-to-depth ratio
Fig. 7.1 (c) Shear strength ofnormal beams without shear reinforcement 251
Fig. 7.1 (d) Shear strength ofnormal beams without shear reinforcement 252
- Influence of shear span-to-depth
Fig. 7.1 (e) Shear strength ofnormal beams without shear reinforcement 252
Fig. 7.1 (f) Shear strength ofnormal beams without shear reinforcement 253
- Influence of shear span-to-depth ratio
Fig. 7.2(a) Shear strength ofnormal beams without shear reinforcement. 255-256
to 7.2(c) - Influence of percent longitudinal steel
Fig. 7.3(a) Normal beams without web reinforcement - Effect of 258-260 ^
to 7.3(f) compressive strength of concrete on shear strength
predictions
xvi
Fig. 7.4 The meaning of the symbols in the proposed formula 263
Fig. 7.5 Transfer beams without transverse steel. Effect of main 265
tension steel (%) on shear strength predictions
Fig. 7.6 Transfer beams without transverse steel. Effect of horizontal 266
web steel (%)on shear strength predictions
Fig. 7.7 Figure 7.6: Transfer beams with transverse steel. Effect of 268
vertical web steel (%) on shear strength predictions
Fig. 7.8 Transfer beams without transverse steel. Effect of 269

compressive strength of concrete on shear strength
predictions
Fig. 7.9 Transfer beams with transverse steel-Effect of vertical web 271
steel (%) on shear strength predictions
Fig. 7.10 Transfer beams with transverse steel - Effect of vertical web 272
steel (%) on shear strength predictions
Fig. 7.11 Transfer beams without transverse steel - Effect of 274

predictions
Fig. 7.12 Transfer beams without transverse steel -. Effect of 275

predictions
Fig. 7.13 Transfer beams without transverse steel - Effect of shear 277
span-to-depth ratio on shear strength predictions
xvn
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Title Page No.
Table 2.1 Principal test results 31
Table 4.1 Design shear strength of concrete 99
Table 4.2 Maximum shear stress 100
Table 4.3 Design concrete shear stress for f^ = 25NI mm2 105
Table 4.4 Maximum shear stress 106
Table 4.5 Resistance of members without shear reinforcement 108
(MPa),/ck=30MPa
Table 4.6 Design Shear Strength of Concrete by Various Codes for 109
fcu=20MPa
Table 5.1(A) Details of the beam specimens without stirrups, 132-138

to5.1(M)
Table 5.2(A) Details of the beam specimens with stirrups 139-142

to 5.2(L)
Table 5.3(A) Details of the beam specimens with orthogonal web 143
to 5.3(C) reinforcement.
Table 5.4 Testing of ordinary Portland cement as per IS: 4031 - 155
1988
Table 5.5(A) Properties of 20 mm coarse aggregates 156
Table 5.5(B) Properties of fine aggregates 156
Table 5.6(A) Properties of reinforcing steel bar - 8 mm diameter 157
Table 5.6(B) Properties of reinforcing steel bar - 10 mm diameter 157
xvin
Table 5.6(C) Properties of reinforcing steel bar - 12 mm diameter 158
Table 5.7 Mix proportions 159
Table 6.1(A) Compressive strength of concrete 171
Table 6.1(B) Tensile strength of concrete 172
Table 6.2(A) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without 174-191

to 6.2(R) transverse reinforcement
Table 6.3(A) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without 192-195

to 6.3(D) transverse reinforcement
Table 6.4(A) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with 196-214

to 6.4(S) transverse reinforcement
Table 6.5(A) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with 215-217

to 6.5(C) orthogonal web reinforcement
Table 6.6 Test results of shear strength of RC beams for different 220
shear span-to-depth ratios
Table 6.7 Observations of the experiments on RC transfer beams 223

without web reinforcement
Table 6.8 Test results of RC transfer beams without web 227

reinforcement with horizontal web reinforcements
Table 6.9 Test results of the experiments on RC transfer beams 229

without web reinforcement for different compressive
strength of concrete
Table 6.10 Test results of the experiments on RC transfer beams 231

with varying percentage of web reinforcement
Table 6.11 Test results of the of the experiments on RC transfer 234

beams with web reinforcement with varying percentage of
longitudinal tension reinforcement
xix
Table 6.12 Test results of the experiments on RC transfer beams with 237
web reinforcement with varying percentage of
longitudinal n reinforcement
Table 6.13 Observations of the experiments on RC transfer beams 239

with web reinforcement
Table 6.14 Test results of the experiment on RC beams with shear 242
reinforcement for different shear span-to-depth ratio
Table 7.1 (A) Shear strength of concrete without shear reinforcement for 248
normal beams for (fCk = 43MPa)
Table 7.1(B) Shear strength of concrete without shear reinforcement for 249
normal beams for (fCk - 43MPa)
Table 7.1(C) Shear strength of concrete without shear reinforcement for 250
Table 7.1(D) Shear strength of concrete without shear reinforcement for 250
Table 7.1(E) Shear strength of concrete without shear reinforcement for 251
Table 7.2(A) Shear strength of concrete without shear reinforcement for 254
Table 7.2(B) Shear strength of concrete without shear reinforcement for 254
Table 7.2(C) Strength of concrete without shear reinforcement for 255

Table 7.3 Shear strength of concrete without shear reinforcement for 257
normal beams
Table 7.4 Shear strength of RC Transfer beams without transverse 264

steel for fck 40MPa: Effect of percent longitudinal tension
steel
xx
steel for fck 40MPa : Effect of percent horizontal web
steel
Table 7.6 Shear strength of RC Transfer beams with transverse steel 270
- Effect of vertical web steel

steel - Effect of concrete compressive strength

steel - Effect of shear span-to-depth ratio
XXI
LIST OF NOTATIONS
Notations
A Shear span
Aj Area of typical bar under considerations, Eq. (2.13)
As Area of main flexural reinforcement
^. Av Area of transverse reinforcement
Ah Area of transverse reinforcement
a Shear span
av Distance of a section from support
b Width of beam
bw Width of web of beam cross section

d Effective depth
+ c Cohesion intercept
Ci Empirical coefficient in Kong's equation
C2 Empirical coefficient in Kong's equation
D Overall depth
e Depth of the upper loading nodal zone
e' Depth of the lower support nodal zone
fcu Cube compressive strength
"•* Fi, F2, F3 Constants of proportionality,Eq.(4.1)

Ej Modulus of elasticity of non-steel reinforcement
Es Modulus of elasticity of steel
Fi Fiber factor
fc Cylinder compressive strength of concrete
fc Concrete yield strength
-*- fCk Characteristics compressive strength of concrete
ft Cylinder splitting tensile strength of concrete , Eq. (2.6a)
fy Yield strength of reinforcement
h Overall height of beam
xxii
ha Active height of beam
ki andk2 Coefficient defining position of openings in the deep beams
K Size effect factor
/e Effective span of beam as measured from center-to-center of

support
/n Clear span of beam as measured from face-to-face of support

Mu Factored moment at critical section for shear
n Total number of web bars including the main longitudinal bars

that intercept the critical diagonal crack
N Number of loading cycles
P Steel ratio, Eq. (2.2)
Pt Percentage steel
Quit Ultimate shear strength of beams,
S Stirrup spacing
Sh Spacing of transverse web reinforcement
Sv Spacing ofhorizontal web reinforcement ^
V Design shear force
Va Aggregate contribution to shear strength
Vc Shear capacity of concrete sections
Vcr Inclined shearcracking load Eq. (2.2)
Vmax Fatigue maximum force
Vmin Fatigue minimum force
Vfrc Ultimate shear resistance of FRC beams, Eq. (2.4) y-
Vfr Contribution of fibers
Vn Nominal shear strength of beams

Vro\c Design value for the shear resistance
Vrc Cycle load range carried by concrete
Vr>s Cycle load range carried by reinforcing steels
Vs Shear force resisted by stirrups
T
Vu Factored shear at critical section
Vw Shear strength contribution of web reinforcement'

W2 Ultimate shear load, Eq. (2.6b)
xxin
Wh and wv The reinforcement indexes in the horizontal and vertical
directions respectively, (Eq. 2.3)
wv Horizontal reinforcement index
xe Clear shear span measured from inside edge of bearing block at
support to outside edge of bearing block at loading point
x Clear shear span, Eq. (2.6a)
y; Depth at which a typical bar intersects the critical diagonal crack,
Eq.(2.13)
Z Lever arm
Greek Symbols
a Arch action factor
otj Angle between the reinf. and critical diagonal crack, Eq. (2.10)
cci and 0:2 Empirical coefficients for concrete and steel, Eq. (7.3)
p Bond factor, Eq.( 2.5)
p Material constant equal to 0.0588 , Eq. (2.15)
pi Modified empirical coefficient for concrete, Eq. (2.9)
P2 Modified empirical coefficient for steel, Eq. (2.10)
si and 82 Principal strains longitudinal strain
eCr Cracking strain of concrete
ex Longitudinal strain
et Transverse strain
Ei Principal compressive strain

E2 Principal tensile strain
<|> Friction angle
<j> Airy' s stress function in Eq. (2.1)
<)>c Material resistance factor
Ymc Partial safety factor for concrete
yms Partial safety factor for steel
Xi and X2 Empirical coefficient for concrete and steel, Eq. (4.36)
Xm Material factor of safety of concrete
xxiv
\|/ Shear reinforcement mechanical ratio
v Shear stress
Vms, vwh, Vwv, Shear strength contributions of main reinforcement, and

horizontal and vertical web reinforcement, Eq. (4.38)
v The effectiveness factor for concrete
Yxt Shear strain

p. Friction coefficient
0 Angle between the reinforcement and horizontal axis of the
beams "^
p Main steel ratio
p h and p v Horizontal and vertical steel ratio

pw Longitudinal steel ratio
cti Principal major stress
C2 Principal minor stress
ac Concrete diagonal compressive stress .
ax and ay Normal stress at a point in the directions of X and Y axes
respectively
cj Normal stress
cjyS Equivalent stirrup stress
2j e+ Sum ofpositive principal strain

^£~ Sum ofnegative principal strain
v-
Txy Shearing stress in Eq. (2.1)
x Shear stress
% Degree of shear reinforcement
>
XXV
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
High-rise buildings are characterized by their high susceptibility to lateral drift

under the effects of lateral loads such as wind and earthquake loads. Therefore, inorder
to achieve architectural and functional requirements of large column-free space inhigh-
rise buildings, the RC columns are placed at the periphery ofthe built-up plan area.
With a view to developing high flexural and torsional stiffness, these columns are very
closely spaced and interconnected through very stiff beams; called as Spandrel beams.
These closely spaced columns at the periphery, however, pose hindrance to the free
flow of people and goods at the ground floor and basement levels. To fulfill this
requirement, the columns at these floor levels have to be placed at larger spacing. As a
result, an interface has to be provided between the closely spaced columns of upper
floors and the widely spaced columns at the ground / basement floor level. This
interface has to be a horizontal RC element and hence is referred to as Beam.
Conventionally, a beam is a flexural member of a structural system. The above
mentioned interface beam, however, does not behave as a flexural member since it gets
sandwiched between closely spaced upper columns and a little widely spaced
supporting columns below it. Also to transfer the high magnitude of loads collected
from all the upper floors ofa high-rise building, the depth ofthe interface beams has to
be kept much higher than the conventional beams, ranging from lm to 4.5m.As a result
of this, the load transfer mechanism through this beam becomes altogether different
than the conventional mechanism of flexure. Such a beam is also referred to as a
Transfer Beam. Seven high-rise buildings in which transfer beams have been used are
shown in Fig 1.1 to Fig. 1.7.
1
Fig. 1.1 500 North Michigan Avenue
The 25 storey office building was constructed using tubular system. It has heavy
Transfer Beam of depth 1.7m, which is supported on widely spaced columns of
clear spacing 3.5 m. This is the case of Transfer beam supporting a single point
load from column at mid span
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Fig. 1.2 Chestnut-Dewitt Apartment, Chicago Fig. 1.3 Connaught Building, Hong - Kong
The 43 storey apartment building was The 178.6 m high building was constructed
constructed in 1961. The tubular system was using tubular system. In this building,
used for the first time in this building. It has closely spaced columns & beams are
heavy Transfer Beam of depth 1.75m and replaced by perforated walls with circular
supported at clear spacing of 2.0m from openings. It has heavy Transfer Beam of
where a large number of closely spaced depth 4.2 m and supported at clear span of
columns emanate to behave like a cantilever 7.5m to transfer the uniform load from
fixed at the ground. above to the widely spaced massive
columns.
i'sfflft
Fig. 1.4Union Bank Building, San Francisco Fig. 1.5 Rockefeller Centre, New York
The 37 storey Union Bank Building rises The 51 storey Rockefeller Centre rises
150m above a spacious plaza. Completed in 204m from 7-storey base block.
1972, it has heavy Transfer Beam of depth Completed in 1972, it has heavy
2.35 m. In this case, the transfer beam is a Transfer Beam of depth 1.36 m and
multi-span continuous three column loadings supported at clear spacing of 2.5m.
between successive supporting columns. Columns emanating from the transfer
beams are spaced at 1.25 m.
Fig. 1.6 (a) The 13 storey Bailding in Sydney, Australia
Ithas heavy Transfer beam of4 mdepth, supporting
very closely spaced Columns
Fig. 1.6 (b) Large-scale figure of Transfer beam, tike a RCC wall
which is 4m deep and 0.50m thick and 3.0m span
Structural wall
Transfer beam
Frame form
Transfer beam
Frame form
Fig. 1.7 Structural Functions ofTransfer Beams in High-Rise

Buildings
1.2 DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM
Transfer beams are horizontal members, which transfer heavy gravity loads
predominantly through shearing action. This is significantly different from the normal
beams, which transfer the gravity load primarily through flexural action. Shear, unlike
flexure, acts in the face of the cross sections and seeks to distort the shape of the
section. In this process of distortion, tension develops at right angle to the plane of
compressive stress. The plane of compressive stress itself is at some inclinations to the
plane of gravity loading. Concrete being sufficiently strong to resist the compressive
stresses, performs satisfactorily in compression. However, the shear induced tensile
stress poses a serious problem for a brittle material like concrete. Not only the concrete
fails at low value of tensile stress, the failure is sudden, violent and hence treacherous.
This mode of failure has to be, therefore, transformed in to a ductile mode failure. The
vertical steel stirrups, generally provided to take care of the shearing force, is found to
be further aggravating this problem by enhancing the failure stress levying. The
orientations of steel along the orientation of shear induced tensile stress helps. This
needs the steel bar placement to be at 45 degree to the horizontal. This requirement
creates practical problem by way of interfering with the longitudinal reinforcement. A
compromise, therefore, would be to enhance the quantity of longitudinal bars by
placing them uniformly along the depth and width of the beam. As a result of this
concept, shear resistance needs to be developed by a suitable combination of vertical
stirrups (efficient but brittle failure) and longitudinal steel (less efficient but ductile
failure). It, thus, becomes imperative to experimentally study the failure behavior of
Transfer beams with varying distribution of longitudinal and vertical steel towards
development of shear resistance.
1.3 OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH STUDY
A comprehensive review of literature shows that the topic of transfer beam has
not been covered adequately in the past. Most of the codes are inadequate for design of
transfer beams and till today, there is no rational and simplified procedure of design of
7
such RC members. Now-a-days, modern buildings are increasingly trending to be
multi-functional and comprehensive. The upper portions are usually used for
*
residential, hotel or office (commercial) purposes, whilst in the lower levels, shopping
malls, cultural or entertainment facilities like cinemas or car parks are very common.
As a result of these constructions, a large column free space at the ground level
becomes a primary requirements for free flow of goods and people. Transfer beams
fulfill theses requirements and hence they are used commonly in high-rise buildings.
The primary objective of the research is to build-up shear resisting capacity in
In addition to this, other objectives of the experimental campaign carried out
are:
(1) To study the influence of the depth of the beam, in terms of shear span-
to-depth ratio, on the shear strength of concrete. Current procedure in
Indian Standards IS 456 - 2000 holds that the failure shear strength does
not increase when the depth of beam is changed for beams with and
without web reinforcement.
(2) To evaluate the influence of concrete compressive strength in deep

beams without web reinforcement.
(3) To study the influence ofthe longitudinally distributed reinforcement for

beams with and without stirrups, as this variable has an important effect
on the failure shear strength.
(4) To evaluate the efficiency ofthe amount ofweb reinforcement.
(5) To propose an empirical expression for estimating the shear capacity of

transfer beams incorporating variables such as compressive strength of
concrete, percentage of longitudinal and vertical steel/s, depth of beam
in terms ofshear span-to-depth ratio (a/d ratio).
(6) To propose an empirical expression for estimating the shear strength of
normal beams without shear reinforcement, incorporating variables such
as compressive strength of concrete, percentage of longitudinal tension

steel, depth of beam in terms of shear span-to-depth ratio (a/d ratio).
In the present research work, extensive experiments incorporating the

compressive strength of concrete, percent longitudinal steel, percent transverse steel
and varying depth of beams in terms of shear span-to-depth ratio have been carried out
with a view to covering wide spectrum of all the significant contributing factors. These
have resulted into testing about 340 reinforced concrete beams yielding a large set of
relevant and reliable data. The results from the experiments have been processed
suitably to come out with empirical expressions for estimating the shear capacity of
Normal beam/s and Transfer beam/s (shear span-to-depth ratio < 1.8) incorporating
variables such as compressive strength of concrete, percentage of longitudinal and
transverse steel/s, depth of beams in terms of shear span-to-depth ratio. These empirical
expressions will hence forth be referred as proposed expression/s for shear capacity.
In addition, the comparisons of shear design provisions of five National codes,
viz., (i) The Indian Standards: IS 456-2000, (ii) The Euro code EC2-2002, (iii) The
British Standards: BS 8110-1997, (iv) The American Concrete Institute Building Code:
ACI 318-2002, and (v) The UK's Construction Industry Research and Information
Association -CIRIA Guide - 2-1997 for the prediction of shear strength of Normal and
Transfer beam/s (shear span-to-depth ratio < 1.8), have been made with a view to
seeing their goodness of fit against the experimental values.
1.4 STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS
The matter and concerns of this study have been organized in the thesis as
outlined below. The thesis is divided in to eight chapters. The first chapter is in the
nature of general introduction of the topic. The definition of the problem and main
objectives and the scope of the thesis are stated.
9
The second chapter presents the comprehensive review of existing literature.
Available literature mainly on shear strength of concrete normal beams as well as deep
beam is presented and critically evaluated to establish the need for the present study.
The third chapter presents the various analytical analysis methods for shear
including the Modified Compression Field Theory (MCFT).
The forth chapter deals with the behavior ofRC beams under shear, in which
different conceptual models and shear deign procedures for evaluating the failure shear
strength of reinforced concrete normal beams with and without transverse steel are
introduced. Also, acomparison of design codes for shear capacity oftransfer beams is
presented.
The fifth chapter presents the details of the experimental program. The details
of beam specimens, material properties and the testing procedure adopted are carefully
described.
The sixth chapter deals with the presentation and discussion of the test results
obtained from the experimental campaign. The influence of each design parameter is
studied separately, and test results are compared with different shear design
approaches.
The seventh chapter presents a new shear design method based on the observed
behavior both for normal and deep beam, attempting, however, to keep it simple
enough to make it suitable for implementation in acode ofpractice.
The eighth chapter deals with the relevant conclusions drawn from the results
obtained from the experimental work and identify the scope for further research study.
The references list and the list of publications based on this investigation are given at
the end.
10
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 GENERAL
When the span-to-depth ratio of simply supported beams is less than 2 for any
span of a continuous beam and which supports heavy concentrated column loads of
upper storey of high-rise buildings, it is customary to define these beams as Deep

beams. Reinforced concrete deep beams are commonly used in many structural
applications including, transfer beams in high-rise buildings, pile caps, foundation

walls, and offshore structures. The idea and application of transfer beams in high-rise
buildings were first introduced in the Soviet Union in the 1950s in order to achieve a
large open space at the bottom of the building. However, it was found that failure of
this RC beam in shearing mode is characterized by intense brittleness even when

stirrups are closely spaced. As a result, most codes put a limit on the maximum
shearing stress to be induced in an RC beams. It is, therefore, pertinent to induce

ductility into the body of the concrete. Brittle mode of failure of a structural element is
considered undesirable since there is no warning about the impending failure. Attempts
are to be made, therefore, to understand in quantitative terms the extent of brittleness
induced by the use of higher-grade steel and high strength concrete in transfer beams.
Many researches over the past decades, have tried to analyze the deep beams by
assuming isotropy and homogeneity. Results of the theoretical studies by finite
difference and photo elastic analysis were reported by the researchers. But later on with
gradual advancement in the constructional use of reinforced concrete, which is an
isotropic and non-homogeneous in nature, the previous findings on isotropic and

homogeneous material could not be applied without having experimental verification.
Thus started the experimental investigation on the reinforced concrete transfer beams
11
and the researchers from early sixties till the recent time are attempting to find out a
rational solution of the problem. So far only some empirical and semi-empirical
formulations have been put forward for evaluating the performance of reinforced
concrete transfer beams. Without having extensive experimental verification, these
formulations cannot be proved for its competency in reality.
This chapter deals with the review of the existing literature on the subject. The
most important investigations are summarized and the salient facts which seem to be
emerging from the research are discussed. In the following sections, achronological
record ofpublished papers, documents, and books related to the present research, based
on Elastic Theory as well as Ultimate Load Theory both theoretically and
experimentally, are briefly summarized and critically revived.
2.2 ANALYTICAL STUDIES
Averbuch and Buhan [9] studied shear design of reinforced concrete deep
beams by means of finite-element formulation and developed a versatile numerical
method (FEM) aimed at providing reliable estimates for the ultimate capacity of
reinforced concrete deep beams within the context of the yield design theory. Both the
static (lower-bound) and kinematics (upper-bound) methods of the yield design (or
limit analysis) theory applied to the shear failure design of deep beams is presented.
The analysis shows that the shear-span-to-depth ratio, along with the amount of
longitudinal reinforcement plays acrucial role in the transition from flexural to shear
dominated failure modes of the beam. Figure 2.1 shows RC beam under shear loading
used in the analysis.
12
Vertical stirrups
Longitudinal reinforcement
Fig. 2.1 Reinforced concrete beam under shear loading [9]
Barry and Ainso [10] addressed the applicability of multiple-Fourier technique

to handle problems like the analysis of a single span deep beam subjected to uniform
loadingat the top edge and at the bottom edge.
Cladera and Mari [19] performed an extensive study in order to re-evaluate the
current shear procedures of different codes of practice for normal-strength and high-
strength beams with web reinforcement. An Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) was
developed to predict the shear strength of reinforced beams failing in diagonal tension
mode. Based on the results, a parametric study was carried out to study the influence of
each parameteraffecting the shear strength of beams with web reinforcement and a new
design expressions are proposed.
Colaco and Lambajian [21] carried out an analysis of transfer girder system in
high-rise buildings considering the changes in the stiffness of the system with the
construction of every storey. Graphs, as a design aids, are presented in non-dimensional
form to compute the load transferred due to shear in the spandrels.
In 1932, Dischinger [23] did the pioneering work in the analysis of deep beams
(transfer beams) of infinite spans and periodic loading, by representing the loading in
the form of Fourier series to solve the biharmonic equation (Eq. 2.1):
13
gV.2 ay ay
where, <t> = ((>(x,y) is Airy's stress function
This method of stress analysis is valid only for a perfectly isotropic and
homogeneous material. But concrete being a non-homogeneous and an-isotropic
material the above solution does not hold good.
Kim and White [38] proposed ahypothesis for the shear cracking mechanism in
point loaded reinforced concrete beams with no web reinforcement. Analytical
expressions were developed for predicting the shear cracking load (Eq. 2.2) and the
corresponding location of the critical shear cracks.
The inclined - shear cracking load is given by the expression:
y. =Wjp(l-yfc)2(d/a))m{rcbd (2.2)
where,
Vcr = inclined shear cracking load, and

p = steel ratio.
Mau and Hsu [49] derived an explicit formula to predict the shear strength of
simply supported deep beams by using the three equilibrium conditions from the truss
model theory (Figs. 2.2 and 2.3). The formula is dimensionless and contains four
variables that express the horizontal and vertical reinforcement ratios, the concrete
strength and the shear-span ratio.
v_ 1
X' ~2L K(wh +0.03)+ft '{wh +0.03) 2+4(wh+ 0.03)(wv +0.03) <0.3 (2.3)
The proposed formula for shear strength ofsimply supported deep beam is as:
where,
y
K-2d*
~Y for0<a/h<0.5
14
4_2a
Km-*- for 0.5 < a / h <2
h 3 3/2.
K = 0 fora/h>2
w. =^<0.26 and w=^< 0.12

where, wh and wv are the reinforcement indexes in the horizontal and vertical
directions, respectively.
t±i
c dv
SHEAR
ELEMENT
T
D
*•
± *
> 1
^ I
Fig. 2.2 Simply supported deep beam with shear element [49]
f
4
T*-
Fig. 2.3 Stresses in shear element [49]
15
Menon and Reddy [51] carried out analytical investigation on the tall slender
tower by modeling the tall slender tower by finite element method.
Nagpal and Singh [54] presented a study of shear lag behavior of framed tube
and tube in tube buildings. Effect of various parameters, loading types and presence of
acore tube has been studied and an analogy between uniform box girder and uniform
framed tube building is established for determination of zones ofpositive and negative
shear lag effects. The results obtained from this analogy are compared with these
obtained from the equivalent plane frame idealization.
Nagpal and Singh [55] presented a method for estimating free vibration
characteristics of framed tubes in lower modes. The method is shown to yield quite
accurate results in lower modes and requires computational time and computer storage
locations, which are only a small fraction of the corresponding quantities in the
standard methods.
Rahal [64] presented asimple, non-iterative method for predicting the ultimate
strength and the mode offailure ofreinforced concrete membrane elements subjected to
pure shear. The proposed method was compared with modified compression field
theory and also with the experimental results of 161 beam tests available in the
literature, and good agreement was observed.
Sabnis et al. [71] developed arating system for structural evaluation of concrete
buildings. The system presented was developed manually and attempts were made to
develop a computer system similar to the one for bridges to indicate the detailed
application of the method in the specific case. The rating system for structural
evaluation is desired as more and more engineers venture into the evaluation of old
building structures for rehabilitation purposes at the request ofclient.
Salem [73] formulated micro truss model as an innovative rational approach for
design of reinforced concrete beams. Astrut-and-tie model used in the analysis is >
shown in Fig. 2.4 and amicro-truss model is shown in Fig. 2.5.
16
Fig. 2.4 Sample of equilibrium strut-and-tie mode [73]
Sk-^ \ jS V>*
H
rS
K
><
/\i
V"XT X.' I
f/_ ,.N
\ ^ v 1— — 1
|K|t|||ja||I2S8S22S3SS^|S
***llllllli111till111111
V" 6 0 * § g g g St*1 h N Nft Wig § &ft 0 9 §
tf111111111111111111^
4 iiil-^
Fig. 2.5 Schematic diagram of micro-truss model [73]
17
Vecchio [92] investigated that the response of RC membrane structures can be
predicted accurately using non-linear finite element methods, provided they embody
>
realistic constitutive relations for the component materials. The predictions from the
proposed procedures are compared against experimental result, as well as more
complex formulations, and excellent accuracy is found.
Vecchio et al. [93] analyzed twelve orthogonally high-strength concrete panels
under combination of in-plane shear and normal stresses. Finite element analyses, when
including the compression-softening models and the concrete strength dependant
modification factor, gave theoretical responses that correlated well with the
experimentally observed behavior.
Vecchio and Collins [94] developed an analytical model for the analysis of
beams, based on the Modified Compression Field Theory (MCFT) (Fig. 2.6). The
proposed model provides an enhanced ability to design and analyze the shear response
of beams in a rational manner, rather than having to rely on restrictive, narrow-ranging
> and often overly conservative empirical formulation The method is seen as being most
useful in situation where economic or technical considerations warrant that a more
thorough analysis be performed than is otherwise obtainable using standard code

procedures.
A rigorous solution procedure is presented along with the two alternative
approximate procedures. Predictions of the model are compared with experimental
results and are shown to predict behavior accurately.
Compression chord Transverse ties (i.e. stirrups)
Concrete strut inclined

@45° Tension chord
Fig. 2.6 Truss analogy model for concrete beams in shear [94]
18
Vecchio [95] addressed the applicability of the Modified Compression Field
Theory (MCFT), one of the first such rotating crack models, to the analysis of shear
beams. When incorporated in to anon-linear finite element procedure, the model is
shown to be adequately simulate the strength, stiffness, ductility, and failure mode of
lightly reinforced shear-critical test beams. Prevailing mechanisms are discussed and
aspects ofthe model in need offurther refinement are also identified.
Watanbe and Lee [99] proposed an incremental analytical method capable of
tracing the response of beams to shear. The method can predict not only the shear
strength but also the shear failure mode by adopting an incremental analytical method. *
Calculated shear strength and failure mode from the analysis are compared with
experimental results and are shown to be in good agreement.
2.3 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES

Arevive ofearlier investigations shows that more attention has been paid to the
elastic stress analysis in general but the findings of this analysis are in no way *
substantiated by the experimental test results of reinforced concrete transfer beams.
Consequently, from early sixties, the researchers focused attention on the experimental
investigations.
Ahmad and Bhattacharjee [1] studied the assessment of service lives of RC

structures subjected to chloride induced rebar corrosion.
Ahmad et al. [2] developed an experimental methodology for service life *
prediction of rebar-corroded reinforced concrete (RC) structures. The methodology,
based on the cumulative damage theory, can be adopted to assess the approximate
service life of a corroding RC structure by performing simple test on the core
specimens containing the corrode rebar collected from the real structures.
Ahmad et al. [3] proposed step-by-step procedure for design of cathodic
protection system. Using proposed procedure, asacrificial anode and an impressed V
current system have been designed. The designed cathodic protection systems have
been applied to the rebars to demonstrate the applicability ofthe proposed procedures.
19
Al-Hussaini and Ramdene [4] investigated the properties and creep of high-
-^ strength concrete.
Al-Hussaini et al. [5] studied the behavior of high-strength concrete columns
under axial load.
Ashour [7] studied the upper bound analysis of reinforced concrete deep beams
with fixed end support. Comparisions between the loads and modes of failure obtained
from the present analysis was compared with the experimental results available from
y the literature. The relative effectiveness factor of the horizontal and vertical web
reinforcement is mainly influenced by the shear span-to-depth ratio. The deeper the
beams, the more effective the horizontal web reinforcement and the less effective the
vertical web reinforcement.
Ashour et al. [8] carried out experimental investigation on reinforced high-

strength concrete deep beams subjected to pure torsion. The variables were the concrete
^ compressive strength of 54 and 94 MPa and span-depth (L/h) of 1 to 5. The softened

truss model with an assumed effective transverse compressive stress component was
used to predict the torsional behavior of reinforced HSC deep beams in terms of
strength and deformations. Based on the test results, they have proposed a semi-
empirical expression for modeling the deep beam action.
Bazent and Sun [11] extended the previously proposed formula of Bazant and
Kim for diagonal shear failure of longitudinally reinforced beams without stirrups and a
new general formula is proposed by introducing, in addition to the effect of the relative
beam size, the effect of the maximum aggregate size. The formula is further extended
to diagonal shear failure of reinforced concrete beams with stirrups. The resulting
formula is calibrated according to a set of 87 test results compiled from the literature.
The results confirm that the size effect on the concrete shear strength still exists in the
-* presence of stirrups, but it is milder than without stirrups.
Bazant and Kazemi [12] presented the results of tests on diagonal shear failure
of reinforced concrete beams without stirrups. The test results indicate a significant size
20
effect and show agood agreement with Bazant's law for size effect. The tests also show
that preventing bond slip of the longitudinal bars (by providing end anchorage with
hooks) causes an increase of the brittleness number ofthe beam. It is concluded that the
current design approach, which is intended to provide safety against the diagonal crack
initiation load, should be replaced or supplemented by adesign approach based on the
ultimate load, in which asize effect of the fracture mechanics type, due to release of
stored energy, must be taken into account.
Bhattacharjee [13] conducted durability related tests for testing of concrete in

structures.
Bohigas [14] investigated shear design of reinforced high strength concrete

beams subjected to bending moment and shear. Based on the test results of 18 beam
specimens, a new simplified shear design method for predicting the failure shear
strength for normal-strength and high-strength concrete beams is proposed.
Choudhary and Menon [18] studied strain measurement around holes in
concrete panels under direct tension.
Desai [22] investigated the influence of constituents of concrete on its tensile

strength and shear carrying capacity. The aim of study was to examine the relationship
between tensile strength and the contribution ofconcrete to shear capacity.
Duthinh and Carino [24] presented areview of shear design methods and codal
provisions of various national codes of high-strength concrete beams. All the methods
of analysis for shear in beams, comparisons of various design codes and their *
comparison with the experimental test results from the literature have been presented
systematically.
Foster and Gilbert [26] gave the complete design ofnon-flexural members using
truss model. To use plastic truss model, an efficiency factor is usually applied to reduce
the effective concrete strength. Anew efficiency factor is, therefore, presented for
concrete strengths ranging from 20 to 100 MPa. The three main failure modes for *
nonflexural members are yielding of the tension tie, crushing of the concrete strut, and
web splitting.
21
Foster and Gilbert [27] studied 16high-strength concrete deep beams. Variables
considered in the investigation were shear-span-to-depth (a/d) ratio, ranging from 0.5 to
1.32, concrete compressive strength (50 to 120 MPa) and the provision of secondary
reinforcement. The investigation examines deep beam behavior and compares the
experimental results with CIRIA Guide-2 design model, the ACI 318 design method,
and the plastic truss model of Rogowsky and MacGragor using the efficiency model
proposed by Warwick and Foster. The comparative study shows that the design
methods given by CIRIA Guide-2 and ACI 318 are generally conservative for deep
beams fabricated with high-strength concrete.
Hawkins et al. [28] compiled the shear design procedures of structural concrete
members of various codes of practice. A through survey has been carried out and a
shear design procedures were very well explained by designing the various structural
concrete members, including bridges.
Hwang et al. [29] presented a new treatment for the prediction of shear strength
in deep beams and softened-strut-and-tie model is proposed to determine the shear
strength of deep beams. The parameters reviewed include the ratios of horizontal and
vertical reinforcement, concrete strength and shear-span-to-depth ratio. The shear
strength predictions of the proposed model and the empirical formulas of the ACI 318-
95 Code are compared with the collected experimental data. The comparison shows
that the performance of the softened-strut-and-tie model is better than the ACI Code
approach for all the parameters under comparison.
Kantihimathinathan and Natarajan [36] carried out static and dynamic analysis
of tall chimneys.
Khuntai et al. [37] presented a rational and unified procedure for predicting the
shear strength of normal and high-strength fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) beams. A
design equation is suggested for evaluating the ultimate shear strength of FRC beams
based on the shear resisting mechanisms and numerous published experimental data on
concrete strength up to 100 MPa. In addition to concrete strength, the influence of other
22
variables such as fiber factor, shear span-to-depth ratio, longitudinal steel ratio, and size
effect was considered. Figure 2.7 shows the shear resisting mechanism.
vc=vcc + va+vd
i Assumed = 0.9d
T
Fig. 2.7 Contribution of fibers to shear resistance ofFRC beams
without stirrups [37]
The ultimate shear resistance of FRC beams (Vfrc) can be expressed as:
Vfrc=K+Vfr (2-4)
Vfrc =(0.161a^ Kd) +[0.25F, Jfjbwd) (2.5)

where,
Vc - the concrete contribution including resistance of compressed concrete,

aggregate interlock and dowel action.
Vfr = contribution of fibers,
a = the arch action factor= 2.5 d/ a<3for a/ d<2.5 is applied only to the
concrete contribution as the fibers contribute little to the arch action in
FRC beams, and
>
F, = fiber factor « 0 Vf // / df, 0 is bond factor considering shape etc of
fibers.
23
Kong et al. [39] developed a semi-empirical equation for predicting the ultimate
shear strength of deep beams with and without web reinforcement. The equation
intended for the design office is as follows.
fl*=C, 1-0.35-
D
fbD +C2£A-^sin2a (2.6a)
W
Quit =— for two-point loading (2.6b)
where,
Quit = ultimate shear strength of the beam, in newtons(lbf),

W2 = ultimate shear load, in newtons(lbf),
Ci = concrete coefficient equal to 1.4 for normal weight concrete and 1 for
light weight concrete,
C2 = steel coefficient equal to 130 MPa for plain round bars and 300 MPa for
deformed bars,
>
ft = cylinder splitting tensile strength ofconcrete say = 0.5Vfcu (in SI units),
fcu cube strength,
A = area ofa typical bar under consideration, however, the main longitudinal
bars are also considered as web bars inthis equation,
y = depth atwhich the typical bar intersects the critical diagonal crack,
a = angle between the bar being considered and diagonal crack
(ti/2 > a > 0),
n = total number of web bars including the main longitudinal bars, that
intercept the critical diagonal crack,
b = the beam width,
D = total depth of beam, and
x = clear shear span as shownin Fig. 2.8.
24
K- A
T i
y
D
/ Typical web bar Main steel
f Area A)
J
•?
Fig. 2.8 Meanings ofthe symbols in the formula [39]
The major conclusions reported were:

(1) The contribution of the concrete in the ultimate shear strength increases
linearly with the decrease in the x/ Dratio, and is more closely related A
to the cylinder splitting tensile strength than to the cube strength.
(2) The more nearly a web bar is perpendicular to the diagonal crack- the
more effective it is in resisting shear and its effectiveness also increases
with the depth at which it intersects the diagonal crack.
(3) The ultimate strength was influenced mostly by X/D ratio and not by
L/D ratio in any significant manner.
Kong et al.[40] revives the various major design methods namely the European
Concrete Committee in 1970, the ACI-1971, and the Portland Cement Associations -
ST66 -1946.The more recent proposals that covers the deep beams with openings have
been explained and following approximate ultimate shear strength of deep beams with
web openings is presented as
f kxx
a-c, 1-0.35
yk2Dj b.K2DJ+2AcJ&)sin2a =- (2.7)
25
where,
Ci = 1 when ft is determined in accordance with BS 1881,
C2 = 300 N/mm2 (43.5 x 103 psi) for a deformed bar,

