INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH (Res 1)

I. Nature and Scope of Educational Research

1.1. Definition of Research

 Research is a scientific investigation of phenomenon which includes collection, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of facts that links man’s speculation with reality (Calderon & Gonzales).
 A purposive, scientific investigation of a systematic process of gathering, presenting & interpreting data for
the solution of a problem, for prediction, for invention, for the discovery of truth, or for the verification of
existing knowledge, all for the preservation of human life (Calmorin).
 Research is but one way to obtain knowledge but there are other ways: Sensory Experience, Agreement
with Others, Expert Opinion, Logic, Scientific Method,

1.2. Goals, Purposes, Importance and Characteristics of Research

 The goal of research is to preserve and improve the quality of human life. Likewise, its purpose is to serve
man.
 Specific Purposes and Goals of Research

1. To discover new facts about known phenomenon. (Alcohol is a known phenomenon and research may
turn it into a kind of fuel equal in quality with gasoline)
2. To find answer to problems which are only partially solved by existing methods and information. (Cancer
is a serious disease which is only partially cured by present methods but due to intensive and
continuous research, the disease may be eradicated later on)
3. Improve existing techniques and develop new instruments or products.
4. To provide basis for decision- making in business, industry, education, government, and in other
undertakings.
5. To promote health and prolong life.

 Importance of Research (Calmorin)

a. To provide information
b. Improves the quality of life
c. Improves instruction
d. Improves student’s achievement
e. Satisfies man’s needs
f. Reduces the burden of work
g. Deep –seated psychological aspects
 Characteristics of Research

1. Empirical. It is based on direct experience or observation, the collection of data relies on practical
experience without benefit of scientific knowledge or theory.
2. Logical. It is based on valid procedures and principles. Scientific investigation is done in an orderly
manner.
3. Cyclical. It starts with a problem and ends with a problem. In the recommendation many problem will
crop up as other subjects for study, hence the cycle is repeated.
4. Analytical. Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering data.
5. Replicability. It’s designs and procedures are replicated to enable the researcher to arrive at valid and
conclusive results. The more replications of researches , the more valid and conclusive the results
would be.
6. Critical. Exhibits careful and precise judgment. A higher level of confidence must be established , i.e. at
1.0 percent or 5.0 percent.

 Characteristics of Research by Best and Kann(1989) as cited by Ardales (2001)

1. Research is directed toward the solution of a problem
2. Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will be helpful in
predicting future occurrence.
3. Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
4. Research demands accurate observation and description.
5. Research involves gathering new data from primary or firsthand sources using existing data for a new
purpose.
6. Although research activity may at times somewhat random or unsystematic, it is more often
characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous analysis.
7. Research requires expertise.
8. Research tries to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the procedures
employed, the data collected and the conclusions reached.
9. Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.
10. Research is characterized by patience and unhurried activity.
11. Research is carefully recorded and reported.
12. Research requires courage.

1.3. Research and Problem Solving

Research
1. There may not be a problem only
interest in answering a question or query.
2. A research problem is more rigorous
and broader in scope
Problem-solving
1. There is always a problem to be solved.
2. A problem to be solved is less rigorous
and less broad.

3. The research problem is not necessarily 3. The problem to be solved has to be

defined specifically.
4. All research is intended to solve some
kind of problem, but this is not the primary
aim.
5. Research is conducted not primarily to
solve a problem but to make a contribution
to general knowledge.
6. Research is concerned with broad
problems, recurrent phenomena, and wide
application through generalization.
defined specifically and identified definitely.
4. Problem-solving does not always involve
research.
5. Problem-solving is always intended to
solve a problem.
6. Problem-solving is concerned with a
specific problem and once the problem is
solved that is the end of it.
 1.4. Research Classification
 General Classification of Research
a. Pure Research
- “basic research”, fundamental research, theoretical research
- discover basic truth or principles
- add to the body of scientific knowledge
- knowledge without any particular thought as to immediate practical utility.
- Ex. Newton’s Law, Boyle’s Law etc.
b. Applied Research
- involves seeking new application of scientific knowledge to the solution of a
problem. ex. Products of genetic engineering, biotechnology, discovery of
Lactobacillus plantarum food drink.
c. Action Research
- decision oriented research involving the application of the steps of
scientific method in response to an immediate need to improve existing
practices.
- Ex. Use of traditional method in teaching could be improved by using cooperative
learning.
By Calmorin pp.11-12

