International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 1e17

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International Journal of Thermal Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijts

Dynamic behavior of micrometric single water droplets impacting

onto heated surfaces with TiO2 hydrophilic coating
El-Sayed R. Negeed a, b, *, M. Albeirutty a, Y. Takata c
a
Center of Excellence in Desalination Technology, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 80200, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
b
Reactors Department, Nuclear Research Center, Atomic Energy Authority, P.O. Box 13759, Cairo, Egypt
c
International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER), Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-
Ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Dynamic behavior of micrometric single water droplets impacting onto heated surfaces with and without
Received 24 January 2013 superhydrophilic coating is investigated using a high-speed video camera in this research study.
Received in revised form Superhydrophilic surface coating, SHS, is achieved by coating the surface with Titanium dioxide, TiO2,
16 December 2013
and by exposing the surface to ultraviolet, UV. Mirror heat transfer surfaces of different metals have been
Accepted 16 December 2013
Available online 1 February 2014
considered. The experimental runs are carried out by spraying single water droplets onto heated surfaces
where, the droplet diameter and velocity were independently controlled. The droplet behavior during
the collision with the hot surface has been observed with the high-speed video camera. By analyzing the
Keywords:
Droplet impact
experimental results and comparison between the present results and the results due to other in-
Superhydrophilic surface vestigators, the effects of surface wettability, thermal properties of the heat transfer surface, droplet
Surface wettability velocity, droplet size and surface superheat on the dynamic behavior of micrometric single water
Hot surface-liquid droplet contact droplets impacting onto the heated surfaces were investigated. Empirical correlations are presented
describing the hydrodynamic characteristics of an individual droplet impinging onto the heated surfaces,
and concealing the affecting parameters in such process.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Collision between liquid droplets and a hot surface is of great
interest in metal industry and many of the industrial applications.
Such applications cover treatment of heat from electronic equip-
ments, desalination, petroleum refining, chemical combustion, gas
turbine, diesel engine, spray painting, nuclear reactors, medicine
and metallurgical processes. Spraying a hot surface with liquid
droplets gives much higher heat fluxes than can be obtained by
forced convective cooling. High heat transfer rate is beneficial
because it allow the size, cost, and complexity of heat exchanger
equipment to be reduced. Under practical conditions, the disper-
sion of the liquid results in the generation of numerous droplets
that can be difficult to study systematically. The study of single
droplet impingement upon heated surfaces can be used to under-
stand the transient heat transfer characteristics which are required
in order to predict the global heat transfer characteristics of an
entire spray, Bernardin et al. [1].
* Corresponding author. Reactors Department, Nuclear Research Center, Atomic
Energy Authority, P.O. Box 13759, Cairo, Egypt.
E-mail addresses: s.negeed@gmail.com, ernegeed@kau.edu.sa (E.-S.R. Negeed).
Heat transfer rate depends not only on the physical properties of
the liquid, but also on the conditions of the solid surface. To the best
of the author’s knowledge, the effect of wetting angle on the
evaporation of water droplet on a heated solid surface has received
inadequate attention. One reason may be the difficulty in control-
ling the static contact angle as only the exclusive parameter with
the other parameter being unchanged. This renders a general un-
derstanding of impinging sprays extremely complex.
In the current cooling technique, the required cooling ability is
achieved mainly by changing the sprayed water conditions such as
type of nozzle, water mass velocity, temperature, impinging ve-
locity and droplet diameter of water, etc. In addition to these, the
conditions of cooled surface; roughness, wettability and thermal
properties of cooled material such as thermal conductivity and heat
capacity, and oxidation layer on the hot surface are also important.
In the future, these surface conditions must also be considered to
enhance cooling ability ensuring the uniformity of cooling rate,
Rein [2]. In order to obtain insights into some of the important
mechanisms governing the interaction of sprays with the hot sur-
faces, it is fundamentally beneficial in studying the phenomena
occurring during the interaction between the single water droplets
and hot surfaces.