C2 = 130 N/mm2 (18.87 x 103 psi) for aplain round bar,
X = 1 for main reinforcement; and X= 1.5 for web reinforcement,
x = The clear shear span,
/ = Splitting tensile strength,
A = Area of web reinforcement,
W - Total load,
b = width of beam
D = depth of the beam,
y and a = depth and angle of interception of web reinforcement and load path,
and
ki and k2 = coefficients defining the positions of the openings.
\±
x —
T D
;«*- kix i
t
I
k2D
Fig. 2.9 Position of openings [40]
Kong and Rangan [42] conducted the experimental and analytical research on
the shear strength of reinforced high-performance concrete (HPC) beams with vertical
26
shear reinforcement subjected to combined bending moment and shear. In all 48 beams
were tested. In addition, test results from previous investigations were also studied. The
analytical research comprised the development of atheory based on stress analysis of a
strut-and-tie model. The test parameters included the concrete cover-to-shear
reinforcement cage, shear reinforcement ratio ,longitudinal tensile reinforcement ratio,
overall beam depth, shear-span-to-depth ratio and concrete compressive strength. The
loading configuration was also varied. The predictions by the shear design provisions
contained in the Australian Standards, the ACI 318-95, Canadian Standards and
Eurocode were also compared with the test shear strengths ofthe beams.
Lee and Watanabe [43] proposed ashear design method for reinforced concrete
(RC) beams with shear reinforcement by considering failure modes. The proposed
equation is capable of predicting the shear strength of RC beams based on two shear
failure modes: shear failure after yielding of shear reinforcement (STF) and concrete
crushing
Leong and Tan [44] proposed revision on CIRIA design equation for normal
and high strength concrete deep beams. It is noteworthy that the proposed shear design
equations adequately predict the ultimate shear strengths of deep beams of various
shear span-to-depth ratios (0.27-2.70), main reinforcement content (1.23-5.8%), web
reinforcement contents and concrete grades (covering both normal and high-strength
concrete from 25-100 MPa.
The proposed revision on CIRIA design equation consists of the following *

terms:
Vn =Ve +Vs+ Vw (28)

where,
Vn = shear capacity,
Vc = concrete shear strength contribution,

Vs = contribution ofmain reinforcement to shear strength,
Vw = shear strength contribution of web reinforcement
27
v--^)û[a) (29)
IQM^^'a, &r 10H<2(K)% (210)
h A c
K=pUcdât for 100A^20()O/o (2U)

h Ac
K^xlOOA,ysâ, Qn)
Where
Pi = modified coefficientfor concrete,
p2 = modified coefficientfor reinforcement,
a =angle between the reinforcement and the horizontal axis of the beams at
the intersection of the reinforcement and the critical diagonal crack
Li [45] studied seismic drift assessment of buildings in Hong-Kong using the

I
displacement approach with particular application to transfer structures. Transfer
structures (Transfer plate, Transfer beams) are investigated in terms of their
development functions, structural forms and construction. Period-prediction formulae
are proposed based on the test results of ambient vibration tests and damping ratios for
Hong Kong buildings are recommended.
Manual et al. [46] summarizes the results of an investigation of 12 reinforced
concrete deep beams in which the variables a/d and L/d were systematically varied and
other major variables were kept constant. The ultimate strength of reinforced deep
beams appears to be influenced significantly by a/d ratio and insignificantly by l/d ratio.
The influence of a /d relates to the mode of failure.
Marti [47] reviewed the recent developments of strut-and-tie model,

compression field, and limit analysis approaches. The treatment of shear problems
should correspond to the overall context of the design or evaluation of a structure.
Different methods should be used, depending on the task at hand and required level of
sophistication. Shear, bond, and development length problems are inseparable and
28
should be treated in a unified manner.
Maru et al.[48] recommended the most widely used procedure for determining
creep and shrinkage effects in RC building frames for buildings having flexible slab
system (low beam stiffness) and with a number of storey not exceeding 30. By using
recently developed accurate procedure termed as Consistent Procedure (CP), the
behavior of frames due to creep and shrinkage has been studied when stiffness of
beams is high.
Maxwell and Breen [50] investigated simply supported reinforced concrete deep
beams with opening subjected to asingle point load. Two different strut-and-tie models
were used separately and then in combination with some modifications to design four
specimens that were used to examine the behavior and applicability of the strut-and-tie
modelingtechnique.
Narayanan and Darwish [56] described an experimental investigation of 12 fiber

reinforced concrete deep beams .The study reveals that the incorporating steel fibers in
RC deep beams is a potentially important and practical construction method as fiber
concrete deep beams exhibit substantial increase in their ultimate load as well as in the
load at first cracks, enhanced deformation characteristics at all stages of loading up to
failure, as well as improving their shear and spalling resistance.
Natarajan [57] studied the defects and rehabilitation in RCC structures.
Neelamegam et al. [58] investigated the effect of mineral admixtures and
mixture composition on early age stiffening characteristics .
Pendyala and Mendis [59] conducted a comprehensive experimental and
analytical investigation to assess the concrete component of shear resistance (Vc) in
beams made with high-strength concrete. Twenty-four beams, selectively reinforced or
unreinforced for shear, were tested to determine the shear capacities of normal and
high-strength concrete beams. The variables in the test program were stirrup spacing, V
the strength of concrete and the shear span-to-depth ratio. The experimental results
were compared with the shear provisions ofhigh-strength concrete from selected codes.
29
Placas and Regan [61] carried out an extensive test program for the
investigation of the shear resistance of 63 T, I, and rectangular reinforced concrete
beams with varying cross section, web reinforcement, longitudinal reinforcement,
concrete strength, and shear span. Equations were developed for the calculation of
collapse loads for failures by diagonal tension, shearing, shear compression, and web
crushing. A formula for calculating shear crack width was also presented.
Prasad [62] carried out the study on limits of ductile behavior of RC deep beams
by casting and testing 4 sets of forty RC rectangular deep beams of size 100 x 650mm
with and without web reinforcement. The three parameters that were varied are shear-
arm ratio, amount of inclined web steel, and the inclination of the web steel. All beams
were tested under two point static loading (Fig. 2.10). The main purpose of the
investigation was to study the limits of ductile behavior of reinforced concrete deep
beams, with respectto the above parameters.
BEAM
' Cm *
Fig. 2.10 Beam dimensions and reinforcement detail [62]
Raghunath et al. [63] studied 8 single span rectangular pierced fiber reinforced
concrete deep beams of size 800 x 100 x 600 mm. The incorporation of steel fibers
substantially improves the resistance to crack formation and growth in addition to
increasing the tensile strength marginally. The principal results ofthe investigations are
30
presented in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Principal test results [63]
• <dement: OPC of 43 grade Reinforcement: 16mm HYSD (main steel)

• 1Vlixproportion by Wt.: 1: 2: °-70
• 1iVater - cement ratio: 0.45.
: 6mm MS (web steel)
Steel Fiber: aspect ratio = 60.
Fibre Angle of Load in kN

Sr. No. volume inclination
X/D
fraction(%) ratio First Crack Ultimate
(a)
1 0.00 150 370
2 0.50 190 425
0.030 44° 12'
3 1.00 220 460
4 1.50 240 480
Rao and Menon [65] investigated the ultimate strength of tubular tower sections
under wind loading.
Ray [66] carried out ashort review of literature on reinforced concrete deep
beams with and without opening in web. Based on Elastic Theory as well as Ultimate
Load Theory, a chronological record of research works done from 1932 to 1980 is
presented. Critical comments on such studies are also included.
Ray [67] investigated the flexural strength of reinforced concrete deep beams
with and without opening in web. This is one of the comprehensive laboratory
investigation carried out under symmetrical two-point loading. Asimplified design
equation was proposed and recommendations were made regarding the design bending
moment for reinforced concrete deep beams with and without opening in web.
Roller and Russel [68] carried out an experimental investigation of the shear •
strength of high-strength concrete beams with web reinforcement. Primary design

variables were concrete compressive strength of69, 117, and 124 MPa and the quantity
31
of shear reinforcement. The actual shear strength of each beam specimens was
V compared with the shear strength predicted using the provisions of ACI 318-83.
Russo et al. [69] performed the analysis of shear strength of longitudinally
reinforced concrete beams, in which a constant shear force acts throughout the shear
span. A shearstrength formula for beams withno transverse reinforcement is proposed.
Sabnis and Dabholkar [70] studied the effect of stress on the behavior of
concrete.
V Sato et al. [74] investigated the diagonal tensile failure mechanism of reinforced
concrete beams without shear reinforcement, which is difficult to solve by means of
experimental and analytical study. The experimental results are verified by the finite
element method taking into consideration the influence of a splitting tensile crack and
dowel action.
Selvam and Thomas [75] carried out a critical study of a various shear strength
^ theories available for deep beams and observes that the shear strength is independent on
the reinforcing parameter. In reality, quantity of main reinforcement has influenced
over the shear capacity of beams, which cannot be neglected where as loading position
has little effect on the ultimate shear strength. In order to study this effect a detailed
study of 24 beams of 600 mm simple span and 700 mm overall length has been carried
out. Further a realistic prediction equation is proposed for computing shear strength.
Shanmugam and Swaddiwudhipong [76] conducted experimental investigation
on eighteen reinforced concrete beams, with and without steel fibers, to study the
ultimate load behavior. The ultimate load carrying capacity of the beams and their
modes of failure were reported.
Siao [77] proposed a simple method of predicting shear strength in deep beams
and pile caps failing in diagonal splitting and the accuracy of this approach have been
-4 verified against results of actual strength obtained from experimental testing and
published by others.
Subedi et al. [78] investigated thirteen simply supported reinforced concrete
32
deep beams subjected to top symmetrical two-point loading. The variables were span-
depth ratos of 1, 2, and 3, and the percentage ofmain reinforcement from 0.22 to 1.16.
Three modes of failure of reinforced concrete deep beams are reported, namely flexure
when there is relatively little main reinforcement; diagonal splitting the most common
case; and local crushing when inadequate local reinforcement is provided at loading
points or at supports.
Swaddwudhipong and Shanmugam [79] reported an experimental investigation

on fiber reinforced concrete deep beams with opening. The effect of fiber content,
position ofopenings and different types loadings on the behavior ofsuch beams were
studied.
Tan et al. [80] investigated the Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete (SFRC) beams
subjected to predominant shear. Aprincipal stress strain relations for the cracked SFRC
elements along with the equilibrium and compatibility equations to predict the response
of SFRC elements subjected to shear and bending is proposed. Also, studies confirm
that an increase in the shear strength as much as 70% could be achieved by adding the
small quantities ofsteel fibers to the ordinary reinforced concrete
Tan et al. [81] studied nineteen high-strength concrete deep beams with
compressive strength in the range of 41 MPa to 59 MPa subjected to two-point top
loading. All the beams were singly reinforced with main steel percentage of 1.23 %and
with nominal percentage ofshear reinforcement of 0.48 percent. The beams were tested
for seven shear span-to-depth ratios a/d, ranging from 0.27 to 2.70 and four effective *
span-to-depth ratios /e/d ranging from 2.15 to 5.38. The shear span-to-depth ratio was
varied by varying shear span and keeping depth ofbeams constant. The test results are
compared with predictions based on the current ACI Building Code, the CIRIA Guide
2, Zsutty's and Hsu-Mau's equations.
Tan et al. [82] carried out an experimental investigation on the behavior and
ultimate shear strength of 18 high strength concrete deep beams. The primary variables
were the concrete cylinder compressive strength ranging from 55 to 86 MPa, shear
span-to-depth ratios of 0.85, 1.13, and 1.69 and five types of different web
33
reinforcements. The test results are compared with the ultimate strength predictions
obtained using the current ACI code, the Canadian Code, and the UK CIRIA Guide 2.
Tan et al. [83] carried out an experimental investigation to study effects of main
tension steel in HSC deep beams. Four groups of specimens with main tension steel
ratio pw, of 2.00%, 2.58%, 4.08%, and 5.28% , vertical web steel ratio of 0.48 percent
and cylinder compressive strength exceeding 55 MPa, were tested to failure under top
symmetric two-point loading. The test results showed that, there is remarkable
enhancement in shear strength as pw increases from 1.23 to 2%, but beyond this range
(pw > 2%), the increase is nominal. Thus pw of 2 % represents practical upper limits in
maximizing the main steel to augment the shear strength. Figure 25 shows variation of
total ultimate shear strength with main steel ratio and a/d ratio. The test results are then
compared with predictions based on the current ACI Code, the Canadian Code, and UK
CIRIA Guide-2.
Tan et al. [84] presented an experimental investigation on the size effect in large
prestressed-concrete deep beams. Twelve specimens with a total main-steel-and-strand
ratio maintained close to 2.5% were tested to failure. Two parameters were varied: viz.
beam height h, ranging from 500 to 1750 mm and shear span-to-height ratio a/h,
varying between 0.50 and 1.00. All the beams had cylinder compressive strength of
about 40MPa. The test results are then compared with predictions based on the current
ACI Code, the Canadian Code, and UK CIRIA Guide-2.
Tan et al. [85] reviewed the shear strength equations as given in the ACI
Building Code, the Canadian Code, and the UK's CIRIA Guide-2 and proposed an
alternative design method for the determination of shear strength in deep beam. The
proposed formula adequately predicts the ultimate strength of deep beams of different
strength categories, shear span-to-depth ratios, main reinforcement, and horizontal and
vertical web reinforcement. A total of 233 deep beams of various parameters were used
in this extensive code comparison study (Fig. 2.11).
Vn = V+Vr
34
a
Vn = J3t\ I-0.2&- (2.13)
where,
V„ = nominal shear strength,

Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete,
Vs = nominal shear strength provided by horizontal and vertical web steel,
P. = (0.75 Ci / 0.9) / ymc = 0.93 for normal weight aggregates
(0.75 Ci / 0.90) / yms =0.67 for lightweight aggregates, and
p2 = [(0.75 C2 /yms]/!00 =1.30 MPa for deformed bars
[(0.75 x C2)/ yms ]/l00 = 0.85 MPa for plain round bars.
A typical web bar

intersecting to the
diagonal splitting
Shear span (a)- line (of area Ai)
/ ^Notional J>
0. Splitting Line —f
Effective span (le)
Main tension reinforcement

(Area As)
Fig. 2.11 Meanings ofsymbols in the proposed equation [85]
Tan and Lu [86] investigated, both qualitatively and quantitatively, the si size
effect in deep beams through asystematic experimental program of casting and testing
12 large-and medium-sized specimens with overall depth ranging from 500 to 1750mm
35
and effective span from 1500 to 4520 mm. The beams had concrete compressive
V cylinder strength of 40 MPa and main steel ratio of 2.60 percent. The 12 test results are
then compared with predictions from the current ACI Code, the UK CIRIA Guide-2,
and the Canadian CSA Code.
Tan et al. [87] proposed an original and rational strut-and-tie model for the
tensile contribution of both reinforcement and concrete. The effect of eight types of
web reinforcements, be it in vertical, horizontal, inclined or orthogonal configuration,
y on shear strength of deep beams have been studied. The proposed model was verified
against three case studies of a total 116 beams.
Tang and Tan [88] proposed a very different yet original approach to account
for the effect of transverse stresses to the load carrying capacity of concrete in the
diagonal strut. The method is based on the strut-and-tie concept. The method involves
an interaction between the two failure modes, namely, splitting of diagonal strut due to
^ compressive stresses in the compressive direction. Predictions by the proposed model
are compared with experimental results and other established calculation methods.
Teng et al. [89] investigated the performance of strengthened concrete deep

beams predamaged in shear. A total of 18 prestressed and nonprestressed concrete deep
beams were tested to failure, repaired or strengthened by using simple strengthening
method of steel clamping and then retested. Fourteen of the externally strengthened
deep beams, when tested for second time, failed at higher loads than the first failure
loads. This indicates that the full capacities of the damaged deep beams can be restored
to the fullest capacity following a strengthening technique using simple clamping unit.
Comparisons with the ACI Code and other prediction methods show that the
strengthened deep beams failed at conservative ultimate loads.
Teng et al.[90] studied the shear strength of 12 simply supported reinforced

-4 concrete deep beams under fatigue loading. Three different arrangements of web
reinforcement were considered, namely: without web reinforcement, with vertical web
reinforcement only, and inclined web reinforcement. The ACI equation of shear
36
strength ofdeep beams under fatigue loading is modified and new equation is proposed.
V \
V = 3.5-2.5^
Vudj
x.9k+2mPv-d bd (2.14)
(
V
K,= 3.5-2.5^ \.9(l-filogN)y[f: +2500-^7p^
1 Vd
1- \bd (2.15)
Nar M u J V.
' / > f I ^
1+ ^ 11-^
v =-L 1- d d_
fyd
12
(2.16)
12
Walraven and Lehwalter [96] investigated whether size effect also occurs in
short beams loaded in shear and how this can be described. The influence of shear
reinforcement on the occurrence of size effects is also investigated and comparisons
between short and slender members with respect to size effect are made.
Wang et al [98] proposed formulas to predict the ultimate shear strength of
reinforced concrete deep beams. The derived equations are based on limit analysis
theorems and associated flow rules. Comparisons with experimental work are
performed and they show good agreement between the proposed equations and test
results.
Watanbe and Lee [99] proposed an incremental analytical method capable of

tracing the response of beams to shear. The method can predict not only the shear
strength but also the shear failure mode by adopting an incremental analytical method.
>
Calculated shear strength and failure mode from the analysis are compared with
experimental results and are shown to be in good agreement.
Zararis [101] derived simple expressions for restricted depth of compression
zone, as well as for the ultimate shear force of deep beams with and without web
reinforcement. The derived formulas from the analysis are verified by comparisons to
extensive sets of experimental data from literature, which have been obtained on deep
beams with various strengths of concrete, main steel ratios, shear reinforcement ratios,
and shear span to depth (a/d) ratios between 1.0 and 2.5.
37
2.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS
A comprehensive review of literature reveals that the topic of transfer beam has
not been covered adequately in the past. Most of the codes are inadequate for design of
transfer beam; hence the topic is of tremendous research significance. Now-a-days most
of the buildings are designed with the architectural point of view and one of the
requirements of architecture is large column free space at ground level. Transfer beams
fulfill this architectural requirement hence they are used frequently in high-rise
buildings.
The load transfer in the transfer beams primarily takes place through shear
resisting capacity of the section and the zone of constant shear is an important
parameter in the structural behavior of a transfer beam. In this zone, shearing force is
not only constant, but also quite high in magnitude. As a result, how to generate the
shear carrying capacitiesefficiently through the concrete sections is an important aspect
in the design of transfer beams. Main and transverse reinforcement, shear span-to-
depth ratio in terms of depth of beam, concrete compressive strength, and shear
strength of concrete are important parameters in influencing the shearresisting capacity
of beam section. Therefore, it can be concluded that there is a need for carrying out a
systematic study to investigate the behavior of transfer beams using a large number of
specimens with respect to the all above influencing parameters.
38
CHAPTER 3
ANALYTICAL METHODS
FOR SHEAR IN RC BEAMS
3.1 GENERAL
Great progress has been made, especially in the last 20 years, in the analytical
solution of shear problems in reinforced concrete structural elements, since Morsch and
Ritter laid the foundation at the beginning ofthe 20th century. Research tools of great
sophistication have been developed, but their implementation into design codes would
require considerable simplification. Of particular note is the Modified Compression
Field Theory, popularly known as MCFT, which combines " rationality", in the sense
that it satisfies equilibrium, compatibility and stress-strain relationship, with certain
simplifying assumptions (principal stresses and strains are parallel, verify the ability of
cracks in the direction of principal compression to transmit shear) that make it
amenable to Code formulation. Inaddition, extensive verification with the experimental
results has led to the adoption of the MCFT in a number of Codes (Canada, Norway,
AASHTO LRFD, although with some reservation for last one). This chapter tries to
contribute the understanding of the various solution methods of shear strength of
reinforced concrete structural elements, starting with plasticity analyses, continuing
with more exact solutions such as Modified compression Field Theory) and ending with
truss solutions oftenused in the design ( Strut-and-Tie Model).
3.2 ELASTIC SOLUTION - UNCRACKED RC BEAMS
In the uncracked state, reinforced concrete (RC) can be considered as a

4 homogenous, elastic material. For a simply-supported, uniformly loaded beam, the
combination of shear stresses, which are high at the supports, and bending stresses,
which are high are at midspan, cause the principal stress trajectories to change direction
39
along the length ofthe beam (Fig. 3.1 a), as shown, for example, by Morsch (1909).
For a brittle material such as concrete, reinforcement is provided to carry the tensile
stresses. The elastic stress distribution provides the basis for using inclined reinforcing
bars to resist the effect of shear, as shown in Fig. 3.1b.
Modern design methods, however, account for cracking in a reinforced concrete
member, even under loads well below the ultimate strength ofthe member.
mmmtumumu ; 4
—Compression
m. mm -Tension
yh 3F~ "9fe
(a) Principal stress trajectories (b) Reinforcement layout
Fig. 3.1 (a) Principal stress trajectories for asimply supported beam;
(b) reinforcement layout to carry principal tensile stresses.
3.3 PLASTIC SOLUTION- CRACKED RC BEAMS

Designers are often more interested in designing asafe structure than in tracking
its complete behavior over its loading history. This approach is called limit state design.
The theory of plasticity offers useful tools for establishing the carrying capacity of
structural members. Application of the theory of plasticity to structural engineering is
based on the following two theorems:
1. If a load path can be found where equilibrium is satisfied, the boundary

conditions are fulfilled and the material does not exceed the yield
condition anywhere, then the structure is safe. This is the lower bound
theorem ofthe theory ofplasticity. The stress field can be continuous, as
for example in the compression field theory, or it can be discontinuous,
as for example in the strut-and-tie method.
40
2. On the other hand, the load that causes a failure mechanism compatible
with the geometrical constraints of the structure is an upper bound of the
strength of the structure.
Whereas the reinforcing steel exhibits a definite plastic behavior and a readily
defined yield point (Fig. 3.2a), plain concrete exhibits strain softening and a rather
brittle behavior in compression (Fig. 3.2b). Concrete behavior can be idealized to have
a yield plateau at fc = v fj, where v is a factor less than 1.0, whose value depends on
the cylinder compressive strength f'c, the ultimate strain su and the application. V is
calculated by equating the area under the stress-strain curve for the real and the elastic-
plastic curve, as shown in Fig.3.2c. This rigid-plastic idealization has been found to be
useful in soil mechanics and in the analysis of reinforced concrete behavior. For shear
in RC beams with stirrups, an average empirical value is:
f
v = 0.8 - -"-
200
A safe value is:
f
200
which gives v = 0.5 for f'c = 40 MPa. On the other hand, for punching shear,
= 3.2
It should be noted that the majority of reinforced concrete members are under-
reinforced and their strength is essentially determined by the yield strength of the
reinforcement. The concrete model, i.e. the choice of v, does not have a pronounced
effect, except in over-reinforced cases. If an appropriate concrete compression strength
(i.e. adjusted by tests) is taken into account, limit analysis leads to quite satisfactory
strength predictions even for over-reinforced cases.
41
(C) M
Straw
Straw
to
BtecSv.
ll
*y««kr strength
J
Strain
Strain 6,
Fig. 3.2 Schematic stress strain curves: (a) structural steel; (b) concrete with
different compressive strengths; and (c) rigid-plastic idealization of
concrete used in plasticity analysis.
A model of concrete strength that has proved to be very useful is the Mohr-
Coulomb failure criterion. According to the Coulomb theory, sliding failure occurs
when (Fig.3.3a):
t| =c-n a = c-o-tan
\i = tan cp = friction coefficient, and
(p - Friction angle (typical value for concrete =37°).

If, in addition, a separation (fracture) failure criterion, such as
can be defined, the material is called a modified Mohr-Coulomb material. From >
Fig.3.3a:
AB = OB - OA
42
or -(o-,-o-3)=ccos$- -(a,+<T3)sin<p
V 2 2
(//+Vl +//2) 2<t,-<x3 =2c(//+Vl +//2)

kcr]-ai=2cy[k (3.2)
with *=(w +Vl +^2 )2 =tan2f- +^l (3.3)

i The constants can bedetermined from a compression test, which according to
this theory, involves sliding failure:
cr, = a2 = 0anda3 = -fc
Substituting into Eq.3.2, gives
-cr3 =2cV*=/c (3.4)

Therefore, Eq.3.2 can be rewritten as
4 te\-<r*=fc (3.5)
Figure 3.3b shows the Modified Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion plotted in
terms of shear stress versus normal stress. If the Mohr's circle of stress touches the
inclined boundary, failure is by sliding as indicated by the circles representing uniaxial

and triaxial compression. If the circle touches the tension cut-off, failure is by
, separation, as indicated by the circle representing uniaxial tension
The Mohr-Coulomb criterion for sliding failure considers only the maximum
shear stress, which is related to the difference between the largest and smallest principal
stresses. Another way to view the failure envelope is in terms of principal stresses,
which isshown in Fig. 3.4a for biaxial stress states. Iftensile strengths is neglected, the
failure envelope is as shownin Fig. 3.4b.
4
43
Sliding FaHure Envelope
V
Fig. 3.3 (a) Mohr-Coulomb envelope for sliding failure
03 Triaxial
Compression
Uniaxial
Tension
Separation
Fig. 3.3 (b) Modified Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria with tension cut-off showing
failure under uniaxial tension, uniaxial compression, and triaxial
compression
44
Compression
o%tz
Ci.Si
(X*.0,-X)
(A,0,Ak)
(0,-X.Xk)
Fig. 3.4 Biaxial stress failure envelopes based on modified Mohr-Coulomb

failure theory; (a) tensile strength included, and (b) tensile strength
neglected.
45
3.3.1 Lower Bound Solutions
^ Figure 3.5 shows a reinforced concrete beam with two concentrated loads
applied at a distance from the supports. The portion of the beam between the supports
and load points are subjected to a shear force equal to P. The yield envelope for the
beam is reached when one or more of the following is attained:
• The longitudinal steel (x) yields,
• The transverse steel yields, or
V • Theconcrete "yields".
The following example, shows best how the method works.
Equilibrium
Consider shear loading only for the beam in Fig. 2.5, and assume that the
concrete web develops a diagonal compression field making an angle 0 to the x-axis.
The stirrups and the lower stringer are in tension, whereas the upper stringer is in
compression.
If the stirrups are closely spaced with horizontal spacing s, the stirrup stresses
can be replaced by an equivalent stirrup stress ays distributed over theconcrete area.
n _ Atat
oys •
_ r CTS
bs
where As is the stirrup area crossing the concrete area bs, and r is the reinforcement
ratio. Upon transformation of the concrete diagonal compressive stress ae into the x-y
coordinates, the total stress carried by the concrete and the stirrups are:
ox~ -<Te cos2 0
CTy = -ac sin 0 + r as
x = ac sin 0 cos 0
•4 These equations can be rewritten as
oc - -—--—- = x (tan 0 + cot 0)

sin 9 cos 6
46
ox= -x cot 0
Vertical equilibrium requires cry = 0, therefore,

r as = ac sin2 0 = x tan 0 (3-6)
r t*
~l
•I VWtiMPW '!l" ' " 11"
fc ess
•=<
T T M
Compression Stringer
/?-
jl:
<,
VcotO
'P
ty
f!-v-t- 8 $
Tension Stringer
V«P
Fig. 3.5 :Lower bound solution ofbeam under shear loading
Yield Conditions
If the upper and lower stringers are strong enough, the lower bound solution >
must satisfy the material conditions:
ac= x(tan0 + cot0) </c (3.7)

o%< /y
where
/c • concrete "yield "strength and

/y = stirrup yield strength.
Al
The best lower bound solution is the largest load satisfying those conditions.
From Eqs. 3 .6 and 3.7:
r<j rex o
tan 0 - —^ = —£• -£- = %(tan 0 + cot 0)
from which
tan0/= (3.8)
W
with the notation
I
« = r<7' (3.9)
where § is the degree of shear reinforcement and 0/ is the lower bound solution for the
strut angle. From Eqs.3.7 and 3.8,
1
(3.10)
ac (tan 0 +cot 0)
—
<7„
=V£0-£) (3.11)
♦HR
<T*
or
(3.12)
\°.J
Equation 3.12 represents a circle in the (x/oc, 4) coordinate system. In the 0 < £
< y^, the right hand side of Eq. 3.11 is a positive and monotonically increasing
function of £,. Therefore, x is maximum for (ac)max =fc and for
(3.13)
Jc Jc
i.e., the web crushes and the stirrups yield simultaneously (Fig. 3.6). The longitudinal
reinforcement, however, remains elastic. For § > H, Eq. 3.11 or 3.12 gives the best
lower bound solution as xmax=1/2/c ,i.e., a straight line as shown in Fig. 3.6, and Eq. 3.9
gives oy=/c/(2r)< /rEquations 3.8 and 3.11 show that when 0 < \\i < 0.5, the
48
compressive stress direction is 0<0<45°. For \\i >0.5,xmax =0.5 fe, and 0=45° (from
Eq. 3.11). The lower bound solution thus produces a diagonal compression field at an
angle that varies depending on the reinforcement ratio and does not exceed 45% to the
longitudinal axis. Notice that the above solution neither discusses displacement
compatibility, as this is not required in alower bound solution, not the special condition
at the concentrated loads.
Equation 3.10 can be rewritten as
T 1
ac tan0 + tan(9O°-0)
and produces the same numerical result for 0and (90° - 0).
This lower bound solution was first published by November 1967 in the Danish
Journal ofStructural Engineering, Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 33-58.
v.e
1
0.7 •
0.0 -
"
[•••
0.S
0.4 •e/l
Wit
0.3
7 • •
02 yi
0.1 i
t
o • |
v 0 o.t 0.2 0.3 0.4 06 0.6
X
Fig. 3.6 Relationship between shear strength and reinforcement

ratio compared with test results.
3.3.2 Upper Bound Solution
Figure 3.7 shows the shear failure mechanism ofa beam under two concentrated
loads. As upper bound solution is sought whereby the central portion of the beam slides
along straight yield liens at angle 0to the horizontal and displaces by a vertical distance
49
u. The number of stirrups crossing the yield line is h (cot 0)/ s. They have cross-
sectional area As, and stretch a distance u at yield.
=1
Pi
I gI 1
F . -*f«|—
hf^
Fig. 3.7 Shear failure mechanism of beam subjected to concentrated loads
Fig. 3.8 Strain energy of stirrups
The internal work of the stirrups is (Fig. 3.8):
... hcotd . . ..,

Ws = AJyu = rfybh cot9u (3-14)
The internal work of the concrete compression strut is mere difficult to evaluate.
Assume concrete is a modified Mohr-Coulomb material with zero tensile strength, and
whose failure envelope is represented by Fig.3.4b.
50
Energy dissipation per unit volume is:
W=C| 6| +0282 +0383 (3 J5)

where the subscripts correspond to the three principle directions. For a rigid-plastic
Coulomb material, the failure condition ofthe frictional hypothesis is (Eq. 3.5):
f=ka3-ai-fc =0 for o3>a2>Oi (3.16)
There are five similar equations depending on the relative magnitudes of a,
CJ2, and 0-3 . If we use the yield condition Eq. 3.16 as the associated flow rule, the
normality condition states that:
£,=x-V-
da,
where Xis an arbitrary constant. Thus the strains corresponding to Eq, 3.16 are:
8j «-X; 62 - 0; e3 =X k
(3.17)
This is represented as plane 2in Fig 2.4b. By addition ofthe principal strains:
ei+e2 + e3=Mk-l) (3.18)
The energy dissipation therefore is (from Eqs. 3.15, 3.16, 3.17, and 3.18 ):
W= -X a +X k a3 =X (-ai +k a3)
The same operation is performed on the other planes, edges and apexes of the
yield surface in the (ai ,02,03) space. In all cases,
W=jrl(£>+£2+£>) (3.19)
Disregarding the apex, summation gives
"HfZ'W.ZM (3.20)
and therefore
Ski (3-2I>
51
where ]|T e* is the sum of positive principal strains and T'r" *s tne sum °^ tne
absolute values of the negative principal strains. Next, consider a line of discontinuity
(yield line) where there is a jump in displacement between two parallel planes
separated initially by a distance 5 ( Fig. 3.10). Part I has displacements (u„, u/ >with
respect to part II. In the volume, the strains are:
u„ usina
Sn
5 8
e, = 0
u, usina
Ym
S 5
The principal strains are:
_ 1 usva.cc 1 |w2sin2a u2cos2a =-^(sina±l)

~2 S 2V S2 82 z o
(3.22)
FromEq. 3.21:
£\ 1+ sin a
k-- (3.23)
s2 1-sina
For plane strain, Eqs. 3.19 and 3.23 give
W=fc2S (l"Sina) (3-24)

The dissipation per unit length in the t-direction is:
Wx =WbS =-fcub(l-since) (3.25)
It turns out that Eq.3.24 is also valid for plane stress. From Eq. 3.25 and
Fig. 3.9, where the displacement vector is u, the length of the yield line is h / sin 0, and
the beam width is b, the work of the concrete is
Wc=\fcb{\-cos9)-^~u
2 suii9
(3.26)
Neglecting the contribution of the longitudinal reinforcement, the work equation
for the reinforced concrete beam with vertical stirrups failing under constant shear is,
52
from Eqs. 3.14 and 3.26:
Pu =rfybhcot&u +^fcb(l-cosO)~u
2 sin 6
from which
T P 1-COS0
= l/SCOt0 +
/. bhf T 2sin0 (3-27>
where y/ =rfy If is the shear reinforcement mechanical ratio. Ifx/ fc is minimized
with respect to 0, we obtain the upper bound solution:
-7- =vV(i-y) (3.28)

J c
which is identical to the lower bound Eq. 3.11, and is therefore the " exact" solution
within our assumptions (concrete is a modified Mohr-Coulomb material with zero
tensile strength, longitudinal steel performs no work). The best upper bound ofEq. 3.28
above is obtained for
_2V>P-/y)
tan0 =
\-2y (3.29)
where 0U is the upper bound solution for the strut angle. This is twice the crack angle
found by the lower bound solution Eq. 3.28:
0u= 20/
Fig. 3.9 Internal work of concrete
53
Fig. 3.10 Yield line (crack) in concrete web
For a strut angle of 0/, the applied shear force equals the force in the stirrups
over length hcot0/. Once the stirrups yield, increasing loads can only be carried by an
increase in cot0/, i.e. a flattening of the strut inclination. This causes the concrete stress
to increase, since its vertical component remains constant to balance the stirrup stresses,
until compression failure occurs. The beam fails by sliding failure along yield lines
inclined at 0U, exactlytwice the strut angle 0/
3.4 PLASTIC THEORY OF SHEAR FRICTION
3.4.1 Upper Bound Solution
Figure 3.11 shows a shear friction test where a failure mechanism has formed
along the line of loading. The relative displacement ofthe two halves is u, at anangle a
to the yield line. The external work is:
We = P u cosa
Both steel reinforcement and concrete contribute to the dissipation of energy.