 Kinds and classification of Research

a. According to Purpose
1. predictive or prognostic - has the purpose of determining the future operation of the variables
under investigation.
2. directive research - done based on the findings to remedy unsatisfactory condition if there is
any.
3. illuminative research
b. According to Goal
1. basic or pure research
2. applied research
c. According to Level of Investigation
1. exploratory research - studies the variables pertinent to a specific situation
2. descriptive - studies the relationships of the variables.
3. experimental - studies the effects of the variables on each other
d. According to the Type of Analysis
1. analytic approach– the researcher attempts to identify and isolate the components of the
research situation
2. holistic approach -
e. According to Scope
1. action
f. According to Choice of Answers to Problems
1. evaluative
2. developmental
g. According to Statistical Content
a. quantitative or statistical – which inferential statistics are utilized to determine the results of the
study
b. non – quantitative – descriptive data are gathered rather than quantitative data
h. According to Time Element (Calderon pp. 11-13)
a. Historical – describes what was
b. Descriptive – describes what is
c. Experimental – describes what will be
 are the major research method according to area of field activity
i. According to place of study
 a. Library research – done in the library where answers to the specific questions or problems of the
study are available. Historical research makes use of the library as well as archeological
findings.
b. Field research –conducted in a natural setting . No changes are made in the environment. It is
applicable to descriptive survey and experimental method
c. Laboratory research – is conducted in artificial or controlled conditions by isolating the study in a
rigorously specified and operationalized area.

1.5. Hindrances to Research

a. Tradition. This is accepting that customs, beliefs, practices, and superstitious are true and are parts of
the daily lives of men.
b. Authority. This is accepting without question, an opinion about a certain subject which is given by
someone who is considered an authority on the subject.
c. Inaccurate observation. This is describing wrongly what is actually observed.
d. Overgeneralization. This is establishing a pattern out of a few instances.
e. Selective observation. This is persisting to believe an observed pattern from an overgeneralization
and ignoring other pertinent patterns.
f. Made-up information. This making up information explains away confusion.
g. Illogical reasoning. This is attributing to some thing to another without any logical basis.
h. Ego-involvement in understanding. This is giving an explanation when one finds himself in an
unfavorable situation.
i. Mystification. This attributing to supernatural power, the phenomenon that cannot be understood.
j. To err is human. This is an attitude that admits the fallibility of man.
k. Dogmatism. This is an unwritten policy of certain institutions and government prohibiting the study of
topics that are believed to run counter to the established doctrines of such institutions or governments.

1.6. The Researcher

 Qualities Needed by a Researcher

a. Intellectual Curiosity
b. Prudence
c. Healthy Criticism
d. Intellectual Honesty

Acronym- RESEARCHER

R-Research Oriented
E- Effective
S- Scientific
E- Efficient
A- Active
R- Religious
C- Creative
H- Honest
E- Economical
R- Resourceful By Calmorin pp.1-2

II. The Research Problem

 Research Problem and Its Attendant Qualifications

a. Characteristics of a good research problem
1. It must be relevant.
 2. It must be within the researcher’s interest and capabilities.
3. It must be clear, specific & attainable within a given period of time.
4. Information should be available.
5. Should not be harmful to the people and society
6. New
7. Provide information for planning , development and legislation by Bhagwani p. 7
8. SMART - specific, measurable, achievable, realistic & time-bounded by Calmorin p. 25

 Sources of a Research Problem

1. When there is a dissatisfaction of services and information
2. Problems maybe encountered in the classroom or at work.
3. Breakthroughs in science and technology may present unexpected problem
4. Research thrusts and priorities of certain organization.
5. Misconceptions on culture.
By Bhagwani p.7
6. Man’s major problems.
7. His specialization.
8. Methods of teaching
9. Existing and past researches
10. Theses, dissertations, research journals
by Calmorin pp. 25-26