1290-0729/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijthermalsci.2013.12.011
2 E.-S.R. Negeed et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 1e17
Nomenclature
Cp Specific heat at constant pressure, J/kg K
dmax Maximum spread diameter of the impact droplet on
the hot surface, m
dd Droplet diameter, m
L.H Latent heat of vaporization, J/kg
h Height of droplet during impact with surface, m
NS Normal surface
SHS Superhydrophilic surface by coating the surface with
Titanium dioxide (TiO2) and by exposing it to
ultraviolet (UV)
T Temperature, K
Tsi Initial surface temperature, K
vd Droplet velocity, m/s
Greek letters
r Density, kg/m3
l Thermal conductivity, W/m K
m Dynamic viscosity, N s/m2
DTsup Superheat (the difference between the hot surface
temperature and the formed saturation
temperature) ¼ Ts  Tsat, K
DTsub Subcooling (the difference between the formed vapor
saturation temperature and the sprayed water droplet
temperature) ¼ TsatT1, K
q Droplet-solid surface contact angle, degree
s Surface tension, N/m
While the amount of heat transfer during the droplet spreading
period may, itself, be relatively small in comparison to the heat
transfer during the evaporation process, the temperature rise in the
fluid during spreading may cause changes in properties that lead to
a significant increase in the spreading ratio. In addition to the
changes in spreading ratio, temperature gradients develop in the
liquid film as spreading process. Hot spots in the film could cause
regions of boiling and evaporation, while other parts of the liquid
have not yet reached this condition, Healy et al. [3].
A most comprehensive review on drop impact on hot surface
modeling can be found in Yarin [4], Rein [5] and Moreira et al. [6].
Most of the existing models estimate the typical thickness of the
lamella as a function of the impact parameters; contact angle,
impact Reynolds number and Weber number. During a droplet
impact on the hot surface, many different flow phenomena such as
spreading, splashing, depositing and rebounding may occurred.
Processes occurring during spray impingement on hot surfaces and
the shape of the lamella generated at early time of drop impact for
various impact conditions are determined by Reynolds, Weber
numbers, surface roughness, shape elasticity, porosity and local
wettability, Roisman et al. [7].
Liu [8] showed that, the dynamic behavior of droplet impacting
onto heated surface may be affected by many parameters, such as
droplet size, contact angle, impact velocity, liquid temperature,
initial substrate surface temperature, surface roughness, and ther-
mophysical properties, as well as surfactant and gravity effects.
Pasandideh et al. [9] and George et al. [10] showed that, the impact
velocity, i.e. the impact Reynolds and Weber numbers, has a
remarkable influence in the dynamic behavior of droplet impacting
onto heated surfaces.
Bhardwaj and Attinger [11] numerically investigated the influ-
ence of wetting on the spreading and the transient drop shape
s Time, s
sc Contact time between the droplet and the hot surface
for the first collision, s
Subscripts
1 Initial
c Contact between the droplet and the heat transfer
surface
d Sprayed droplet
L Water
m hot surface metal
s Hot surface wall
v Vapor
Dimensionless numbers
Kd Dimensionless number indicating Weber and Reynolds
numbers, ¼ We0.5Re0.25
Ksup Dimensionless number indicates surface superheat
and impact droplet subcooling, ¼ (CpvDtsup)/
(L.HþCpLDtsub)
Kth Dimensionless number compares the thermal
properties of the hot surface metal to the thermal
properties of the sprayed liquid, ¼(lmrmCpm)/(lLrLCpL)
Re Reynolds number compares inertia force to viscous
force, ¼(vdddrL/mL)
We Weber number compares inertia force to surface
tension force, ¼ðv2d dd rL =sL Þ
during the impact of drops on a smooth solid surface for isothermal
and non-isothermal conditions. Roisman [12] showed that, drop
impacting onto a dry smooth substrate creates a radially expanding
film flow, and if the impact parameters; Reynolds and Weber
numbers, are high enough this film is relatively thin and is bounded
by a rim formed by capillary forces. The flow in the lamella and
propagation of the rim determine the evaluation of the drop
spreading diameter. Srikar et al. [13] and Lembach et al. [14]
showed that, the efficiency of drop cooling was enhanced in the
presence of covering the heat transfer surfaces with electrospun
non-woven polymer nonfiber mats. That is because elimination of
receding and bouncing of the drops was observed, and the drops
evaporated completely.
As the droplet impacts upon the hot solid surface, heat is
transferred from the solid to the liquid phase. This energy transfer
to the droplet increases its mean temperature, while liquid vapor-
izes from the bottom of the droplet. If the heat transfer rate is large
enough during the impact, liquid vaporized from the droplet forms
a vapor layer between the solid and the liquid phase, which repels
the droplet from the solid surface. In this case, the heat transfer
reaches a local minimum and the evaporation life time of the
droplet becomes maximum. This phenomenon was known as the
Leidenfrost phenomenon. Based on the evaporation life time of a
droplet, mainly four different evaporation regimes can be identified
depending on the wall temperature; film evaporation, nucleate
boiling, transition boiling and film boiling, Nikolopoulos et al. [15].
The present work contributes to the study of film boiling impact
regime only.
Ukiwe and Kwok [16], and Fard et al. [17] predicted correlations
for the drop maximum spreading diameter as a function of droplet
Reynolds, Weber numbers and contact angle. Sikalo et al. [18]
showed that the average contact angle (qc) during spreading can
 E.-S.R. Negeed et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 1e17
be roughly estimated as qc z 130 if Weber and Reynolds numbers
are high. Myers and Charpin [19] developed a mathematical model
of the Leidenfrost effect on an axisymmetric droplet.
Negeed et al. [20] experimentally investigated the effects of
surface roughness, and droplet characteristics on the impact
behavior of a mono-dispersed water droplet onto Sus304 surfaces
using high-speed camera. Negeed et al. [21] investigated the effects
of the thermal properties of the hot surface, and droplet charac-
teristics on the impact behavior of a mono-dispersed water droplet
onto heated surfaces using high-speed camera. Negeed et al. [22]
investigated the influence of the oxide layer over the hot surfaces
on the impact behavior of single droplets onto oxidized high tem-
perature surfaces using a high-speed camera. Negeed et al. [23]
investigated the effect of surface roughness on the impact
behavior of water droplet at elevated surface temperatures using
high-speed camera. They presented the effects of the surface
roughness degree, initial temperature of hot surface, droplet Weber
number, surface superheat on the hot solideliquid contact time,
and on the maximum droplet spread diameter.
Through the years many efforts have also been made on probing
the phenomenon of a droplet impact onto superheated surfaces.
Kumar et al. [24] numerically indicated that the impact process of
the hollow droplet on the substrate is distinctly different from an