The reinforcing steel of area As is at yield in the ultimate limit state. Neglecting the
dowel effect of the steel reinforcement, here perpendicular to the crack, the steel
dissipation is:
Wz = As fy u since
54
The concrete dissipation is evaluated in the same way as in §3.2.2, Fig. 3.9, but
with the yield line length as h. From Eq. 3.25:
Wc =Wlh =^-fcubh{\-sina)
Depending on the direction a of the relative displacements, consideration of
energy balance gives rise to the following values of the shear strength:
q = 0
Since the displacement is perpendicular to the reinforcement, Ws =0and

Pu =-fcubh
_r_ P 1
°r fc=W =2 (3-30)
0<a<(j)
where <}> is the friction angle of concrete.
Pucosa =-fcubh{\ - sina)+ Asfyusina

t 1-sinor
or ~7~
fc ~k2cos a + ¥tan Y
¥ n n*\
(3.27a)
where \\i is the degree of reinforcement
w = L
bhfc
The minimum value of Eq. 3.27a is:
jr=Ml~¥) (3.28)
which occurs for
sinor = l-2^' (3.29a)

Since 0 < a < <j>, Eq.3.28 applies in the interval
1 - sin A 1
—-—<{f/<-
2 2
55
In the (x / fc, \j/ co-ordinate system) Eq. 3.28 represent a circle with radius 0.5
centered at (0,0.5). Eq. 3.30 is a tangent to this circle at (0.5, 0.5). See Fig. 3.6.
For a = <(>, The work equation is:
1
Pucos<j> = - fcubh{\ - sin <f>) + Asf sin <f>
r _ 1-sin^
or + y/tan$ (3.31)
fc 2cos^
From Eqs. 3.3 and 3.4:

±
f° -tanf^ ^1- 1+tan(^2)_ 1+cos^ +sin^ _sin^ +1-cos^ _ 2cos^
2c \A 2) l-tan(^\2) 1+cos^-sin^ sin^-1 +cos^ 2-2sin<
T C
— = \-y/tanS (3.32)
fc fc
'•^^j-^^^j^?
JL
(a)
T
Fig. 3.11 (a) Disk subjected to shear and (b) failure mechanism
Eq. 3.32 is tangent to the circle Eq. 3.28 at
fl-sin^ cos^^j
Figure 3.12 shows good agreement with experimental results.
56
>
Fig. 3.12 Test results for monolithic concrete
a > «|> This case involves the concrete tensile strength and Eqs. 3.20 and 3.21 are
generalized to:
w=^h+J.(Z>"-*IM) (3.33)
When
2>+ >k
(3.34)
Equation 3.20 is aspecial case of Eq.3.23 when condition Eq. 3.21 is justified. From
Eqs. 3.22 and 3.33:
W,=WbS = -fcub
2
l-sina +-^.(i-* +(l +*)sina)
J c
From Eq. 3.3
2sin^ , , ?
k-\ = and £ + 1 =
1- sin <j> 1- sin ^
and the dissipation is
1 (
^=-fcub -sina+2-/;sinQ:~sin^' (3.35)
1-sin^
57
which can be written more compactly as:
♦
Wt=—fcub(l - msin a)
with /=1_A()t_1) =1_2A_^_ (3.36)

fc fc 1-SM
f f 1
(3.37)
fc /cl-sin^
The work equation is:
1 -,. . . sina-sin^ _
Pucosa = -/c(l-sina) + T-f. ubh + Asfpsina
2JcK (1-sin^) Jl
r 1-sina sina-smd /.
or — = + — —+ iytana
fc 2cos a (l-sin^)cosa /
The minimum value is found to be:
(3.38)
occurring for:
^ +
sina = 1-2-
ft sin^
1-2
/c 1-sin^
Equation 3.38 is a circle of
radius =X—1l^*-
2 fc\-s\n<f>
and Eq.3.31 is tangent to this circle.
Eq.3.38 can be written in a more compact form:
j- =-^-(m-(m-2¥)
with / and m defined in Eqs. 3.36 and 3.37.
When ft = 0, Eq. 3.38 becomes identical to Eq. 3.27a and Eq. 3.31 vanishes. In
this case the load-carrying capacity is the same as for beams, where the tensile strength
58
is assumed to be 0 (see §3.2.2).
Experimental results agree well with the above. The effectiveness factor is less
4
for cracked {v =0.45) than for monolithic concrete {v - 2/3), but the friction angles
are the same {<f> '=37°). In Fig.3.13, curves for cracked and uncracked concrete are
shown. Where the curve for cracked concrete exceeds that uncracked concrete, the
latter governs.
Fig. 3.13 Test results for acracked specimen
3.4.1 Lower Bound Solution
Astatistical interpretation can be given to the upper bound solution because

the stress fields are defined only along the yield line.
The compressive normal stress in the concrete due to the reinforcement is :
<y =
bh Wc (3.39)
The average shear stress is given by:

P
T = •
bh (3-40)
We know use amodified Mohr-Coulomb material with acircular cut-off(Fig.3.14):

'„♦!/.-2L.V
2 1-sinî
+T2 =X-fc-f Sm<* (3.41)
2 1-sin^
59
In Fig. 3.14, the straight line has the equation:
r = c-o-tan^ (3.10)
Inserting Eq.3.39 into Eq. 3.38 gives Eq.3.32
When we assume plane stress, one of the principal stresses is always zero.
When there is no tension, the greatest Mohr circle (Fig. 3.3 b) passes through (o, x) =
(0,0) and (a, x) = (fc, 0) and has the equation:
2
4 '4'. +T =
.'•
(3.42)
Inserting Eq.3.39 into Eq. 3.42 gives 3.27a
o,e
Fig. 3.14 Dissipation in a yield a Modified Mohr-Coulomb material with a

circular tension cut-off
For degree of reinforcement greater than XA, the reinforcement does not yield
because the shear strength ofconcrete is limited to —= K >which is Eq. 3.30.

Jc
60
3.5 "EXACT" SOLUTIONS - COMPRESSION FIELD THEORIES
3.5.1 Compression Field Theory
+
The compression field theory is an "exact" solution because it satisfies
equilibrium, strain compatibility and stress-strain relationships. It was developed by
Mitchell and Collins (1974) following the "tension field theory" invented by Wagner
(1929) to describe the post-local buckling behavior of thin webs of steel girders, and is
similar to Nielsen's (1967) lower bound solution. In contrast to the limit analysis of
plasticity theory, modified compression field theory describes the shear behavior
+
through the entire cracked range up to failure under the combined effects of flexure,
shear and axial (compressive or tensile) forces and torsion. Therefore, neither the
concrete nor the reinforcement are at their limiting stress in a typical case. Further, it
takes into the accounts the contribution in to the shear strength due to diagonal tensile
stresses in the cracked concrete. Compression field theory idealizes cracked concrete as
amaterial with coinciding principal stress and strain axes which are free to adapt their
direction as required by the applied loads.
Equilibrium: This is similar to developments shown for the lower bound solution of
the plasticity theory. Consider the equilibrium at a cross-section in a reinforced
concrete beam where the bending moment is zero, as shown in Fig. 3.15a.
Concrete: The vertical component of the diagonal compressive force in the concrete,
which is inclined at 0 to the longitudinal axis, must equal the applied shear force
(Fig.3.15a).
V= DsinO = (f2bjd cos0)sin0
/2=^(tan0+cot0) (2.43)
Sjirrups: In turn, the diagonal compression in the concrete transfers vertical force to
the stirrups (Fig. 3.15b).
Avf =(f2bws sin0)sin0
61
iîltan* (3.44)
* s jd
Stringers: The longitudinal component of the diagonal compression in the concrete is
equilibrated by tension in the "stringers":
Nv=Axfx=Vcot0
Two important assumptions are made:
e The concrete carries no tension after cracking.
+ e The angle of inclination of the diagonal compressive stress coincides with the
angle of inclination of the principal compressive strain. This is the exact
converse of Wagner's hypothesis for the diagonal tension field theory. In
reality, the principal directions for stress differ from those for strain after the
concrete cracks (as will be discussed).
M = 0
[o.
T / /
dfc / / /
t t
/
/
0
/ / • / /
/ /
ct
t . ' /
//
/ / /
Jd /
/
/ f / / / .
f > / / / / / / /
Nv
VggEaa
/
/
/
/
• /
/ /
/<8 , t
t
/
/
/
0.5 Nv
bw s s a \
(a) Diagonal stresses and longitudinalequilibrium
(b) Stirrup force
Fig. 3.15 Equilibrium condition for variable angle truss used in the compression
field theory
62
Strain Compatibility: The strain Compatibility relationships in the cracked web are
established using the geometrical transformations represented by Mohr's circle of strain
as shown in Fig. 3.16b.
a) Averagestrains inweb element
b) Mohra circle of strain
Fig. 3.16 Strain compatibility for cracked web
From triangle 2Bx inFig.3.16b:

yxl=2(ex-£2)cot0
while from triangle 2At:
yxl =2(e, -£2)tan0

where
ex = longitudinal strain of web (tension is positive),

et = transverse strain,
Yxt = shear strain, and
£2 = principal compressive strain (negative).

From both equations above, we obtain the angle of inclination of the diagonal
compression:
tan'2 0n =
_ £x ~ s 2
£,- £2
63
Since the above strain compatibility relationship was derived using Mohr's
> circle, the diagonal compression field theory is also sometimes referred to as the Mohr-
compatibility truss. However, this latter name lacks the physical and historical appeal
of the former one.
The first strain invariant also provides a useful relationship:

£l+£2=£x+£l
Note that, for cracked concrete, these compatibility relationship are expressed in
4- terms of "average" strains, i.e., strains measured over base lengths long enough to
include several cracks.
Stress-strain Relationships of Cracked Concrete

The concrete web is not only in compression in direction 2, but also in tension
in direction 1 (Fig. 3.16a). Vecchio and Collins (1982) tested reinforced concrete
panels under Biaxial stresses (including pure shear) and found the principal
compressive stress in the concrete, f2 , is a function not only of the principal
compressive strain s2, butalso of the coexisting principal tensile strain ei.
They suggested the following parabolic stress-strain relationship (Fig. 3.17):
(~ \ ( £2
~ \2
2
*2
A-fi2 max
\*cj *cj
where
2max - <1.0.
f\ 0.8+ 170*,
The presence of transverse tensile strain reduces the compression capacity of

the concrete. For this reason, this model is sometimes referred to as the softened truss
model. In addition, the reinforcing steel behaves elastically:
fy = Es Et
Ix = iis Ex
64
Principal strain, «2
frf\?*"P!—'*• slfMt-strsti ralatlon for cracked WReWonsNp for maximum principal compressive
reinforced concrete
if^ faJmix
u Oi a* 0.6 0.8 1.0 13 1.4 1.6

«2k'c
<£££*£« often data fororacM concrete ki t^J*?!*™"*^represent*** of the
oompraartva atresMtreta relation
Fig. 3.17 Compressive stress-strain relationships for cracked concrete
Thus we have three equilibrium equations, two strain-compatibility equations,

and three stress-strain relations to solve for the three stress unknowns f2,fv,fx,four
strain unknowns ex, Et, e,, e2 and the angle ofthe diagonal compression 0, or atotal of
eight equations for eight unknowns. With these relationships, it is possible not only to
predict the strength (limit-state) but also the load-deformation response of reinforced
concrete members subjected to shear.
It would be interesting to simplify the stress-strain relationship of concrete to

linearly elastic-plastic and then compare this "exact" solution to the previous plasticity
solutions, which neglect elastic deformations. For consistency with the plasticity
solutions, we assume that the stringers are elastic /, =E,sx </„but that the stirrups
and the concrete have just reached their elastic limit.
65
fv =fy ; Et = ey = yield strain
£2 =fc; E2 = - sc (E2 is a negative quantity)
The shear stress is now the unknown. From Eq.3.10:
T tan0
f tan2 0 +1
FromEq.3.44:
4
tan 0 = = = 4^
Js r bs fc t t
A f
where ¥ = —- — = shear reinforcement mechanical ratio,
bs x
from which
ArV .2 >*
vp2^v +i —<X» ^c
U cy
VJ/2 +
-T = ¥
/c = VT(i-4>)
¥
tan (9 =
So we retrieve the lower bound solution of the theory of plasticity, Eqs.3.11 and
3.8, as we should, without making use of strain compatibility.
3.5.2 Modified Compression Field Theory
The early compression field theory neglects the contribution of the tensile
stresses in the cracked concrete and consequently overestimates the deformations and
underestimates the strengths. This is corrected in the Modified Compression Field

Theory (MCFT) developed by the Vecchico and Collins in 1986.The key simplifying
assumption of the modified compression field theory is that the principal strain
66
direction coincides with the principal stress direction. This assumption is justified by
experimental measurements which show that the principal directions ofstress and strain
are parallel within ±10° (Fig. 3.18). Also, concrete struts are at ashallower angle than
cracks, and the compressive stress field must be transferred across the cracks, thus
reducing concrete strength from its uncracked state inducing shear stress across the
crack faces (Collins 1978)
Inclination ofprincipal strain, 0
Fig. 3.18 Comparison of principal stress and principal strain directions

Equilibrium between the cracks
Consider a symmetrically reinforced beam under pure shear Vand a small

element Abetween the cracks subjected to principal stresses/, and f2 as shown in
Fig. 3.19 a & Fig. 3.19 b.
^
0.5 Nv
(a) Beam cross section (b) Principal Stresses in Concrete
Fig. 3.19 (a) Beam cross section, (b) Principal stresses m concrete
67
To establish equation of equilibrium, shear in the section is resisted by the
* diagonal compressive stresses jStogether with the diagonal tensile stress/i. The tensile
stresses vary from 0 at the cracks to a maximum value between the cracks. Average
value is, therefore, used in the equilibrium formulation.
From the Mohr's Circle of Stress (Fig. 3.19c, & Fig. 3.18 d),
fi = Major Principle Stress = v tan0
and f = Major Principle Stress = v Cot0

Therefore,
/, +/2 = v tan0 + v CotO , (3.45)

where v = Shear stress
V
v = -
bjd
h *
I 1( fa. V
2frsj 29Av A^ L^rt

J-*.<T
\ X^ n\
_jj^
%//
![
V
fct
(c) Stressed Element A (d) Mohr's Circle of Average Concrete Stress
Fig. 3.19 (c) Stressed element A, (d) Mohr's circle of average concrete stress
Now consider the equilibrium of stirrups forces (Fig. 3.19e):

Compared with the previous equilibrium equation, Eq. 2.43 of the compression
field theory, concrete tensile stresses contribute to carrying the load. The diagonal
compressive stresses push apart the flanges of the beam while the diagonal tensile
68
stresses pull them together. The vertical imbalance is carried by tension in the web
reinforcement.
r • • r • t.
(e) Forces In Stirrups
Fig. 3.19 Equilibrium conditions for modified compression field theory
We get,
AJ* =(f2 sin2 0 -/; cos2 0)6wS (3.46)

From Eqs. 3.45 and 3.46
/, , 1 \A,fv 1
tan 0 + cot 0 tan (9 + cot 0 .M + /, cos 20 sin 2<9
Therefore, Shear Force can be written as
V = vbwjd
v_AfJd cos2 0+sin2 £ fbjd / 2v

6WS (tan^ +cot^)sin2^ +tan^ +cot^^ 0t ^
r/ = ^y/y y cot2 0+1 + - tan 0+cot 0
S tan 0 +cot 6 ' tan ,9(tan 0 +cot 0) bwjd
js-Afy SJ tanfl +cotfl _, .. '
S jdtan0(tan0 +cot0)+fAjdc°t0
V=^~JdcoX0 +fbJdco\0
69
v = v, + v , (3)
F= Steel Contribution + Concrete Contribution
So the steel contribution is based on the variable angle truss model ($ 3.6.1),
whereas the concrete contribution is the shear resisted by tensile stresses in diagonally
cracked concrete. Similarly, the longitudinal imbalance// between the diagonal tension
and compression in the concrete must be carried by the longitudinal steel.
AJi =(/2 cos20 - f sin20>Jd =Fcot0 - fbjd
Equilibrium Across Cracks
In checking the condition at a crack, the actual complex crack pattern is

idealized as a series of parallel cracks, all occurring at angle 0 (the strut angle) to the
longitudinal reinforcement (Collins 1993). At low shear values, tension is transmitted
across the cracks by local increases in the reinforcement stresses. At a certain shear
force, the stresses in the web reinforcement will just reach yield at the crack locations.
At higher shear forces, transmitting tension across cracks requires local shear
stresses,vci, on the crack surfaces. The two sets of stresses, at crack and between the
cracks, must be statically equivalent ( see Fig. 3.20). Equivalence of vertical forces at
the two locations shown in Fig. 3.20aand 3.20b requires:
\stan0J sin0 \stan0J

V
To maintain this equality, the average tensile stress,//, must be:
/=vc/tan0 +-l-(/;-/)
bws
The concrete contribution, which depends on//, is thus tied to the shear that can
be transmitted across cracks by aggregate interlock. The ability of the crack interface to
transmit the shear stress vc, depends on the crack width w. Vecchio and Collins suggest
the following limiting value of vci
70
0.18J/'C
v . = v c
" 0.3 ♦«£.
a + \6
where
/'c - Compressive strength ofconcrete in MPa, and

a = Mmaximum aggregate size in mm.
This formula will require further investigation because, for high f\, the
aggregate may fracture, whereas for low /'c, fracture goes around the aggregate.
The use ofthe above formula for design requires an estimate ofthe crack width
w. It can be taken as the product of the principal tensile strain ., and the average
spacing ofthe diagonal cracks, sm6:
w = ^me
The spacing of the inclined cracks depends upon the crack control
characteristics of both the longitudinal and the transverse reinforcement. Referring to
Fig.3.21, the diagonal crack spacing can be related to crack widths in the vertical and
horizontal directions:
s l
me sin<5> cos0
+
mx "mv
Crack spacing is estimated from the provisions ofthe CEB-FIP Model Code: ^
V 10; Px
^=2|cv+-£-)+0.25*,^
10. Pv
where
db - bardiameter,
c = distance to reinforcement,
s = bar spacing,
71
PV = Ay/fivS),
px = AJAC, and
ki = 0.4 for deformed bars or 0.8 for plain bars.
4
(a) Calculated average stresses (b) Local stresses at a crack
Fig. 3.20 Force transmission across cracks
{scaur
M
• ESEi
•*----'-''
(a) Inclined cracksdue to «bear
ttttttttttt
1 •151 •*j« •". Vi. .
;
t -1
•rw
t ?''"?
•not
uumnu
(c) Horizontal cracks due to
(b) Vertical cracks due to axialtension transverse tension
Fig.3.21 Crack spacings in reinforced concrete
72
Fig. 3.22 Parameters affecting crack spacing
Figure 2.22 further defines the parameters influencing crack spacing.

Finally, equality of the horizontal forces at acrack and between cracks also
limits the magnitude of the concrete tension to the value corresponding to yielding of
longitudinal steel at a crack.
4./, *4./« +fAjd+[f -£-(/ „-fv)\jdcot20

Compatibility: The compatibility equations for the average concrete strains are the
same as described in the compression field theory.
^
Stress-Strain Relationship ofCracked Concrete

In addition to having the diagonal compressive stress f2 as afunction of the
principal strains e, and e2 as in the compression field theory, the modified compression
field theory also has the diagonal tensile stress /, as afunction ofe,. Based on Vecchio
and Collin's tests of reinforced panels made with concrete having acompressive
strength less than 35 MPa, Collins and Mitchell recommend:
If Ei <ecr then /, =Ec e.
73
If Ei > £cr then / = ai°2fcr
1+^500^
where
Ecr> /cr = cracking strain and strength of concrete,
ai,ot2 = factors accounting for the bond characteristics of the reinforcement
(deformed or smooth bars) and the type of loading (short term, cyclic,
or sustained).
The above equations for equilibrium, compatibility, and stress-strain properties

provide a complete solution by which to predict the shear strength of a reinforced
concrete element.
Comparison with Data: Figure 3.23 shows that the modified compression theory offers
a marked improvement over the compression field theory and a good prediction of
experimental results.
0123 45678
Stirrup strain, x 10-3
Fig. 3.23 Comparison of measured and predicted stirrup strains

(Collins and Mitchell 1991)
Vecchio notes that: "The simplicity of the modified compression field theory
formulations has allowed them to be easily adopted into various analytical algorithms.
Procedures have been developed for the nonlinear analysis of membranes, beams, plane
74
frames, plates and shells, and three-dimensional solids. In applying the analysis
procedures to the modeling of more complex structural systems, generally correlation
was found between predicted and observed responses. The theory was found to provide
accurate modeling of crack patterns, deformation, reinforcement stresses, ultimate
strengths, and failure modes. This was achieved by an accurate description of the
constitutive behavior of structural concrete in a simple, transparent, and easy to
implement formulation. It can be said that the modified compression field theory
represents a unified, rational analysis approach that can be applied to structural
concrete in many ofits various forms and applications."
3.5.3 Extended Modified Compression Field Theory (EMCFT)

The MCFT was developed for shear and axial loads. In 1995, Nakamura and
Higai (1995) extended it to shear, axial and flexural loads. An outline ofthe EMCFT is
as follows:
1. Divide the cross-section into layers.

2. Distribute the axial force Nand shear force Vuniformly over the cross-section.
3. Assume alongitudinal strain exi. For agiven curvature •>, the strain Exi in each
layer located at yci is calculated from an assumed linear distribution over the
section depth hand assumed strain ec at the top fiber:
Exi = (h -yCi) <j> + ec
4. Satisfy equilibrium and compatibility for the known quantities xxy and Exi in
each layer.
5. Repeat Step 4 for all layers.

6. Calculate stress in longitudinal reinforcement from strain.
7. Calculate resultant oflongitudinal stresses and check equilibrium ofaxial force.
If equilibrium is not satisfied, adjust ec and go back to Step 3.
8. Calculate moment from longitudinal stresses and check equilibrium of
moments.
Step4 is further detailed as follows:

75
a. Assume principal tensile strain s\.
b. Calculate principal tensile stress cti from ej and concrete stress-strain
relationship.
c. Calculate the inclination 0 of c\ and Ei with respect to the longitudinal

axis from equilibrium in the transverse direction. From equilibrium, the
stress in the transverse steel is:
v^b^s b..,s
f
J' sy =
~ —
sv
Aw Aw(ax-Txy tan 0)
*y
where Aw = area of transverse steel,
s = spacing of transverse steel,
bw = width of web,
rjy = normal stress in >> direction.
On the other hand, from compatibility and the stress-strain relationship

of the transverse steel:
f\y =Evs, =Esy [£, - {e, - £. )tan2 0]

0 is solved by setting /sy = /'sy. This provides a quadratic equation in
tan 0 before yielding of the steel bar, or a linearequation after yielding.
d. Calculate the principal compressive strain E2, the transverse strain Ey,
and the shear strain yxy from Mohr circle.
e. Calculate the longitudinal stress ax, transverse stress ay, and principal
compressive stress 0*2 from Mohr circle.
f. Calculate a'2 from £2 using concrete stress-strain relationship.

g. If o"2 * a'2, try another value of Ei and return to Step a.
The solution algorithm used by Collins and Mitchell (1991) involves the
convergence of s2 and 0 for each layer, and that of the longitudinal strain distribution
for the cross-section. In comparison, the procedure described above only requires
76
convergence of e, in each layer and sc for the cross section. Computation is therefore
faster. Two possible ultimate states are attained as the curvature increases under
constant axial and shear forces:
(1) flexural failure: the maximum compressive strain in the section reaches
- 0.002 (strain at ultimate concrete strength), or
(2) shear failure: no solution satisfying equilibrium for the given ex and txy
is obtained in at least one layer, even if equilibrium of axial force is
satisfied.
Stress-strain curve for concrete
In tension, stress increases linearly with strain up to the tensile strength. After
that, Collin's (1978) equation is modified by afactor a, which accounts for the non
uniform distribution ofthe reinforcement in the beam.
cr, = f,
l+aV20°(*r*cr)
where z„ = Cracking strain ofconcrete, and
/t = concrete tensile strength.
In compression, the stress-strain curve is a quadratic parabola up to the

compressive strength /2max which is afunction ofthe principal strain e, as proposed by
Collins (1978 4
Verification
The analytical model is verified against Niwa's empirical formula for shear
strength:
^=0.94(/'c)-(l00yOJ-(^/100)-(0.75 +1.4^/a>^
where
/'c - concrete compressive strength,

pw = longitudinal reinforcement ration,
77
d = effective depth,
a = shear span, and
by, = width of cross-section.
Collin's (1978) equation (a = 1) overestimates the shear strength. However,
a= 2 shows good agreement with Niwa's equation in the range of diagonal tension
failure a/d > 3. Agreement is also good with the moment capacity curve in the range of
a / d > 6, and with the shear failure curve for 3 < a/d < 6. For a/d < 3 the strength is
X underestimated. This is due to the effect of compressive stress in the transverse
direction (arching effect).
Parametric Study
Size Effect
Good agreement is obtained with Niwa's equation if the influence of effective

depth on the shear strength is modeled by:
a =3(d/\6)m
Longitudinal reinforcement ratio
The shear strength obtained by this analysis is proportional to (pw)1/4 whereas

Niwa's equation is proportional to (pw) . For the range of reinforcement used in
practice, 0.3% < pw < 3%, the difference between the two formulations is less than
10%.
Longitudinal reinforcement stiffness
Results indicate that the effect of longitudinal reinforcement stiffness is similar
to the effect of longitudinal reinforcement ratio:
V= VC{EI/Ej4
where
Ei = modulus of elasticity of non-steel reinforcement,
78
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel,
Vc = shear strength ofsteel reinforcement beam,
V = shear strength ofconcrete beam reinforced with bars of stiffness Et
Results of experiments conducted in the range 0.12 < pw (E/EJ < 0.22 show
good agreement with analytical predictions.
Concrete Strength
Shear strength is rather insensitive to f\. However, it is approximately

proportional to ftm. Since /, is proportional to (/'c)1/2 according to ACI, or (/'c)2/3
according to JSCE (Japanese Society of Civil Engineers), this implies that Vis
proportional to {f\)m according to the ACI formula, or (/'c)4/9 according to the
JSCE formula. This is close to Niwa's equation.
Since the beginning of the 20th century, when Morsh and Ritter postulated the
earliest truss models, great progress has been made in the analytical solution of shear
problems in reinforced concrete. However, most of these highly sophisticated tools
require considerable simplification to make them suitable for codes of practice.
Moreover, the most imposing analysis have often shown an excellent correlation with
known results but have failed to predict behavior under untested circumstances. For
simpler models the problems is mostly that ofthe need to neglect secondary factors, yet
what is secondary in one case may be primary in another, so very careful confirmation
is always needed.
>e
79
CHAPTER 4
BEHAVIOUR OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

BEAMS UNDER SHEAR
4.1 GENERAL
J In reinforced concrete beams, shear does not produce failure directly on the
vertical plane on which it acts. The major effect of shear is to induce tensile stresses on
diagonal planes oriented at 45° to the plane on which the shear acts. Since concrete has
a relatively low tensile strength compared with its shear and compressive strength,
overstress will always be initiated by tension stresses. When these diagonal tension
stresses in combination with bending stresses, created by moment exceed the tensile
*• strength ofthe concrete, diagonal cracking develops that can split the beam [Fig.4.2].
These diagonal tension failures occur without warning, since they frequently cause the
beam to collapse completely they are dangerous and must be prevented by the design
process. The understanding of the mechanism of shear failures is an important aspect of
this study. To do so, it is essential to study the actual behavior of the beams at all loads
both in elastic and plastic stages.
V The design ofreinforced concrete beams for shear is empirical and indirect for
three reasons: (1) Because of the heterogeneous nature of reinforced concrete and its
inability to carry tension without cracking, no equation is available to compute
accurately the maximum value ofshear stress on a particular cross section ofa beam.
(2) Shear failures do not occur on vertical planes in the direction of the shear force;
instead, tensile stresses associated with shear or with shear and moment cause failure
on diagonal planes. (3) The tensile strength of concrete is highly variable, and the
ability ofa concrete beam to carry the diagonal tension associated with shear cannot be
predicted accurately. As aresult, the deign methods currently available to the structural
engineer are based highly on the empirical formulae.
80
This chapter tries to contribute to the understanding ofthe mechanism ofshear strength
in reinforced concrete beams with or without shear reinforcement. Conceptual models
showing the internal forces in a beam are presented, and a historical introduction of
different approaches for shear design ofreinforced concrete beams is made. Some current
code proposals are reviewed both for members with and for those without web reinforcement.
The main characteristics ofdifferent code provisions and how they affect the shear response are
also discussed.
4.2 SHEAR FAILURE IN BEAMS REINFORCED FOR MOMENT

4.2.1 General
Shear failure is predominately abrittle failure, which usually occurs with little warning.
This brittle failure is mainly because ofbrittlenature ofconcrete. As illustrated in Figure. 4.1,
both cement paste and natural rock aggregates are brittle materials. The concrete made up of
these materials has an obvious ductile behavior. This apparently paradoxical property can be
explained as aresult ofthe difference in rigidity that normally exists between the cement
paste and the aggregates. This difference will result in stress concentrations in the contact
zones. Consequently, at acertain overall stress level, adistributed micro-crack pattern will
begin to form. As the overall stress increases, an increasing part ofthe applied energy will be
consumed as the crack pattern develops. At this stage, the stress-strain curve will tend to deviate
from the linear-elastic course, as shown in the figure. After the ultimate stress level has
been reached, the micro crack pattern will provide an efficient internal redistribution of the
*
stress, and hence a tough failure.
Although the tensile strength of concrete is neglected in calculating the strength of

reinforced and prestressed concrete structures, it is generally an important aspect during the
development ofcracking, and therefore, for the prediction ofdeformations and the durability
ofconcrete. Other characteristics such as bond and development length of reinforcement
and the concrete contribution to the shear and torsion capacities are closely related to the
tensile strength of concrete. The tensile strength generally increases along with the
compressive strength. However, this increase is not directly proportional to the compressive
strength.
81
Aggregate
Concrete
on
X I
r/3
Strain (%)
Fig. 4.1 Principal stress-strain curves for cement paste, aggregates and
concrete in compression for normal strength concrete
4.2.2 Influence of Shear and Moment on the Shape of Crack

To establish the effect of shear stresses on the behavior of a beam designed and
reinforced for moment, the pattern of cracking in the beam of (Fig. 4.2) will be
examined as it is loaded to failure by concentrated loads using four point loading
system. In this discussion, the contribution of the beam's own weight to the shear and
moment will be neglected. This assumption limits shear to the outer regions the beam
and eliminates its influence on the center section. In a real design situation, however,
the effect of the beam's weight on the design loads must be taken into account.
Between points Band Cofthe beam under consideration, the shear is zero, and
only moment exists. In this center region vertical cracks develop perpendicular to the
direction of the maximum tensile stresses produced by moment. These cracks initiate at
the bottom surface, where the tensile stresses are greatest. As the load increases, the
cracks continue to propagate, always in a vertical direction. However, at both ends of
the beam, where both moment and shear exist (between Aand Band between Cand D),
a different mode ofcracking occurs. These cracks also initiate at the bottom surface and
82
extend first in a vertical direction, but as they move upward, their slope
decreases progressively, reaching 45° near mid-depth. As the cracks move into
the upper part ofthe compression zone, the slope gradually approaches the horizontal.
4k
CD
ShearDiagram
Pxa
Bending Moment Diagram
>r
Fig. 4.2 Influence ofshear and moment on the shape of crack
83
Although most cracks stop when they reach the heavily stressed region of the upper
compression zone, at a particular value ofload a critical diagonal crack may suddenly
tear through the beam to the compression surface. As the beam splits into two sections,
a sudden brittle failure occurs. If crack patterns produced by moment in the center
region are compared with those produced by shear and moment in the end regions, it
becomes evident that shear has combined with moment to produce diagonal cracking,
which under certain conditions can lead to an undesirable mode of failure.
>
4.2.3 Modes of Failure in Shear
Failure of a RC beam occurs when the principle tensile stress within the shear
span exceeds the tensile strength of concrete and diagonal cracks propagates through
the beam web. The final failure becomes a splitting failure almost like the vertical
splitting ofa cylinder in direct compression and occasionally fails in compression at the
\ reactions. The five distinct types of failures or their combination that can occur are
described below.
The magnitude and direction ofthe maximum principal tensile stress, and hence
the development and growth of inclined cracks are influenced by the relative
magnitudes ofthe flexural stress/ and the shear stress r. As an approximation, stresses
/andr can be considered proportional to MKbd2) and V/(bd) respectively, where M
^ and Vare the applied bending moment and shear force respectively at the beam section
under consideration, b is the width and d the effectivedepth.
Accordingly,
/ _F,Mlbd2 _pM (41)

r F2Vlbd 3Vd
where Fj, F2, F3 are constants of proportionality. For beams subjected to concentrated
loads [Fig 4.2], the ratio M/Vat the critical section subjected to the maximum Vworks
out exactly to the distance a, called shear span, between the support and the load. In
such a case, the ratio M / (Vd) becomes equal to a/d, the shear span-depth ratio,
whereby Eq. 4.1 reduces to
84
£r aa -d (4-2)
It can be seen that the dimensionless ratio a/d (or M/ (Vd)) provides ameasure
of the relative magnitudes ofthe flexural stress and the shear stress, and hence enables
the prediction of the mode of failure of the beam in flexural shear. The prediction is
based on considerable experimental evidence involving simply supported beams of
rectangular cross-section subjected to symmetrical two-point loading.
Research has shown that the shear span-to-depth (a /d) ratio plays an important
role in the failure mode of abeam. Based on the earlier research studies, following *
identified failure modes are illustrated as in Fig. 4.3.
Case 1: When a/d >6: Flexure failure

For this case, beam fails in bending rather than in shear (Fig. 4.3 a). Beams are
designed so that the flexural reinforcement yields before concrete crushes, ensuring a
ductile failure. In this failure mode, cracks are mainly vertical in the middle third ofthe *
beam span and afew very fine vertical cracks starts to develop in the mid span area at
about 50% of the failure loads in flexure and with further increase in the load,
additional cracks will be developed and the initial cracks gets widen . Such type 0f
failure can occurs when the beam has alow percentage of bottom steel and fails in
tension at midspan. This type of behavior gives ample warning of the imminence of
collapse ofthe beam. The shear span-to-depth ratio for this behavior exceeds avalue of *
5.5 in case ofconcentrated loadings.
Case 2: When 6>a/d >2.5: Diagonal tension failure

This is acommonest mode of failure and can take place if the strength of the
beam in diagonal tension is lower than its strength in flexure. The shear span-to-depth
ratio is of intermediate magnitude, with the ratio a/d varying between 2.5 and 6for V
concentrated loading.
85
The cracking starts with the development of a few fine vertical flexural cracks
at mid span, followed by the destruction of the bond between the reinforcing steel and
the surrounding concrete at the support. Thereafter, without ample warning of
impending failure, two or three diagonal cracks develop at about 1.5d or 2d distance
from the face of the support and then one of the diagonal cracks widens into a principal
diagonal tension crack and extends to the top compression fibers of the beam as seen in
Fig. 3.9 b., however the flexural cracks do not propagate to the neutral axis.
>
Case 3: When 2.5 > a/d > 1: Shear Compression and Shear Tension Failure
In relatively short beams with a/d in the range of 1 to 2.5, the failure is initiated
by an inclined crack usually a flexural-shear crack. The actual failure may take place
either by (1) crushing of the reduced concrete section above the tip of the crack under
combined shear and compression, termed shear-compressio/j failure (Fig. 4.3c) or (2)
-4- secondary cracking along the tension reinforcement, termed shear-tension failure (Fig.
4.3d). Both these types of failure usually occur before the flexural strength (full
moment-resisting capacity) of the beam is attained.
However, when the loads and reactions applied on the top and bottom surfaces
of the beam are so located as to induce a vertical compressive stress in concrete
between the load and the reaction, the shear strength may be increased significantly
^. requiring very heavy loads to cause inclined cracking.
Case 4: When a/d < 1: Deep beam failure
Beams with a / d < 1 are generally referred to as deep beams. In such a beams
without web reinforcement, the diagonal crack initiates from the support and
simultaneously propagates towards the loading point and beam is transformed in to a
tied-arch (Fig. 4.3e). As the load increases, the crack further opens and finally fails
V
suddenly in to two pieces when tensile strength exceeds the tensile stress with loud
noise. Beams with heavy amount of longitudinal and transverse reinforcement, failure
occurs by crushing of the concrete, either at the loading point or at the support.
86
Web-Crushing Failure
In addition to the modes described above, thin-webbed members (such as I-beams with
web reinforcement) may fail by the crushing ofconcrete in the web portion, between
the inclined cracks under diagonal compression forces (Fig. 4.3f).
(a) Flexure failure (a/d>6)
Diagonal tension crack f
(b) Diagonal tension failure (6> a/d<2.5)
Shear compression
failure
(c) Shearcompression failure
87
Shear tension
failure
(d) Shear tension failure
(e) Tied-Arch Action
w_ s
(f) Web-crushing failure
V Fig. 4.3 Typical shear failure modes
88
43 SHEAR STRENGTH IN REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS WITHOUT
\
WEB REINFORCEMENT
4.3.1 Mechanism of Shear Transfer
There are several mechanisms by which shear are transmitted between two
adjacent planes in a reinforced concrete beam. The prominent among these are
identified as: shear stresses in uncracked concrete; interface shear transfer, often called
"aggregate interlock" or "crack friction"; the dowel action of the longitudinal

%
reinforcing bars; and arch action. The forces transferring shear across an inclined crack
in a beam without stirrups are illustrated in Figure 4.4.
-*
T
Fig. 4.4 Internal forces in a cracked beam without stirrups
t
The transverse (external) shear force is denoted as V (and has a maximum value
near the support, equal to the support reaction). It is resisted by various mechanisms,
the major ones [Fig.4.4] being:
(1) Shear resistance Vcz of the uncracked portion of concrete;

V (2) Vertical component Vay of the 'interface shear' (aggregate interlock)
force Va;
(3) Dowel force Vd in the tension reinforcement (due to dowel action); and
89
The interface shear Va is atangential force transmitted along the inclined plane
of the crack, resulting from the friction against relative slip between the interlocking ^
surfaces of the crack. Its contribution can be significant, ifthe crack-width is limited.
The dowel force Vd comes from 'dowel action' (Fig. 4.4).
The equilibrium ofvertical forces in Fig. 4.4 results in the relation:
V=Vcz+Vay +Vd (4 3)
The relative contribution of the various mechanisms depends on the loading
stage, the extent of cracking and the material and geometric properties of the beam. X
Prior to flexural cracking, the applied shear is resisted almost entirely by the uncracked
concrete (V * Vcz). At the commencement of flexural cracking, there is aredistribution
of stresses, and some interface shear Va and dowel action Vd develop, At the stage of
diagonal tension cracking, the shear reinforcement that intercepts the crack undergoes a
sudden increase in tensile strain and stress. All the four major mechanisms are effective
at this stage. The subsequent behavior, including the failure mode and the ultimate >
strength in shear, depends on how the mechanisms of shear transfer break down and
how successfully the shear resisting forces are redistributed.
For atypical concrete beam, the shear carried in the approximate proportion of,
Compression zone shear Vcz = 20-40 %
Dowel action Vd =15-25%
Aggregate interlock Va =35-50%
As the applied shear force is increased, the dowel action is the first to reach its
capacity, after which aproportionally large shear is transferred to aggregate interlock.
The aggregate interlock mechanism is probably the next to fail, necessitating arapid
transfer ofalarge shear force to the concrete compression zone, which, as the result of
this sudden shear transfer, often fails abruptly and explosively. The above description *
suggests that the shear failure ofareinforced concrete beam is affected by anumber of
shear parameters besides the a/d ratio only.
90
4.3.2 Factors Influencing Shear Strength
The main parameters, which influence the shear resistance of concrete, are
stated as follows:
(1) Concrete strength: The dowel action capacity, the aggregate interlock capacity
and the compression zone capacity generally all increases with the increase in
the concrete strength.
(2) Tension steel: When all the other factors remain the same, a change in the
amount of tensile reinforcement changes the ultimate load, which is consistent
with the mechanism of shear failure. An increase in steel reduces the width of
cracks, reduces the tensile stresses set up in the concrete due to the dowel force,
increase the concrete area above the diagonal crack at the formation of the
major diagonal crack. These effects naturally increase the ultimate load
sustained by the beam.
(3) Strength of longitudinal reinforcement: Provided the steel ratio is kept