 Criteria of a Good Research Problem

1. Interesting
2. Relevant to the needs of the people
3. Innovative
4. Cost effective - The 4m’s - man, money, material , machinery
5. Measurable and time bounded

By Calmorin pp. 26-27

 Guidelines in the Selection of a Research Problem or Topic

1. Must be chosen by the researcher himself.
2. Must be within the interest of the researcher.
3. Must be specialization of the researcher.
4. Must be the competence of the researcher to tackle.
5. Must be the ability of the researcher to finance, otherwise he must be able to find funding for his
research.
6. Must be researchable and manageable , that is, Data are available and accessible;
a. Data must meet the standards of accuracy, objectivity and verifiability;
b. Answers to the specific questions can be found;
c. The hypotheses formulated are testable, that is, they can be accepted or rejected; and
d. Equipment and instruments for research are available and can give valid and reliable
results.
7. It can be completed within a reasonable period of time .
8. It is significant, important, and relevant to the present time and situation, timely, and current
interest.
9. Results are practical and implement able
10. It requires original, critical, and reflective thinking so to solve it.
11. It must be delimited to suit the resources of the researcher but big or large enough to be able to
give significant, valid, and reliable results an generalizations.
12. It must contribute to the national development goals for the improvement of the quality of human
life.
13. It must contribute to the fund of human knowledge
14. It must show solutions of the problem.
 15. It must not undermine the moral and spiritual values of the people
16. It must not advocate any change in the present order of things by means of violence but by
peaceful means.
17. There must be a return of some kind to the researcher, either one or all of the following, if the
research report is completed:
a. Monetary, either increase n salary or publication of the results in
which there is some kind of loyalty.
b. Advancement in position or promotion.
c. Improved specialization, competence, and skill in professional work especially if the
research subject is related to the profession.
By Calderon pp.22 -26

 Elements of a Research Problem

1. Aim or purpose of the problem for investigation. Answer the question “why?” Why is there an
investigation, inquiry or study
2. The subject matter or topic to be investigated. Answer the question what?” What is to be
investigated?
3. The place or locale where the researcher is to be conducted. Answer the question “Where?”
Where is the study to be conducted?
4. The period or time of the study during which the data are to be gathered. This answer the
question “When?” When is the study to be carried out?
5. Population or universe from whom the data are to be collected. This answers the question
“Who?” or “From Whom?” Who are the respondents? From whom are the data to be gathered?
Example : To determine the status of teaching Mathematics in the high schools of BISU
campuses during the school year 2012-2013
Aim or purpose : To determine the status of
Subject matter or topic: The teaching of Mathematics
Environment : In the high schools of BISU Campuses
Period of time : During the school year 2012-2013
Population : The respondents are implied to be either the teachers or the students or
both
 Guidelines in Writing the Statement of the Problem

1. The problem of the study should be stated both in general and specific terms. The general statement
of the problem is usually a reiteration of the title of the study. Briefly pointing out the objectives, the
subject and the coverage as well as the time frame

Example : This study aims to investigate the academic status of BISU-CTE students during the School
Year 2012-2013 as perceived by the teachers.

2. The problem must always in an interrogatory form, hence it must ask questions. However if the study
is experimental, it is advisable to state it in the declarative form. Sub-problems must follow the main
problem and includes the possible components.

3. The problem should be stated in the infinitive to(action words in research) such as examine, analyze,
determine, measure, ascertain, assess, evaluate, recommend, find out, among others; setting 4-5
research objectives is ideal for a research problem.
4. Specific questions should be stated using the following question words: “How,” “Will,” “What,” “Is
there,”..
5. The statement of the problem must be brief, clear, specific and relevant.

 Example of Sub-problems

Level 1. These questions are usually used in descriptive researches. They usually start with “what” and are
exploratory in nature.

Example: What are some of the problems encountered by state universities and colleges of Region 7 in
the implementation of production?

Level 2. Level 2 questions ask relationships or differences between independent and dependent variables.

Examples:

1. Is there a significant correlation between the level of students’ math anxiety and academic
achievement in Algebra?
2. Is there a significant difference between the groups of respondents on their extent of involvement
in the implementation of the Mathematics extension activity?