analogous continuous droplet. The hollow droplet results in a large
central splash, a smaller final splat diameter, a thicker and more
uniform splat as compared to the analogous continuous droplet.
The solidification time for the splat formed with hollow droplet is
also relatively large. Kumar et al. [25], and Kumar and Gu [26]
simulated the hydrodynamic behavior of the impact of a hollow
droplet on a flat surface using the volume of fluid surface tracking
method (VOF) coupled with a solidification model within a one-
domain continuum formulation. Kamnis et al. [27] numerically
simulated the dynamics of transient flow during the impingement
process, including spreading, break-up, air entrapment and solidi-
fication. The simulation is able to accurately give a demonstration
of dynamic flow patterns such as the generation of fingers and
satellite droplets during impingement.
Phan et al. [28] developed a new model to describe the effect of
the contact angle on the process of bubble growth. Based on the
concept of macro- and micro-contact angles, an explicit theoretical
relation between the bubble departure diameter and the contact
angle was deduced. For wetted surfaces (0<qc < 90 ), it was shown
that the bubble departure diameter depends on the contact angle
as a function of tan q1/6
c .
Weickgenannt et al. [29] experimentally and theoretically
investigated the water drop impact onto electrospun polymer
nanofiber mats deposited on heated stainless-steel foils. They
concluded that, the presence of polymer nanofiber mats prevents
receding motion of drops after their complete spreading and pro-
motes the moisture spreading inside the mat over a large area of
the heater, which facilitates a 10-fold enhancement of heat removal
as the latent heat of drop evaporation.
Schiaffino and Sonin [30] built a well work for the impact dy-
namics of droplets on solid surfaces. A framework for under-
standing low Weber number deposition in terms of similarity laws
and experimentation was carried out. Based on experiments from
the highly viscous limit to the inertia-dominated limit, correlations
are given for the spreading velocity, spreading time scales, post
spreading oscillation amplitudes, and oscillation damping time
scales.
Bhardwaj et al. [31] experimentally and numerically investi-
gated the coupling of fluid dynamics, heat transfer and mass
transfer during the impact and evaporation of droplets on a heated
solid substrate. The temperature oscillations at the dropesubstrate
interface during the early stages of impact were described. For the
3
first time, a full simulation of the impact and subsequent evapo-
ration of a drop on a heated surface is performed. The influence of
wetting on the heat transfer during evaporation was investigated.
Several numerical models have been developed to describe the
hydrodynamics of droplet impact on a surface. Tabbara and Gu [32],
and Kamnis and Gu [33] developed numerical models which
simulated the detailed transient of a molten metal droplet
impacting, deforming, and solidifying on a flat, solid substrate.
Tabbara and Gu [34] developed a novel numerical modeling and
simulation of a semi-molten droplet impingement, the simulation
provides an insight to the heat transfer process during the impact.
Qiao and Chandra [35] measured the temperature drop of a stain-
less steel surface during the impact of the subcooled liquid in low
gravity. Inada et al. [36] studied the effect of initial droplet tem-
perature or the degree of subcooling on the film boiling impact. Ge
and Fan [37] developed a three dimensional model and numerical
simulation to describe the collision mechanics of a subcooled
droplet with a superheated surface. Nikolopoulos et al. [15], and
Chandra and Avedisian [38] investigated the collision dynamics of a
liquid droplet impinging on a hot surface. Strotos et al. [39] para-
metrically studied the effects of Weber number, droplet size, wall
temperature and liquid thermal properties on the cooling process
of the heated plate during the impaction period.
1.1. Surface wettability
Surface wettability is a one of the important parameters that
influence the liquidevapor phase change phenomena. Wetting is a
phenomenon where a solid surface is covered with a liquid, and the
related interfaces of three related phases of solid, liquid, and vapor.
Generally, a droplet-surface contact angle, qc, is used as a mea-
surement standard by which the level of wettability is quantita-
tively shown, Phan et al. [28], Moita and Moreira [40], and Vignes-
Adler [41]. A surface with a contact angle below 10 is called a
superhydrophilic surface (SHS), Takata et al. [42].
Superhydrophilic coating is a one of the most categories of
enhancement of the surface wettability. In a superhydrophilic
coating, the water is made to spread over the surfaces (sheeting of
water), which carries away dirt and other impurities. TiO2 is a one of
the photocatalysts, has an amazing trait, Fujishima et al. [43] called
photo-induced superhydrophilicity. In the meantime, TiO2 has
received much recent attention as a photocatalyst with exciting po-
tential for many energy and environmental applications crossing
traditional disciplinary boundaries, Zorba et al. [44]. Since the dis-
covery of ultraviolet (UV) light induced photocatalytic activity that
can enhance its surface wettability, TiO2 has been extensively used in
self-cleaning and related applications. Takeuchi et al. [45] summa-
rized the self-cleaning effect of hydrophilic TiO2 film as follows. There
is a formation of a chemisorbed H2O layer on the TiO2 film due to its
hydrophilic property. This chemisorbed H2O layer attracts water
molecules by van der Waals forces and the hydrogen bonds that
obstruct the contact between surface and adsorbed contaminants. As
a result, the impurities adsorbed on the coated surface are removed
by the spreading action of water and the coated TiO2 surface exhibits a
self-cleaning effect. Ganesh et al. [46] experimentally investigated
that, the hydrophilicity of the TiO2 coated films increases with an
increase in the thickness of the TiO2 and a state of superhydrophilicity
was attained when the thickness of TiO2 reaches 220 nm.
In recent years, advanced coating has been developed and it has
become possible to control surface wettability to some extent.
When the TiO2 surface is exposed to UV, the contact angle gradually
decreases and ultimately reaches zero. Using this feature, one could
control the surface wettability by switching on and off the UV
illumination, consequently enabling the control of heat transfer,
Takata et al. [42].
4 E.-S.R. Negeed et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 1e17
There are many experimental studies that proposed the use of
TiO2 coating as the heat transfer surface [47e51]. Some important
results obtained throughout these studies are that falling film
evaporation is considerably enhanced by very thin stable film on
the heat transfer surface, that the critical heat flux (CHF) increases
by approximately two times as the normal surface in pool boiling,
that the minimum heat flux (MHF) point shifts to higher surface
superheat, and that in the water drop evaporation on hot surface
the wetting limit temperature increases drastically by the decrease