•i
constant, the characteristic strength of the longitudinal reinforcement has little
effect on shear strength.
(4) Aggregate type: The type of aggregate affects the shear strength mainly
through its effect on the aggregate-interlock capacity.
(5) Beam size: The beam size, in particular beam depth, plays an important role in
shear capacity. The ultimate shear stress reduces with the beam size particularly
the beam depth; that is larger beams are proportionally weaker than smaller
beams. This is probably because in practice the aggregate-interlock does not
increase in the same proportion as the beam size.
M
(6) Shear-span/depth ratio: The effective-shear-span/depth ratio —= —— plays
\d Vd J
an important role in the shear failure mode and shear resistance of the beam.The
ultimate shear stress at a beam section increases rapidly as the M/Vd ratio is
reduced below about 2.
91
For beams in the range 1.5 <a/d<6, the beam is likely to fail in shear
before it fails in bending.
The minimum shear resistance is at a/d = 2.5.
For a/d < 2.5, arch action significantly increases with the shear strength.
4.4 CODAL PROVISIONS FOR SHEAR IN BEAMS

4.4.1 General
The transfer beams are by and large is an inevitable structural component of

high-rise buildings (Figs. 1.1 to 1.6) and is commonly used in many structural
applications such as piles caps, foundation walls, and offshore structures. These beams
are quite heavy ( 3 to 5 m) in depth and are required to carry much higher value of
shear force, compared to normal beams which are primarily flexural members. As a
result, the stresses in the beam cross-section have altogether different characteristics
compared to the normal flexural beams. The stresses are not-only non-linear but have
>
wavy shape in the compression zone. This aspect has lead to heavy dependence on
empirical expressions through codal recommendations.
Despite its wide structural, applications, only a few national codes include their
design. For example: the British standard BS 8110 for structural use of concrete
explicitly states that, "for the design of deep beams, reference should be made to
specialist literature". Similarly, the Euro code EC - 2, for the design of concrete
structures states that, "it does not apply, however, to deep beams". Consequently, there
is no specific, unified, and rational design procedure available in the either of the any
countries code.
Currently, the main design documents for the transfer beams are the American
Building Code: ACI 318-2002, the Canadian CSA Code: CAN3 - A23.3 -M84, the
CEB-FIP Model Code, IS Code and the UK's CIRIA Guide-2. Of these, the ACI 318-
2002 and the CRIA Guide - 2 give the most comprehensive recommendations. The
following section summarizes the main design recommendations ofACI Code, CIRIA
Guide 2, CEB-FIP Model code, Canadian Code and IS Code.
92
4.4.2 Critical Section for Shear Design
In designing for flexural shear, the critical sections to be investigated are the
ones where the shear force is maximum or the cross-sectional area is minimal.
The maximum shear force usually occurs in a flexural member at the face ofthe
support, and progressively reduces with the increasing distance from the support. When
concentrated loads are involved, the shear force remains high in the span between the
support and the first concentrated load. When a support reaction introduces transverse
*
compression in the end region of the member, the shear strength of this region is
enhanced, and the inclined cracks do not develop near the face of support, which is the
location ofmaximum shear. In such a case, the Code allows a section which is located
at adistance d(effective depth) from the face of the support to be treated as the critical
section (Fig. 4.5 a). The beam segment between this critical section and the face of the
support need to be designed only for the shear force at the critical section. As the shear
-* force at this section will be less than the value (or equal to) the value at the face ofthe
support, the Code recommendation usually results in amore favorable (less) value ofTv
than otherwise. This is of particular significance in base slab of the footing where
flexural (one-way) shear is ofmajor design consideration.
However, when the heavy concentrated load is introduced within the distance
2d from the face ofthe support, then the face ofthe support becomes the critical section
(Fig 4.5 b), as inclined cracks can develop within this region if the shear strength is
exceeded. In such cases, closely spaced stirrups should be designed and provided in the
region between the concentrated load and the face of the support. Also, when the
favorable effect of the transverse compression from the reaction is absent, as in the
suspended beam (Fig 4.5 c), or a beam connected to the side of another supporting
beam (Fig 4.5 d), the critical section for shear should be taken at the face of the wall.
93
Heavy
load
,11 u UA_U O

A,
(c) (d)
Fig 4.5 Critical sections for shear at support
4.4.3 Indian Standards: IS 456: 2000

4.4.3.1 Shear design for normal beams
Design Shear Strength ofConcrete in Beams
The margin of strength beyond diagonal cracking is subjected to considerable
fluctuation on account of various factors, and hence is ignored for design purposes.
Accordingly, the (average) design shear strength rc of concrete reinforced concrete
beams without shear reinforcement is limited to the value ofthe nominal shear stress rv
94
corresponding to the load at which the first inclined crack develops with some partial
factor of safety.
The magnitude of the design shear strength Tc depends on various factors that
are related to the grade of concrete (fck) and the percentage tension steel p, = \00Asl I
(bd).
The value of the design shear strength of concrete given in code are based on
the following empirical formula
^[#i}i)(^v-i)]
r„ =
<4-4>
where p^'%fdt) ' ^%9p,) whichever is greater (4.5)
where, xc is design shear stress in MPaand fCk is in MPa
Typical values of rc are listed in Table 4.1 for different values of/* and/?,.
Designs Shear Strength with Shear Reinforcement

Shear reinforcement, also known as web reinforcement may consist of any of
the following system (CI. 40.4)
• Vertical stirrups
• Bent-up bars along with stirrups, and

• Inclined stirrups
The most common type of shear reinforcement is the two-legged stirrup,

comprising a closed or open loop, with its ends anchored properly around longitudinal
bars/stirrups holders (to develop yield strength in tension). It is placed perpendicular to
the member axis.
The direction of bending up of the tension bar or the direction of inclined

X
stirrups should be such that it intercepts the potential inclined crack, nearly at right
angles, thereby most effectively restraining the opening up and propagation of crack.
The stirrups (particularly the inclined stirrup) is considered to be most effective in
95
enhancing the overall shear resistance of the beam, because in addition to contributing
in much the same way as the bent-up bar, it contributes significantly towards improved
dowel action of the longitudinal tension bars, by restraining the latter from the
undergoing transverse displacement.
The shear resistance of bent-up bars cannot be fully relied upon, unless stirrups
are also provided, to ensure adequate development of dowel action of the longitudinal
bars. The Code (CI. 40.4) specifies that "Where bent-up bars are provided, their
contribution towards shear resistance shall not be more than half that of the total shear
reinforcement". *
Shear Resistance of Web Reinforcement
The action of web reinforcement in reinforced concrete beams can be explained

with the help of truss analogy, the simplest form of which is shown in Fig 4.6. The
design model is first enunciated by Ritter in 1899. In this model, areinforced concrete
beam with inclined cracks is replaced with apin-jointed truss, whose compression >
chord represent the concrete compression zone at top, and whose tension chord at the
bottom represent the longitudinal tension reinforcement. Further the tension web
members represent the stirrups, and the diagonal web members represent the concrete
incompression between the inclined cracks.
The truss model is helpful tool in visualizing the forces in stirrups (under
tension) and the concrete (under diagonal compression), and in providing abasis for >
simplified design concepts and methods.
Figure 4.6 (b) shows one segment of the beam separated by adiagonal tension
crack. This is an idealization of Fig. 4.6 (a), wherein the diagonal crack are assumed to
be straight, inclined at an angle 0 to the beam axis and extends over the full depth of
the beam. In general case of inclined stirrups is considered in the free body in Fig 4.6
(b); only the forces in the web reinforcement that contribute to the resistance Vus are ^
shown.
96
Stirrups
Concrete in Compression
Reinforcement Bar in
Tension
Longitudinal Bars
(a)
O.SlfyA
rf (cot 6 +cot a)
(b)
Fig. 4.6 Truss analogy for action of web reinforcement
V The inclined stirrups are assumed to be placed at angle a (not less than 45*0
with the beam axis. IfA„ is the total cross-sectional area of one stirrup and 0.87/ is the
design yield stress in it (assuming yielding at the ultimate limit state), then the total
shear resistance of allthe stirrups intercepting the crack is given by:
Vus = (vertical component oftension per stirrup) (number ofstirrups)
Vus= (O.SlfyAsv sina) d(cot0 +cot a) Isv (4.6)
If crack is located at 0 = 45° the above relation simplifies to
Vus= 0.87/As? (d/Sy) (sina +cos a) (4.7)
In case of vertical stirrups a - 90
Vus=0.cllfyAsv(d/sv) (4-8)
The shear resistance of bent-up bars may also be obtained from Eq. 4.7, when a
series ofsingle or parallel bent-up bars are provided at regular intervals in the manner
of inclined stirrups.
97
Minimum Shear Reinforcement
The Code (CI. 26.5.1.6) specifies a minimum shear reinforcement to be

provided in the form of stirrups in all beams where the calculated nominal shear stress
rv exceeds 0.5 rc:
A«>0A
The maximum spacing ofstirrups should also comply with the requirements i.e.
\0.15d
s*-1 -, ™ whichever is less
[300 mm
The main objective in recommending such minimum shear reinforcement is to

prevent the sudden formation of an inclined crack in an unreinforced web, possibly
leading to abrupt failure
98
2
Table 4.1 Design shear strength of concrete x„ N/mm
INDIAN STANDARDS: IS:456-2000

100-
bd (Clauses 40.2.1,40.2.2,40.3,40.4,40.5.3,41.3.2,41.3.3 and 41.4.3)
Concrete grades
M 40 and
M25 30 M35 above

M15 M20
(2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

0)
0.29 0.29 0.29 0.30
£0.15 0.28 0.28
0.36 0.37 0.37 0.38

0.25 0.35 0.36
0.48 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.51

0.50 0.46
0.56 0.57 0.59 0.59 0.60

0.75 0.54
0.64 0.66 0.67 0.68

1.00 0.60 0.62
0.70 0.71 0.73 0.74

1.25 0.64 0.67
+ 0.76 0.78 0.79
1.50 0.68 0.72 0.74
0.78 0.80 0.82 0.84

1.75 0.71 0.75
0.79 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88

2.00 0.71
0.85 0.88 0.90 0.92

2.25 0.71 0.81
0.82 0.88 0.91 0.93 0.95

2.50 0.71
0.82 0.90 0.94 0.96 0.98

2.75 0.71
0.82 0.82 0.96 0.99 1.01

3.00 0.71
and above
NOTEl: The term As is the area oflongitudinal tension reinforcement which continues at
least one effective depth beyond the section being considered except at support where the
full area oftension reinforcement may be used provided the detailing conforms to 26.2.2
and 26.2.3
> NOTE 2. The values inthe table are derived from the expression:
-^#W*M]
6/3
99
Table 4.2 Maximum shear stress, x„ N/mm2
INDIAN STANDARDS: IS:456-2000

(Clauses 40.2.3,40.2.3.1,40.5.1 and 41.3.1)
Concrete grade M15 M20 M25 M30 M35 M40 and above
Tcmax, N/mm 2.5 2.8 3.1 3.5 3.7 4.0
Comments :
(1) Shear strength of concrete depends upon the grade of concrete and percent
longitudinal tension steel only.
(2) Shear strength of concrete empirical equation did not clearly indicate the steel
contribution component and the concrete contribution component.
(3) IS code did not considered depth as an influencing parameter ofconcrete shear
strength, but considers the grade of concrete as an influencing parameter of
concrete shear strength.
(4) From M20 to M40 and above grade of concrete, the shear stress varies
(decreases) marginally; hence the grade of concrete is not a significant
influencing parameter ofconcrete shear strength.
(5) For agiven/,, there is avalue of ph beyond certain value of ph rc remains
constant, implying that the beneficial effect due to dowel action, control ofcrack
propagation and increased depth ofuncracked concrete in compression, cannot
increase indefinitely with increase/*,.
100
4.4.3.2 Shear design for deep beams (Transfer beams)
A beam shall be deemed to be a deep beam when the ratio of the effective span
to overall depth. L/h is less than the limit in equations 4.9.

Simple spans : //h<2.0 (4.9a)
Continuous spans : //h<2.5 (4.9b)
Flexural Design
Lever arm
For simply supported beams:
Z = 0.2 (/+ 2h) when 1<- <2 and (4.10a)

h
Z = 0.6l when -<1 (4.10b)

h
For continuous beams:
Z = 0.2(/ +1.5h) when l<-< 2.5 (4.11a)

h
Z = 0.57 when -<1 (4.12b)

h
where 7is the effective span taken as center-to-center distance between the supports or
1.15 times the clear span, whichever is smaller.
Positive reinforcement
The tensile reinforcement required to resist positive bending moment in any
span of a deep beam shall:

a) extend without curtailment between supports
b) be embedded to a length not less than 0.8 time the development length
beyond the face of support
c) be placed within a zone of depth equal to (0.25h - 0.057) from the

extreme tension fibre at mid span.
101
Negative reinforcement
The tensile reinforcement for negative moment over the support shall confirm
the following requirements,
i) Termination of reinforcement:
Half of the reinforcement may be terminated at a distance of 0.5 h from the face
ofthe support and the reminder will extend over the full span,
ii) Distribution of reinforcement:
When, 1 < clear span/overall depth < 2.5, then the negative
reinforcement should provided in two zones as described below:
1) Azone ofdepth 0.2h from the top tension fiber at support which
will contain (0.5 II h + 0.25) times the negative reinforcement.
2) A zone measuring 0.3h on either side of the mid- depth of the
beam, which will contain the remaining negative reinforcement
evenly distributed.
When, clear span / overall depth < 1.0

Negative reinforcement will be evenly distributed over a depth of0.8D from the
top tension fiber at support.
Side Face Reinforcement
The side face reinforcement are provided both in the vertical and horizontal
directions at spacing limited to the smaller ofthe tree times of width ofthe beam and
450 mm. The minimum area of the vertical and horizontal reinforcement are given as:
a) the minimum ratio ofvertical reinforcement to gross concrete area shall be:
1) 0.12 % for deformed bars not larger than 16mm in diameter and with a
characteristic strength of415 N/mm2 or greater.
2) 0.15% for other types of bars.
3) 0.12% for welded wire fabric not larger than 16mm in diameter.
b) Vertical reinforcement shall be spaced farther apart than three times the neither
wall thickness nor 450 mm.
102
c) The minimum ration ofhorizontal reinforcement to gross concrete area shall be:
W
1) 0.20% for deformed bars not larger than 16 mm in diameter and with a
characteristic strength of415 N/mm2 or greater.
2) 0.25% for other types of bars.
3) 0.20% for welded wire fabric not larger than 16 mm in diameter.
Enhancement of shear strength of section close to support

^ The shear strength ofconcrete may be enhanced in regions close to the support
(located 2d away from the face of the support), when the support reaction introduces
transverse compression. It is seen that asubstantial portion of the load is transmitted to
the support directly through strut action, rather than through flexural shear. A recent
revision in the Code allows for enhancement of shear strength of concrete rc in this
region, provided the flexural tension reinforcement is extended beyond this region and
^ well anchored. The Code (CI. 40.5) permits an increase in xc at any section located at a
distance av (less than 2d) from the face ofthe support by the factor (2d)lav
AAA British Standards: BS 8110-1997

The design shear stress v; at any cross section should be calculated from
j (BS8110: Part 1, clause 3.4.5.2):
v =
v (4.13)
bj
where Vis the design shear force due to ultimate load, bw is the beam width; and d is
the effective width. The code gives in Table 3.9 the design concrete shear stress vc
which is used to determine the shear capacity of concrete alone. Values of vc depends
on the percentage of steel in the member, the depth and concrete grade. An increase in
the amount of tension steel as well as an increase in the dowel action component
increases the aggregate interlock value by restricting the width of the shear cracks.
Finally, it is found that, deeper beams have a lower shear capacity than shallower
103
beams. The value of the design shear strength ofconcrete given in code are based on
the following empirical formula
i i
0.79
v. =
Y„, . bvd t mm (4.14)
^t^m& (4.15 a)
\T) " S1Ze CffeCt factors md should not ^ less than unity and pt% should
not be grater than 3.0. This formula gives values of vc for concrete grade 25. For
higher grades ofconcrete, values should be multiplied by (fcu/25)'" The value of
fcu should not be greater than 40.
104
Table 4.3 Design concrete shear stress for /„ =25N/mm7
BRITISH STANDARDS : BS: 8110-1997
Effective depth (in mm)

1004
bd
175 200 225 250 300 >400

125 150
0.41 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.36 0.34

<0.15 0.45 0.43
0.49 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.43 0.40

0.25 0.53 0.51
0.64 0.62 0.60 0.58 0.56 0.54 0.50

0.50 0.67
0.71 0.68 0.66 0.65 0.62 0.57

0.75 0.77 0.73
0.78 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.68 0.63

1.00 0.84 0.81
0.89 0.86 0.83 0.81 0.78 0.72

1.50 0.97 0.92
+ 2.00 1.06 1.02 0.98 0.95 0.92 0.89 0.86 0.80
1.16 1.12 1.08 1.05 1.02 0.98 0.91

>3.00 1.22
NOTE 1.Allowance has been made in these figures for a ym of 1.25.

NOTE 2. The values in thetable are derived from the expression:
^1(1004 l(bvd))m(A00ld)m
ym
where
100 As 400 „, ,. . . . ..
bd Should not be taken as greater than 3; — Should not be taken less than
l.For characteristic concrete strengths greater than 25 N/mm2, the values in Table 4.3
may be multiplied by (fcJ25) .
The value of/cushould not betaken as greater than 40.
20 30 35 40
fcu (Cube compressive strength (N/mm )
Multiplying factor for other than 25 grade concrete 0.93 1.06 1.12 2.47
105
Maximum shear stress
BS 8110:Part 1, clauses 3.4.52 and 3.2.58, states that the nominal shear stress 4
v=r/Zv/must in no case exceed O.S/J'2 or 5N/mm2 even if the beam is reinforced to
resist shear. This upper limit prevents failure of the concrete in diagonal compression.
If vis exceeded the beam must be made larger.
Table 4.4 Maximum shear stress vcmax, N/mm2
BRITISH STANDARDS : BS: 8110-1997

Concrete grade 20 25 30 35 40 and above
^cmax (N/mm ) 3.58 4.00 4.38 4.73 5.06
Comments : >
(1) Shear strength of concrete empirical equation consists of steel contribution

component, concrete contribution component and depth contribution in
multification with some partial safety factor for material uncertainty or variation.
(2) This BS8110 code rightly recognized depth as asignificant influencing parameter
than the grade ofconcrete.
(3) The code values are not applicable to concrete grade more than M40.
J
The shear strength ofconcrete may be enhanced in regions close to the support
(located 2,7 away from the face of the support), when the support reaction introduces
transverse compression (C13.4.5.8). It is seen that asubstantial portion of the load is
transmitted to the support directly through strut action, rather than through flexural
106
shear, the shear strength at any section located at adistance av (less than 2d) from the
>
face ofthe support ismultiplied by the factor (2d)lav.
4.4.5 Euro Code 2 : April 2002 Final Draft

The final version of the new draft of Eurocode 2 presents a different shear
procedure than its predecessor. It is based, with some variations, on the MC-90 equation.
The design value for the shear resistance in non-prestressed members not
%• requiring design shear reinforcement is given by:
0.18
V
' Rd,c
= *(lOOA/cJ/3+0.15^p /3wd (4.16)
Vc
But, the minimum value is

VRd>min=[0.035^'2/r2]bwd (4-17)
where,
4
fck is in MPaand fck < 100 MPa,
200 „ „. .
Depth factors: k =1+ — < 2, d is inmm
,,=^0.02,
As/ The area ofthe anchored tensile reinforcement,
bw is the smallest width ofthe cross- section in the tensile area (in mm),
o-cp =NEd / Ac,< 0.2 fed (MPa). NEd is the factored axial force in Newtons (NEd
> 0 for compression) , including the prestress (tensile positive) force and Ac,
the cross sectional areaof concrete and Vrd = is in Newton.
>
107
Table 4.5 Resistance of members without shear reinforcement (MPa), /ck=30MPa
4
EUROCODE 2 : APRIL2002 FINAL DRAFT
Effective depth, d (mm)
P/
<200 225 250 275 300 350 400 450 500 600 750
0.25% 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.48 0.47 0.45 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.38 0.36
0.50% 0.59 0.57 0.56 0.55 0.54 0.52 0.51 0.49 0.48 0.47 0.45
0.75% 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.63 0.62 0.59 0.58 0.56 0.55 0.53 0.51 *
1.00% 0.75 0.72 0.71 0.69 0.68 0.65 0.64 0.62 0.61 0.59 0.57
1.25% 0.80 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.73 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.66 0.63 0.61
1.50% 0.85 0.83 0.81 0.79 0.78 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.70 0.67 0.65
1.75% 0.90 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.82 0.79 0.77 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.68
2.00% 0.94 0.91 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.77 0.74 0.71
2.50% 0.94 0.91 0.89 0.87 0.85 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.77 0.74 0.71
2.000 1.943 1.894 1.853 1.816 >
1.756 1.707 1.667 1.632 1.577 1.516
Note: This table has been prepared for /ck=30, the following factors may be used for other
grades ofconcrete:
/,ck 25 28 32 35 40 45 50
Factor 0.94 0.98 1.02 1.05 1.10 1.14 1.19
Comments:
(1) Shear strength ofconcrete depends on the grade ofconcrete; percent tension steel,
and the depth of the beam.
(2) Empirical equation consists ofconcrete contribution component, steel contribution

component depth ofbeam contribution in multiplication.
(3) Shear strength remains constant upto adepth of200 mm
*
108
4.4.6 American Concrete Institute Building Code: ACI318-2002
The main parameters that govern the shear strength of beams, according to the
Code are: tensile strength ofconcrete, longitudinal reinforcement ratio, shear span-to-
depth ratio a/d or moment-to-shear ratio M/Vd, and size of beam i.e. depth
The ACI code of practice presents two different procedures for calculating the
failure shear strength ofconcrete beams without shear reinforcement.
The simplified method, equation 11.3 ofcode, is as follows:
V>
',/TT bd (4.18)
The second procedure, equation 11.5 (SI system), applies for those members
whose a/d > 1.4:
4 V =
( 0A6^'+112p^\bwd<
— Vd^ 0.29Jf7bwd (4.19)
Comments :
1) Shear strength of concrete depends on the grade of concrete; percent tension steel, and
the shear-span-to-depth ratio.
2) Shear strength of concrete empirical equation consists of addition of concrete
contribution component and steel contribution component with a/d ratio contribution in
multification.
3) The ACI Code empirical equation is based on low-strength concrete specimens with fc'
inthe range of 14 to 40MPa (2000 to 6000 psi).
4) The ACI-318/318R-02 code gives an optional recommendation to use specified
>
splitting tensile strength in the shear design rule.
5) The code recognizes that the square root of the cylinder compressive strength is a
"measure ofconcrete tensile strength".
109
Flexural strength
For flexural design, ACI code defines adeep beam as abeam in which the ratio
ofthe clear span (/„) to overall depth (h) is less than the limits in equation 4.20
Simple span : 7n/h<1.25 (4.20a)
Continuous span : 7n/h<1.25
(4.20b)
Minimum tension reinforcement

The main steel ratio pshall not be less than Pmjn ofthe equation 4.21
Pmin = 200 / fy
(4.21)
where,
Pmin= As/bd
As = Main tension area in sq. inch.

fy = Yield strength in psi.
>
Web-reinforcement
An orthogonal mesh of web reinforcement is required. The minimum areas of

the vertical and horizontal bar shall satisfy the equation 4.22
-TÔ.15%
bSv (4.22a)
Ah
~>0.2S%
bSh (4.22b)
Shear strength
The shear provisions apply to both simple and continuous beams when the
clear-span to effective depth ratio 7n/d is less than 5.
Critical section
4
The calculations arc carried out for the critical section, which is defined as
follows:
110
For concentrated load, the critical section is located midway between the load
and the face of the support and for a uniformly distributed load it is taken at 0.157n from
the support where 7„ is the clear span. The shear reinforcement required at critical
section shall be used through the span.
The ACI code assumes that Vc is equal to the shear strength of a beam without
stirrups, which in turn, is taken equal to the load at which inclined cracking occurs.
The shear strength of deep beam(Vn) is divided into two parts:
1. The concrete contribution (Vc) and
2. The contribution of steel (Vs)
V„=VC+VS (4.23)
The concrete contribution to the shear strength can be computed as:
In S.I. system (N, mm system)

f
Vd
V = 3.5-2.5 0A6Jf'c+llpw bd
vudj M,«y (4.24)
<0.5jfcKd
where,
f
3.5-2.5 <2.5 (4.25)
V V»dj
Mu and Vu are the ultimate moment and shear at the section under consideration,
f cis the concrete cylinder strength in MPa and,
pw is the longitudinal reinforcement ratio ( As / bw d ) and As is the area of
longitudinal reinforcement.
In Eq. (4.24) the first expression in brackets represents the increase in shear
capacity over the inclined cracking shear and shall not exceed 2.5, while the second
bracket is the flexure-shear cracking strength for shallow beams (ASCE-ACI Joint Task
Committee).
Ill
/ —Shear span (a)
J_i
c 3
-v
T
/-
Effective span (7e) T
Fig. 4.7 The meanings of the symbols in the ACI Code
Design of Web Reinforcement >

Irrespective of the values of Vu and Vc so calculated, an orthogonal web
reinforcement consisting transverse stirrups as well as longitudinal bars is obligatory.
The contribution of web reinforcement to the shear capacity of deep beams is
derived by using the shear friction concept. This concept assumes that the sole function
of the web reinforcement is to create a compression force across a slip plane providing
a clamping action. If it is assumed that all reinforcement crossing the shear plane is at
yield at ultimate load.
The contribution of the orthogonal web reinforcement to the shear strength can
be computed as:
Vs=Vsv + Vsh (4.26)
d A d (4.27)
s. 12 sh 12 fy
-
112
Vs=^Cl+^C2=Âb (4.27a)
where,
fy the strength of the web steel and should not be more than the 410 MPa
Ci and C2 represent the effective weighting factor for vertical and horizontal
web reinforcement
1+^2- 11-^-
C, =—d- and C2 = d_ (4 28)
1 12 2 12 K J
Av = the area of vertical web reinforcement within a distance Sv (inch2)
Ah = the area of horizontal web reinforcement within a distance Sh (inch2)
The minimum areas of the vertical and horizontal bars shall satisfy:
Av/ bSv>0.15% and
Ah/bSh> 0.25%
The spacing of the orthogonal vertical and horizontal bars shall satisfy:
4
Sv < d/5 or 18 inch and
Sh< d/3 or 18 inch.
For design purposes, it is useful to note that the coefficients Ci and C2
represents weighting factors for the relative effectiveness of the vertical and horizontal
web steel. The values of these factors are plotted in Fig.4.8 as a function of the
parameter 7n / d. It is seen that, for very deep beams with small 7„ /d ratio, the horizontal
steel is dominantly effective, and the addition of vertical web steel will have little
effects in increasing strength. As the /„ / d ratio increases, the effectiveness of the

vertical steel tends to increase, until at /„ / d = 5, (the limit of deep beams according to
the Code definition), vertical and horizontal steel are taken to be equally effective.
Thus, for very deep beams it is more efficient to add web steel, if needed, in the form of
y horizontal bars, while satisfying the minimum requirements for the vertical steel. The
horizontal bars are effective not only because they act more in the direction
perpendicular to the diagonal cracks, thus improving shear transfer by aggregate
113
interlock, but also because they contribute to shear transfer by dowel action. From the
Fig.4.8, it is known that the longitudinal web bars are much more effective (C2) than
the transverse stirrups (Ci). Therefore, an attempt must be made to provide the
minimum required transverse stirrups and the rest should be provided as longitudinal
bars as web reinforcement.
1.00
0.92
Or
C2
•>
12 3 4 5
Clear span -to-Effective depth (/„ / d) ratio
Fig. 4.8 Effectiveness coefficients for vertical and horizontal web steel in deep
beams
4.4.7 The UK'S CIRIA Guide-2
The CIRIA Guide applies to single-span deep beams with an effective span to
overall depth ratio le/h of less than 2.0 (Fig.4.9). The Guide defines the active height ha
of a deep beam as the lesser of le and h, i.e., for a very deep beam; the value of ha is
A
limited to a depth equal to the effective span.
114
The CIRIA Guide gives two sets of design recommendations for deep beams,
viz. the "Simple Rules" intended for the simpler case of uniformly loaded deep beams,
v and the "Supplementary Rules" covering design aspects outside the scope of the
"Simple Rules".
4.4.7.1 The CIRIA Guide - 2 - "Simple Rule" Design Model
The CIRIA's 'Simple Rules' are intended primarily for uniformly loaded deep beams.
Theycan be applied to both single-span and continuous beams.
Flexural strength
If 7 / ha > 1.5 check the applied moment M does not exceed the capacity of
concrete section:
M<0.12fckbh2a (4.29)
As = Area of main longitudinal reinforcement,
Z = The distance between the centroids of the tension and compression force.
4
As>—^—
0.87/,Z
(4.30)
Z = 0.27 + 0.4ha for single-span beams and
Z = 0.27 + 0.3ha for continuous beams
Distribute the reinforcement As over a depth of 0.2 ha. Anchor the reinforcement
bars to develop at least 80% of the maximum ultimate force beyond the face of support.
A proper anchorage contributes to the confinement of the concrete at the support and
improves the bearing strength.
Shear Strength for top-loaded deep beams:
The Guide adopts the proven concept of clear shear span (a). For uniformly
distributed loading, the effective clear shear span ae is taken to be II A.
> The shear force V does not exceed the lesser of the concrete capacity values
given below.
V<2bh2avc/ae forha/b<4 (4.31)

115
where vc is the shear stress values taken from BS 8110: Part 1: clause 3.4.5.5 and part
2: clause 5.4 vu is the maximum shear stress taken from BS 8100: Part: 1: clause 3.4.5.2
and part 2: clause 5.4.
Provide nominal web reinforcement, consisting of horizontal and vertical bars

in each face. The amount of this nominal reinforcement should not be less than that
required for a wall by BS 8110; part 1; this is in effect means at least 0.25% of
deformed bars in each direction. The horizontal bars should be anchored as links
around vertical bars at the edge of the beams and the vertical bars should be anchored
around the main bars at the bottom.
4.4.7.2 CIRIA Guide - 2 - "Supplementary Rules" Design Model

The CIRIA Guide- 2method is applicable for the range of.0.5 <xe Ih <01.25.
The shear equation is basically an empirically derived equation ofKong et al [39]. In
this equation, the ultimate shear strength of deep beam is made up of two parts: the
contribution of the concrete and the contribution of the web reinforcement. The
concrete contribution increases with the decreasing x/d ratio and is more closely related
to the cylinder splitting tensile strength ofconcrete than the cube strength.
V„ =Vn +Vs (4.34)
=C,(l-0.35|)/M+C2|100^sin^ (4.35)
where y
Ci = an empirical coefficient equal to 1.4 for normal weight concrete and

1.0 for lightweight concrete
C2 = an empirical coefficient equal to 130 MPa for plain bars and

300 MPa for deformed bars
/ = the cylinder splitting tensile strength ofconcrete

A,
xe = the clear shear span measured from inside edge ofthe bearing block
at loading point
116
Ai = the area of a web bar which includes the main longitudinal
reinforcement
yt = the depth at which a typical web bar intersects the critical diagonal crack,
which is represented by the line Y-Y in Fig.4.9
a, = the angle between the bar being considered and the line Y-Y in
Fig. 4.9
n = the total number of web bars which cross the line Y-Y in Fig. 4.9.
To introduce safety factors for design use, CIRIA replaced the coefficients Ci
and C2 of Kong et al's equation (4.35), by the new coefficients X\ and X2 to give new
equation of CIRIA as:
fl-0.35^VrM.Î10°4yin:a' (4.36)
Kj K
where
u X\ - (0.75 x 0.52x Ci) /ymc = 0.44 for normal weight aggregates

= (0.75 x 0.52 x Ci)/ ymc = 0.32 for lightweight aggregates
X2 = [(0.75 x C2) /yms ]/l 00 =1.95 MPafor deformed bars
= [(0.75 x C2)/ Ymc /]/l 00 =0.85 MPafor plainroundbars
In the expression of empirical coefficients for X\ and X2, CIRIA used a statistical
factor of 0.75 just to convert the mean test values to characteristic values consistent
•f with British design codes; and a factor of0.52 to convert the cylinder splitting strength
ft to Vfcu. The material partial safety factors for concrete and steel (Ymc and Yms) were
given the standard values of 1.25 and 1.15,respectively.
In addition, the CIRIA Guide stipulates that the ultimate shear capacity of top
loaded deepbeams is subject to the following condition:
Vn <\3X,4fZbha (4.37)
According to the CIRIA's "Supplementary Rules", therefore, the top-loaded
shearcapacity V„ is givenby the lesserof the Eq.(4.36) and (4.37)
117
According to the CIRIA's "Supplementary Rules", therefore, the top-loaded
shear capacity Vn is given by the lesser of the Eq.(4.36) and (4.37)
Web Reinforcement
For a beam with orthogonal web reinforcement, CIRIA further simplifies the
above equation in a more convenient form for use in design:
P.-[V»+(Av«+Av*+AOK (4.38)
Pi - P2 = P3 - 1 for deformed bars and 0.4 for plain bars; vx the shear strength
contribution of the concrete; v™, vWh , Vwv are the contribution of the main >
reinforcement, horizontal and vertical web reinforcements respectively.
t
>—Shear span (a)
J__L
/ Y
yi V
/ Jo.
/ -ai N v
Y '
3
^r
f Effective span (/e)
Fig. 4.9 Meanings of the symbols in the CIRIA Guide-2

} r
4.4.8 The Canadian Code (CAN 3 - A 23.3- M 94 Design Model)
Unlike the ACI Code, the Canadian Code uses the concept of a/d ratio than the
ln I d ratio for deep beam design and the ratio is less than 1.25 for simply supported ^
beam and less than 2.5 in case of multi-span beam. The shear provisions for deep
beams in this document apply to those structural members in which:
118
(ii) a load causing more than 50 %of the shear are at a support is located at
less than 2d from the face of the support.
The Canadian Code recommends a strut-and-tie design approach for deep
beams and permits two alternative design methods for shear: the simplified method and
the general method.
4.4.8.1 General design method

x The general design method for shear is based primarily on the Modified
Compression Field Theory (MCFT) developed by Vacchio and Collins. This method
enables researchers and engineers to analyze a top-loaded deep beam by a strut-and-tie
approach (Fig. 4.10) The regions of high unidirectional compressive stress in the
concrete are modeled as compressive struts while the main longitudinal reinforcement
is represented by a tie member; the regions of concrete subjected to multidirectional
stresses, where struts or ties meet each other, are modeled as nodal zones. The
compressive struts which transfer the applied loads directly from the upper loading
nodal zone to the lower support nodal zone, are inclined at an angle as to the horizontal
tie member (Fig.4.10). The compressive force ofthe inclined concrete strut is balanced
atthe lower nodal zone by the support reaction and the tension force T in the tie; at the
upper nodal zone by the external load and the horizontal thrust C.
H The Canadian Code stipulates that the concrete compressive stresses in the
nodal zones may not exceed:
a) 0.85 <t>e fc in the nodal zones bounded by compression struts and bearing
areas,
b) 0.75 <t»c fc innodal zones anchoring only one tension tie,

c) 0.60<j)c fc' in nodal zones anchoring tension ties in more than one
direction,
where <t>c is a material resistance factor ( = 0.6 for concrete).
119
From the equilibrium forces, Eq. (4.39) is obtained:
C = T
(4-39) ^
where,
T=0.75 <t>cfc e' b(from stress limit ofthe lower support nodal zone)
C=0.85 <j>c fc eb(from stress limit ofthe upper loading nodal zone)
e' = depth ofthe lower support nodal zone
e - depth ofthe upper loading nodal zone
Therefore based on Eq. (4.39),
>
The vertical dimension e'= 1.13e.
The equilibrium condition together with the imposed stress limits on the nodal
zones determines the geometry and the magnitudes offerees in the strut-and-tie model.
In addition, the compressive stress f2 (Fig.4.10) in the inclined concrete strut should not
exceed the maximum allowable compressive stress f2max given by the following
equation:
*
f /tyc/;
hmx ~0.8 +170*. *A*cf< (4-40)
(after CAN 3-A23.3-M84: Eq. 11.19)
where,
f2max = the diagonal crushing strength ofthe concrete

^ = set to unity for normal weight concrete
r
ei = the principal tensile strain crossing the inclined concrete strut and is
defined by e, =es +(es +0.002)cot2 ocs, where ccs =the angle
between strut and the tie
Equation (4.40) shows that if atie member crosses the inclined compressive
strut, transverse tensile strain will considerably reduce the capacity of the concrete to
resist the compressive stresses. Since no tension tie crosses the top region of the ^
inclined concrete strut the allowable f2max in that local region is normally taken as
*4A\ However, the bottom region of the concrete strut is intersected by the
120
longitudinal tension reinforcement, and thus, the value of f2max has to be reduced in
• accordance with Eq.(4.40).
V V
Nodal zone
i- Fig. 4.10 The meanings of the symbols in the Canadian Code
4.4.8.2 Simplified design method

The Simplified Design Method for shear and torsion also determines shear
resistance as the sum of a concrete and a steel contribution (CSA 11.5):
Vr= Vc+V <Vc+0.U<t>cJFcbJ (4.41)

The minimum area ofshear reinforcement is proportional to Vfe:
A^=0M4f\^- (4.42)
Jy
For comparison with the last term, ACI 318-95 limits the maximum shear carried by
stirrups to:
%4KbJ pounds or 0.7 *J]\bwd Newton (4.43)