Level 3. Level 3 research questions are usually stated in “why” and “how” questions.
Examples:
1. How effective is the use of multimedia in teaching Geometry in BISU-Candijay Campus?
2. To what extent do teachers manifest the degree of seriousness of problems encountered in the use
of instructional materials in teaching Mathematics?
3. As perceived by peers, superior, and students, how effective are the methods and strategies used
by the respondents in teaching Mathematics as to degree of:
2.1. Appropriateness;
2.2. Difficulty; and,
2.3. Recentness?
Here are some research questions. Which ones (if any) do you think are researchable? Or non -
researchable?
1. Is God good?
2. Are children happier when taught by a teacher of the same gender?
3. Is there allocated budget for the operation of the program as perceived by the respondents?
4. Does high school achievement influence the academic achievement of university students?
5. What is the best way to teach grammar?
6. What would schools be like today if World War II had not occurred?
7. How many microscopes are present in the laboratory as perceived by the respondents?

THE PROBLEM

State of the Problem

This study aimed to determine the effect of the mastery learning model on the success level of the
students who were exposed to peer tutoring, collaborative learning and personalized teaching of the students
of the College of Teacher Education of the Bohol Island State University during the second semester of the
academic year 2011-2012.
Specifically, this study sought to answer the following questions:
1. What is the profile of the respondents in terms of:
1.1. School Ability Test Scores
1.1.1. Otis-Linon Standardized Aptitude Test,
1.2. Academic achievement in Mathematics
1.2.1. before the experimental period;
1.2.2. after the experimental period,
1.3. Affective outcomes in Mathematics
1.3.1. Before the experimental period;
1.3.2. After the experimental period,
1.4. Math teacher during the semester?
2. Is there a significant difference between the mean score of the control and experimental group before the
experimental period?
3. Is the mean score of the experimental group significantly higher than the mean score of the control group
after the experimental period?
THE PROBLEM

Statement of the Problem

The main purpose of the study was to determine the students’ attitude and anxiety towards
mathematics in relation to their academic achievement of Tambongan High School during the school year
2012-2013.
Specifically, it aims to answer the following queries:
1. What is the profile of the respondents in terms of:
1.1 age;
1.2 gender;
1.3 students’ attitude towards mathematics;
1.4 level of anxiety; and
1.5 academic performance?
2. Is there a significant degree of relationship between the students’ attitude towards mathematics and
their performance of the subject?
3. Is there a significant degree of relationship between the level of math anxiety of the students and their
academic achievement in mathematics?

III. Ethics and Research

 Intellectual Property
 R.A. 8293 or the Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines. In the Philippines, this is an act
prescribing the intellectual property code and establishing the intellectual property office, providing for
its powers and functions, and for other purposes.
This protects and secures the exclusive rights of scientists, inventors, artists and other gifted
citizens to their intellectual property and creations, particularly when beneficial to the people (Part 1,
section 2).

Intellectual Property- property from original thought protected by law: original creative work
manifested in a tangible form that can be legally protected, e.g. by a patent, trademark, or copyright
(Encarta Dictionaries).

Copyright Infringement- a crime committed by copying, owning or using an intellectual property

product for personal benefits or any purposes without permission from the author.

By virtue of R.A. 8293, Section 155. Remedies; Infringement. — Any person who shall, without
the consent of the owner of the registered mark:

155.1. Use in commerce any reproduction, counterfeit, copy, or colorable imitation of a registered mark
or the same container or a dominant feature thereof in connection with the sale, offering for sale,
distribution, advertising of any goods or services including other preparatory steps necessary to carry
out the sale of any goods or services on or in connection with which such use is likely to cause
confusion, or to cause mistake, or to deceive; or