in contact angle.
From the previous experimental results, there is no doubt that
the surface with superhydrophilic coating, SHS, has a big advantage
in phase change heat transfer such as boiling and condensation. An
alternative method to make a hydrophilic heat transfer surface is
through plasma irradiation. By exposing the surface to plasma for a
short time, the surface wettability is increased considerably.
Although the heat transfer between a droplet and high-
temperature solid surface has been widely studied by a number
of researchers, the influence of wettability during this heat transfer
process has not yet been made clear. Its influence is, however,
actually large and cannot be neglected. The present study aims to
disclose the effect of surface wettability, and the thermal properties
of heat transfer surface on the impact behavior of a mono-despised
water droplet onto superheated surfaces using a high-speed video
camera. To realize this aim, the heating surfaces of Stainless steel-
grade 304 (Sus304), Brass- grade C3604 (Brass C3604) and
Aluminum were considered as normal surfaces (NS), and super-
hydrophilic surfaces (SHS). The SHS is achieved by coating the
surfaces with Titanium dioxide, TiO2, and by exposing them to ul-
traviolet, UV. The experimental runs are carried out by spraying
single water droplets onto the NS and SHS. By analyzing the pho-
tographs of the experimental runs taken by the high-speed camera,
the effects of the surface wettability, thermal properties of heat
transfer surface, surface superheat, droplet impinging velocity and
droplet size on the solideliquid contact time, and the maximum
spread of droplet will be experimentally investigated. In the pre-
sent study, the water droplets diameter of size 300, 500 and 700 mm
were considered, which is comparable with the actual size used in
the spray cooling system and in multi-effect unit used in seawater
desalination plant.
The main dimensionless groups governing drop impact and
employed in the present review are:
We ¼ ðv2d dd rL =sL Þ, Re ¼ (vdddrL/mL), Kth ¼ (lmrmCpm)/(lLrLCp),
and Ksup ¼ (CpvDTsup/L.HþCpLDTsub), Yarin [4], Negeed et al. [21] and
Negeed et al. [22]. A dimensionless group Kd as a function of hy-
drodynamic Weber and Reynolds numbers, Kd ¼ We0.5Re0.25, plays
an important role in description of different transitions and
mechanisms, as in drop impact literature (Yarin [4], Mundo et al.
[52], Stow and Hadfield [53], Roisman [12], Marmanis and Thor-
oddsen [54], Scheller and Bousfield [55] and Negeed et al. [21]). The
droplet-surface contact angle, qc, is used as a measurement stan-
dard by which the level of wettability is quantitatively shown, Phan
et al. [28], Moita and Moreira [40]. Therefore in the present work,
the main dimensionless groups governing drop impact are: We, Re;
Kd, Kth; Kd, Ksup and qc.
2. Experimental work
In the present work, experiments of single water droplets
impacting onto heated surfaces made of Sus304, Brass and
Aluminum are carried out. Two experimental runs were carried out
to manifest the effect of surface wettability on the behavior of an
individual droplet impacting. The heating surface in the first run is
adapted as a normal surface (NS), where the heating surface in the
second run is adapted as a superhydrophilic surface (SHS), by
coating the surface with Titanium dioxide (TiO2) and then by
exposing it to ultraviolet (UV).
A schematic diagram of the experimental apparatus is illus-
trated in Fig. 1. It consists of a microjet dispenser (Model MJ-020)
manufactured by MECT Co., [56], a digital high-speed video cam-
era (phantom v43 serial 2309) provide 8-bit per color components,
at 15,037 fps at a full resolutions of 256  128 pixels, a data logger
and a hot metallic sample. The most effecting lighting for viewing
the droplets was found from a collimated light source reflecting off
the surface. A flashlight was found to produce clear images when
mounted opposite the camera at the same elevation. The images
captured were found to be at low levels of brightness, most pixels
being at gray level of 38. The sample software provided with the
frame grabber was capable of capturing a sequence of images to the
PC storage unit. The microjet dispenser can control the diameter
and the velocity of the ejected droplet by changing the open
duration of the magnetic valve, the ejection pressure and the inner
diameter of the nozzle (0.1, 0.15, 0.20 and 0.25 mm). Three metals
types of the hot surface (Stainless Steel (Sus 304), Brass (C3604) and
Aluminum) are used. Each hot metallic cylindrical shape sample
has the same dimension of 30 mm in diameter and 90 mm in
length. The TiO2 was coated on the surfaces by sputtering process.
We formed titanium, Ti, layer first and then TiO2 layer. The Titanium
coating layer thickness is 0.5 mm upward the hot samples, the TiO2
coating layer thickness is 11.9 mm over the Ti coating layer. The
surface becomes superhydrophilic when it is exposed by UV light
for more than 12 h.
A chromel-alumel K type thermocouple of 0.3 mm diameter was
used in measuring temperature range up to 1640 K C. A 1.2 mm
small groove was engraved from the edge of the top surface to the
center. Within the groove, a 0.3 mm diameter chromelealumel K
type thermocouple was embedded in solder in the hot surface at
the axial center and at 2.0 mm in depth from the hot surface. The
surface was then polished with chrome oxide to a mirror finish and
cleaned with benzene. The thermocouple is connected to a data
logger and the temperatures measured are stored in a PC. This
setup provides a temperature closed to the surface with fair
response times to transient temperature fluctuations. For each
experiment, three cylindrical blocks made of Stainless Steel
(Sus304), Brass (C3604) and Aluminum with NS and SHS were used
as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 shows that, TiO2 superhydrophilic coating on the surfaces
results in making the surfaces to become very clear. That because
TiO2 superhydrophilic coating on the surfaces removes the impu-
rities and dirt on the surfaces, also the surfaces become totally free
from any asperities on them. Fig. 4 shows the droplet-solid contact
angle (qc).
2.1. Experimental procedure
First, each sample is heated in an electric furnace up to initial
surface temperature (Tsi) 613 K, and then placed on a sample holder
made of insulation material. The experiment begins when the
sample temperature (Ts) has reached 573 K and then, it was cooled
by an impingement of water droplet to 373 K. A single water drop is
ejected from a needle of the microjet dispenser and the behavior of
the water drop during the collision with the hot surface is recorded
on the memory of a digital high-speed camera. By analyzing the
collected pictures, the liquidesolid contact time and the maximum
spread diameter of droplet on the hot surface are deduced for NS
and SHS. In typical case, an impinging water drop jumps up
immediately after the first collision with a hot surface (sputtering
effect). The liquidesolid contact time is defined as the duration of
the water drop contacts with the hot surface during the first
collision. The water drop once spreads and forms a liquid film on
 E.-S.R. Negeed et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 1e17 5