>
For members having either (a) at least the minimum amount of transverse
reinforcement given by the Eq. 4.42 or (b) an effective depth not exceeding 300mm,
then,
121
The concrete contribution Vc, can be calculated as (CSA 11.6):
Ve-02A4eJ/Zbwdml3A*\ ^Jf;bvd (4.44) H

This is comparable to ACI 1989 simplified shear resistance:
Vc=^fcbwd (445)
4.4.9 Design based on Euro Code and CEB-FIP Mode Code

The Euro code 2(1984): Common unified rules for Concrete Structures does
\
not directly provide guidelines for the design of deep beams. It refers instead to clause
18.1.8 of the CEB-FIP Model Code (1978). The CEB-FEP Model Code applies to
simply supported beams of span/depth ratio L/h less than 2and to continuous beams of
L/h less than 2.5.
The area of the main longitudinal reinforcement is calculated from the largest
bending moment in the span, using the following values for the lever arm z:
V
z= 0.2 (L+2D) for 1< LID < 2 (4 46a)
z=0.6L for (L/D) < 1 (446b)
It is thus seen that for L/D <1, the lever arm zis independent ofthe depth Dof
the beam, however, for L/D from 1to 2, z increases with Dbut at alower rate.
The main longitudinal reinforcement should not be concentrated at one level,
but should be uniformly distributed over adepth equal to (0.25D to0.05L) .The CEB - r
FIP drew attention to the importance of the detailing of the main longitudinal steel in
the form of anumber of small diameter bars to limit the development of cracks and to
facilitate anchorage at the support.
The designed shear strength should not exceed the lesser of:
0.10bD/'/ym and (447a)
0-10bL/;/ym (44?b) ^
where, bis width, Dis depth, Lis span ofbeam, // =characteristic cylinder strength
ofconcrete and ym the material partial safety factor.
122
The web reinforcement is provided in the form of a light mesh of orthogonal
reinforcement consisting of vertical stirrups and horizontal bars placed near each face
and surrounding the extreme vertical bars. The web steel ratio should be about 0.25 %
in each direction near each face for smooth round bars and facer, 0.20 % for high bond
bars.
4.4.10 Design Example
To illustrate the useof Codal provisions in respect of shear resisted by concrete

^ of different country, anexample is worked out.
Example:
Condition of Support: Simply supported

Uniformly Distributed Load (w): 20 kN/m
Concrete Grade (fck) M 30
Steel Grade (fy)Fe 415

-y Effective Length ofBeam (L): 5 m
Tension Reinforcement (Ast): 3 Nos. 12mm </>
Effective Depth (d): 300mm
Width of Beam (b): 200mm
>
123
20kN/m
iiiiiiii u u u u u u
50 kN
50 kN
Shear Force Diagram
62.50 kN-m
Bending Moment Diagram
Fig. 4.11 Shear force and bending moment
<
124
Since the support are simply supported, the critical section for shear will be at a
distance d (200 mm) from the centre of support.
Maximum shear at support (R) = 50 kN
Maximum moment at center of span = 62.5 kN-m
Shear at the critical section = 46 kN
Moment at the critical section = 9.6 kN-m
Percentage of reinforcement (Ast) = 0.56 %
Shear Resisted by Concrete as per IS 456-2000
For Grade of concrete M30 the values of zc which are given in Table 19 of
IS:456-2000 are;
i
% Art tc (MPa)
0.50 0.50
0.75 0.59
For Ast =0.56%, the value of rc which is found out from linear interpolation is
rc = 0.52 MPa.
Hence the shear resisted by concrete is;
Vc=zchd
Vc = 0.52 x 300 x 200
Fc = 31.2kN
>
125
Shear Resisted by Concrete as per BS 8110 -1985
Depending upon the Grade ofconcrete, percentage of tension steel Ast, and
effective depth the values of xc for different percent of Ast are (from Table 4.3);
Concrete Grade M30
% As, rc (MPa)
0.50 0.63
0.75 0.72
For Ast =0.56%, the value of rc which is found out from linear interpolation is
tc = 0.65 MPa.
V
Vc=rcbd
Vc = 0.65 x 300 x 200
Vc = 39.0 kN
Shear Resisted by Concrete as per ACI 318
The nominal ultimate shear stress to be resisted by concrete: T
vc= 0.16V/ +17-2A,tt * °-29V^ > (where-^<1)
where
H
pw = As, /l 00 = 0.0056
Vu and Mu are the shear and the moments at the critical section.
126
Hence
46 x 0.300
vc = 0.16 x ^30 x 0.8 +17.2 x 0.0056 x
9.6
= 0.92 MPa
Vc= vcbd
Vc = 0.88 x 300 x 200
Vc = 52.8 kN
Codes Shear Capacity of Concrete (Vc) kN
IS 456:2000 31.20
BS 8110-1985 39
ACI 318-1999 55.24
From the brief review of several national codes, the codal recommendations for
normal beams which are transferring the load through a flexural actions, are given in all
the national codes namely Indian Standards (IS: 456), British Standards (BS: 8110),
Eurocode-2 and ACI 318 Code. The BS Code and Eurocode considered the depth of
section as an influencing parameter along with the percentage of tension reinforcement
and grade of concrete in calculating concrete shear stress. While in IS Code it only
depends on the grade of concrete and percentage of tension steel. In ACI Code, they
>
have given empirical relationship to calculate the shear stress of concrete depending
upon the grade of concrete, percentage of tension steel, ultimate shear force, and the
127
ultimate moment at the section considered. In the typical example adopted, the British
Code values is about 25 percent higher whereas the ACI value is about 77 percent
higher than the value obtained as per IS Code. It amply suggests that IS Code is very
conservative as compared to BS and ACI Codes
-4
128
CHAPTER 5
EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME
5.1 GENERAL
Shear strength of concrete has been found out proposition to experimentally
evaluate. This is so primarily due to interlocking of the coarse aggregates among
themselves. As a result of particle interlocking, it does not feasible to apply a shearing
action (direct shearing force) in a plane, as is customarily done in case of metals.
Experiments have to be, therefore, devised to indirectly asses the shear strength of
concrete. In one of the popularly adopted devices, a beam of appropriate length is
subjected to shearing and bending actions under 4-Point Loading System (2- active and
2-passive forces). The beam segment of subjected to constant shear is refereed to as
shear span, which offers itself to be studied for performance under shear, bending being
negligible for short shear span. In the present study, such a device has been adopted to
study the performance of concrete under direct shearing action. Once steel bars are
introduced, generally along a direction perpendicular to shearing force, these bars start
coming into action to resist shearing force. Thus, steel bars become intrinsically linked
to resisting shearing force along with the inherent concrete resistance. The shear
resistance due to these longitudinal steel bars is commonly referred as dowel effect.
The primary design variables were the shear span-to-depth ratio in terms of depth of
beam, amount of longitudinal and shear reinforcement. The concrete compressive
strength of the beams at the age of tests ranged from 32 to 48 MPa.
This chapter outlines the objectives of the experimental campaign,

methodology, details of the beam specimens, their construction, material properties,
and the testing procedure that was used. The results of the tests and discussions are
presented in Chapter 6.
129
5.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE EXPERIMENTAL CAMPAIGN
The primary objective ofthe research is to build-up shear resisting capacity in
In addition to this, other objectives ofthe experimental campaign carried out were:
(1) To study the influence of the depth of the beam, in terms of shear span-
to-depth ratio, on the shear strength of concrete. Current procedure in
Indian Standards IS 456 - 2000 holds that the failure shear strength does
not increase when the depth of beam is changed for beams with and
without web reinforcement.
(2) To evaluate the influence of concrete compressive strength in deep

beams without web reinforcement.
(3) To study the influence ofthe longitudinally distributed reinforcement for

beams with and without stirrups, as this variable has an important effect
on the failure shear strength.
(4) To evaluate the efficiency ofthe amount ofweb reinforcement.
(5) To propose an empirical expression for estimating the shear capacity of
transfer beams incorporating variables such as compressive strength of
concrete, percentage of longitudinal and vertical steel/s, depth of beam
in terms ofshear span-to-depth ratio (a/d ratio).
(6) To propose an empirical expression for estimating the shear strength of
normal beams without shear reinforcement, incorporating variables such
as compressive strength of concrete, percentage of longitudinal tension
steel, depth of beam in terms of shear span-to-depth ratio (a/d ratio).
(7) Further, the comparisons of shear design provisions of five National
codes viz. : (i) The Indian Standards: IS 456-2000, (ii)The Euro code
EC2-2002, (iii) The British Standards: BS 8110-1997, (iv) The
American Concrete Institute Building Code: ACI 318-2002, and (v) The
130
UK's Construction Industry Research and Information Association -
CIRIA Guide - 2-1997 for the prediction of shear strength of Normal
and Transfer beam/s ( shear span-to-depth ratio < 1.8), have been made
with a view to seeing their goodness of fit against the experimental
values.
5.3 METHODOLOGY
Extensive experiments incorporating the strength of concrete, percent
longitudinal steel, percent vertical steel and varying shear span-to-depth ratio have been
carried-out. These have resulted into testing about 360 beams yielding a large set of
relevant and reliable data. The span of the beam has been kept constant at lm with
0.1m overhang on either side of the supports. The spacing between the top two Point-
Loads has been kept at 200mm. The depth of the beam has been varied at 150, 200,
250, 300, 350 and 400mm. The study on beams related to varying shear span-to-
i
depth ratio (a/d) has been carried-out by varying the depth (d) and not by varying the
shear span (a). This has been consciously done to achieve the flow of applied load
through the entire depth of the body of concrete. This allows the concrete to develop
stresses over the full depth of the beam which varies non-linearly across the depth. This
aspect is very distinct, important and relevant from viewpoints of the structural
response of the beams. It is to be particularly noted that the same value of a/d can be
attained by varying the shear span (a) which is easy to implement since it simply
demands shifting of the top loading points towards the supports. This way of varying
the shear span-to-depth ratio does not result in the true structural response as in a deep
beam to be used as a Transfer beam. The failure patterns are significantly different in
the two set of beams having the same a/d ratio but one obtained by varying the depth
V (d) and the second varying the shear-span (a). Based on the actual observations on the
structural behavior of the beams, it is recommended with all the emphasis at command
that no attempt should be made to interpret the results of beams wherein the shear arm
(a) has been varied to obtain the variation of a/d. The deep beam model of Arch-Strut-
131
SIERI S
and-Tie never comes into action when the shear arm (a) is varied keeping the depth
constant. It may be easy to carry-out experiments with varying the shear arm (a) while
keeping the depth (d) constant but itfails to structurally simulate a deep beam.
5.4 DESIGN OF THE TEST SPECIMENS
In order to achieve the previous objectives, about one hundred and eighty four
beam specimens were deigned and tested under 4-Point Loading. Table 5.1 (A) to
Table 5.1 (M) summarizes the details ofthe beam specimens without stirrups, Table 5.2
(A) to Table 5.2 (L) summarizes the details ofthe beam specimens with stirrups and
Table 5.3 (A) to Table 5.3 (C) summarizes the details of the beam specimens with
orthogonal web reinforcement.
Table 5.1 (A) Details of the beam specimens without stirrups - Series I
Series Beam fc b D a/d Longitudinal Reinforcement

Mark
(MPa) (mm) (mm) ratio No. & Bar Steel %)
dia.(mm)
Dl 43 100 150 3.20 2-8<|> 0.80
D2 43 100 200 2.30 2-8<(> 0.57
D3 43 100 250 1.80 2-8<j> 0.45
D4 43 100 300 1.50 2-8<f> 0.37
D5 43 100 350 1.20 2-8<)> 0.31
D6 43 100 400 1.00 2-8<|> 0.28
132
Table 5.1 (B) Details of the beam specimens without stirrups - Series II

Mark
(MPa) (mm) (mm) ratio No. & Bar Spacing Steel
dia.(mm) (mm) %)
D7 43 100 150 3.20 4-8$ 50 1.61
D8 43 100 200 2.30 4-8<J> 50 1.15
CO D9 43 100 250 1.80 4-8<|> 50 0.89

W
2
w
CO
D10 43 100 300 1.50 4-8 50 0.54
Table 5.1 (C) Details of the beam specimens without stirrups - Series HI

Mark
dia.(mm) (mm) %)
D13 43 100 150 3.20 6-8<)> 50 2.42
D14 43 100 200 2.30 6-8 50 1.34
W
2 D16 43 100
w 300 1.50 6-8<J> 50 1.10
CO
D17 43 100 350 1.20 6-8 D18 43 100 400 1.00 6-8((> 50 0.81
133
SIEVR S Table 5.1 (D) Details of the beam specimens without stirrups - Series IV
Mark
dia.(mm) (mm) %)
D19 43 100 150 3.20 8-8d> 50 3.22
D20 43 100 200 2.30 8-8q> 50 2.30
D21 43 100 250 1.80 8-8<(> 50 1.79
D22 43 100 300 1.50 8-84> 50 1.46
D23 43 100 350 1.20 8-8 50 1.10
Table 5.1 (E) Details ofthe beam specimens without stirrups - Series V
fc b D a/d
Longitudinal Reinforcement
Beam
Series
Mark No. & Bar
(MPa) (mm) (mm) ratio Steel %)
dia.(mm)
y
D25 43 100 150 3.20 2-10(j> 1.26
D26 43 100 200 2.30 2-10
CO D27 43 100 250 1.80 2-10<)> 0.70
w
2
a D28 43 100 300 1.50 2-10$ 0.57
CO
D29 43 100 350 1.20 2-10<j> 0.48

4
D30 43 100 400 1.00 2-10
CO
D33 43 100 250 1.80 4-10$ 50 1.40
w
2 D34 43 100 300 1.50 4-10$ 50 1.14
w
CO
D35 43 100 350 1.20 4-10$ 50 0.97
D36 43 100 400 1.00 4-10$ 50 0.84
•4
Table 5.1 (G) Details of the beam specimens without stirrups - Series VII

Mark
dia.(mm) (mm) %)
D37 43 100 150 3.20 6-10$ 50 3.77
D38 43 100 200 2.30 6-10$ 50 2.69

h—1
> D39 43 100 250 1.80 6-10$ 50 2.10

CO
PQ
2 D40 43 100 300 1.50 6-10$ 50 1.71
w
CO
D41 43 100 350 1.20 6-10$ 50 1.45
D42 43 100 400 1.00 6-10$ 50 1.26
135
SIEXR S Table 5.1 (H) Details of the beam specimens without stirrups - Series VIII

Mark
dia.(mm) (mm) %)
D43 43 100 250 1.80 8-10$ 50 2.79
> D44 43 100 300 1.50 8-10$ 50 2.28

CO
W
2 D45 43 100 350 1.20 8-10$ 50 1.93
w
co
D46 43 100 400 1.00 8-10$ 50 1.68
Table 5.1 (I) Details ofthe beam specimens without stirrups - Series IX
Mark
(MPa) (mm) (mm) ratio No. & Bar Steel %)
dia.(mm)
D47 43 100 150 3.20 2-12$ 1.81
D48 43 100 200 2.30 2-12$ 1.29
D49 43 100 250 1.80 2-12$ 1.00
D50 43 100 300 1.50 2-12$ 0.82
D51 43 100 350 1.20 2-12$ 0.70
D52 43 100 400 1.00 2-12$ 0.60
136
X
SERIS
Series
Table 5.1 (J) Details of the beam specimens without stirrups - Series X
Beam fc b D a/d Longitudinal Reinforcement

Mark
(MPa) (mm) (mm) ratio No. & Bar Spacing Steel %)
dia.(mm) (mm)
D53 43 100 150 3.20 4-12$ 50 3.62
D54 43 100 200 2.30 4-12$ 50 2.58
D55 43 100 250 1.80 4-12$ 50 2.01
D56 43 100 300 1.50 4-12$ 50 1.64
D57 43 100 350 1.20 4-12$ 50 1.40
D58 43 100 400 1.00 4-12$ 50 1.21
Table 5.1 (K) Details of the beam specimens without stirrups - Series XI

Mark
dia.(mm) (mm)
t
D59 43 100 150 3.20 6-12$ 50 5.43
D60 43 100 200 2.30 6-12$ 50 3.88
X
CO
D61 43 100 250 1.80 6-12$ 50 3.00
PQ
2 D62 43 100 300 1.50 6-12$ 50 2.47
m
CO
> D63 43 100 350 1.20 6-12$ 50 2.10
D64 43 100 400 1.00 6-12$ 50 1.81
137
Table 5.1 (L) Details of the beam specimens without stirrups - Series XII

Mark
dia.(mm) (mm)
D65 43 100 250 1.80 8-12$ 50 4.00
X
D66 *
CO
43 100 300 1.50 8-12$ 50 3.29
W
2 D67 43 100 350 1.20 8-12$ 50 2.79
w
CO
D68 43 100 400 1.00 8-12$ 50 2.42
Table 5.1 (M) Details of the beam specimens without stirrups- Series XIII
Mark
dia. (mm) (mm) (%)
r
CI 32 100 400 1.00 2-12$ 50 0.60
N»5
X C2 37
CO
100 400 1.00 2-12$ 50 0.60
W
2 C3 43 100 400 1.00 2-12$ 50 0.60
w
CO
C4 48 100 400 1.00 2-12$ 50 0.60
138
Table 5.2 (A) Details of the beam specimens with stirrups - Series XIV
Longitudinal reinf. Shear reinforcement

fc b D a/d
Beam
Series Dia. Spacing Steel
Mark No.&Bar Steel
(MPa) (mm) (mm) ratio
dia. (mm) (%) (mm) (mm) (%)
SRI 43 100 400 1.00 2-8$ 0.28 8$ 250 0.80

>
X SR2 43 100 400 1.00 2-8$ 0.28 8$ 200 1.50
CO
w
2 SR3 43 100 400 1.00 2-8$ 0.28 8$ 150 2.68
w
CO
SR4 43 100 400 1.00 2-8$ 0.28 8$ 100 5.00
Table 5.2 (B) Details of the beam specimens with stirrups - Series XV
Series Beam fc b D a/d Longitudinal reinf. Shear reinforcement

Mark
(MPa) (mm) (mm) ratio No.& Spacing Steel Dia. Spacing Steel
Bar dia. (mm) (%) (mm) (mm) (%)
(mm)
SR5 43 100 400 1.00 4-8$ 50 0.54 8$ 250 0.80

>
X
CO SR6 43 100 400 1.00 4-8$ 50 0.54 8$ 200 1.50
W
2 SR7 43 100 400 1.00 4-8$ 50 0.54 8$ 150 2.68
w
CO
SR8 43 100 400 1.00 4-8$ 50 0.54 8$ 100 5.00
Table 5.2 (C) Details of the beam specimens with stirrups - Series XVI

Mark
Bar dia. (mm) (%) (mm) (mm) (%)
(mm)
SR9 43 100 400 1.00 6-8$ 50 0.81 8$ 250 0.80

>
¥ X
CO
SR10 43 100 400 1.00 6-8$ 50 0.81 8$ 200 1.50
PL)
2 SR11 43 100 400 1.00 6-8$ 50 0.81 8$ 150 2.68
PQ
CO
SR12 43 100 400 1.00 6-8$ 50 0.81 8$ 100 5.00
139
SXERIS
Series Beam
Table 5.2 (D) Details of the beam specimens with stirrups - Series XVII
fc b D a/d Longitudinal reinf. Shear reinforcement
Mark
Bar dia. (mm) (%) (mm) (mm) (%)
(mm)
SR13 43 100 400 1.00 8-8$ 50 1.10 8$ 250 0.80

>
X SR14 43 100 400 1.00 8-8$
00
50 1.10 8$ 200 1.50
W
2 SRI 5 43 100 400 1.00 8-8$ 50 1.10 8$ 150 2.68
pq
00
SR16 43 100 400 1.00 8-8$ 50 1.10 8$ 100 5.00
Table 5.2 (E) Details ofthe beam specimens with stirrups - Series XVIII
Mark
(MPa) (mm) (mm) ratio No. & Bar Steel Dia. Spacing Steel
dia. (mm) (%) (mm) (mm) (%)
M
SRI 7 43 100 400 1.00 2-10$
H^
0.42 8$ 250 0.80
>
X SRI 8 43 100
00
400 1.00 2-10$ 0.42 8$ 200 1.50
tq
2 SR19 43 100 400 1.00 2-10$ 0.42 8$ 150 2.68
pq
00
SR20 43 100 400 1.00 2-10$ 0.42 8$ 100 5.00
Table 5.2 (F) Details ofthe beam specimens with stirrups - Series XIX

Mark
Bar dia. (mm) (%) (mm) (mm) (%)
(mm)
SR21 43 100 400 1.00 4-10$ 50 0.84 8$ 250 0.80
SR22 43 100 400 1.00 4-10$ 50 0.84 8$ 200 1.50
SR23 43 100 400 1.00 4-10$ 50 0.84 8$ 150 2.68
SR24 43 100 400 1.00 4-10$ 50 0.84 8$ 100 5.00
140
Table 5.2 (G) Details of the beam specimens with stirrups - Series XX

Mark
Bar dia. (mm) (%) (mm) (mm) (%)
(mm)
SR25 43 100 400 1.00 6-10$ 50 1.26 8$ 250 0.80
SR26 43 100 400 1.00 6-10$ 50 1.26 8$ 200 1.50

CO
pq
2 SR27 43 100 400 1.00 6-10$ 50 1.26 8$ 150 2.68
pq
CO
SR28 43 100 400 1.00 6-10$ 50 1.26 8$ 100 5.00
Table 5.2 (H) Details of the beam specimens with stirrups - Series XXI

Mark
(MPa) (mm) (mm) ratio No. & Spacing Steel Dia. Spacing Steel
V Bar dia. (mm) (%) (mm) (mm) (%)
(mm)
SR29 43 100 400 1.00 8-10$ 50 1.68 8$ 250 0.80

X
X SR30 43 100 400 1.00 8-10$ 50 1.68 8$ 200 1.50
CO
pq
2 SR31 43 100 400 1.00 8-10$ 50 1.68 8$ 150 2.68
pq
CO
SR32 43 100 400 1.00 8-10$ 50 1.68 8$ 100 5.00
Table 5.2 (I) Details of the beam specimens with stirrups - Series XXII

Mark
(MPa) (mm) (mm) ratio No. & Bar Steel Dia. Spacing Steel
dia. (mm) (%) (mm) (mm) (%)
SR33 43 100 400 1.00 2-12$ 0.60 8$ 250 0.80

M
X
k X SR34 43 100 400 1.00 2-12$ 0.60 8$ 200 1.50
CO
pq
2 SR35 43 100 400 1.00 2-12$ 0.60 8$ 150 2.68
pq
CO
SR36 43 100 400 1.00 2-12$ 0.60 8$ 100 5.00
141
SXERIV Table 5.2 (J) Details of the beam specimens with stirrups - Series XXIII
Series Beam
Mark
fc b D a/d Longitudinal reinf. Shear reinforcement
Bar dia. (mm) (%) (mm) (mm) (%)
(mm)
SR37 43 100 400 1.00 4-12$ 50 1.21 8$ 250 0.80
B
00
SR38 43 100 400 1.00 4-12$ 50 1.21 8$ 200 1.50
pq
2 SR39 43 100 400 1.00 4-12$ 50 1.21 8$ 150 2.68
pq
00
SR40 43 100 400 1.00 4-12$ 50 1.21 8$ 100 5.00
Table 5.2 (K) Details ofthe beam specimens with stirrups - Series XXIV
Mark
(MPa) (mm) (mm) ratio No. & Spacing Steel Dia. Spacing Steel
Bar dia. (mm) (%) (mm) (mm) (%)
(mm)
SR41 43 100 400 1.00 6-12$ 50 1.81 8$ 250 0.80
SR42 43 100 400 1.00 6-12$ 50 1.81 8$ 200 1.50
SR43 43 100 400 1.00 6-12$ 50 1.81 8$ 150 2.68

SR44 43 100 400 1.00 6-12$ 50 1.81 8$ 100 5.00
Table 5.2 (L) Details ofthe beam specimens with stirrups - Series XXV T

Mark
Bar dia. (mm) (%) (mm) (mm) (%)
(mm)
SR45 43 100 400 1.00 8-12$ 50 2.42 8$ 250 0.80
SR46 43 100 400 1.00 8-12$

00
50 2.42 8$ 200 1.50 +
pq
2 SR47 43 100 400 1.00 8-12$ 50
pq
2.42 8$ 150 2.68
oo
SR48 43 100 400 1.00 8-12$ 50 2.42 8$ 100 5.00
142
Table 5.3 (A) Details of the beam specimens with orthogonal web reinforcement -
Series XXVI

Mark
(MPa) (mm) (mm) ratio No. & Bar Spacing Steel Dia. Spacing Steel
dia. (mm) (mm) (%) (mm) (mm) (%)
>
ORl 43 100 400 1.00 8-8$ 80 1.10 8$ 250 0.80
0R2 43 100 400 1.00 8-8$ 80 1.10 8$ 200 1.50

CO
pq
0R3 43 100 400 1.00 8-8$ 80 1.10 8$ 150 2.68
2
pq
oo
0R4 43 100 400 1.00 8-8$ 80 1.10 8$ 100 5.00
Table 5.3 (B) Details of the beam specimens with orthogonal web reinforcement-
Series XVII

Mark
dia. (mm) (mm) (%) (mm) (mm) (%)
OR5 43 100 400 1.00 8-10$ 80 1.68 8$ 250 0.80
>
OR6 43 100 400 1.00 8-10$ 80 1.68 8$ 200 1.50

00
pq
OR7 43 100 400 1.00 8-10$ 80 1.68 8$ 150 2.00
2
pq
00
OR8 43 100 400 1.00 8-10$ 80 1.68 8$ 100 5.00
Table 5.3 (C) Details of the beam specimens with orthogonal web reinforcement
- Series XXVIII

Mark
dia. (mm) (mm) (%) (mm) (mm) (%)
OR9 43 100 400 1.00 8-12$ 80 2.42 8$ 250 0.80

>
OR10 43 100 400 1.00 8-12$ 80 2.42 8$ 200 1.50
> 00
pq
OR11 43 100 400 1.00 8-12$ 80 2.42 8$ 150 2.00
2
pq
00
ORl 2 43 100 400 1.00 8-12$ 80 2.42 8$ 100 5.00
— i
143
5.5 TEST PROGRAMME
Following test program was planned to investigate the shear capacity of both
normal and transfer beams.
(1) To obtain the physical properties of the basic concrete constituents i.e.
cement, sand, coarse aggregate, as per the relevant Indian Standard Codes
of Practice.
(2) To obtain the 28-days cube and cylinder compressive strength , split
cylinder tensile strength and prism flexural strength ( modulus of
rupture) ofconcrete for different strength ofconcrete.
(3) To carry out extensive and intensive tests on reinforced concrete beam
specimens incorporating the strength of concrete, percent longitudinal
steel, percent vertical steel and varying shear span-to-depth ratio in terms
ofdepth (Figs. 5.1 a to 5.1 i), under 4-Point Loading System (Fig. 5.2),
in order to achieve the objectives listed in Chapter -1.
144
in
r>
l/"> o
o CN 2-8$ ©
CN 2-8$
2-10$ 2-10$
f\ 2-12$ fN —i
2-12$
100 * 100 *
ir> r-~
CN o CN
o CN o
CO
CN 2-
2-8$
2-1
2-10$
£3 2-12$ jfS 2-12$
I 100 * \ 100 I
m in
CN r>.
co o CO
o
o
"3-
2-8$ 2-8$
2-10$ 2-10$
Ld 2-12$ ts -<
2-12$
100 t 100 f
All dimensions are in mm
Fig. 5.1 (a) Beams without web reinforcement. The reinforcement details of the
RC beam specimens of different depths with two longitudinal bars of
+ different diameters.
145
100
100
no
o CN m
IT)
o 1-H
o
CN
f 1" 4-8$ : :•-

4-10$ 4-8$
4-12$ 4-10$
4-12$
b
I 100 f
100 I
m
o
o
>n
CO
CN
o CN
m
CN
CN
» O i» o
4-8$ 4-8$
i
4-10$ 4-10$
4-12$ 4-12$
100
t 100 f
m in
CN r>
o CO o CO
o
CO
Li kJ
4-8$ 4-8$
4-10$ 4-10$
4-12$ 4-12$

+
Fig. 5.1 (b) Beams without web reinforcement. The reinforcement details of the
RC beam specimens of different depths with four longitudinal bars of
different diameters.
146
100
100
in
in o
o CN o
m CN
• • •-,
• •
t j! ? ;
6-8$ 6-8$
6-10$ 6-10$
6-12$ 6-12$
t 100 f
100 *
in
o
o
m CN
CO
o CN
in CN
CN
» •
• f
It o
1 6-8$ 6-8$
6-10$ 6-10$
6-12$ 6-12$
t 100 i
100
in m
CN r>
CO o CO
o
in o
CO
It LI
6-8$ 6-8$
6-10$ 6-10$
6-12$ 6-12$
Fig. 5.1(c) Beams without web reinforcement. The reinforcement details of the RC
beam specimens of different depths with six longitudinal bars of different
diameters.
147
T 100 r
1 100 *
*
»n
r> o CN
m
II
o CN
o CN » •
CN » •
8-8$ 8-8$
8-10$ 8-10$
8-12$ 8-12$
I 100 f
m
o
o
CN
CO
8-8$
8-10$
i
8-12$
t 100 f
t 100 I
>n >n
CN r>
CO
o CO o
m o
CO
8-8$ 8-8$
8-10$ 8-10$
8-12$ 8-12$
*
Fig. 5.1(d) Beams without web reinforcement. The reinforcement details of the RC
beam specimens of different depths with eight longitudinal bars of
different diameters.
148
2-8$
o
*G in
-2- Legged
8$ stirrups
o
*G m
CN
2- Legged
8$ stirrups
CN m
m
CN CN
CN
CN
4-10$
b **
2-10$
H
100 100
2- Legged
\m? in
8$ stirrups
CN
o CN
m
CN
« 6-10$
JL_f
100 *
Fig. 5.1(e) Beams with web reinforcement. The reinforcement details of

149
2-8$ P
M 2- Legged!
stirrups
m
— 2- Legged
stirrups
in
o o CN
CN
o o
CO CO
2-10$ 4-10$
Iflj • •
1 1
100 * 100
•2- Legged
stirrups
m
r>
o
o
CN
6-10$
CO
»•
i •
•LA
t 100 f
Fig. 5.1(f) Beams with web reinforcement. The reinforcement details of the RC
beam specimens of 300 mm depths.
150
A •2-Legged
8$ stirrups
ft *
— 2-Legged
8$ stirrups
m in
o o CN
CN
in m co
CO
CO CO
2-10$ 4-10$
e\
Eu f -*-
i
100 f 100
y 2-c
— 2- Legged
£ <* 8$ stirrups
in
o CN
m
CO
CO
6-10$
ft
t-S
"
1 L
100
Fig. 5.1 (g) Beams with web reinforcement. The reinforcement details
of the RC beam specimens of 350 mm depths.
151
2-c
2- Legged
2- Legged
8$ stirrups
aG 8$ stirrups
in in
o r-
o
o CO o CO
4-12$
2-12$ ft
£1
100 * 100 *
y M 2- Legged
8$ stirrups M 2- Legged
8$ stirrups
in in
o r- o
o CO o CO
rr 8-12$
6-12$ ft
-1 t 100 I * 100 '
> Fig. 5.1 (h) Beams with web reinforcement. The reinforcement details of
152
2- Legged 2- Legged
8$ stirrups 8$ stirrups
o
o
8 - 8$ @ 80 mm c/c 8 -10$ @ 80 mm c/c
Y
2-8$
n£
2- Legged
8$ stirrups
I o
m
o
o CO
LJH
8-12$ @ 80 mm c/c
100
Fig. 5.1(i) Beams with orthogonal web reinforcement. The reinforcement

details of the RC beam specimens of 400 mm depths.
153
>
3 Span =1000
L Length =1200 i'

Fig. 5.2 4-Point loading test set-up
5.6 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The test specimens were cast using cement; fine aggregate, coarse aggregate,
water and supper plasticizer. The materials, in general, confirmed to the specifications
laid down in the relevant Indian Standards Codes. For grading of fine and coarse
aggregate, sieve analysis was carried out. The properties of the materials used i.e.
cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate etc. were having the following characteristics:
5.6.1 Cement
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC 43-Grade) was used throughout the

experimental work. Various tests were conducted on cement to determine its physical
properties. All tests were carried out as per IS: 4031-1988. Cement was stored in
airtight silos to prevent deterioration in its strength due to contact with the atmospheric
conditions. The physical properties of cement as determined from various tests are
listed in Table 5.4.
154
Table 5.4 Properties of cement
Material: Testing of Ordinary Portland Cement as per IS: 4031 -1988
Sample Identification: OPC-43 Grade
IS Code Recommendation
Test Parameter Test IS 269: 1988 IS 8112:1989 IS 1489:1991
Value OPC-33 Grade OPC-43Grade PPC
Fineness by:
Air permeability (m2/kg) 271 225 (Min.) 225 (Min.) 300 (Min.)
Standard Consistency 4
(Percent) 28.0
Setting Time (Minutes)

(1) Initial 32 30 (Min.) 30 (Min.) 30 (Min.)
(2) Final 197 600 (Max.) 600 (Max.) 600 (Max.)
Compressive Strength (MPa)
(1) 3-day 27 16 (Min.) 23 (Min.) 16 (Min.)
(2) 7-day 39 22 (Min.) 33 (Min.) 22 (Min.)
(3) 28-day 48 33 (Min.) 43 (Min.) 33 (Min.)
Soundness (mm) 1.0 10 (Max.) 10 (Max.) 10 (Max.)
Comments: As per the above p rysical t sst values, the Cementqualifies foi • 43 - Grade
OPC
5.6.2 Aggregate
The maximum size ofcoarse aggregate used was 20 mm along with the 10mm
size aggregate. The sand used for the experimental program was natural yamuna river
sand. The various properties ofcoarse and fine aggregate are given in Tables 5.5 (A)
and 5.5 (B).
155
Table 5.5 (A) Properties of 20 mm coarse aggregates
SI. Requirement as per Coarse

Characteristics
No. IS 383:1970 Aggregate
1. Specific Gravity 2.6-2.7 2.67
2. Fineness Modulus 5.5-8 6.86
3. Moisture Content (%) - 0
+ 4. Texture - Rough
Table 5.5 (B) Properties of fine aggregates
SI. Requirement as per

Characteristics Fine Aggregate
No. IS 383:1970
Y 1. Specific Gravity 2.6-2.7 2.77
2. Fineness Modulus 2-3.5 2.29
3. Absorption (%) - 1
4. Moisture Content (%) - 0
5. Grading - II
5.6.3 Reinforcing Steel
Thermo-mechanically treated (TMT) rebar used was of Fe 415 grade.

Tables 5.6 (A) to Table 5.6 (C) show the test results of the steel bars.
156
Table 5.6 (A) Properties of reinforcing steel bar - 8 mm diameter
Test Material : Reinforcing Steel Bar (IS : 1786 - 1985 )
Sample Identification : 8 mm TMT Bar

Cross- Yield Ultimate
Nominal Percent
SI. Mass Sectional Stress Tensile Bend
Size Elongation
No. (kg/m) Area CTp Strength Test
(mm) (%)
(mm ) (MPa) (MPa)
1 8 0.398 50.70 450 560 25 Pass
2 8 0.397 50.57 447 563 32 Pass
3 8 0.398 50.70 449 562 27 Pass
Av. 8 0.398 50.67 447 562 28 Pass
IS: 1786 - 1985 Recommendation is given below:
1 8 0.367 14.5
50.30 415 487.3
(Min) (Min) (Min) Pass
(1.1 Op)
Table 5.6 (B) Properties of reinforcing steel bar-10 mm diameter
Test Material : Reinforcing Steel Bar (IS : 1786 -1985 )

Sample Identification : 10mm TMT Bar
Nominal Percent
SI. Mass Sectional Stress Tensile
Size Bend
No. (kg/m) Elongation
(mm)
Area CTp Strength Test
(mm2) (MPa) (MPa) (%)
1 10 0.602 76.70 540 625 30 Pass
2 10 0.599 76.30 542 635 28 Pass
3 10 0.602 76.70 540 630 29 Pass
Av. 10 0.601 76.57 541 630 29 Pass
IS: 1786 - 1985 Recommendation is given below:

0.574 78.6 415 487.3 14.5 *
1 10
(Min) Pass
(Min) (1.1 CTP) (Min)
157
Table 5.6 (C) Properties of reinforcing steel bar -12 mm diameter
Test Material : Reinforcing Steel Bar (IS : 1786 -1985 )
Sample Identification : 12 mm TMT Bar

Nominal Percent
SI. Mass Sectional Stress Tensile Bend
Size Elongation
No. (kg/m) Area CTp Strength Test
(mm) (%)
(mm2) (MPa) (MPa)
1 12 0.894 113.90 447 580 25 Pass
2 12 0.898 114.40 447 569 32 Pass

+
3 12 0.900 114.70 467 584 30 Pass
Av. 12 0.896 114.33 454 578 29 Pass
IS: 1786 - 1985 Recommendation is given below!