155.2. Reproduce, counterfeit, copy or colorably imitate a registered mark or a dominant feature thereof
and apply such reproduction, counterfeit, copy or colorable imitation to labels, signs, prints, packages,
wrappers, receptacles or advertisements intended to be used in commerce upon or in connection with
the sale, offering for sale, distribution, or advertising of goods or services on or in connection with which
such use is likely to cause confusion, or to cause mistake, or to deceive, shall be liable in a civil action
for infringement by the registrant for the remedies hereinafter set forth: Provided, That the infringement
takes place at the moment any of the acts stated in Subsection 155.1 or this subsection are committed
regardless of whether there is actual sale of goods or services using the infringing material. (Sec. 22,
R.A. No 166a)

By virtue of R.A. 8293, Section 170. Penalties. — Independent of the civil and administrative
sanctions imposed by law, a criminal penalty of imprisonment from two (2) years to five (5) years and a
fine ranging from Fifty thousand pesos (P50,000) to Two hundred thousand pesos (P200,000), shall be
imposed on any person who is found guilty of committing any of the acts mentioned in Section 155,
Section 168 and Subsection 169.1. (Arts. 188 and 189, Revised Penal Code)

Plagiarism- the process of copying another person’s idea or written work and claiming it as original
(Encarta Dictionaries).
- a lower form of copyright infringement.

According to Meriam-Webster Online Dictionary, to “plagiarize” means

 to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one’s own
 to use (another’s production) without crediting the source
 to commit literary theft
 to present as new and original an idea or a product derived from an existing source
Source: http://www.plagiarism.org/

In what way does a researcher or anybody commit plagiarism?

1. Print/Photocopy. Printing or photocopying Images/Statistics/Tables/Timelines from a source and
pasting them to a project board.
2. Verbatim Plagiarism. Looking at the screen or at a book and copying the words directly into a
presentation or report without even recognizing the author.
 3. Using presentations. Using multimedia presentations for lecture purposes without prior permission
from the author or speaker.

Ex. of Intellectual Property Products: movies, software, music, computer games, books, articles,
brand-names, trademarks, patented medicines, etc.

How to avoid “plagiarism?”

1. Write only the idea expressed in the article by paraphrasing it.
2. Always recognize the author or source if the article is cited.
3. If possible, ask permission from the author to use his/her work.

IV- Thesis Writing

 Selecting and Constructing the Research Title
1. Generally, the title is formulated before the start of the research work. It may be revised and refined
later if there is a need.
2. The title may contain the subject matter of the study, the locale o the study, the population involved,
and the period when the data were gathered or will be gathered.
3. It must be broad enough to include all aspects of the subject matter studied or to be studied.
Hence, the title indicates what is expected to be found inside the thesis report.
4. It must be as brief and concise as possible. It must comprise only twelve words.
5. Avoid using the terms “An analysis of,” “A Study of,” “An Investigation of,” and the like. All these
things are understood to have been done or to be done when a research is conducted.
6. If the title contains more than one line, it must be written like an inverted pyramid, all words in
capital letters and bold.

 Variables
A quantity or a characteristic that has two or more mutually exclusive values of properties of object or
people that can be classified, measured, or labeled in different ways. Numerical values or categories represent
these quantities or characteristics.

Types of Variables

a. Independent variable
- this is the stimulus variable which is chosen by the researcher to determine its relationship to an
observed phenomena.
- a variable that is manipulated to examine its impact on a dependent variable.
- represent the treatments or the conditions that the researcher control to test their effects on
some outcomes.
- Also known as the treatment variable
b. Dependent variable.
- This is the response variable which is observed and measured to determine the effect of the
independent variable
c. Moderator variable.
- This is a secondary or special type of independent variable chosen by the researcher to
ascertain if it alters or modifies the relationships between the independent and dependent
variables.
d. Control variable
- This is a variable controlled by the researcher in which the effects can be neutralized by
eliminating or removing the variable.
e. Intervening variable
- This is a variable which interferes with the independent and dependent variables, but its effect
can either strengthen or weaken the independent and dependent variable.
f. Organismic variable
- A variable which is pre-existing characteristics of the individuals understudy. It is not a variable
that can be randomly assigned to individuals. The gender and the intelligence are examples of
this.
 g. Extraneous variable
- A variable that is related to the dependent or independent variable that is not part of the
experiments.
- are independent variable that have not been controlled.