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of layout of experimental apparatus.

the hot surface and then shrinks its diameter before its takeoff. The
maximum spread diameter of droplet is defined as the maximum-
extended diameter of the film. These photographic observations are
carried out at temperature intervals of 20 K from 573 K to 373 K.
The sample is lighted up only when taking pictures because the
intensity of the light is too strong. Prior to photographic observa-
tions the ejection conditions of water drops were determined. By a
number of trials, the diameter and the impinging velocity of the
drop can be independently adjusted to desired values. The sprayed
droplet conditions; droplet velocity, droplet size and its corre-
sponding Weber number and Kd are summarized in Table 1. The
diameters listed in Table 1 are the nominal values as the actual
diameter changes slightly with ejection conditions. The initial
conditions and properties of impinging droplet and hot surface

0.5mm/div. 0.5mm/div. 0.5mm/div.

(a) Sus304 normal surface (NS). (b) Brass normal surface (NS). (c) AL normal surface (NS).
(A) Normal surfaces made of : (a) Sus304, (b) Brass and (c) AL.

0.5mm/div. 0.5mm/div. 0.5mm/div.

(a) Sus304 surface with TiO2 (b) Brass surface with TiO2 (c) AL surface with TiO2
superhydrophilic coating (SHS). superhydrophilic coating (SHS). superhydrophilic coating (SHS).
(B) Surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic coating made of : (a) Sus304, (b) Brass and (c) AL.

Fig. 2. Photographs of surfaces made of Sus304, brass and aluminum, and for (A): Normal surfaces (NS), and (B): Surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic coating (SHS) and by exposing
them to UV.
6 E.-S.R. Negeed et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 1e17

Table 2
Initial conditions and properties of the impinging droplet and heat transfer surfaces.

Impinging droplet Water

Initial droplet temperature, T1 20  C

Saturation pressure, psat 1.0 Bar
Saturation temperature, Tsat 100  C
Initial droplet velocity, vd 1.0, 2.5 and 4.0 m/s
Initial droplet diameter, dd 300, 500 and 700 mm
Droplet density, rL 1000 kg/m3
Droplet specific heat, CpL 4.186 kJ/kg K
Droplet thermal conductivity, lL 0.58 W/m K
Droplet viscosity, mL 0.00085 kg/m s
Droplet surface tension, sL 0.0717 kg/s2
Latent heat of vaporization, LH 2257 kJ/kg
Initial surface temperature 340  C
(outside from electrical furnace)
Surface temperature at beginning experimental 300  C
measurement
Hot surface (normal and coated with TiO2) Sus304, Brass (C3604), AL
Sus304 density, rs 7640 kg/m3
Sus304 specific heat, Cps 0.644 kJ/kg K
Sus304 thermal conductivity, ls 25.7 W/m K
Brass (C3604) density, rs 8530 kg/m3
Brass (C3604) specific heat, Cps 0.396 kJ/kg K
Brass (C3604) thermal conductivity, ls 121 W/m K
AL density, rs 2595 kg/m3
Fig. 3. Experimental apparatus for measuring droplet-solid contact angle. AL specific heat, Cps 1.14 kJ/kg K
AL thermal conductivity, ls 220 W/m K

estimates are given in Negeed et al. [21]. The error in contact angle
measurement is approximately 0.001, the error in TiO2 layer
thickness is approximately 0.001 mm.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Effects of coating the surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic on the

behavior of droplet impacting onto heated surfaces
Fig. 4. Droplet-solid contact angle.
Figs. 5e7 show snapshots taken of the water droplets impinging
onto heated normal surfaces (NS), and surfaces with TiO2 super-
used in the present experimental work are listed in Table 2. The hydrophilic coating (SHS) for 200 K surface superheat.
value of the droplet-solid contact angle (qc) for different finished Fig. 5 compares three different surface metals (Sus304, Brass
surfaces are listed in Table 3. It was found that, the qc dramatically and AL) for NS and SHS respectively. From the figure, differences are
decreases with coating the surface with TiO2 superhydrophilic and obvious among three surface metals. First, the duration from
then it irradiated using UV. collision to takeoff, sc, becomes smaller as the thermal properties
increases. For instance, the duration from collision to takeoff for a
2.2. Uncertainty analysis normal surface and for 1.0 m/s droplet velocity and 300 mm droplet
diameter is 0.6 ms for Sus304 metal (Fig. 3A a), and that is
The uncertainty in the surface temperature is caused by errors in 0.533 ms for Brass metal (Fig. 3A b), and that is 0.467 ms for AL
the measured temperature as well as uncertainties in the ther- metal (Fig. 3A c).
mocouple location. The thermocouple measuring the temperature Comparing Fig. 5A with B it can be shown that, the sc becomes
gradient is inserted into hole with a diameter of 0.12 cm. The smaller as surface with TiO2 superhydrophilic coating. For instance
thermocouple junction snugly fit into the hole; the error in location for 1.0 m/s droplet velocity and 300 mm droplet diameter, the sc is
is estimated to be less than one tenth the diameter, or 0.012 cm. The 0.6 ms for a normal Sus304 surface (Fig. 5A a), and that is 0.467 ms
error in surface temperature is approximately 0.6 K, the error in for Sus304 surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic coating (Fig. 5B a).
droplet velocity is approximately 0.01 m/s, the error in droplet The behavior of droplet with impacting velocity of 1.0 m/s onto
diameter is approximately 5.72 mm, and the error in time mea-
surement is approximately 0.77 ms. Details of these error
Table 3
Droplet-solid contact angle (qc) for different finishing of the hot surfaces.
Table 1 Finishing of the hot surface Droplet-solid contact
Conditions of the impact droplet onto heat transfer surfaces. angle (qc), degree
dd vd (m/s) Sus304, normal 88  1
(mm) Brass (C3604), normal 84  1
1.00 2.50 4.00
AL, normal 81  1
300 We ¼ 4.18, Kd ¼ 8.87 We ¼ 26.15, Kd ¼ 27.87 We ¼ 66.95, Kd ¼ 50.15 Sus304, coated with TiO2 superhydrophilic 8  1
500 We ¼ 6.97, Kd ¼ 13.01 We ¼ 43.58, Kd ¼ 40.88 We ¼ 111.58, Kd ¼ 73.57 Brass (C3604), coated with TiO2 superhydrophilic 5  1
700 We ¼ 9.76, Kd ¼ 16.74 We ¼ 61.02, Kd ¼ 52.62 We ¼ 156.21, Kd ¼ 94.69 AL, coated with TiO2 superhydrophilic 3  1
 E.-S.R. Negeed et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 1e17 7