0.844 113.1 415 487.3 14.5
1 12 Pass
(Min) (Min) (1.1 CTP) (Min)
Y 5.6.4 Water
Tap water free from chlorides, alkalis and salts is used for casting as well as
curing of the specimens. In curing tanks supply of fresh water was maintained and the
curing tanks were cleaned from time to time.
5.6.5 Plasticizer (Sikament 170)
A modified melamine base highly effective high range water reducing concrete
admixture (Sikament 170) was usedthroughout the investigation. It was dark brown in
color having 1.22 specific gravity. The recommended dose range was 0.5% to 3.0% by
weight of cement.Sikament 170 was compatible with all types of Portland Cement.
5.7 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
The concrete mixes were designed in accordance with the Indian standard
recommended method ofconcrete mix design (IS 10262 - 1982). The concrete mix was
prepared for different cement contents viz. 320, 360, 400, and 440 kg/m3 to know the
influence of cement content on the shear of concrete and proportion for cement and
158
aggregate was done by trial to get good workability, homogeneity and other green
concrete properties. The quantity of water of 7.800 liters at w/c ratio of 0.40 was kept
constant for 320 kg/m3 cement content and the same quantity of water was used for
other cement content. To achieve the high-strength of the concrete and for workability
requirements, plasticizer (Sikkament 170) of 0.60%, 0.75%, 0.85% and 1.00% by
weight of cement was used, respectively for 320, 360, 400, and 440 kg/m3. The
proportions of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate is given in the Table 5.7.
Table 5.7 Mix proportions
SI. Cement content (kg / m3)

Description
No.
320 360 400 440
1 Cement (kg) 19.50 22.00 24.50 27.00
2 Fine Aggregate (Sand) (kg) 46.00 45.50 44.50 44.00

Y
3 Coarse Aggregates (kg) 84.00 82.50 81.00 79.00
4 Water - Cement Ratio 0.40 0.36 0.32 0.29
5 Water (Liters) 7.800 7.800 7.800 7.800
Plasticizer as % of wt. of
6 0.60 0.75 0.85 1.00
cement
7 Mix Proportion 1:2.36:4.31 1:2.10:3.75 1:1.82:3.31 1:1.63:2.93
5.8 MIXING AND CASTING
All the ingredients were kept ready in required quantities and the concrete was
prepared using the determined proportions. For the preparation of concrete first of all
coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and cement were mixed thoroughly in concrete mixer
to get uniform mix. After dry mixing, one-third ofthe total water containing thoroughly
mixed plasticizer was added first and then remaining water was added. The mixer was
rotated until a homogeneous and uniform mix was obtained within limited time.
159
The sizes of cubes and cylinders, and prism cast were 150mm x 150mm x
150mm and 150 mm x 300 mm, and 100 mm x 100 mm x 500 mm respectively. Each
test beam specimen was of 1200 mm in length and simply supported on effective span
of 1000 mm.The width of beam was kept constant equal to 100mm and the overall
depth was changed from 150 mm to 400 mm with 50 mm increments. Therefore, the
cross-sectional sizes of test specimens were: 100 x 150 mm, 100 x 200 mm, 100 x 250
mm, 100 x 300 mm, 100 x 350 mm, and 100 x 400mm. For each batch two beams, two
prisms, two cubes, and two cylinders were cast. Prior to casting, the cube, cylinder,
prism and beam moulds were cleaned and oiled properly and placed on a platform
vibrator.
5.9 COMPACTION AND CURING
The process of removal of the entrapped air and of uniform placement of

concrete to form a homogeneous dense mass is termed compaction. Concrete should be
thoroughly compacted and fully worked around the reinforcement, around embedded
fixtures and into corners of the formwork. Concrete shall be compacted using
mechanical vibrators. Over vibration and under vibration of concrete are harmful and
should be avoided.
The specimens were cast in the properly oiled mild steel moulds and kept on
vibration table. Concrete was carefully placed in the mould in three layers after tamping
by a rod with free hand and then vibrated properly. After 24 hours the specimens were
demoulded and placed in a curing tank for 28 days to ensure proper curing of the
specimens. The curing tanks were cleaned from time to time.
5.9.1 Cubes
Test specimen cubical in shape was of 150mm x 150mm x 150mm. If the

largest nominal size of the aggregate does not exceed 20 mm, 100 mm cubes may be
used alternatively. The standard practice by IS: 516-1959 is to fill the mould in three
layers. Each layer shall be compacted either by hand or by vibration. When compacting
160
by hand, the standard tamping bar shall be used and the strokes of the bar shall be
distributed in a uniform manner over the cross-section of the mould. For cubical
specimen, in no case shall the concrete is subjected to less than 35 strokes per layer for
150 mm cubes. When compacting by vibration, each layer shall be vibrated by means
of an electric or pneumatic hammer or vibrator or by means of a suitable vibrating table
until the specified condition is attained.
5.9.2 Cylinders
Cylinder test specimen shall have a length equal to twice of the diameter. The ^
standard practice by IS: 516-1959 is to fill the mould in six layers. When compacting
by hand, in no case shall the concrete is subjected to less than 30 strokes per layer.
After the top layer has been compacted, the surface of the concrete shall be finished
level with the top of the mould.
5.9.3 Prism
Y
The standard size prism, which used was of size 100 x 100 x 500 mm. The
concrete shall be filled into the mould in layers approximately 5 cm deep. After the top
layer has been compacted, the surface of the concrete was finished level with the top of
the mould.
5.9.4 Beams
The reinforced concrete beams were 1.20 m long and 100 x 150 mm, 100 x ^
200 mm, 100 x 250 mm, 100 x 300 mm, 100 x 350 mm, and 100 x 400mm rectangular
cross-section. The four different cement contents used viz. 320, 360, 400, and
440 kg/m3 to know the influence of cement content on the shear of concrete. The
quantity of water of 7.800 liters at w/c ratio of 0.40 was kept constant for 320 kg/m3
cement content and the same quantity of water was used for other cement content. To
achieve the high-strength of the concrete and for workability requirements, plasticizer
(Sikkament 170) of 0.60%, 0.75%, 0.85% and 1.00% by weight of cement was used,
respectively for 320, 360,400, and 440 kg/m3.
161
All the beams were cast in steel mould having sufficient thickness to prevent
spreading or warping. A nominal cover of 25 mm has been provided to reinforcement

both for bottom as well as for edge cover. After the top layer has been compacted, the
surface of the concrete was finished level with the top of the mould. After 24 hours the
specimens were demoulded and placed in a curing tank for 28 days to ensure proper
curing of the specimens. The curing tanks were cleaned from time to time. Figures
5.3 (a) and 5.3 (b) show the photographs of moulds (form work) of the beamspecimens
used for casting the beam specimens of different depths.
162
Fig. 53(a) Moulds (Form work) of beam specimens (Depth 300to 400mm)
163
Fig. 5.3(b) Moulds (Form work) of beam specimens (Depth 150 to 250 mm)
164
5.10 TESTING OF SPECIMENS
5.10.1 Cubes and Cylinders

The tests shall be made at recognized ages of the test specimens. At least two
specimens from different batches were made for testing. Specimen stored in water
tested immediately on removal from the water tank and while they were still in wet
condition. Surface water and grit was wiped off from the specimen and all projecting
fines were removed. The bearing surface of the testing machines was wiped clean and
any loose sand or other material removed from the surfaces of specimen that are to be
in contact with the compression platens. The specimen was placed in the machine in
such a manner that the load shall be applied to the opposite sides of cubes as cast i.e.,
not to the top and bottom. The load is applied without shock and increased
continuously at a rate of approximately 140 kg/cm2/min. until the resistance of the
specimen to the increasing load breaks down and no greater load can be sustained. The
maximum load applied to the specimen was then recorded. The measured compressive
strength of the specimen was calculated by dividing the maximum load applied to the
specimen during the test by the cross- sectional area, calculated from the mean
dimension of the section.
5.10.2 Prisms
The bed of the testing machine shall be provided with two steel rollers, 38 mm
in diameter, on which the specimen was to be supported, and these rollers were so
mounted that the distance from center to center was 400 mm for 100 mm specimen.
The load was applied through two similar rollers mounted at the third points of the
supporting span that is, spaced at 133 mm center to center. The load was applied
gradually till the final failure of the specimen. The load at failure and the distance of
crack from the support was measured. The modulus of rupture was then found out as
per the flexural formula.
165
5.10.3 Beams
After curing for 28 days, the beam specimens were removed from the curing
tank. After some time, beam specimens were placed on two roller supports over a span
of 1000 mm. Before placing of the beam the whitewashing treatment was also given to
it so that the crack would be seen. In addition to this, magnifying glass was used for
improved visibility of cracks. For application of load, a hydraulic jack is used which
has maximum capacity of 500 kN.A proving ring dial gauge is attached to thejack.
The tests were carried out by using a reaction frame with a loading capacity
500 kN. For application of load, a hydraulic jack was used which has maximum
capacity of 500 kN. Two proving rings of 50kN and lOOkN were attached to the jack
depending up on the amount of longitudinal and transverse steel, concrete compressive
strength and the depth of the RC beam specimens. Tests were never stopped after the
flexural cracking load was reached. The first crack load and the final failure load was
noted down for each beam specimens. Also, critical section for shear was measured.
Figure 5.4 shows the test as it was configured.
166
Fig. 5.4 Test configuration (Loading frame)
167
Fig. 5.5 Tested beam specimens
168
The test program as planned to achieve the objectives of the present
investigation, has been described in this chapter. The basic properties of the various
constituents of concrete such as cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate etc are also
presented. Concrete mix details along with method of casting and curing has been
reported. The testing procedure adopted to find out the shear capacity of RC beams is
discussed in detail. A few photographs are used to enlighten the testing technique.
Figure 5.5 gives a glance of dumped beam specimens after test.
169
CHAPTER 6
i
TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
6.1 GENERAL
Load transfer in transfer beams primarily takes place through the shear resisting
capacity of the section. Therefore, to generate the shear capacity efficiently through the
concrete sections by using conventional materials of construction like concrete and
steel, is an important aspect in the design of transfer beams in high-rise buildings. Shear
capacity of the section is the final failure load causing shear failure. It is highly
influenced by the various parameters such as compressive strength of concrete, shear
span-to-depth (a / d) ratio in terms of depth, percent longitudinal tension steel, and
percent horizontal and transverse web steel.
This chapter presents the basic mechanical properties of concrete, observations

of 340 beam specimens tested at the structural laboratory and discussions of the
influencing parameters of shear strength of reinforced concrete normal and transfer
(deep) beams. The primary objective of the study was to investigate the behavior of
reinforced concrete beams failing in shear, and identify shear strength influencing
parameters .The specific objectives and a complete description of the beam specimens
and testing procedure are presented in previous Chapter 5.
Three cubes, three cylinders, three prisms, and two beams were cast for each
batch of concrete. The Thermo Mechanically Treated (TMT) rebars of 8, 10, and 12
mm diameters were used as reinforcement. The longitudinal steel was distributed in
four layers and varying percentage of vertical steel.
Crack pattern was marked in each beam very precisely. Load at which first
crack obtained and the ultimate load at which failure of beam occurs was observed very
precisely. The properties ofconcrete are shown in Tables 6.1 (A) and 6.1 (B).
170
Table 6.1 (A) Compressive strength of concrete
Compressive strength ofconcrete (IS 516:1959/1991)
Cement content (kg/m3) Cement : 43 Grade OPC
A: 320; C: 400; Water : 7.800Liter
B:360; D: 440; Age : 28 Days
Compressive Strength (150 mm Cubes)

Sample SI. Mass Max. Load Max. Stress (MPa)
Identification No. (kg) (ton)
Ind. Av.
1 8.89 74 32.78
A 2 8.95 73 32.34 32.30
3 8.90 74 32.78
1 8.88 82 36.33
B 2 8.90 82 36.33 36.48
3 8.80 83 36.77
1 9.05 98 43.42
C 2 8.88 98 43.42 43.27
3 8.90 97 42.97
1 8.85 108 47.84
D 2 8.95 106 46.96 47.55
3 8.85 108 47.84
Compressive Strength i 150 x 300mm Cylinders)

Sample SI. Mass Max. Load Max. Stress (MPa)
Identification No. (kg) (ton) Ind. Av.
1 13.20 43 24.25
A 2 13.30 44 24.82 24.44
3 1 13.30 43 24.25
1 13.35 49 27.64
B 2 13.30 48 27.07 27.43
3 13.20 49 27.64
1 13.50 58 32.71
C 2 13.52 57 32.15 32.15
3 13.50 56 31.58
1 13.30 65 36.66
D 2 13.25 64 36.10 36.67
3 13.35 66 37.22
Comments: For the range o •compressive strength of concrete investigated, the cylinder >
strength is on an average is«ibout 75 percent of the cube strength
171
Table 6.1 (B) Tensile strength ofconcrete
T Tensile strength ofconcrete (IS 516 :1959/1991)

Cement content (kg/m3) Cement : 43-Grade OPC
A: 320; C: 400; Water : 7.800 Liter
B: 360; D: 440; Age : 28 days
Split Tensile Strength (150 x 300mm Cylinders)

Sample SI. Mass Max. Load Max. Av. Stress
Identification No. (kg) (ton) Stress (MPa)
(MPa)
1 13.25 21 2.96
A 2 13.30 20 2.82 2.91
3 13.29 21 2.96
1 13.33 24 3.38
B 2 13.30 25 3.52 3.48
3 13.30 25 3.52
1 13.51 27 3.81
C 2 13.52 26 3.67 3.82
3 13.49 28 3.95
1 13.29 32 4.51
D 2 13.30 32 4.51 4.46
3 13.35 31 4.37
Modulus of Rupture (10 0 x 100 x 500 mm Prisms)

Sample SI. Mass Max. Load Max. Av. Stress
Identification No. (kg) (ton) Stress (MPa)
(MPa)
1 12.75 1.24 4.94
A 2 12.79 1.25 4.98 4.94
3 12.68 1.23 4.89
1 12.88 1.48 5.89
B 2 12.68 1.49 5.93 5.90
3 12.78 1.48 5.89
1 12.99 1.63 6.49
C 2 12.98 1.63 6.49 6.46
3 13.10 1.61 6.41
1 12.88 1.92 7.64
D 2 12.85 1.91 7.60 7.60
3 12.88 1.90 7.56
Comments:
(1) For the range of compressive and tensile strength ofconcrete investigated, the
split tensile strength is on average is about 12 % of the cylinder compressive
strength.
(2) Tensile strength ofconcrete in bending (modulus of rupture) is about twice that
obtained by split test on the cylinder.
172
6.2 EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS
Tables 6.2 (A) to 6.2 (R) list the details of beam specimens without shear
>
reinforcement for six different depths (150 mm to 400 mm) and three types of TMT
bars with different arrangements of longitudinal reinforcement.
Tables 6.3 (A) to 6.3 (D) present the details of transfer beams of shear span-to-
depth ratio 1.10 for four cement contents. Tables 6.4 (A) to 6.4 (R) show the details of
beam specimens with shear reinforcement for four shear span-to-depth ratios for
different percentages of longitudinal reinforcements. The orthogonal web
reinforcement in which the longitudinal reinforcement was distributed at larger spacing
@ 80mm c/c across the depth of beams is shown in Tables 6.5 (A) to 6.5 (C).
173
i
Table 6.2(A) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse

reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIONS: 100 mm x 150 mmx 1200mm
(1) Cement: 43 Grade (OPC) o
(2) Mix Proportion (C:FA:CA): 1:1.82:3.31

• •
(3) Water-Cement Ratio:0.32

>
(4) Water : 7.800 Liter 100
(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % by weight of cement
Longitudinal Load (kN)

reinforcement Spec,
no. Type of failure
No. & Bar Steel First Avg. Failure Avg.

Dia. (mm) (%) crack
1 5 10 Flexure
2-8 2.40
2 22 23.50 56 54 Shear
174
>
Table 6.2 (B) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse

reinforcement
-*
(1) Cement: 43 Grade (OPC)
o
(3) Water-Cement Ratio:0.32 • •
(4) Water : 7.800 Liter 82 Shear
2 38
175
*
Table 6.2(C) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse

reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIONS: 100 mmx 150 mmx 1200mm

>

• •

»
(4) Water : 7.800 Liter 100

reinforcement Spec,
no. Type of failure

Dia. (mm) (%) crack
1 12 25 Shear
2-12<j> 1.80
13 25 Shear
2 14 25
1 23 48 Shear
4-124> 3.60
2 25 24 52 50 Shear
5.40 1 42 84 Shear
6-12<J>
2 44 43 86 85 Shear
176
>
Table 6.2 (D) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse

reinforcement
1F
4
o
CN
• •

i J
(4) Water : 7.800 Liter r100 1

reinforcement Spec,
no. Type of failure

Dia. (mm) (%) crack
1 12 24 Shear
2-8d» 0.57
2 12 12 26 25 Shear
1.15 1 20 44 Shear
4-8
2 36 35 68 70 Shear
2.29 1 48 100 Shear

8-8<j>
2 52 50 100 100 Shear
177
Table 6.2 (E) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse
reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIONS: 100 mm x 200 mm x 1200mm

o
o
(2) Mix Proportion (C:FA:CA): 1:1.82:3.31 CN

(4) Water : 7.800 Liter
100

reinforcement Spec,
no. Type of failure

Dia. (mm) (%) crack
1 12 13 24 25 Shear
2-10$ 0.90
2 14 26 Shear
1.80 1 30 31 62 64 Shear
4-10$
2 32 66 Shear
2.70 1 48 47 95 95 Shear
6-10(|>
2 46 95 Shear
3.60 1 62 63 128 127 Shear

8-10<J>
2 64 126 Shear
178
Table 6.2 (F) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse
reinforcement
4
o
o
• •
(4) Water : 7.800 Liter I J
r 100 1

reinforcement Spec,
no. Type of failure

Dia. (mm) (%) crack
1 16 32 33 Shear
2-12(f) 1.29
2 14 15 34 Shear
2.58 1 33 34 65 65 Shear
4-12$ Shear
2 35 65
3.87 1 46 48 96 97 Shear
6-12<b
2 50 98 Shear
5.16 1 65 65 136 131 Shear

8-12$ Shear
2 65 126
179
Table 6.2 (G) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse
reinforcement
CN
• •

I J
(4) Water : 7.800 Liter 'r100 1

reinforcement Spec,
no. Type of failure

Dia. (mm) (%) crack
1 15 30 32 Shear
2-8<t> 0.45
2 17 16 34 Shear
0.90 1 28 29 55 59 Shear
4-8$
2 30 63 Shear
1.35 1 40 41 84 85 Shear
6-8$
2 42 86 Shear
1.80 1 55 57.50 115 115 Shear

8-8$
2 60 115 Shear
180
Table 6.2 (H) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse
reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIOP <JS: 100 mmx 250 mmx 1200mm
CN
(2) Mix Proportion (C:FA:CA): 1:1 .82:3.31
• •

(4) Water : 7.800 Liter <
l j
r100 '
(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0 85 % by weight of cement

reinforcement Spec,
no. Type of failure

Dia. (mm) (%) crack
1 21 22 44 42 Shear
2-10$ 0.70
2 23 40 Shear
1.40 1 35 37 76 78 Shear
4-10$
2 39 80 Shear
2.10 1 52 110 110 Shear

6-10$
2 50 51 110 Shear
2.80 1 65 135 136 Shear

8-10$
2 61 63 137 Shear
181
Table 6.2 (I) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse
reinforcement
CN
• •

(4) Water : 7.800 Liter \rI 100 1J

reinforcement Spec
Type of failure
no.

Dia. (mm) (%) crack
1 22 21 38 40 Shear
2-12$ 1.00
2 20 42 Shear
2.00 1 40 40 82 81 Shear
4-12$
2 40 80 Shear
3.00 1 58 59 118 118 Shear

6-12$
2 60 118 Shear
4.00 1 72 74 145 146 Shear

8-12$
2 76 147 Shear
182
Table 6.2 (J) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse
reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIONS: 100 mm x 300 mmx 1200mm *

1>
(1) Cement: 43 Grade (OPC) O

O

• •

(4) Water : 7.800 Liter *
[ J
r100 '

reinforcement Spec,
no. Type of failure

Dia. (mm) (%) crack
1 18 20 38 Flexure
2-8$ 0.37
2 22 42 40 Flexure
0.73 1 34 35 72 70 Shear
4-8$
2 36 68 Shear
1.10 1 50 51 104 105 Shear

6-8$
2 52 106 Shear
1.47 1 65 65 130 130 Shear

8-8$
2 65 130 Shear
183
Table 6.2 (K) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse
reinforcement

o
(2) Mix Proportion (C:FA:CA): 1:1.82:3.31 o
C*1

I J
(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % by weight of cement r 100 '

reinforcement Spec,
no. Type of failure

Dia. (mm) (%) crack
0.57 1 23 24 52 51 Shear
2-10$
2 25 50 Shear
1.14 1 44 45 88 90 Shear
4-10$
2 46 92 Shear
1.71 1 65 64 120 120 Shear

6-10$
2 63 120 Shear
2.28 1 70 72 150 150 Shear

8-10$
2 74 150 Shear
184
Table 6.2 (L) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse
reinforcement

<• -

o
o
(2) Mix Proportion (C:FA:CA): 1:1.82:3.3 1 CO
(4) Water : 7.800 Liter 1 J

(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % b;1weight of cement r 100 1

reinforcement Spec,
no. Type of failure

Dia. (mm) (%) crack
0.82 1 28 27 52 54 Shear
2-12$ Shear
2 26 56
1.64 1 49 51 98 98 Shear
4-12$ Shear
2 53 98
2.46 1 68 69 136 137 Shear

6-12$ Shear
2 70 138
3.28 1 84 80 158 160 Shear

8-12$ Shear
2 76 162
185
Table 6.2 (M) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse
reinforcement

• •
(4) Water : 7.800 Liter , >
^100 '

reinforcement Spec,
no. Type of failure

Dia. (mm) (%) crack
1 25 25 48 50 Flexure
^
2-8$ 0.30
2 25 52 Flexure
0.60 1 42 41 85 85 Shear
4-8$
2 44 85 Shear
0.90 1 60 60 122 121 Shear

6-8$
2 60 120 Shear
1.20 1 72 71 145 145 Shear

8-8$
2 74 145 Shear
186
Table 6.2 (N) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse
reinforcement

o
(2) Mix Proportion(C:FA:CA): 1:1.82:3.3 1 m

(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % b;/ weight of cement '100 :

reinforcement Spec,
no. Type of failure

Dia. (mm) (%) crack
1 32 31 64 65 Shear
2-10$ 0.48
66 Shear
2 34 V
0.96 1 55 55 105 105 Shear

4-10$ 105 Shear
2 55
1.44 1 65 68 140 135 Shear

6-10$ 130 Shear
2 71
1.92 1 80 81 160 160 Shear

8-10$ 160 Shear
2 82
187
Table 6.2 (O) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse
reinforcement
o
(1) Cement: 43 Grade (OPC) CO
(2) Mix Proportion (C:FA:CA): 1:1.82:3.31 • •

(4) Water : 7.800 Liter '100 '

reinforcement Spec,
no. Type of failure

Dia. (mm) (%) crack
4
1 35 75 Shear
2-12$ 0.70
2 33 34 75 75 Shear
1.40 1 57 58 114 115 Shear

4-12$
2 59 116 Shear
2.10 1 72 74 148 150 Shear

6-12$
2 76 152 Shear
2.80 1 86 86 175 175 Shear

8-12$
2 86 175 Shear
188
Table 6.2 (P) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse
reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIONS: 100 mm x 400 mmx 1200mrri

o

• •
(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % by weight of cement '100 '

reinforcement Spec,
no. Type of failure

Dia. (mm) (%) crack
1 30 58 60 Flexure
2-8$ 0.27
27 Flexure
2 24 62
1 48 49 100 100 Shear

4-8$ 0.54
100 Shear
2 50
0.81 1 67 68 134 135 Shear

6-8$ 136 Shear
2 69
1.10 1 75 75 160 160 Shear

8-8$ 160 Shear
2 75
189
Table 6.2 (Q) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse
reinforcement

o
o
(2) Mix Proportion (C:FA:CA): 1:1.82:3.3 1
(4) Water: 7.800 Liter

(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % b y weight of cement ' 100 >

reinforcement Spec,
no. Type of failure

-i Dia. (mm) (%) crack
1 35 37. 75 Shear
2-10$ 0.42
2 39 75 75 Shear
0.84 1 55 55 118 120 Shear

4-10$
2 55 122 Shear
1.26 1 72 71 150 150 Shear

6-10$
2 74 150 Shear
1.68 1 88 87 174 175 Shear

8-10$
2 86 176 Shear
190
Table 6.2 (R) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse
reinforcement

o

• •
(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % b;/ weight of cement '100 "

reinforcement Spec,
no. Type of failure

Dia. (mm) (%) crack
1 42 44 90 90 Shear >
2-12$ 0.60
Shear
2 46 90
1.20 1 66 69 138 141 Shear

4-12$ 144 Shear
2 72
1.80 1 80 79 180 165 Shear

6-12$ Shear
2 78 172
2.40 1 88 94 195 185 Shear

8-12$ Shear
2 90 197
191
Table 6.3 (A) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse
reinforcement

o
(3) Water-Cement Ratio: 0.40 • •

(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.60% by weight of cement < i
^100 '
Cement Content: 320 kg / m3

reinforcement Spec,
no. Type of failure

Dia. (mm) (%) crack
1 38 76 Shear
2-12$ 0.60
2 40 39 78 77 Shear
1 62 125 Shear
4-12$ 1.20
2 64 63 125 125 Shear
1 72 148 Shear
6-12$ 1.80
2 74 71 146 147 Shear
1 78 162 Shear
8-12$ 2.40
2 80 79 162 162 Shear
192
Table 6.3 (B) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse
reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIONS: 100 mm x 4001 nmx 1200mm

O
o
(2) Mix Proportion (C:FA:CA): 1:2.10:3.7.5
(3) Water-Cement Ratio: 0.36 • •

(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.75 % bjr weight of cement r 100 ]
Cement Content : 360 kg/i n3

reinforcement Spec
Type of failure
no.

Dia. (mm) (%) crack
1 42 82 Shear
2-12$ 0.60
41 82 82 Shear
2 40
1 62 132 Shear
4-12$ 1.20
64 61 134 133 Shear
2
1 78 156 Shear
6-12$ 1.80
78 160 158 Shear
2 78
1 84 172 Shear
8-12$ 2.40
82 83 170 171 Shear
2
193
Table 6.3 (C) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse
reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIONS: 10C 1mm x 400 mmx 1200mm

o
9

(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % by weight of cement >
' 100 '

reinforcement Spec,
no. Type of failure

Dia. (mm) (%) crack
1 42 90 Shear
2-12$ 0.60
2 46 44 90 90 Shear
1 66 138 Shear
4-12$ 1.20
2 72 69 144 141 Shear
1 80 165 Shear
6-12$ 1.80
2 78 79 165 165 Shear
1 88 185 Shear
8-12$ 2.40
2 90 94 187 186 Shear
194
Table 6.3 (D) Observations of the experiments on RC beams without transverse
reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIONS : 100 mmx 400 mmx 1200mm

—i r~

©

(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 1 % by weight of cement *
'100 >

m

reinforcement Spec,
no. Type of failure

Dia. (mm) (%) crack
1 45 96 Shear
2-12$ 0.60
2 43 44 100 98 Shear
1 72 147 Shear
4-12$ 1.20
2 74 73 147 147 Shear
1 85 170 Shear
6-12$ 1.80
2 87 86 172 171 Shear
1 95 190 Shear
8-12$ 2.40
94
2 93 192 191 Shear
195
Table 6.4 (A) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with transverse
reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIONS: 100 mm x A•00 mm x 1200mnl

o
**

• •

(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % by weigh t of cement
'100 '
Shear span-to-depth ratio (a/d) = 1.1 •
Longitudinal Transverse reinforcement Load (kN)

reinforcement
No.&
Bar Steel Dia. Spacing Steel First Avg. Failure Avg.
Dia. (%) crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 37 74
2-8$ 0.27 8$ 250 0.80 2 37 37 76 75
1 42 85
2-8$ 0.27 8$ 200 1.50 2 44 43 87 86
1 46 90
2-8$ 0.27 8$ 150 2.68 2 44 45 90 90
1 50 100
2-8$ 0.27 8$ 100 5.00 2 50 50 100 100
196
Table 6.4 (B) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with transverse
reinforcement

o

• •
'100 '
Shear span-to-depth ratio (a/d) = 1.1.

reinforcement
No.&
Dia. (%) crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 65 132
4-8$ 0.54 8$ 250 0.80 2 65 65 134 133
1 74 145
4-8$ 0.54 8$ 200 1.50 2 70 72 145 145
1 74 150
4-8$ 0.54 8$ 150 2.68 2 78 72 158 154
1 80 162
4-8$ 0.54 8$ 100 5.00 2 80 80 164 163
197
Table 6.4 (C) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with transverse
reinforcement

o

• •
100 "

reinforcement
No.&
Dia. (%) crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 90 180
6-8$ 0.81 8$ 250 0.80 2 86 88 180 180
1 96 195
6-8$ 0.81 8$ 200 1.50 2 94 95 197 192
1 100 220
6-8$ 0.81 8$ 150 2.68 2 100 100 210 210
1 115 230
6-8$ 0.81 8$ 100 5.00 2 115 115 230 230
198
Table 6.4 (D) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with transverse
reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIONS: 10() mm x 400 mm x 1200mm

(2) Mix Proportion(C:FA:CA): 1:1.82:3.31 o
©

• •
<
'100 i

reinforcement
No.&
Dia. (%) crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 50 105
2-10$ 0.42 8$ 250 0.80 2 48 49 107 106
1 55 115
2-10$ 0.42 8$ 200 1.50 2 55 55 115 115
1 65 130
2-10$ 0.42 8$ 150 2.68 2 65 65 132 131
1 67 135
2-10$ 0.42 8$ 100 5.00 2 67 67 135 135
199
Table 6.4 (E) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with transverse
reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIONS: 100 mm x <100 mm) c 1200mm

o
9
• •
(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % by weightofcemcait
' 100 '

reinforcement
No.&
Dia. (%) crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 80 165
4-10$ 0.84 8$ 250 0.80 2 78 79 165 165
1 88 175
4-10$ 0.84 8$ 200 1.50 2 88 88 179 177
1 100 205
4-10$ 0.84 8$ 150 2.68 2 98 99 205 205
1 100 100 220
4-10$ 0.84 8$ 100 5.00 2 100 210 210
200
Table 6.4 (F) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with transverse
reinforcement

o

• •

(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % by weight of cement <
'100 '

reinforcement
No.&
Dia. (%) crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 100 215
*
6-10$ 1.26 8$ 250 0.80 2 98 99 217 216
1 115 235
6-10$ 1.26 8$ 200 1.50 2 118 116 235 235
1 126 255
6-10$ 1.26 8$ 150 2.68 2 126 126 255 255
1 126 255
6-10$ 1.26 8$ 100 5.00 2 126 126 255 255
201
Table 6.4(G) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with transverse
reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIONS: 100 mm x 400 mm >: 1200mm

o

(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % by weight of cement »
'100 '

reinforcement
No.&
Dia. (%) crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 50 110
2-12$ 0.60 8$ 250 0.80 2 48 49 110 110
1 65 125
2-12$ 0.60 8$ 200 1.50 2 65 65 125 125
1 72 145
2-12$ 0.60 8$ 150 2.68 2 72 72 147 146
1 80 160 160
2-12$ 0.60 8$ 100 5.00 2 80 80 160
202
Table 6.4 (H) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with transverse
reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIONS: 100 mm x 4 00 mmx 1200mm

tr

O
(2) Mix Proportion (C:FA:CA): 1:1.82:3.31 O

• •

(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % by weighi.of cement
'100 '
Shear span-to-depth ratio (a/d) = 1.1

reinforcement
No.&
Dia. (%) crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 88 174
4-12$ 1.20 8$ 250 0.80 2 88 88 178 176 +

1 95 200
4-12$ 1.20 8$ 200 1.50 2 95 95 200 200
1 110 220
4-12$ 1.20 8$ 150 2.68 2 110 110 224 222
1 115 240
4-12$ 1.20 8$ 100 5.00 2 117 116 240 240
203
Table 6.4 (I) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with transverse
reinforcement

—t r—

o

'100 '

reinforcement
No.&
Dia. (%) crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 110 225
X
6-12$ 1.80 8$ 250 0.80 2 110 110 225 225
1 120 246
6-12$ 1.80 8$ 200 1.50 2 124 122 248 247
1 130 260
6-12$ 1.80 8$ 150 2.68 2 130 130 260 260
1 130 260
6-12$ 1.80 8$ 100 5.00 2 130 130 260 260
204
Table 6.4 (J) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with transverse
reinforcement

o

• •

(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % by weight of cement ,
'100 '

reinforcement
No.&
Dia. (%) crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 130 262
8-12$ 2.40 8$ 250 0.80 2 132 131 262 262 X
1 138 276
8-12$ 2.40 8$ 200 1.50 2 132 135 278 277
1 142 290
8-12$ 2.40 8$ 150 2.68 2 142 142 290 290
1 142 290
8-12$ 2.40 8$ 100 5.00 2 142 142 290 290
205
Table 6.4 (K) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with transverse
reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIONS: 100 mm x 350 mm >11200mm

o
(2) Mix Proportion (C:FA:CA): 1:1.82:3.31 m
co

*ioo J

reinforcement
No.&
Dia. (%) crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 48 95
2-10$ 0.48 8$ 250 0.80 2 48 48 97 96

X
1 50 100
2-10$ 0.48 8$ 200 1.50 2 48 49 100 100
1 55 115
2-10$ 0.48 8$ 150 2.68 2 55 55 115 115
1 60 120
2-10$ 0.48 8$ 100 5.00 2 60 60 122 121
206
Table 6.4 (L) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with transverse
reinforcement

©
co

(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % by weight of cement <
'100 '

reinforcement
No.&
Dia. (%) crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 75 155
4-10$ 0.96 8$ 250 0.80 2 77 72 155 155

X
1 82 165
4-10$ 0.96 8$ 200 1.50 2 84 83 165 165
1 85 178
4-10$ 0.96 8$ 150 2.68 2 87 86 180 179
1 90 185
4-10$ 0.96 8$ 100 5.00 2 90 90 185 185
207
Table 6.4 (M) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with transverse
reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIONS: 100 mm x 350 mm) c 1200mm

©
(2) Mix Proportion (C:FA:CA): 1:1.82:3.31 in
co

(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170) : 0.85 % by weigh t of ceme nt '100 '
Shear spari-to-depth ratio (a/d) = 1.23

reinforcement
No.&
Dia. (%) crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 100 198 204

X
6-10$ 1.44 8$ 250 0.80 2 100 100 210
1 102 210
6-10$ 1.44 8$ 200 1.50 2 102 102 210 210
1 115 240
6-10$ 1.44 8$ 150 2.68 2 115 115 236 233
1 116 235
6-10$ 1.44 8$ 100 5.00 2 116 116 235 235
208
Table 6.4 (N) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with transverse
reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIONS: 100 mm x 300 mm x 1200mni

©
(2) Mix Proportion (C:FA:CA): 1:1.82:3.31 ©
CO

1 1
(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % by weight of ceme nt T100 T

reinforcement
No.&
Dia. (%) crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 35 70
2-10$ 0.57 8$ 250 0.80 2 35 35 74 74

4\
1 38 80
2-10$ 0.57 8$ 200 1.50 2 42 40 80 80
1 42 86
2-10$ 0.57 8$ 150 2.68 2 42 42 84 85
1 42 90
2-10$ 0.57 8$ 100 5.00 2 42 42 90 90
209
Table 6.4 (O) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with transverse
reinforcement

o
©
(2) Mix Proportion (C:FA:CA): 1:1.82:3.31 CO

(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % by weight of cement 100

reinforcement
No.&
fO/.
Dia. crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
65 135
4
4-10$ 1.14 250 0.80 "63" 64 735" 135
~1Q 140"
4-10$ 1.14 200 1.50 Jo 70 1a~0 140
~12 152"
4-10$ 1.14 150 2.68 1A 73 158~ 155
IT 155~
4-10$ 1.14 100 5.00 73 155~ 155
210
Table 6.4 (P) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with transverse
reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIONS: 101) mm x 300 mm x 1200mni

©
©
(2) Mix Proportion (C:FA:CA): 1:1.82:3. 31 co
• •
(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % 1)y weight of ceme nt '100 "

reinforcement
No.&
Dia. (%) crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 75 180
i
6-10$ 1.71 8$ 250 0.80 2 77 76 180 180
1 100 208
6-10$ 1.71 8$ 200 1.50 2 100 100 210 209
1 102 210
6-10$ 1.71 8$ 150 2.68 2 102 102 210 210
1 105 220
6-10$ 1.71 8$ 100 5.00 2 105 105 210 215
211
Table 6.4 (Q) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with transverse
reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIONS: 100 mm x 250 mm >11200mm

©
(2) Mix Proportion (C:FA:CA): 1:1.82:3.31 in
CN

[ 1
(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % by weight of cement r100 T

reinforcement
No. &
Dia. (%) crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 32 60
2-10$ 0.70 8$ 250 0.80 2 30 31 62 61
1 32 64
2-10$ 0.70 8$ 200 1.50 2 32 32 66 65
1 34 70
2-10$ 0.70 8$ 150 2.68 2 36 35 70 70
1 35 75
2-10$ 0.70 8$ 100 5.00 2 39 37 75 75
212
Table 6.4 (R) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with transverse
reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIONS: 100 mm x 250 mm x: 1200mm

o
m

1 1
(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % by weight of cement T100 T

reinforcement
No.&
Dia. (%) crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 56 112
4-10$ 1.40 8$ 250 0.80 2 56 56 112 112 *

1 60 120
4-10$ 1.40 8$ 200 1.50 2 58 59 120 120
1 65 65 132
4-10$ 1.40 8$ 150 2.68 2 65 130 131
1 67 135
4-10$ 1.40 8$ 100 5.00 2 69 68 135 135
213
Table 6.4 (S) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with transverse
reinforcement
BEAM DIMENSIONS: 100 mm x 250 mm >: 1200mm

©
uo
• •
1 1
(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 % by weight of cement T100 T

reinforcement
No. &
Dia. (%) crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 82 165
6-10$ 2.10 8$ 250 0.80 2 80 81 165 165
1 96 192
6-10$ 2.10 8$ 200 1.50 2 96 96 192 192
1 97 195
6-10$ 2.10 8$ 150 2.68 2 97 97 195 195
1 97 195
6-10$ 2.10 8$ 100 5.00 2 97 97 195 195
214
Table 6.5 (A) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with orthogonal web
reinforcement
(1) Cement: 43 Grade (OPC) ©