By Calmorin pp. 14-16

 Literature Background
- has 4 parts:
1. Theoretical Background – theories which supports the research problem. Ex: Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural
learning theory, Thorndike’s Connectionism, Skinner’s Operant Conditioning, etc.
2. Related Literature - any written materials such as book, journal, magazine, novel, poetry, yearbook,
encyclopedia are considered as literature.
3. Related Studies - published and unpublished research studies are sources of materials that are included
in this section.
4. Legal Bases - major sources: laws, department directives, such as circulars, orders, memoranda,
serve as legal bases for the study, sources are arranged in a chronological order from past to present.

Types of Sources
1. General references - indexes : w/c list the author, titles, places of publication of articles and other
materials on education abstracts: give brief summary of various publications.
2. Primary sources - are publication in which individuals who do research report the results of their studies
Ex. Journals
3. Secondary sources - are publications in which author describes the work of others.
Ex. Textbooks, educational encyclopedia, research reviews, and yearbooks

Why write Literature Background?

1. Literature Background provides the researcher knowledge and background on the subject under
study.
2. The background will enable the researcher to avoid duplicating what has been studied already.
3. If a study on the same topic has been conducted before, the review provides the researcher
information about the aspects of the problem which have not been investigated before.
4. The researcher will be helped in developing various parts of his study such as definition of problem
and terms, research design, sampling, and data gathering techniques.
5. Provides the researcher information of the weaknesses and problems of previous studies and
some ideas on how to handle or avoid them in his own study.
6. Provides the researcher ideas on how to proceed with his own investigation.
7. In relational and exploratory study, provides the researcher bases in determining what variables
are related with each other, the types of their relationship, and how to analyze and measure these
relationships.
8. Provides findings and conclusions of past studies which the researcher may relate to his own
findings and conclusions.
9. Studies reviewed will provide the researcher motivation and impetus that will provide the
researcher motivation and impetus that will ensure a good progress toward the goal of completing
his study.
10. A summary of the writings of recognized authorities and of previous researches provides evidence
that the researcher is familiar with what is already known and what is still interested.

 The Research Methodology

 Research Design
Two Types:
a. Qualitative Research Design: 1. Historical; 2. Ethnographic Study; 3. Case Study
b. Quantitative Research Design: 1. Descriptive Research; 2. Correlational Research; 3.
Experimental Research

 Types of Qualitative Research Design

1. Historical Design
- History, involves a critical inquiry of the past. It aims to provide critical knowledge of past events
that will help an individual to picture the whole truth. Knowledge of the past is the basis of the
present and the future. Present and future conditions are accounted for or influenced by past
occurrences.
- It therefore, attempts to broaden our knowledge because it systematically collects, evaluates,
describes and explains activities occurring in the past. However, events are often improperly
recorded, evaluated and interpreted due to insufficiency of information and limitation of the
investigator.
- Historical research does not manipulate or control variables like experimental research does.
2. The Relevance of Historical Research to Education
1. To preserve information.
2. To document the rationale of existing conditions or situations.
3. Serve as means to promote understanding. People become more open to change if they
are well informed.
4. It preserves the cultural heritage.
5. It is a basis of reform.
6. Helps individuals understand present educational practices and policies more fully.
7. It is a source of policies generated for the benefit of the majority.
3. Ethnographic Research Design
- Ethnographic study is qualitative in nature. It aims to provide a holistic view of the problem.
The instrument used in data-gathering is usually observation, interview and participation. The
researcher utilizing this design must be skillful in evaluating information. He knows how to deal
with people and adapts to the social atmosphere where the data can be found. Careful
analyses should be made to come up with a comprehensive perspective of the problem.
- Opinions should be validated to avoid suspicions that such a result is the product of the
researcher’s wild imagination.

Skills Needed by Ethnographic Researchers

1. Have a positive outlook in life.
2. Be aware of psychological, sociological, anthropological and historical research data.
3. Be flexible in dealing with people, especially with different ethnographic groups.
4. Interpret observations objectively.