normal surfaces has the same behavior of that on surfaces with TiO2
superhydrophilic coating. Where the impact droplet spreads to
form maximum radius and then shrinks and bounces off from the
surface. Therefore, the contact time consists of two components;
spreading period and shrinking period. According to the photo-
graphic observations, the spreading and shrinking periods tend to
decrease as surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic coating. That is
because the surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic coating are very
clean and totally free from any asperities on the surfaces. In-
addition, since a droplet tends to spread as the contact angle be-
comes small (for surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic coating), the
contact area between the droplet and the heating surface increases.
Therefore, a wide range of the heating surface is cooled quickly
during the first collision of the droplet, therefore the droplet-solid

Fig. 5. Behavior of an impact droplet on hot surface; effect of thermal properties of heat transfer surface for droplet size 300 mm, 1.0 m/s impinging velocity, 200 K surface superheat
and for: (A) normal surfaces (NS), and (B) surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic coating (SHS).
8 E.-S.R. Negeed et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 1e17

contact time decreases. On the contrary, when the contact angle is
large (for normal surfaces) the solideliquid contact area becomes
small, and hence the heat transfer rate from the hot surface to the
droplet becomes smaller compared with the case of lower contact
angle, therefore the droplet-solid contact time increases.
The interfacial temperature and the wetting limit temperature
are influenced by the contact angle and also by the thermal prop-
erties of the heat transfer surfaces, as a result, the sc becomes
smaller as the thermal properties of the heat transfer surface in-
creases. For instance for 1.0 m/s droplet velocity and 300 mm
droplet diameter, the sc is 0.467 ms for Sus304 surface with TiO2
superhydrophilic coating (Fig. 5B a), and that is 0.333 ms for AL
surface with TiO2 superhydrophilic coating (Fig. 5B c). This seems
due to the difference in the thermal diffusivity of the materials.
Figs. 5 and 6 show snapshots taken of the water droplets
impinging onto heated normal surfaces, NS, and surfaces with TiO2

Fig. 6. Behavior of impact droplet on hot surface; effect of thermal properties of heat transfer surface for droplet size 500 mm, 1.0 m/s impinging velocity, 200 K surface superheat
and for: (A) normal surfaces (NS), and (B) surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic coating (SHS).
 E.-S.R. Negeed et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 1e17 9

superhydrophilic coating, SHS, for two different diameters (300 and
500 mm), respectively. From the figures it is depicted that, the sc
increases with increasing droplet diameter since for a normal
Sus304 at 200 K superheated, 1.0 m/s droplet velocity and for
300 mm droplet diameter the sc is 0.6 ms (Fig. 5A a), and that is
1.6 ms for 500 mm droplet diameter and that is 1.33 ms for 500 mm
droplet diameter (Fig. 6A a). Also, the sc becomes smaller as the
surface thermal properties increases.
Figs. 6 and 7 show snapshots taken of the water droplets
impinging onto normal surfaces and surfaces with TiO2 super-
hydrophilic coating, and for 1.0 and 2.5 m/s droplet impact velocity
respectively. From the figures, differences are obvious among two
velocities. First, the sc becomes smaller as the impinging velocity
increases. For instance, for 1.0 m/s and 500 mm droplet diameter
and a normal Sus304 surface the sc is 1.33 ms (Fig. 6A a), and that is
1.133 ms for 2.5 m/s (Fig. 7A a). Moreover, the droplet with