©
(2) Mix Proportion (C:FA:CA): 1:1.82:3.3 1
1

(5) Plasticizer (Sikkament 170): 0.85 %by weight of cement ^ 100 T

reinforcement
No.&
Dia. Spacing Steel First Avg. Failure Avg.
Bar Steel
Dia.
crack
(%)
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 110 230
0.80 2 110 110 230 230

8-8$ 1.10 8$ 250
1 120 246
200 1.50 2 120 120 245 246

8-8$ 1.10 8$
1 125 255
150 2.68 2 127 126 255 255

8-8$ 1.10 8$
1 130 260
5.00 2 130 130 260 260

8-8$ 1.10 8$ 100
215
Table 6.5 (B) Observations of the experiments on RC beams with orthogonal web
reinforcement
]BEAM DIMENSIONS: 10C1mm x 400 mm x 1200mm

©

T100 T

reinforcement
No. &
Dia. (%) crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 120 240 240
8-10$ 1.68 8$ 250 0.80 2 122 121 240
1 125 260
8-10$ 1.68 8$ 200 1.50 2 127 126 258 259
1 140 280
8-10$ 1.68 8$ 150 2.68 2 140 140 280 280
1 140 280
8-10$ 1.68 8$ 100 5.00 2 140 140 280 280
216
Table 6.5 (C) Observations ofthe experiments on RC beams with orthogonal web
reinforcement
]BEAM DIMENSIONS: 10CI mm x 400 mm x 1200mm

©

• •
(4) Water : 7.800 Liter 9

T100 T

reinforcement
No. &
Dia. (%) crack
(mm) (mm) (mm) (%)
1 135 275
8-12$ 2.40 8$ 250 0.80 2 137 137 275 275
1 158 315
8-12$ 2.40 8$ 200 1.50 2 158 158 315 315
1 158 315
8-12$ 2.40 8$ 150 2.68 2 158 158 315 315
1 158 315
8-12$ 2.40 8$ 100 5.00 2 158 158 315 315
217
6.3 REINFORCED CONCRETE MEMBERS WITHOUT SHEAR
REINFORCEMENT
6.3.1 Influence of Shear Span-to-Effective Depth (a/d) Ratio
Table 6.6 summarize the results of the six beam specimens without shear
reinforcement subjected to very small bending moment and high shear for different
shear span-to-effective depth ratio and for constant percentage of longitudinal steel of
0.80 % and constant compressive strength ofconcrete of 43 MPa.
The shear span is the distance, a, between a support and point of concentrated
load. The key characteristic of a/d-ratio is obvious for simple beams subjected to point
loads. The term relates the maximum moment and maximum shear force, since Mmax -
Vmax x a and thus the moment to shear force ratio is Mmax / Vmax x d = a/d. For
distributed loading this term is also significant, since Mmax = w/2/8 and Vmax = w//2, and
thus it gives Mmax / Vmax x d = //4d, which means that "a" is the distance to the resultant
of the loads in one half of the span. Therefore, the a/d-ratio characterizes the
slenderness of a simple beam and influences the relationships between the different
shear transfer actions.
Most of the building codes or empirical formulae for calculating shear strength
include an a/d-ratio to account for the influence of this parameter. The ratio a/d can be
varied, either by changing numerator, a, or denominator, d. However, by changing

denominator, is more correct, realistic, appropriate and logical to transfer the load
through the body of the member to the support. If numerator, a, is varied by keeping
depth constant, then, the same beam can be a deep beam or normal beams as per the
definition of the ratio a/d and then in some case, the distance, a, thereby position of
load is very near to the support and in such a situation, there is very less material
available to transfer the load to the support.
Figure 6.1 shows the effect of shear span-to-depth ratio (or moment-shear ratio)
on nominal shear stress at diagonal cracking, which is obtained by dividing measured
218
failure load to the nominal cross sectional area (b x d). As the shear span-to-depth (a/d)
ratio decreases, the shear strength increases. The increase in shear strength is significant
in RC beam specimens with a/d ratio less than about 1.78, because a significant portion
of the shear is transmitted directly to the support by an inclined strut. This mechanism
is frequently referred to as arch action and the magnitude of the direct load transfer
increases with decreasing a/d-ratio. The shear strength of RC beams with a/d-ratio less
than 1.78 is higher than those of the RC beams with a/d-ratio more than 1.78. This
result is due to the beneficial effect of direct load transfer to the support by arch action
or so called strut-and-tie load transfer mechanism. The transition point between the
arch action and beam action (or transfer beams and normal beams) lies between a/d-
ratio of 1.45 to 1.78. Either side of this a/d ratio, behavior RC beams, in terms of load
resisting mechanism, failure pattern and the noise at failure, were entirely different.
6.3.2 Modes of Failure
All beam specimens failed in shear i.e. a sudden failure without warning, loud
noise at failure with the appearance of single shear crack in the shear span and fine
flexural cracks in the middle portion of the beam. The shear crack crosses the
compression zone of the beam. Figure 6.2 shows a typical crack patterns for RC beam
specimens of different a/d ratio.A typical shear failure of a beam of 300mm depth is
shown in Fig. 6.3. It can be seen that the shear crack went through aggregates
completely by splitting the beam in to two pieces.
219
Table 6.6 Test results of shear strength of RC beams for different shear span-to-
depth ratios
Nominal Shear Stress of R. C. Beams
Sr. No. Longitudinal tension steel a/d ratio Nominal shear stress
(MPa)
1 0.80 1.10 2.62
2 0.80 1.23 2.00
3 0.80 1.45 1.60
4 0.80 1.78 1.30
5 0.80 2.29 1.20
6 0.80 3.20 1.12
2.75
2.25
1.75
1
|
oo
1.25
O
0.75
•
0.25 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1
1.1 1.23 1.45 1.78 2.29 3.2
Shear span-to-depth ratio
Fig. 6.1 RC beams without transverse reinforcement - Influence of shear

span-to-depth ratio
220
Fig. 6.2 Typical crack patterns for RC beam specimens of different a/d ratio
221
Fig. 63 RC beam without transverse reinforcement - Shear crack
surface in a beam of 300mm denth
63.3 Influence of the Amount of Longitudinal Tension Reinforcement

Current Indian Code, IS 456-2000, in addition to other parameters, postulates
that the failure shear strength does not increase if the amount of longitudinal
reinforcement is higher than 3% for M40 and above grades of concrete. The
longitudinal percent tension steel affects the amount of longitudinal strain and thereby
affects crack width, interface shear transfer, dowel action, and thus the shear strength.
Thus, for the same magnitude of loading, as the percent longitudinal tension
reinforcement decreases, flexural stresses and strains increase. Thus, crack width
increases and the shear strength lowers. The influence of longitudinal reinforcement is
accounted for in most major codes but in different ways.
Table 6.7 presents the measured serviceability strength (first crack load) and the
ultimate strength (failure load) of the transfer beams in this experimental program for
222
varying percentage of longitudinal tension steel and constant compressive strength of
concrete of 43 MPa. All beam specimens did not contain shear reinforcement. The only
parameter which varied for all beams was the percentage of longitudinal reinforcement.
Their failure shear strengths were 60 kN, 75 kN, and 90 kN respectively for 0.28, 0.42
and 0.60 percent. There was a significant increase in the shear strength as the percent
longitudinal tension steel. The trend line and its equation is represented in Fig. 6.4 by a
dashed black line in the graph.
Table 6.7 Observations of the experiments on RC transfer beams without web

reinforcement
SHEAR CAPACITY OF TRANSFER BEAMS WITH LONGITUDINAL
TESNION STEEL
Sr. Longitudinal tension steel a/d Load at Mode of

No. ratio failure
No.of bars& Steel (%) First crack Failure

Bar dia. (mm) (kN) (kN)
1. 2-8$ 0.28 1.10 27 60 Flexure
2. 2-10$ 0.42 1.10 37 75 Flexure- shear
3. 2-12$ 0.60 1.10 44 90 Shear
The relationship between the failure shear strength and first crack load is
highlighted. The failure shear strength is about twice of the load at first crack load.
Here, serviceability strength is defined as the load corresponding to the first crack
developed due to tensile strength exceeded by the flexural tensile stresses generated by
bending moment in a beam.
223
Figure 6.5(a) shows the actual failure pattern of three transfer beams. It shows
that the shear span-to-depth ratio is not only an influencing parameter of shear strength
and failure pattern. Moreover, percent longitudinal tension steel is also a significantly
influencing parameter. It reveals that flexure mode of failure at low percent
longitudinal tension steel is transformed into flexure-shear failure and subsequently into
undesirable sudden mode of shear failure as the percent longitudinal tension steel has
increased.
Fig. 6.4 Beam specimens without web reinforcement. Influence of the

longitudinal tension steel
224
Fig. 6.5 Transfer beams without web reinforcement. Influence of percent
longitudinal tension reinforcement on shear strength ofconcrete.
225
6.3.4 Transfer Beam Specimens with Distributed Longitudinal Reinforcement
During the third phase of the experimental campaign, it was decided to generate
the shear capacity of the transfer beams by providing longitudinal bars distributed along
the web in addition to longitudinal tension steel placed at the bottom. Here, such
distributed longitudinal reinforcement is henceforth referred to as horizontal web
reinforcement. Few transfer beam specimens were designed for this purpose based on
the earlier tests carried out in this program. The failure mechanisms were considerably
different for beams with distributed longitudinal reinforcement when compared with
similar beams without any kind of such web reinforcement. The failure shear strength
was significantly higher due to restricting crack width thereby increase in the interface
shear transfer.
Table 6.8 presents the measured serviceability loads, ultimate strength, and
observed mode of failure of RC transfer beams. The longitudinal steel was provided in
three layers above the main tension steel at @ 60 mm c/c , covering about 50 % of the
total depth of beam. Only percentage of longitudinal steel was varied, keeping all other
parameter constant. The compressive strength of concrete of for all beam specimens
was 43 MPa.
There is a remarkable enhancement in the shear strength as the percentage of

longitudinal steel increases up to 1.8 % and its placement across the depth of beam in
layers (Fig. 6.6), but between 1.80 to 2.40 %, the increase in the shear capacity is not
significant. Thus, longitudinal steel of 1.80 % and its placement, from bottom of about
50 % of the total depth, seems to be the ideal (economical) limit for maximum
percentage of longitudinal steel for shear enhancement in transfer beams having a/d-
ratio of 1.00. Thus, longitudinal steel bars its percentage and placing it in layers up to
50 % of the total depth become intrinsically linked to resist the shear force along with
the inherent concrete resistance to shear.
Figure 6.7 shows the crack pattern at failure for all four beams together. Those
cracks which are believed to be the principal cause of the immediate failure of the beam
specimens were marked. All beams failed suddenly after the formation of the first shear
crack. Failure was especially brisk for the beam with the highest percentage of
longitudinal steel.
226
Table 6.8 Test results of RC transfer beams without web reinforcement with
horizontal web reinforcements
SHEAR CAPACITY OF TRANSFER BEAMS WITH DISTRIBUTED

LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT
Sr. Longitudinal steel a/d Load at Mode of

No. ratio failure
No. & Bar Steel First crack Failure

dia. (mm) (%) (kN) (kN)
1 2-12$ 0.60 1.10 45 90 Shear
2 4-12$ 1.21 1.10 65 140 Shear
3 6-12$ 1.80 1.10 80 165 Shear
4 8-12$ 2.40 1.10 90 185 Shear
Fig. 6.6 Transfer beams without web reinforcement. Influence of percent

longitudinal tension reinforcement on shear strength of concrete
227
Fig. 6.7 Transfer beams without web reinforcement - Influence of percent
longitudinal tension reinforcement on shear strength ofconcrete
228
6.3.5 Influence of the Concrete Compressive Strength
Table 6.9 shows the failure shear strength of RC transfer beams for four cube
compressive strengths and for four percentage of longitudinal steel. Specimens did not
contain shear reinforcement. The only parameter which varied for all beams was the
concrete mix. Longitudinal reinforcement was constant for each beam, whereas the
concrete compressive strength was varied from 32 MPa to 48 MPa. In Fig. 6.8, the
shear strengths of RC transfer beams are plotted versus their concrete cube strength. In
most cases the shear strength increases as the concrete strength increases. However
beyond 1.8% longitudinal steel, this increase is not significant for all concrete
compressive strengths.
All beams have failed in shear with loud noise at failure. However, more is the
compressive strength, higher was the noise at failure. This is the characteristic of brittle
failure.
Table 6.9 Test results of the experiments on RC transfer beams without web
reinforcement for different compressive strength of concrete
SHEAR CAPACITY OF TRANSFER BEAMS (kN)
Sr. Longitudinal steel a/d Cube compressive strength (MPa)

No. (%) ratio
32 37 43 48
1 0.60 1.10 77 82 90 98
2 1.20 1.10 125 133 140 147
3 1.80 1.10 147 158 165 172
4 2.40 1.10 162 170 185 191
229
pt = 0.60% pt=1.20%
250 pt- 1.80 pt = 2.40%
200
5 150
g
<D
100 -
Vi
50
-i 1 1 1
32 37 43 48
Compessive strength of concrete (MPa)
Fig 6.8 Transfer beam specimens without web reinforcement - Influence

of the concrete compressive strength
6.4 REINFORCED CONCRETE MEMBERS WITH SHEAR
REINFORCEMENT
In this section, RC transfer beams with shear reinforcement (transverse

reinforcement orstirrups) are discussed. The additional shear strength can be generated
with the help of stirrups when the shear capacity due to longitudinal steel was
exhausted. The amount of shear reinforcement was a primary variable during the test
design.
6.4.1 Influence of the Amount of Shear Reinforcement
The failure shear strength and modes of failure of five transfer beams are
indicated in Table 6.10, beam specimen-I did not contain any amount of shear
reinforcement, where as beam specimens II, III, IV, and V each had an amount of web
reinforcement of 0.80, 1.50, 2.68. and 5.00 percent respectively (Fig. 6.9). The
percentage of main tension steel (Longitudinal tension steel) of 0.60 percent and the
230
compressive strength ofconcrete of 43 MPa, was constant for all specimens.. Only the
amount of shear reinforcement was varied.
The failure shear strengths of beam-I, beam-II, beam-Ill, beam-IV, beam-V,
respectively were 90, 110, 125, 150, and 160 kN. A trend line and its equation is
presented by a dashed line in the Fig. 6.10. The addition of transverse steel improves
the shear response of the transfer beams by increasing the failure shear strength @ 77
% and a higher ductile response. The cracking pattern also changed. Beyond 2.68
percent transverse steel, the increase in shear capacity was not significant for this range
of beam specimens as failure occurs in concrete compression zone (Fig. 6.9). Thus, the
shear resistance of the members with shear reinforcement heavily depends on the
amount of shear reinforcement. However, in most of the major design codes, the shear
resistance is limited to avoid concrete web crushing. Beam-I failed in shear whereas
the failure of other all beams was observed in flexure-compression i.e. forming flexural
cracks and then the crushing ofconcrete between the load points.
Table 6.10 Test results of the experiments on RC transfer beams with varying
percentage of web reinforcement
SHEAR CAPACITY OF TRANSFER BEAMS
Sr. Long. a/d Provided shear reinf. Failure Mode of

No. tension ratio shear failure
steel Dia. Spacing Steel strength
(%) (mm) (mm) (%) (kN)
1 0.60 1.10 - - - 90 Shear
2 0.60 1.10 8 250 0.80 110 Flexure-comp.
3 0.60 1.10 8 200 1.50 125 Flexure-comp.
4 0.60 1.10 8 150 2.68 150 Flexure-comp.
5 0.60 1.10 8 100 5.00 160 Flexure
231
*
Fig. 6.9 Transfer beams with web reinforcement - Influence of percentage

of transverse steel
232
175 n
Beam- IV
Beam- III
Beam-V
Beam- II
y=18x + 73
u R' = 0.9878
0
o.
PS
u
u Beam-I
«
4=
1 1
Vj
50
25 c: :>
0.8 1.5 2.68
Transverse reinforcement (%)
Fig. 6.10 Transfer beam with web reinforcement. Influence of the amount
of shear reinforcement
6.4.2 Influence of the Amount of Longitudinal Tension Reinforcement

Table 6.11 shows the shear capacity of four RC transfer beams with constant
percentage of transverse steel of 2.68 % for different three percentages of longitudinal
tension steel. Beam-I did not contain any shear reinforcement, whereas, Beam-II,
Beam-Ill, and Beam-IV had constant 2% shear reinforcement. The longitudinal tension
reinforcement in Beam-I, Beam-II, Beam-Ill, and Beam-IV was 0.28, 0.28, 0.42, &
0.42 % respectively. The compressive strength ofconcrete of 43 MPa, was constant for
all specimens. The measured failures shear capacity, respectively, in all the beams
were, 60, 90,130&150kN.
Figure 6.11 plots ultimate shear capacity versus the percent longitudinal tension
steel. A trend line and its equation is represented in Fig.6.11 by a dashed black line in
the graph. The shear capacity had increased by increasing the percent longitudinal
tension reinforcement. From Beam-I to Beam-II, there was sudden jump (@ 50 % in
the shear capacity due to the presence of transverse steel, whereas, from Beam-II to
Beam-IV, the 67 % increase in the shear strength was observed due to increase in the
percent longitudinal tension steel.
233
Figure 6.11 presents the failure pattern for different percentage of longitudinal
steel. The mode of failure was highly influenced by increasing the percentage of
longitudinal steel.
Table 6.11 Test results of the of the experiments on RC transfer beams with web
reinforcement with varying percentage of longitudinal tension
reinforcement
SHEAR CAPACITY OF TRANSFER BEAMS
Sr. Shear a/d Longitudinal tension Failure Mode of failure

No. Steel (%) ratio reinforcement shear strength (kN)
(%)
1 -
1.10 0.28 60 Flexure
2 2.68 1.10 0.28 90 Flexure
3 2.68 1.10 0.42 131 Flexure
4 2.68 1.10 0.60 150 Flexure - comp.
175
Beam-IV —>
150
Beam-Ill
£ 125
| 100 y = 27.5x + 65
u
Beam-II R = 0.9758
« 75
6
JS
w 50
25 -
0.28 0.42 0.6

Longitudinal tension reinforcement (%)
Fig. 6.11 Transfer beams with web reinforcement - Influence of

percent longitudinal tension steel
234
Fig. 6.12 Transfer beamswith web reinforcement The failure pattern as
an influence of percent longitudinal tension steel.
235
6.4.3 Influence of the Distributed Longitudinal Reinforcement
The experimental observations of four RC transfer beams with constant
percentage of transverse steel of 2.68% and distributed longitudinal reinforcement in
four layers, thereby, covering 50 % of the total depth from bottom, is shown in the
Table 6.12 Beam-I had longitudinal bars of 2-12mm (0.60%) placed at 25mm from the
bottom, Beam-II had 4-12mm longitudinal bars (1.20%) placed at 85mm from the
bottom, Beam-Ill had 6-12mm longitudinal bars (1.80%) placed at 145mm from the
bottom, and Beam-IV had 8-12mm longitudinal bars (2.40%) placed at 205mm from
the bottom.
The failure shear capacity of Beam-I, Beam-II, Beam-Ill, and Beam-IV,
respectively, were 150, 222, 260, and 290 kN. The shear capacity had increased
significantly by providing the bars across the depth of cross section.
Figure 6.13 plots the percent longitudinally distributed reinforcement versus the
failure load for RC transfer beams with and without transverse shear reinforcement.
Fig. 6.14 shows the failure pattern. All beams had failed in flexure-compression mode
of failure. The flexure-compression mode of failure is also a sudden mode of failure
having loud noise at failure. However, this mode of failure is little better than the shear
mode of failure i.e. failure occurs with heavy noise at failure and beam, generally, splits
in to two pieces in case of shear failure. But, in flexure-compression mode of failure,
beam did not split in to two pieces.
236
Table 6.12 Test results ofthe ofthe experiments on RC transfer beams with web
reinforcement with varying percentage of longitudinal n
reinforcement
SHEAR CAPACITY OF TRANSFER BEAMS WITH DISTRIBUTED

LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT
Failure
Sr. Shear a/d Provided Shear strength (kN)

longitudinal Observed
No. Steel ratio
reinforcement Mode of
(%)
Without With failure
(%)
stirrups stirrups
1.10 0.60 90 150 Flexure-comp

1 2.68
2.68 1.10 1.20 140 222 Flexure-comp

2
2.68 1.10 1.80 165 260 Flexure-comp

3
2.68 1.10 2.40 185 290 Flexure-comp

4
Beams without web reinforcement

350
Beams with web reinforcement
300 -\
250
200
a
a
w
u
150
a
JS 100
Vj
50
0
0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4
Longitudinal distributed reinforcement (%)
Fig. 6.13 Transfer beams with web reinforcement Influence of percent

longitudinal distributed reinforcement
237
*1«
400
: i
• 4
-•I 100 |<-
400
• «
1
J _*| 100 |*_
T
400
1
-X\ ioo |«_
FT
T
400
1_^| 100 |^_

All dimensions in mm
Fig. 6.14 Transfer beams with web reinforcement. Cracking pattern for
longitudinal distributed reinforcement
238
6.4.4 RC Transfer Beams with Orthogonal Reinforcement
Table 6.13 presents the total ultimate shear capacity of three RC transfer beams
with orthogonal web reinforcement. In orthogonal web reinforcement, the longitudinal
reinforcement was placed at the equally lager spacing covering whole depth of the
cross section and the transverse reinforcement at about 150 mm c/c. Beam -1 had 8 -8$
longitudinal bars placed at 80mm c/c (1.10% steel). Beam - II had 8 -10$ longitudinal
bars placed at 80mm c/c (1.80% steel). Beam - III had 8-12$ longitudinal bars placed
at 80mm c/c (2.40 % steel). The transverse steel of 2.68 % and concrete compressive
strength of 43 MPa was kept constant in all the three beams to study the influence of
longitudinal bars placed at larger spacing.
Figure 6.15 shows the cracking pattern for all the three beams. Beam-I and
Beam-II shows quite ductile behavior than Beam-III.However, there is not much
increase in the shear capacity in comparison with the longitudinal bars distributed at
smaller spacing . However, the desired mode of ductile failure can be achieved through
such orthogonal web reinforcement. Figure 6.16 shows typical crack pattern for transfer
beam with orthogonal web reinforcement.
Table 6.13 Observations of the experiments on RC transfer beams with web

reinforcement
SHEAR CAPACITY OF TRANSFER BEAMS WITH ORTHOGONAL WEB

REINFORCEMENT
Sr. Longitudinal reinforcement Transverse Failure Mode of

No. reinforcement load failure
(kN)
No.& Spacing Steel Bar dia. / Steel
Bar (mm) (%) Spacing (%)
dia.(mm) (mm)
1 8-8$ 80 1.10 8$@150 2.68 255 Flexure
2 8-10$ 80 1.80 8$@150 2.68 280 Flexure
3 8-12$ 80 2.40 8$@150 2.68 315 Comp.
239
Beam-I
AH:8-8$@80mmc/c
Av:8$@150mBea
Beam- n
AH: 8-10 $@ 80mm
Av:8$<2>, 150mm
Beam-111 D = 400mm
Ah : 8-12$ @ 80mm c/c a/d=1.10
Av:8$@150mmc/c
Fig. 6.15 Transfer beam with web reinforcement - Influence of amount

of orthogonal web reinforcement
240
J_l
'7=?- X o
©
T I
T
s
100
P^4
Concrete: Steel :Fe415

: 8-8$ TMT bar
Cement : 400 kg/m3 fy : 447 MPa
W/C :0.32 Shear span : 400 mm,
Comp. strength : 43 MPa a/d : 1.10
? 400 - 315
280
£ 300 - 255
| 200- • • 1
*
1
Vi
100 i
0- 1 1 i 1
1.1 1.8 2.4
Longitudinal reinforcement (%)
Fig. 6.16 Transfer beam with web reinforcement Influence of amount of

orthogonal web reinforcement.
241
6.4.5 Influence of Shear Span-to-Depth (a/d) Ratio
Table 6.14 shows the shear capacity of transfer beams for four different shear
span-to-depth ratios. The longitudinal and transverse reinforcements, respectively, were
0.60 and 2.68 percent for all beams. The compressive strength of 43 MPa was constant
for all beam specimens.
In Fig. 6.17, shear strengths are plotted versus shear span-to-depth ratios, a/d (or
moment -shear ratios). The shear strengths do not vary much with a/d ratio but almost
remains constant. The a/d ratio does not seem to have a significant influence on the
shear strength of RC members with shear reinforcement. However, the undesirable

mode of shear failure had been successfully transformed in to the non-shear mode of
failure in comparisons with the shear strength of RC members without shear

reinforcement. Moreover, the enhancement of shear strength was quite significant for
the same group of the RC members without shear reinforcement.
Table 6.14 Test results of the experiment on RC beams with shear

reinforcement for different shear span-to-depth ratio
SHEAR CAPACITY OF TRANSFER BEAMS FOR DIFFERENT

SHEAR-SPAN-TO-DEPTH RATIO
Sr. Longitudinal Transverse a/d Failure load Mode of failure

No. steel steel ratio
(%) (%) (kN)
1 0.60 2.68 1.10 150 Flexure-compression
242
Fig. 6.17 Transfer beams with web reinforcement - Influence of shear span-
to-depth ratio
^
The results of the present experimental investigation has been analyzed and
discussed in detail to fulfill the objectives of the present investigation. All the test
results have been presented inthe form ofTables, Graphs and Plates.
It has been observed that the a/d-ratio is a significant influencing parameter of
the shear strength of concrete for beams without web reinforcement. Beams without
web reinforcement presented a very fragile behavior. The failure shear strength
generally increased as the depth of beam increased. Beam specimens with
longitudinally-distributed reinforcement and without web reinforcement, the failure
243
shear strength generally increased as the number of layers increased, although, their
failure was fragile.
Beams with web reinforcement presented a less fragile response. The shear
capacity was increased substantially. Moreover, the undesirable shear mode of failure
was transformed in to the non-shear mode of failure. The orthogonal web reinforcement
improved the behavior compared with similar beams with smaller spacing of
longitudinal rebars.Moerover; the a/d ratio does not seem to have a significant
influence on the shear strength of RC members with shear reinforcement. However, the
undesirable mode of shear failure had been successfully transformed in to the non-shear
mode of failure in comparisons with the shear strength of RC members without shear
reinforcement. Moreover, the enhancement of shear strength was quite significant for
the same group of the RC members without shear reinforcement.

The major conclusions drawn from this investigation are presented in detail in
Chapter 8.
244
CHAPTER 7
PROPOSAL FOR A NEW SIMPLIFIED SHEAR

CAPACITY EXPRESSIONS
7.1 GENERAL
The study of structural performance of beams of different depths failing in shear
has been presented in detail in the previous chapter, with special attention to Transfer
(deep) beams. The aspect such as the dependence of the size effect on the shear strength
of concrete, particularly, not covered by the fourth revision of the current Indian
Standards IS: 456-2000 has been highlighted. In this chapter, new empirical
expressions for estimating the shear capacity of transfer and normal beams
incorporating variables such as compressive strength of concrete, percentage of
longitudinal and vertical steel/s, depth of beam in terms of shear span-to-depth ratio,
based on the observed behavior is proposed and an effort is made to keep it simple
enough to make it suitable for implementation in a code of practice. These empirical
expressions will hence forth be referred to as proposed expression/s for shear capacity.
In addition, the comparison of the predicted values from the IS 456 Code, the Euro
code 2 Code, the BS 8110 Code, the ACI Building Code and the current CIRIA Gide-2
has been presented.
7.2 BEAMS WITHOUT WEB REINFORCEMENT
7.2.1 Summary of the Observed Behavior
The main conclusions drawn from the observed behavior of beams failing in
shear that forms the basis for our proposal for new simplified shear capacity
expressions are:
(1) The IS Code procedure depends on the grade ofconcrete and percentage
of longitudinal tension steel only and the shear strength values are
245
significantly changes with the percent longitudinal tension steel and
marginally with the grade of concrete. The Code values are very
conservative as compared to BS, ACI, and Eurocode EC-2.
(2) The BS code and the Eurocode2 considered the size effect, particularly
the depth of beam as a significant influencing parameter of shear
strength whereas the ACI Code specifications takes the bending
moment in to account to calculate the shear strength of concrete along
with the grade of concrete, percentage of tension steel, ultimate shear

force
(3) The shear span-to-depth ratio, a/d, influences the failure shear strength
even for beams with a/d- ratio greater than 1.8.
7.2.2 A New Simplified Shear Strength Expression for Normal Beams

The values of design shear strength of concrete given in IS 456-2000 Code
(Table 19) are based on the empirical equation. The empirical expression, which forms >
the basis for the current Code, does not include the size effect factor, and probably too
complex to be implemented in the practice. As a result the shear strength of concrete
seems to be independent of the depth of the beam. For this reason, a new but simplified
shear strength empirical expression incorporating variables such as compressive
strength of concrete, percentage of longitudinal and vertical steel/s, depth of beam in
terms of shear span-to-depth ratio, based on the observed behavior, is proposed for RC -4
beams without shear reinforcement. The equation proposed is, directly derived from the
analyses carried out in chapter 6.
The proposed empirical expression for estimating the shear strength of normal
beams (shear span-to-depth ratio > 1.8) is as follows:
re=
0.22
Yn
:.yj0W7k+0A6(pl)^y (7.1)
where
xc = shear strength ofconcrete in MPa
246
ymc = partial material safety factor for concrete of 1.5
fck = cube compressive strength of concrete (MPa)
pt = percentage longitudinal tension steel (100 As / b d)

d = effective depth (mm)
a = shear span = 400mm
Equation 7.1 does not take the concrete safety factor into account. If we factor it
in, the resulting equation is:
d \]
T = 0ASj0Mf*+0A6(p,)\ — |4 (7.2)
7.2.3 Verification of the Proposed Expression Using the Experimental Database
In order to compare the proposed expression with the code procedures, four
major design methods namely, (i) IS 456: 2000, (ii) Eurocode 2: 2002 (EC-2), (iii) BS
8110: 1997 and (iv) ACI 318 - 2002 (Eq. 11.5) (v) ACI 318 - 2002 (Eq. 11.3) are
used. The experimental work, for normal beams (a/d >1.8) was carried for three depths
viz. 150, 200, and 150 mm resulting three shear span-to-depth ratios of 3.20, 2.29, and
1.78 respectively and for various percentages of longitudinal steel and constant
compressive strength of concrete of 43 MPa. Therefore, only three a/d-ratios are
selected for these computations.
(a) Influence of the shear span-to-depth ratio (a/d ratio)
The influence of shear span-to-depth ratio in terms of depth of beam is
presented and discussed .Table 7.1 (A) to Table 7.1 (E) compares the predicted values
of the shear strength of five design methods with the proposed expression for normal
reinforced concrete beams without web reinforcement, for three shear span-to-depth
ratios and varying percentage of longitudinal tension reinforcement and of constant
compressive strength. Figure. 7.1 (a) to Fig. 7.1 (f) plots the shear stress variation with
the shear span-to-depth ratio, for normal beams and varying percentage of main tension
steel.
247
Table 7.1 (A) Shear strength of concrete without shear reinforcement for normal
beams for (fck = 43MPa)
Longitudinal tension steel (%): 0.50

Shear stress (MPa) Shear strength ratio
a/d ratio Vac. vw

VEQ. Vtcs. VW VW VW
Vac.
VT«, VIS VeC-2 Vbs VEQ
11.5 11.3 E,7.2 /V,s VeC2 Vbs
11.5 11.3
1.78 1.22 0.51 0.62 0.65 0.96 0.94 0.95 2.40 1.98 1.88 1.27 1.30 1.28
2.29 1.15 0.51 0.65 0.70 0.95 0.94 0.94 2.25 1.80 1.64 1.21 1.22 1.22
3.20 1.12 0.51 0.65 0.75 0.94 0.94 0.94 2.20 1.72 1.49 1.19 1.20 1.19
—•— Test value

Long, tension steel : 0.50 %
1.5 i
-*-IS
^ÊC2
1.25 -
' • —• _
~ — 9)
'a -x-BS
S i -
11 0.75 -
-*-ACI-11.5
M
•**
Vi
-•— Proposed
S 0.5- Eq.7.2
JS
Vj
0.25 -
u • • • • •
1.78 2.29 3.2
Fig. 7.1(a) Shear strength of normal beams without shear

reinforcement - Influence of shear span-to-depth ratio
248
Table 7.1(B) Shear strength of concrete without shear reinforcement for normal
beams for (fCk = 43MPa)

a/d ratio Vac. vw

VEQ. Vtcs. VW VW vw
VT«. V,s Vec-z Vbs Vac.
Eq7.2 /VIS VEC2 VBs Veq
11.5 11.3
11.5 11.3
1.78 1.60 0.68 0.78 0.83 1.00 0.94 1.02 2.35 2.00 1.93 1.60 1.70 1.57
2.29 1.50 0.68 0.83 0.88 0.98 0.94 1.01 2.21 1.81 1.70 1.53 1.60 1.49
3.20 1.42 0.68 0.83 0.95 0.96 0.94 1.00 2.10 1.71 1.50 1.48 1.51 1.42
Test value
Longitudinal tension steel: 1.00%
1.8 IS
1.6
EC-2
« 1.4
BS
1.2
Vi
Vi
1 ACI-11.5
Vi
u 0.8
OS
ACI-11.3
-a 0.6
Vj
0.4
Proposed
Eq.7.2
0.2
1.78 2.29 3.2
Fig. 7.1(b) Shear strength of normal beams without shear

249
Table 7.1(C) Shear strength of concrete without shear reinforcement for normal

Longitudinal tension steel (%): 1.5()
Vac. Vies,/
a/d ratio
VEQ. Vtcs, vw vw vw
Vac
VTc« V,s VeC-2 VBS
Eq7.2 /V1S VeC2 Vbs Veq
11.5 11.3
11.5 11.3
0.89 0.95 1.06 0.94 1.09 2.34 2.10 1.95 1.75 1.97 1.70
1.78 1.85 0.79
0.94 1.01 1.02 0.94 1.08 2.18 1.83 1.70 1.69 1.83 1.59
2.29 1.72 0.79
3.20 1.65 0.79 0.94 1.08 0.99 0.94 1.06 2.10 1.76 1.53 1.67 1.76 1.57
Table 7.1(D) Shear strength of concrete without shear reinforcement for normal
Vac. vw
a/d ratio
Veq. VT.s. VW VW Vtcs,/
Vac.
VT«. V,s VeC-2 Vbs
11.5 11.3 Eq7.2 /V,s VEC2 VBs Veq
11.5 11.3
1.78 2.15 0.88 0.98 1.04 1.10 0.94 1.16 2.44 2.19 2.10 1.95 2.30 1.85
2.29 1.92 0.88 1.03 1.11 1.06 0.94 1.14 2.18 1.86 1.73 1.81 2.00 1.68
3.20 1.85 0.88 1.03 1.19 1.01 0.94 1.12 2.10 1.80 1.55 1.83 1.97 1.65
250
Table 7.1(E) Shear strength of concrete without shear reinforcement for normal

vAC1 vw
a/d ratio
Veq. Vtcs, Vtcs/ vw Vtcs/
Vac
VTcs, V,s Vec-2 VBS
11.5 11.3 Eq7.2 /V,s VEC2 Vbs VEq
11.5 11.3
1.78 2.45 0.95 0.98 1.12 1.15 0.94 1.23 2.58 2.50 2.19 2.13 2.61 1.99
2.29 2.20 0.95 1.03 1.17 1.09 0.94 1.21 2.31 2.13 1.88 2.02 2.34 1.82
3.20 2.10 0.95 1.03 1.25 1.04 0.94 1.18 2.21 2.00 1.68 2.02 2.23 1.80
Test value
Long, tensionsteel: l .50%
IS
EC-2
1? 1.5 -
BS
w 1
i i ACI-ll.5
ACI-ll.3
A
VI
0.5
Proposed
Eq.7.2
1.78 2.29 3.2
Fig. 7.1(c) Shear strength of normal beams without shear

251
Longitudinal tension steeel: 2.00% Test value
2.3
IS
2.1
n
1.9 EC-2
1.7
Vi
Vi
1.5 BS
9>
bVi 1.3
u 1.1 ACI-11.5
M
 0.7 ACI-11.3
0.5
0.3 Proposed
0.1 ~i 1 Eq.7.2
1.78 2.29 3.2
Fig. 7.1(d) Shear strength of normal beams without shear

reinforcement - Influence of shear span-to-depth
Long, tension steel: 0.50%

1.5 i
Test
Oh
value
n
Si
Proposed
Eq.7.2
Vi
« 0.5
xa
Vi
n 1 1
1.78 2.29 3.2
Fig. 7.1(e) Shear strength of normal beams without

shear reinforcement - Influence of shear
span-to-depth ratio
252
Long, tension steel: 2.00%
-•— Test value
2.5
N -X- Proposed
2 Eq.7.2
8 1.5 -
! x- -X- -X
:M
0
VI
0.5
1.78 2.29 3.2

Shear span-depth ratio
Fig. 7.1(f) Shear strength of normal beams

without shear reinforcement- Influence
of shear span-to-depth ratio
(b) Effect of longitudinal tension steel (%)
Table 7.2 (A) to Table ( C ) compare the predicted values of the shear strength
of five design methods with the proposed expression for normal reinforced concrete
beams, without web reinforcement, for three different depths and varying percentage of
longitudinal tension reinforcement. Figure. 7.2 (a) to Fig. 7.1 (c) plots the shear stress
variation with the percentage of main tension steel.
253
Table 7.2 (A) Shear strength of concrete without shear reinforcement for normal
Effect of longitudinal tension steel
Depth of beam (D): 150 mm [ a / d = 3.20]

Main
Vac
tension Vtcs/
steel Veq. Vtcs, Vtcs/ Vtcs/ Vac. Vtcs/
Vtcs, V,s Vec-2 VBs
(%) 11.5 11.3 Eq.7.2 /V,s VeC2 Vbs VEq
11.5 11.3
0.50 1.12 0.51 0.65 0.75 0.94 0.94 0.94 2.20 1.72 1.50 1.20 1.20 1.19
1.00 1.42 0.68 0.83 0.95 0.96 0.94 1.00 2.10 1.71 1.50 1.48 1.51 1.42
1.50 1.65 0.79 0.94 1.08 0.99 0.94 1.06 2.10 1.75 1.53 1.67 1.76 1.57
2.0. 1.85 0.88 1.03 1.19 1.01 0.94 1.12 2.10 1.80 1.55 1.83 1.97 1.65
2.50 2.10 0.95 1.03 1.25 1.04 0.94 1.18 2.20 2.00 1.70 2.00 2.23 1.80
3.00 2.36 1.01 1.03 1.36 1.07 0.94 1.24 2.35 2.30 1.74 2.21 2.51 1.90
Table 7.2 (B) Shear strength of concrete without shear reinforcement for normal
Depth of beam (D): 200 mm [ a / d = 2.29 ]

Main
Vac
tension Vtcs/
Veq. Vtcs, Vtcs/ Vtcs/ VTcs/
steel Vtcs, V,s Vec-2 Vbs Vac
(%) 11.5 11.3 Eq.7.2 /V,s VEC2 Vbs Veq

11.5 11.3
0.50 1.15 0.51 0.65 0.70 0.95 0.94 0.94 2.25 1.77 1.64 1.21 1.22 1.22
1.00 1.50 0.68 0.83 0.88 0.98 0.94 1.01 2.21 1.81 1.70 1.53 1.60 1.50
1.50 1.72 0.79 0.94 1.01 1.02 0.94 1.08 2.18 1.83 1.70 1.70 1.83 1.60
2.0. 1.92 0.88 1.03 1.11 1.06 0.94 1.14 2.18 1.86 1.73 1.81 2.00 1.68
2.50 2.20 0.95 1.03 1.17 1.09 0.94 1.21 2.32 2.13 1.88 2.00 2.34 1.80
3.00 2.45 1.01 1.03 1.27 1.13 0.94 1.27 2.43 2.38 1.93 2.20 2.61 1.92
254
Table 7.2 (C) Strength of concrete without shear reinforcement for normal
Depth of beam (D) : 250 mm [a/d =1.78]

Main
tension
steel Vac vw
VEQ. Vtcs, Vtcs/ Vtcs/ VW
(%) Vtcs, V,s Vec-2 VBs Vac
11.5 11.3 E„.7.2 /V1S VEC2 Vbs Veq
11.5 11.3
0.50 1.22 0.51 0.62 0.65 0.96 0.94 0.95 2.40 1.98 1.88 1.27 1.30 1.28
1.00 1.60 0.68 0.78 0.83 1.00 0.94 1.02 2.35 2.00 1.93 1.60 1.70 1.57
1.50 1.85 0.79 0.89 0.95 1.06 0.94 1.09 2.34 2.10 1.95 1.75 1.97 1.70
2.0. 2.15 0.88 0.98 1.04 1.10 0.94 1.16 2.44 2.20 2.10 1.95 2.29 1.85
2.50 2.45 0.95 0.98 1.12 1.15 0.94 1.23 2.60 2.50 2.20 2.13 2.61 1.99
3.00 2.72 1.01 0.98 1.19 1.20 0.94 1.30 2.70 2.81 2.29 2.27 2.89 2.00
2.5 i Test
Depth (D): 150
value
IS
EC-2
1.5 BS
Vi
I ACI-
Vi
u 11.5
ACI-
.c
Vi 11.3
0.5 Proposed
Eq.7.2
"i r 1 1 r
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Longitudinal tension steel (%)
Fig. 7.2(a) Shear strength of normal beams without shear reinforcement.

- Influence of percent longitudinal steel
255
Depth (D): 200 mm Test value
2.5 IS
Cm 2 - ^r-EC-2
-*-BS
1 1.5
M
i.
-*- ACI-11.5
I
BO
1 -•-ACI-11.3
0.5 -•— Proposed

Eq.7.2
-i 1 i r
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Fig. 7.2(b) Shear strength of normal beams without shear reinforcement.

3 i -•— Test value

Depth (D): 250 mm
-ÎS
2.5
es -*-EC-2
-m-BS
I 1-5 1
Vi •*- ACI-11.5
U
« 1
* - ACI-11.3
GO
0.5 -•— Proposed

Eq.7.2
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Fig. 7.2(c) Shear strength of normal beams without shear reinforcement

256
(c) Effect of compressive strength of concrete
Table 7.3 compares the predicted values of the shear strength of five design
methods with the proposed expression for normal reinforced concrete beams, without
web reinforcement, for four grades of concrete and varying percentage of longitudinal
tension reinforcement. Figure. 7.3 (a) to Fig. 7.3 (f) plots the shear stress variation with
the percentage of main tension steel
Table 7.3 Shear strength of concrete without shear reinforcement for normal
beams
Depth of Beam = 150 mm
Long. Concrete Grade

Sr.
tension Name of the Code
No M20 M25 M30 M35 M40
steel (%)
1 IS 456 0.48 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.51
2 Eurocode-2 0.53 0.55 0.59 0.62 0.65
3 BS8110 0.59 0.65 0.68 0.72 0.75
0.50
4 ACI 318 (Eq. 11.5) 0.66 0.75 0.80 0.88 0.94
5 ACI 318 (Eq. 11.3) 0.67 0.75 0.82 0.88 0.94
6 Proposed Eq. 7.2 0.66 0.73 0.79 0.85 0.90
7 IS 456 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.67 0.68

8 Eurocode-2 0.68 0.70 0.75 0.79 0.83
9 BS8110 0.75 0.82 0.86 0.91 0.95
1.00
10 ACI318 (Eq. 11.5) 0.69 0.77 0.83 0.90 0.96
11 ACI318 (Eq. 11.3) 0.67 0.75 0.82 0.88 0.94
12 Proposed Eq. 7.2 0.72 0.79 0.85 0.91 0.97
13 IS 456 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.78 0.79

14 Eurocode-2 0.76 0.80 0.85 0.89 0.94
15 BS8110 0.85 0.93 0.98 1.04 1.08
16 1.50 ACI 318 (Eq. 11.5) 0.72 0.80 0.85 0.92 0.99
17 ACI318 (Eq. 11.3) 0.67 0.75 0.82 0.88 0.94
18 Proposed Eq. 7.2 0.78 0.85 0.91 0.97 1.03
19 IS 456 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88

20 Eurocode-2 0.85 0.88 0.94 0.99 1.03
21 BS8110 0.94 1.02 1.08 1.14 1.19
2.00
22 ACI 318 (Eq. 11.5) 0.74 0.82 0.88 0.95 1.01
23 ACI 318 (Eq. 11.3) 0.67 0.75 0.82 0.88 0.94
24 Proposed Eq. 7.2 0.84 0.91 0.97 1.03 1.09
257
pt = 0.50%
? 0.75 -
pt=1.00%
I 0.5
CO
pt= 1.50%
S3 0.25 •pt=2.00%
20 25 30 35 40
Compressive strength (MPa)
(a) IS Code: Shear strengthprediction
pt = 0.50%
pt=1.00%
pt=1.50%
0.75
3 pt = 2.00%
I
S3
o} 0.5
VI
0.25 -i 1 1 r
20 25 30 35 40
(b) EuroCode-2 Code: Shear strength predictions
258
1.25 pt = 0.50%
pt=1.00%
pt= 1.50%
8 0.75
I pt = 2.00%
Vi
I
JB
0.5
Vi
0.25 -i 1 1 r
20 25 30 35 40
(c) BS Code: Shear strengthprediction
1.1 pt = 0.50%
<s
pt= 1.00%
e o.9 -I pt= 1.50%

Vi
I
on
pt = 2.00%
J 0.7
CO
0.5 -i—i—i
20 25 30 35 40
Conpressive strength(MPa)
(d) ACI-11.5: Shear strength prediction
259
(e) ACI-11.3: Shear strength prediction
1.5 - pt=0.50%
1.25 -
pt=1.00%
1?
pt= 1.50%
1
CO
1 -
pt = 2.00%
to
0.75 -
13 0.5 -
v> 0.25 -
-i 1 r
20 25 30 35 40
Compressive strength(MPa)
(f) Proposed Eq.: Shear strength prediction
Fig. 7.3 Normal beams without web reinforcement - Effect of compressive

strength of concrete on shear strength predictions
260
7.3 THE PROPOSED SHEAR CAPACITY EXPRESSION FOR
TRANSFER BEAMS
7.3.1 The Necessity of the Proposed Formula

From the exhaustive review of the literature, it is observed that:
1. The existing shear strength predictions for finding shear capacity of transfer
beams are based on the experimental work done in early seventy's.
2. The design of transfer beams is still a subject that has no clear treatment in the
major design codes such as Eurocode EC2 or BS 8110 (1997). The Eurocode
A
EC2 only provides the detailing rules in Clause 5.4.5. However, the actual
design is not clearly stated in the code.
3. There is no design equation given in the currently revised IS 456-2000.

4. The CIRIA Guide-2 tends to overestimate the shear strength. The equation,
therefore, in need of revision to extend its usefulness.
5. Among the three national codes, the ACI Code's strength predictions are the
most conservative, particularly the shear strength contribution of horizontal web
reinforcement.
6. The Canadian Code does not take into account the contribution from the web
reinforcement.
For these reasons, a new shear capacity expression based on the observed
behavior and based on the available experimental results is proposed, and an effort is
made to keep it simple enough to make it suitable for implementation in a code of
practice.
7.3.2 Shear Capacity of Transfer Beams
Shear capacity is defined as the maximum shear force that a critical section can
sustain. It is widely accepted that a main contributor to shear resistance in concrete is
aggregate interlock. The use of web reinforcement to carry shear force is necessary
when the concrete portion alone is unable to sustain the force. The presence of
sufficient web reinforcement can help to prevent the brittle failure in a transfer beam.
261
Moreover, design of transfer beam has to be handled very carefully, as failure of this
one member would normally lead to the failure of the entire tower above it with little
warning. Hence, a set of simple yet comprehensive shear design expression is required.
7.3.3 The Proposed Empirical Expression for Transfer Beams

The Proposed Four-term formula for shear capacity of Transfer Beam (Fig. 7.4)
is as follows:
V = Vc+Vms+Vwh+Vwv (7.3)
where,
^
V = Total shear capacity
Vc = The concrete contribution to shear strength
Vc=a, 1-0.30-
d)
Vms = The contribution of the main longitudinal tension steel to shear
1100A.dSin20, ^
strength. Vms = a2
D
VWh = The contribution of the horizontal web steel
Vwv = The contribution of the vertical web steel
'f}00A^Sin2^
Kh=<*2
D
Kv = a2
^lOO^SmV
M D
where,
f0.75 x 0.50x c,l

a,= = 0.35
< Ymc J
a2 =
7o.75xC2Y 1
= 2.71
_V Yms j 100
ai = empirical coefficient for concrete,
262
<x2 = empirical coefficient for reinforcing steel bars.
X Ci = empirical coefficient for concrete = 1.40 for normal weight concrete.
C2= empirical coefficient for deformed bars = 415MPa.
ymc= material safety factor for concrete =1.5
yms = material safety factor for steel =1.15
A typical web bar

intersecting to the
diagonal splitting
line (of area Ai)
Main tension reinforcement

(Area As)
Fig. 7.4 The meaning of the symbols in the proposed formula
7.3.4 Verification of the Proposed Empirical Expression for Transfer Beams

The proposed empirical expression is compared with the experimental test
results and with the three deigns methods namely; the ACI 318 design model, the
CIRIA Guide -2 and BS 8110.
(a) Effect of main longitudinal tension steel

Table 7.4 list the measured ultimate strength of transfer beams without
transverse reinforcement and its comparison with the design equations of ACI 318
263
code, CIRIA Guide2, BS 8110 Code, IS 456 Code, proposed equation and the
experimental value.
Figures 7.5 (a) through (f) and Fig. 7.6 show the effect of percent longitudinal
tension steel on the shear strength predictions of the ACI Code, the CIRIA Guide-2
Code, the BS Code, IS Code, the proposed empirical expression and the experimental
value.
Table 7.4 Shear strength of RC Transfer beams without transverse steel for fck
40MPa: Effect of percent longitudinal tension steel
Shear-span-to-depth (a/d) ratio = 1.10
Concrete Grade: M40
Main
tension Shear strength (kN) Shear strength ratio
steel
(%) Vac. VciRIA Vbs Vis Vtest VEQ. Vtest/ Vtest/ Vtest/ Vtest/ Vtest/
Eq.7.3 Vac. VciRIA Vbs Vis Veq
0.28 84 81 34 28 60 68 0.71 0.74 1.76 2.14 0.88
0.42 87 86 39 33 75 75 0.86 0.87 1.92 2.27 1.00
0.60 92 94 44 38 90 83 0.78 0.75 1.61 1.82 1.10
264
±
JO 70
Vi /u
0.28 0.42 0.6
0.28 0.42 0.6
Main tension steel (%) Mian tension steel (%)
(a) ACI Code: Shear strength prediction (b) CIRIA Guide-2 Code : Shear
strength prediction
60 -
!«- .—~—
13 20-
J
CO
u 1 1 1 1 1
0.28 0.42 0.6

0.28 0.42 0.6
Main tension steel (%) Main tension steel (%)
(c) BS Code: Shear strength prediction (d) IS Code: Shear strength prediction
100 -I
§, 80 " ^^-^
%60 -
U 40 -
hi
1 20-
0 - i i i i i
0.28 0.42 0.6 0.28 0.42 0.6

Main tension steel (%) Mian tension steel (%)
(e) Shear strength prediction by proposed (f) Experimental shear strength

expression
Fig. 7.5 Transfer beams without transverse steel. Effect of main tension steel
(%) on shear strength predictions
265
i- 120 i
f "*,
90 -
%
60 -
13
00 30 -
0.28 0.42
Main tension steel (%)
Fig. 7.6 Transfer beams without transverse steel. Effect of main tension steel (%)
on shear strength predictions
(b) Effect of horizontal web steel
code, CIRIA Guide2, BS 8110, IS 456 Code, proposed equation and the experimental
value.
The values of VTest / Vpredictions for transfer beams without any vertical web
reinforcement are plotted in Figs.7.7 (a) through (e) and Fig. 7.8.
266
-Ji
Table 7.5 Shear strength of RC Transfer beams without transverse steel for fck
40MPa : Effect of percent horizontal web steel
Hori Concrete Grade: M40
zontal
Shear strength (kN) Shear strength ratio
web
steel VEQ. Vtest/ Vtest/ Vtest/ Vtest/ Vtest/

VAC. VciRIA Vbs V,s Vtest
(%) Eq.7.3 Vaci VciRIA Vbs VIS Veq
0.60 92 94 44 38 90 83 0.98 0.96 2.00 2.37 1.10
1.20 110 110 55 51 140 106 1.27 1.27 2.55 2.75 1.32
1.80 110 125 64 59 165 124 1.50 1.32 2.58 2.80 1.33
2.40 110 137 70 65 185 138 1.68 1.35 2.64 2.85 1.34
267
110
100
90
V
-i 1 1 r-
80 —i 1 1 1 1 i i
0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4
0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4
Horizontal web steel (%)
Horizontal web steel (%)
(a) ACI Code: Shear strength prediction (b) CIRIA Guide-2 Code : Shear strength
prediction
75 -I
ft
e
50 -
25 -
s^~
0
Vi
u i i i i > i i
T 1 1 1 1 r
0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4

0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4
Horizontal web stee K%) Horizontal web steel
(c) BS Code: Shear strength prediction (d) is Code: Shear strength prediction
200 -
f -s
i, i5° • .
g
i
ioo- y^^
1 50 -
Vi
0 - i i i i i i i
0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4

Horizontal web steel (%) Horizontal web steel (%)

expression
Fig. 7.7 Transfer beams without transverse steel. Effect of horizontal web steel
(%)
268
-♦-ACI CIRIA
200 -*-BS IS
-*-TEST EQ.7.3
150 -
I 100 -
i
s
50 -
V
0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4

Horizontal web steel (%
Fig. 7.8 Transfer beams without transverse steel - Effect of

horizontal web steel (%) on shear strength predictions
(d) Effect of vertical web steel
code, CIRIA Guide2, the proposed equation, and the experimental value.
Figures 7.9 (a) through (d) and Fig. 7.10 show the effect of percentvertical web
steel on the shear strength predictions of the ACI Code, the CIRIA Guide-2 Code, BS
Code, the proposed empirical expression and the experimental value.
269
Table 7.6 Shear strength of RC Transfer beams with transverse steel - Effect of
vertical web steel
LONGITUDINAL TENSION STEEL(%) - 0.60
Vertical web steel Shear strength (kN) Shear strength ratio
Dia. Spacing Steel Vaci VciRIA Veq. Vtest Vtest/ Vtest/ Vtest/
(mm) (mm) (%) Eq. Vaci Vciria Veq

7.3
8 250 0.80 140 105 74 110 0.79 1.10 1.50
8 200 1.50 140 107 76 125 0.90 1.17 1.60
8 150 2.68 140 110 81 150 1.10 1.36 1.85
8 100 5.00 140 116 90 160 1.14 1.38 1.78
270
120 -.
| ^^^
ft ^-—+^
a
g 100 -
S3
u
JO,
Vi
OA
oU 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0.8 1.5 2.68 5

Vertical steel (%)
(a) ACI Code: Shear strength prediction b) CIRIA Guide-2 Code : Shear
strength prediction
200 -i
100 -I
S 75 -
I 150- ^^—^
ft ~~^ ft loo- ^^^
| 50 " c
8 25 -
1 50 -
c3
A
U 1 1 i I i 1 i
£ o- i i i i
0.8 1.5 2.68 5

0.8 1.5 2.68 5
Vertical steel (%) Vertical web steel (%)
(c) Shear strength prediction byproposed (d) Experimental shear strength

expression
Fig. 7.9 Transfer beams with transverse steel - Effect of vertical web steel (%)
on shear strength predictions
271
ACI CIRIA
200 i EQ.7.3 Test value
150
Ic
100 -
53
tV2
50
0 -i 1 i r -| 1 1
0.8 1.5 2.68
Vertical web steel (%
Fig. 7.10 Transfer beams with transverse steel - Effect of vertical

web steel (%) on shear strength predictions
Effect of compressive strength
code, CIRIA Guide2, BS 8110 , IS 456 Code , proposed equation and the experimental
value.
Figures 7.11 (a) through (f) and Fig. 7.12 show the effect of compressive
strength of concrete on the shear strength predictions of the ACI Code, the CIRIA
Guide-2 Code, the BS Code , IS Code, the proposed empirical expression and the
experimental value.
272
Table 7.7 Shear strength of RC Transfer beams without transverse steel - Effect
ofconcrete compressive strength
LONGITUDINAL TENSION STEEL(%) = 0.60
fc Shear strength (kN) Shear strength ratio
(MPa)
Vaci VciRIA Vbs V,s Vtest Veq. Vtest/ Vtest/ Vtest/ Vtest/ Vtest/
Eq.7.3 Vac. Vciria Vbs V,s Veq
32 82 84 37 38 77 77 0.94 0.92 1.99 2.00 1.00
37 87 89 41 38 82 80 0.94 0.92 2.02 2.18 1.02
43 92 94 41 38 90 84 0.98 0.96 2.10 2.34 1.10
48 97 98 41 38 98 88 1.01 1.00 2.25 2.55 1.11
273
(sStkrheNnag) v-iJo>
110 -I
o1
^
JU -1 T I " 1 • I •
32 37 43 48 32 37 43 48
Concrete comp. strength (MPa) Concrete comp. strength (MPa)
(a) ACI Code: Shear strength prediction (b) CIRIA Guide-2 Code: Shear strength
prediction
42 -I
|
sI trrength ""
ft
o
£
V)
IT
$2. i i i i i i ' i
32 37 43 48
Concrete compressive strength (MPa)
100 -I
1, 75 - ^^^-
^^^
1 25 -
A
\J 1 1 1 1 1 1 I
32 37 43 48 32 37 43 48
Concrete comp. strength (MPa) Concrete compressive strength (MPa)
(f) Shear strength prediction by proposed (e) Experimental shear strength

expression
Fig. 7.11 Transfer beams without transverse steel - Effect of compressive
274
Fig. 7.12 Transfer beams without transverse steel - Effect of compressive
(e) Effect of shear span-to-depth ratio

code, CIRIA Guide2, BS 8110, IS 456 Code, proposed equation and the experimental
value.
Figures 7.13 (a) through (e) show the effect of percent horizontal web steel on
the shear strength predictions of the ACI Code, the CIRIA Guide-2 Code, the BS Code,
IS Code , the proposed empirical expression and theexperimental value.
A
275
Table 7.8 Shear strength of RC Transfer beams without transverse steel - Effect
of shear span-to-depth ratio
Concrete Grade M40

f
LONGITUDINAL TENSION STEEL(%) = 0.60
a/d
ratio Shear strength (kN) Shear strength ratio
Vaci VciRIA Vbs V,s Vtest Veq. Vtest/ Vtest/ Vtest/ Vtest/ Vtest/
Eq.7.3 Vaci Vciria Vbs Vis Veq
1.10 92 94 44 38 90 83 0.98 0.96 2.00 2.36 1.10
1.23 90 82 33 29 60 74 0.67 0.73 1.82 2.10 0.81
1.45 88 72 24 21 40 64 0.44 0.56 1.67 1.90 0.63
1.78 86 53 18 14 30 52 0.34 0.57 1.67 2.14 0.58
276
^ 100 -
17sl
g
i
S3
50 -
25 -
^
y
vj o - i i i i i
-i 1 r
1.1 1.23 1.45 1.78
1.1 1.23 1.45 1.78
a/d ratio a/d ratio
(a) ACI Code: Shear strength prediction b) CIRIA Guide-2 Code: Shear strength
prediction
60 -I
S 40 -
f
c
1 20 -
CO
0 - i i i i i
1.1 1.23 1.45 1.78

a/d ratio
c, 100 -I
5 75 -
i 50"
S 25 -
43
C/3
0 - 1 1
-i—i 1—i 1—i 1 i
1.1 1.23 1.45 1.78

1.1 1.23 1.45 1.78
a/d ratio a/d ratio

expression
Fig. 7.13 Transfer beams without transverse steel - Effect of shear span-to-depth
ratio on shear strength predictions
277
With a view to achieving the mentioned objectives (Chapter 1), the extensive
and intensive analytical work was implemented. The results from the experiments have
been processed suitably to come out with empirical expressions for estimating the shear
capacity of beams incorporating variables such as compressive strength of concrete,
percentage of longitudinal and vertical steel/s, depth of beam in terms of shear span-to-
depth ratio. These empirical expressions are referred to as proposed expression/s for
shear capacity. Two separate empirical expressions for normal beams and transfer
beams are proposed for estimatingthe shear capacity of beams.
Further, the comparisons of shear design provisions of five National codes viz.:
(i) IS 456-2000, (ii) Euro code EC2-2002, (iii) BS 8110-1997, (iv) ACI 318-2002,
(v) CIRIA Guide-2, for the prediction of shear strength of Normal beam/s and Transfer
beam/s ( shear span-to-depth ratio < 1.8 ), have been made with a view to seeing their
goodness of fit against the experimental values.
278
CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSIONS
8.1 GENERAL
Transfer beams are by and large as integral part of high-rise buildings as

illustrated in Fig. 1.1 to Fig. 1.7. These beams are quite heavy (3 to 5 m) in depth and
carry heavy concentrated closely spaced loads compared to the normal beams which are
primarily flexural members. As a result, the stresses in the beam cross-section have
altogether different characteristics compared to the normal beams. The stresses are not
only non-linear but have wavy shape in the compression zone. This waviness
sometimes results in more than one neutral axis (point of zero stress) across the depth.
This introduces the difficulty in the evaluation of total compressive force and the lever
arm. This aspect has led to heavy dependence on empirical expressions through codal
recommendations.
The primary objective ofthe research is to build-up shear resisting capacity in

This study has been presented in detail in chapter 6. The results from the experiments
have been processed suitably to come out with empirical expressions for estimating the
shear capacity of beams incorporating variables such as compressive strength of
concrete, percentage of longitudinal and vertical steel/s, depth of beam in terms of
shear span-to-depth ratio. These empirical expressions are referred to as proposed
expression/sfor shear capacity.
279
8.2 CONCLUSIONS
Based on the studies of the experimental results and the nature of variation of
shear strength against independent parameters, the following broad conclusions are
arrived at.
(1) Shear resisting capacity of beams significantly depends upon the shear span-to-
depth (a/d) ratio. Beams with higher values of a/d (a/d > 1.8) exhibit increasing
influence of moment and hence develop flexural-shear cracks in the tension
zone. Such beams may be categorized as Normal beams (Flexural beams) and
have a/d ratio in excess of 1.8.
(2) Shear resisting capacity of beams in the lower range of a/d ratio (a/d < 1.8)
show non-linear increase. A transition state is observed in the a/d range of 1.8
and 1.5. In this range, shear capacity increases rapidly with gradual
disappearance of flexural cracks. The beams fail in sudden splitting mode with
increasing loud sound. Sudden splitting with loud sound is a measure of
brittleness. This may be taken as a transition zone between a Normal beam and
a Deep beam.
(3) Beams with a/d < 1.5 are observed to possess very rapidly increasing shear
resisting capacity. Failure patterns are very different suggesting new
mechanisms to look for in the process of building-up shear capacity. This is of
particular interest herein since Transfer beams fall in this range of a/d ratio.
While the beams show very high shear resistance, they tend to fail in highly
brittle mode. This mode is characterized by sudden failure in shear with very
loud sound. This mode of failure is considered undesirable and is branded as
treacherous. Attempts have to be made to induce ductility into the material by

introducing steel as a continuous medium all along its length.
(4) Beams having high depth/s tend to fail in the commonly observed shear induced
tension. However, a very different type of failure is observed in case of heavily
reinforced beams. The concrete in the top zone between the applied loads fails
280
along a concave upward surface. It is not a case of crushing of concrete but a
slip surface develops in very shallow thickness. This failure pattern caps the
limit ofdevelopment ofshear capacity. This aspect has been dealt with in detail
in the thesis.
(5) The shear strength of concrete due to dowel action also depends upon the
location and placement of tension steel in the cross section of the section, in
addition to the percent longitudinal tension steel. The study suggests that, it is
advantageous to use large number of bars of smaller diameter, distributed across
the depth of the cross section
(6) The addition of percent longitudinal steel beyond 1.80 percent does not
significantly enhance the ultimate shear strength of transfer beams. Thus,
percent longitudinal steel of 1.80 percent its placement, from bottom of about
50 percent of the total depth, represents a practical upper limit in maximizing
the longitudinal steel to augment the shear strength.
(7) The failure mechanisms are considerably different for beams with distributed
longitudinal reinforcement when compared with similar beams without any kind
of such web reinforcement. The failure shear strength was significantly higher
due to restricting crack width thereby increase in the interface shear transfer.
(8) For normal beams (a/d >1.8), critical section for shear is observed to be located
at about 1.0 d to 1.7 d, where d is the effective depth. In no case the critical
section is observed to be closer to the support and at distance less than the
effective depth.
(9) For Transfer beams (a / d < 1.8), critical section for shear is observed to
vanished. In no case the critical section is observed to be away from the support.
This clearly suggests that the load transfer mechanism of such a beams is
altogether different than the normal beams. This is primarily because of the tied
arch action / truss action.
281
(10) Shear strength decreases as the shear span-to-depth ratio in terms of depth
increases. It is a significant influencing parameter of shear strength of concrete
than the grade of concrete. It, may, therefore to be considered better to
recommend the design shear strength of concrete as a function of depth of
beam as against the grade ofconcrete.
(11) Shear strength increases as the concrete strength increases. Beams without web
reinforcement presented a very fragile behavior. The higher their concrete
compressive strength, the brisker their failure. This is a characteristic of brittle
failure, which must be avoided, in all possible situations. The Code, therefore,
recommends a maximum value of shear stress to be taken so that violent failure
ofconcrete due to high shear stress is avoided.
(12) The failure ofconcrete is not in true shear but in tensile stresses generated by
the shear. This happens because of very low tensile strength of concrete in
comparisons with its shear and compressive strength. In fact, it has not become
possible to truly asses the shear strength ofconcrete
(13) Experimentally observed data have been processed to develop empirical
expression for shear strength of concrete with various percentages of
longitudinal steel for beams failing in flexural-shear (Normal beams).
(14) The addition of transverse steel improves the shear response of the transfer
beams by increasing the failure shear strength and a higher ductile response.
The cracking pattern also changed. Beyond 2.68 percent transverse steel, the
shear capacity remains constant for this range of beam specimens as failure
occurs in concrete compression zone . Thus, the shear resistance of the members
with shear reinforcement heavily depends on the amount of shear
reinforcement. However, in most of themajor design codes, the shear resistance
is limited to avoid concrete web crushing.
(15) A sudden jump as much as about 77 percent in the shear capacity due to the
presence of transverse steel was observed.
282
(16) The minimum amount of web reinforcement of 2.68 percent observed in
prevented asudden shear failure upon the formation ofthe first diagonal tension
crack, was sufficient in terms of reserve of strength.
(17) The failure modes are chiefly influenced by the a/d-ratio, however, only a/d-
ratio is not only an influencing parameter of shear strength as well as failure
mode, but, percent longitudinal tension steel is also a significant parameter.
(18) There is not much increase in the shear capacity by providing orthogonal web
reinforcement in comparison with the longitudinal bars distributed at smaller
spacing . However, the desired mode ofductile failure can be achieved through
such orthogonal web reinforcement.
(19) For transfer beams with shear reinforcement, the shear strength does not vary
much with a/d-ratio. The a/d- ratio does not seem to have a significant influence
on the shear strength of RC members with shear reinforcement. However, the
enhancement of shear strength in comparisons with the beams without shear
reinforcement is quite significant for the same group of the beam specimens.
(20) The codal recommendations for shear strength of concrete as per IS, BS,
Eurocode 2 and ACI Code vary significantly. IS Code is found to be highly
conservative in comparison to the BS and ACI Code by as much as about 77
percent as pertypical illustration presented in section 4.4.9
(21) Based onthe study of different design codes of deep beams (Transfer beams), it
is concluded that that no design code has given complete guidelines for the
design of the Transfer beam. The ACI Code has given detailed guideline about
shear design and CEB-FIP is complete for flexure design.
The CIRIA Guide-2 gives some useful guidelines for design procedures
but warns that there is no experimental evidence to substantiate these
procedures.
(22) The design procedure for deep beams recommended in IS: 456-2000 is quite
inadequate in comparison with recommendations given in the ACI and CIRIA
283
Code. The IS code recommendations are not truly applicable to Transfer
beams in so far the dual requirements of imparting high shear capacity along
with ductility is concerned.
(23) For beams with a/d<l, attempt has been made to realistically estimate the shear
resisting capacity of beams having varying parameters such as compressive
strength, percent longitudinal steel and percent vertical steel.
(24) The suitability of the proposed empirical expressions was studied by comparing
the shear strength predictions from test data and five other design methods viz.
IS Code, Eurocode, BS Code, and ACI 318- Eq.11.5, & Eq. 11.3, through
parametric studies and it shows vary good agreements among the other design
methods considered for all percentage of tension reinforcement, all grades of
concrete and three a/d ratios, indicating the consistency of the proposed
expressions
(25) The shear strength predictions of the proposed empirical expression are lower
than the experimental value and all other considered shear strength predictions,
giving sufficient factor of safety.
(26) The proposed the expression adequately predicts the shear strength of transfer
beam for different percentages of main reinforcement, web reinforcement,
concrete grades and a/d < 1.00. The prediction accuracy is good when compared
to the current CIRIA Guide -2.
8.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH STUDY
It is proposed that further study need to be carried out to investigate the

following aspects related to present study, which can bring further justifications for the
objective laidand conclusions drawn in the study.
Recommendations forthe further study arethe following:
(1) The effect ofshear span-to-depth ratio interms ofdepth up to 400 mm, on shear
strength of concrete, had been studied in the present study. The shear strength
can substantially decreases as the depth of beam increases. There is need to
284
study the effect of depth on the shear strength ofconcrete for the depth of beam
more than 400 mm.
(2) The effect of shear span-to-depth ratio in terms of depth on shear strength of
concrete without using fibers have bean studied. The fibers can substantially
increase the shear strength of concrete. There is need to study the effect of
various fibers on shear strength of concrete for different shear span-to-depth
ratio.
(3) Behavior of transfer beams having opening throughout its width may be studied
for design process.
(4) Effect ofthe lateral loads especially caused due to earthquake may be studied to
check the stability of transfer beams.
(5) Secondary effects like the temperature change, shrinkage, creep, stress
concentration etc. may still be interesting area of investigation.
285
REFERENCES
1. Ahmad, S., and Bhattacharjee, B., "Assessment of Service Lives of R.C.

Structures, Subjected to Chloride Induced Rebar Corrosion", Journal of
Structural Engineering, Vol. 23, No. 4, Jan. 1997, pp 177-182.
2. Ahmad, S., Bhattacharjee, B., and Wason, R, "Experimental Service Life
* Prediction of Rebar Corroded R.C. Structure", ACI Material Journal, Vol. 94,
No. 4, July-Aug. 1997, pp 311-316.
3. Ahmad, S., Basavaraja, L. R., Bhattacharjee, B., "Design Procedure for

Cathodic Protection Systems for RC Member", Indian Concrete Journal,
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LIST OF PAPERS PUBLISHED
(1) Londhe, R. S., Prasad, J. and Ahuja, A. K., "Role of Transverse and
Longitudinal Rebars in Transfer Beams for High-Rise Buildings", Proceedings
of the National Seminar on Advances in Concrete Technology and Concrete
Structures for the future - ADCONST-2003, Annamalai University,
Annamalainagar, December 18-19,2003, pp. 361-366.
(2) Londhe, R. S., Prasad, J. and Ahuja, A. K., "Structural Aspects of Transfer
Beams for High-Rise Buildings", Proceedings of the National Seminar on
Planning and Construction of Buildings in Modern India, Institution of
Engineers (India), Roorkee Local Centre, Roorkee, November 1-2, 2004,
pp.143-153.
(3) Londhe, R. S., Prasad, J. and Ahuja, A. K, "Material Aspects of Transfer

Beams for High-Rise Buildings", Proceedings of the International Conference
on World of Innovations in Structural Engineering - WISE-2004, Association
of Consulting Civil Engineers (India), Hydrabad and Nagpur centres, December
1-3,2004.
(4) Londhe, R. S., Prasad, J. and Ahuja, A. K., "Inducing Ductility in Transfer
Beams for High-Rise Buildings", Proceedings of the National Seminar on
Ecstasy in Concrete, II Asian Conference- ACECON-2005, Indian Concrete
Institute, Maharashtra Centre, Mumbai (Thane), September 22-25, 2005, pp. V-
39 to V-47.
296

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STUDIES IN TRANSFER BEAMS FOR

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the

LONDHE RAJABHAU SUBARAO

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

(LONDHE RAJABHAU SUBARAO)

(A. K. AHUJA) (JAGDISH^RASAD)

Date: July i°\, 2006

The Ph.D. Viva-Voce Examination of Mr. Londhe Rajabhau Subarao,

Research Scholar, has been held on

Signature of Supervisor(s) Signature of External Examiner

To provide for functional requirement of large column-free space in High-rise

conventional mechanism of the flexure. Such a beam is also referred to as Transfer

Transfer beams transfer heavy concentrated gravity loads from columns

treacherous, should be avoided through appropriate measures, if possible. Inducing

The primary objective of the research is to build-up shear resisting capacity in

College of Engineering, Karad and presently, Assistant Director , Director of

I would like to express my deepest appreciation and honest blessings and

I, also, wish to thank my co-brother, Mr. G. K. Gaikawad, Executive Engineer,

Finally, I would like to express my most sincere gratitude to my family

List of Tables xviii

List ofNotations xxii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1-10

1.2 Definition of the Problem 7

1.3 Objectives and Scope of the Research Study 7

1.4 Structure of the Thesis 9

CHAPTER 2 : LITERATURE REVIEW 11-38

2.2 Analytical Studies 12

2.3 Experimental Studies 19

2.4 Concluding Remarks 38

CHAPTER 3: ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR SHEAR IN RC 39-79

3.2 Elastic Solution - Uncracked RC Beams 39

3.3 Plastic Solution - Cracked RC Beams 40

3.3.1 Lower Bound Solutions 46

3.3.2 Upper Bound Solution 49

3.4 Plastic Theory of Shear Friction 54

CHAPTER 4 : BEHAVIOUR OF REINFORCED CONCRETE 80-128

4.3.1 Mechanisms of Shear Transfer 89

4.4.6.1 Shear design for normal beams 109

4.4.7.1 The CIRIA Guide-2 : " Simple 115

"Supplementary Rules" Design

4.4.8 The Canadian Standards: CAN 3 -A 23.3 118

4.4.8.1 General design method 119

4.4.8.2 Simplified design method 121

4.4.9 Design Based on Euro Code and CEB-FIP 122

4.4.10 Design Example 123

4.5 Concluding Remarks 126

CHAPTER 5 : EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAMME 129-169

5.1 General 129

5.2 Objectives of the Experimental Campaign 130

5.3 Methodology 131

5.4 Design of the Test Specimens 132

5.5 Test Program 144

5.6 Material Properties 154

5.6.1 Cement 154

5.6.2 Aggregate 155

5.6.3 Reinforcing Steel 156

5.6.4 Water 158

5.6.5 Plasticizer 158

5.7 Concrete Mix Design 158

5.9.2 Cylinders 161

5.9.4 Beams 161

CHAPTER 6 : TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 170-244

6.3.1 Influence of Shear Span-to-Effective 218