Fig. 7. Behavior of impact droplet on hot surface; effect of thermal properties of heat transfer surface for droplet size 500 mm, 2.5 m/s impinging velocity, 200 K surface superheat
and for: (A) normal surfaces (NS), and (B) surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic coating (SHS).
10 E.-S.R. Negeed et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 1e17
impinging velocity of 2.5 m/s and droplet diameter of 500 mm
spreads to form maximum radius and then shrinks and bounces off
from the surface when impacting onto normal surfaces, while it
fragments into small pieces when impacting onto surfaces with
TiO2 superhydrophilic coating. The corresponding Weber number
for 2.5 m/s is 43.58, i.e. Andreani and Yadigaraoglu [57] indicated
that for a normal surface if the impact Weber number is smaller
than 30, practically no break-up occurs; if the impact Weber
number is larger than a critical value of about 50e80, a droplet will
form a thin liquid film on the impact surface, as soon as disintegrate
into a smaller droplets. Chen and Hsu [58] stated that, for normal
surfaces the subcooled droplet tends to disintegrate during the
impact at We equals 55. Mundo et al. [52] stated that break-up
occurs when Kd > 57.7. In the present study for normal surfaces
the corresponding values of We and Kd at which the break-up oc-
curs are 66.95 and 50.15, respectively, while they are 43.58,
Kd ¼ 40.88, respectively, for surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic
coating. Also from Figs. 6 and 7 it can be seen that, the sc becomes
smaller as the thermal properties increases for both NS and SHS.
Fig. 8. Effects of coating the heat transfer surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic and impacting droplet velocity on the maximum diameter of spreading droplet for 300 mm droplet
diameter and for surfaces made of: (A) Sus304, (B) Brass and (C) AL.
3.2. Effects of coating the surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic on
the maximum diameter of spread droplet on heated surfaces
Fig. 8aec illustrates the effect of the coating the surfaces with
TiO2 superhydrophilic, and droplet velocity on the maximum
diameter ratio of spread droplet on the hot surface (dmax/dd) for
300 mm droplet diameter and for Sus304, Brass and AL surface
metal, respectively.
From the figure it was shown that, the (dmax/dd) increases with
increasing droplet velocity or increasing Kd. That is due to the fact
that the larger impacting inertia force causes a strong impact with
heat transfer surface. The (dmax/dd) increases with decreasing sur-
face superheat. Also, the (dmax/dd) is higher as the higher thermal
properties of the hot surface. In-addition it can be seen that, TiO2
superhydrophilic coating on the surfaces results in remarkably
increasing the (dmax/dd). That is due to the increase of the
surface wettability for the surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic
coating; where the droplet-solid contact angle (qc) dramatically
decreases.
 E.-S.R. Negeed et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 1e17
Figs. 8 and 9 illustrate the effects of the TiO2 superhydrophilic
coating on the surfaces, thermal properties of the hot surface and
droplet velocity on the (dmax/dd) for 300 mm and 700 mm droplet
diameter, respectively. From these figures it can be seen that, the
(dmax/dd) increases with increasing the droplet diameter or
increasing the Kd. Coating the surface with TiO2 superhydrophilic
results in remarkably increasing the (dmax/dd), also the (dmax/dd) is
higher as the higher thermal properties of the heating surface for all
values of impacting droplet diameters.
3.3. Effects of coating the surface with TiO2 superhydrophilic on the
solideliquid contact time
Fig. 10aec illustrates the effects of the coating the surface with
TiO2 superhydrophilic, and droplet velocity on the non-dimensional
solideliquid contact time, sc(Vd/dd), for 300 mm droplet diameter and
for Sus304, Brass and AL surface metal respectively.
Fig. 9. Effects of coating the heat transfer surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic and impacting droplet velocity on the maximum diameter of spreading droplet for 700 mm droplet
diameter and for surfaces made of: (A) Sus304, (B) Brass and (C) AL.
11
From the figure it was shown that, the contact time sc decreases
with increasing droplet velocity. This result is due to the fact that
the larger impact velocity causes a strong impact with heat transfer
surface which result in violent evaporation. The sc(Vd/dd) increases
at lower surface superheat (DTsup).
The sc(Vd/dd) is longer as the lower thermal properties of the hot
surface metal. Also it can be seen that, coating the surfaces with
TiO2 superhydrophilic results in dramatically decreasing the sc.
That is due to the increase of the surface wettability; where the
droplet-solid contact angle (qc) dramatically decreases, also since a
droplet tends to spread as the contact angle becomes small, the
contact area between the droplet and the heating surface increases.
Figs. 10 and 11 illustrate the effects of the surface wettability, hot
surface thermal properties and droplet velocity on the sc(Vd/dd) for
300 mm, 500 mm and 700 mm droplet diameter, respectively. From
these figures it can be seen that, the droplet-solid contact time, sc,
increases with increasing the droplet diameter. Also it can be seen
12 E.-S.R. Negeed et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 1e17

that, coating the surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic on the sur-  The range of Weber number is from 4.16 to 156.21
faces results in dramatically decreasing the sc.  The range of Kd is from 8.87 to 94.69
 The range of KSup is from 0.04 to 0.36
3.4. Dimensionless correlations for the droplet hydrodynamic  The range of Kth is from 50 to 260
characteristics of single water droplets impinging onto heated  The range of qc is from 82 to 88 for a normal surface, and that
surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic coating from 3 to 8 for a surface with TiO2 superhydrophilic coating.

From the experimental results scientific correlations can be From the analysis of the experimental results, the final forms for
deduced to represent the relationships between the droplet hy- the maximum ratio of the diameter of spread droplet and for the
drodynamic characteristics of an individual droplet impinging onto droplet-hot surface contact time can be presented as:
a heated normal surface (NS), and a surface with TiO2 super- For a normal surfaces (NS)
hydrophilic coating (SHS), and the affecting physical parameters;
Reynolds number, Weber number, non-dimensional indicating dmax
0:115
¼ 0:238ðKd Þ0:475 Ksup ðKth Þ0:098 (1)
surface superheat and non-dimensional indicating the hot surface dd
thermal properties where, the affecting physical parameters as:
 
Vd
0:669
 The range of droplet diameter is from 300 to 700 mm, and the sc ¼ 0:383ðKd Þ0:447 Ksup ðKth Þ0:129 (2)
dd
range of droplet velocity is from 1.0 to 4.0 m/s.
 The range of Reynolds number is from 352.64 to 3265.12 For a surface with TiO2 superhydrophilic coating (SHS)

Fig. 10. Effects of coating the heat transfer surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic and impacting droplet velocity on the droplet-hot surface contact time for 300 mm droplet diameter
and for surfaces made of: (A) Sus304, (B) Brass and (C) AL.
 E.-S.R. Negeed et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 1e17 13

dmax
0:165 dmax 1:653

¼ 0:318ðKd Þ0:467 Ksup ðKth Þ0:098 (3) ¼ 0:426ðKd Þ0:475 ð1:0  cosðqc ÞÞ (5)
dd dd

   
Vd
0:647 Vd
sc ¼ 0:228ðKd Þ0:459 Ksup ðKth Þ0:132 (4) sc ¼ 1:143ðKd Þ0:447 ð1:0  cosðqc ÞÞ
2:147
(6)
dd dd

Fig. 12A and B determines, respectively, the degree of agreement For a surface with TiO2 superhydrophilic coating (SHS)
of developed correlations (equations from (1) to (4)) with the
experimental results for NS and SHS. The figure shows that, the dmax 0:110
¼ 0:397ðKd Þ0:467 ð1:0  cosðqc ÞÞ (7)
deviations between the predicted values and the experimental dd
ones for the (dmax/dd) and for the sc(Vd/dd) are in the range of 20e
20% and 20e35%, respectively.  
Vd 0:145
If neglecting the effects of Ksup and Kth on the maximum sc ¼ 1:197ðKd Þ0:459 ð1:0  cosðqc ÞÞ (8)
dd
diameter of spread droplet and considering the affecting parame-
ters are Kd and qc and from the analysis of the experimental results, Fig. 12C and D determines, respectively, the degree of agreement
the simplified final form for the (dmax/dd) and sc(Vd/dd) can be of developed correlations (equations from (5) to (8)) with the
presented as: experimental results for NS and SHS. The figure shows that, the
For a normal surface (NS) deviations between the predicted values and the experimental

Fig. 11. Effects of coating the heat transfer surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic and impacting droplet velocity on the droplet-hot surface contact time for 700 mm droplet diameter
and for surfaces made of: (A) Sus304, (B) Brass and (C) AL.
14 E.-S.R. Negeed et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 1e17

Fig. 12. Relationship between the experimental and the predicted results obtained from equations for the maximum spreading diameter and the droplet-hot surface contact time.

ones for the (dmax/dd) and for the sc(Vd/dd) are in the range of 20e From Fig. 13a it can be seen that, the (dmax/dd) increases with
20% and 25e40%, respectively. increasing Kd. This is due to that the increase in Kd results in higher
inertia force that in turn counteracts the surface tension force
leading to a more expansion of the spreading droplet over the hot
3.5. Comparison between the present results and results obtained surfaces. Also it can be seen that, coating the surface with TiO2
by other researchers superhydrophilic results in increasing the (dmax/dd) from 30 to 40%
of that of the normal surfaces. That is due to the increase of the
Roisman [12] has proposed a new scaling relation for the drop surface wettability with the use of TiO2 superhydrophilic coating on
maximum spreading diameter as a function of droplet Reynolds the surfaces; where the droplet-solid contact angle (qc) dramati-
and Weber numbers as: cally decreases (see Table 3).
From Fig. 13 b it can be seen that, the sc(Vd/dd) increases with
dmax increasing Kd. Also it can be seen that, coating the surface with TiO2
¼ 0:87Re0:2  0:40Re0:4 We0:5 (9)
dd superhydrophilic results in decreasing the sc(Vd/dd) from 35 to 45%
of that of normal surface. That is due to the increase of the surface
Senda et al. [59] have experimentally proposed an empirical
wettability with the use of TiO2 superhydrophilic coating on the
correlation for the drop maximum spreading diameter as a function
surfaces; where the droplet-solid contact angle (qc) dramatically
of Weber numbers as:
decreases (see Table 3).
dmax
¼ 1:0 þ 0:463We0:345 (10) 4. Conclusions
dd
Fig. 13a and b illustrates the comparison between the present Effects of the use of TiO2 superhydrophilic coating on the surfaces,
experimental results and the results obtained by other researchers and the thermal properties of the heat transfer surfaces on the
for the effect of coating the surface with TiO2 superhydrophilic on impact behavior of a mono-despised micrometric water droplet onto
the surfaces (SHS), and the dimensionless number Kd on the (dmax/ heated surfaces were experimentally investigated in this research
dd), and sc(Vd/dd), respectively. study. From this study, the following conclusions can be drawn:
 E.-S.R. Negeed et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 1e17 15

Fig. 12. (continued).

Fig. 13. Comparison between the present results and results obtained by other researchers for the effects of Kd and coating the surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic on: (a) the
maximum spreading diameter and (b) the droplet-hot surface contact time.
16 E.-S.R. Negeed et al. / International Journal of Thermal Sciences 79 (2014) 1e17
1. The use of TiO2 superhydrophilic coating on the heat transfer
surface results in remarkably increasing the surface wettability;
where the droplet-solid contact angle dramatically decreases.
2. Increasing the surface wettability results in remarkably
increasing the maximum spreading diameter of the impact
droplet over the hot surface, and also results in dramatically
decreasing the liquidesolid contact time.
3. The droplet-hot surface contact time increases with decreasing
surface superheat, decreasing impinging velocity and increasing
droplet size. Also, the contact time increases as the lower ther-
mal properties of the heat transfer surface.
4. The maximum spread of an impacting droplet on the hot sur-
faces increases with decreasing surface superheat, increasing
impinging velocity and increasing droplet size. Also, the
maximum spread of droplet on the hot surface increases as the
higher hot surface thermal properties.
5. New empirical correlations have been deduced describing the
relation between the droplet hydrodynamic characteristics of an
individual droplet impinging onto heated normal surfaces and
surfaces with TiO2 superhydrophilic coating, and the affecting
parameters.
6. The comparison between the obtained results and the published
results shows that, increasing the surface wettability, with the
use of TiO2 superhydrophilic coating on the heat transfer sur-
faces, results in increasing the maximum spreading diameter
from 30 to 40% of that of normal surfaces, while it results in
decreasing the liquidesolid contact time from 35 to 45% of that
of normal surfaces.
7. The surface coated with TiO2 superhydrophilic can be an ideal
heat transfer surface and will be applicable to various heat
transfer phenomena that are affected by surface wettability.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to express their sincere deep gratitude and
appreciate to Masamichi KOHNO, Sumitomo HIDAKA, Nobuya
ISHIHARA and Keisuke TAGASHIRA (Department of Mechanical
Engineering Science, Faculty of Engineering, Kyushu University,
Fukuoka, Japan for their great efforts and continuous help.
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