4. Case Study Design

It is closer to an ethnographic study because it uses the past and present to describe the future
of the problem. It utilizes observations, interviews and examinations like the IQ or diagnostic test to
identify the strengths and weaknesses of the problem. This serves as baseline data for the
identification of treatment.
Guidance counselors, psychologists, social workers, businessmen and psychiatrists to
understand their students or clients in a particular situation commonly use this design. Calmorin and
Calmorin (1998) state that a case study is not only limited to conditions of maladjustment. It also
applies to well-adjusted individuals in well-organized communities.

5. Descriptive Designs
The most commonly – used method of investigation in educational research because it is easier
to conduct as compared to other designs.
Sanchez (1998) explained that descriptive research includes all studies that purport to present
facts concerning the nature and status of anything – a group of persons, a number of objects, a set of
conditions, a class of events, a system of thought or any other kind of phenomena which one may
wish to study.

a. Descriptive- survey research design

Results of a survey serve as a basis for establishing status, inferences, factors associated with
data, and comparison of data with norms. The information obtained through the survey method
 provides a reference point for analysis classification and evaluation. Almost all types of descriptive
studies use the survey method.

b. Descriptive-documentary
The documentary method is used when data cannot be obtained through questionnaires or
observation. For example, this is best demonstrated when researcher attempts to determine the
relationship between the extent of socialization and academic performances of indigent students. The
names and academic performances of indigent students can be obtained at the registrar’s office and
the extent of socialization can therefore be determined through a descriptive survey with the use of
questionnaires.

6. Correlational Research Designs

Correlational research is sometimes known as associational research because it measures the
extent or magnitude of association between two variables. This is another form of descriptive
research because it only measures the existing relationships of variables. The difference however is
when the major purpose of the study is to compare two important variables.
7. Causal- Comparative - involves selecting two or more groups that differ in a particular variable of
interests and comparing them on another variable or variables. Attempts to determine the cause
or consequences of differences that already exist between or among groups of individual
8. Experimental Design
In experimental design, the researcher needs to explore the nature, characteristics,
relationships and differences of one or more variables. The term “experiment” requires
manipulation of variables to observe effects or results.
This design describes what will be. It means that a researcher has to determine the effects of
variables being manipulated together with the main objectives of the study. The main objectives of
these are the dependent variables or output of the study. The factors that influence dependent
variables are the independent variables.

Is considered as the most powerful educational research because a researcher manipulates

changes or alters the inputs or independent variables to see the effects on the dependent
variables. It is the most commonly-used method to advance scientific knowledge.
(Bhagwani, pp. 37-49)

Experimental designs

Experimental design is different from other research designs in relation to processing of data because a
researchers needs to explore the nature, characteristics, relationships and differences of one or more variables
to observe effects or results.
This design describes what will be. It means that a researcher has to determine the effect of variables
being manipulated together with the main objectives of the study. The main objectives of the study are the
dependent variables or the output of the study. The factors that influence dependent variables are the
independent variables.
Experimental design is considered as the most powerful educational research because a researcher
manipulates, changes or alters the inputs or independent variables to see the effect on the dependent
variables. Travers (1978) believes that the experimental method has become the most commonly-used method
to advance scientific knowledge.
When a researcher looks into the effectiveness of the integrative approach to teaching mathematics, he
divides the class into groups. Let’s say two groups. The first group will be exposed to the integrative approach
in teaching which is the experimental group and the other group will be exposed to the usual or conventional
approach. The conventional method is the control variable. In this process the researcher identifies the method
of teaching is better in teaching mathematics. The achievement test results will be the deciding factor.
In this example, the method of teaching is the treatment or independent variable while the achievement
score of the students are the dependent variables. Thus, the achievement score of the students are
attributable to the method of teaching used by the researcher. The process of eliciting information as to the
effective teaching method to be used in mathematics as called experimentation. Thus, it utilizes the
experimental design.
The validity and reliability of the output are dependent on the types of experimental design used by the
researcher. There are two general types of experimental designs: the week and true experimental designs.
The weak experimental design is subdivided into three, namely: one-shot case study, one-group pretest
and posttest design, and static-group pretest-posttest design (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1994). These designs
were considered week due to their inability to control other threats or factors that could influence the
dependent variables.
True experimental designs however, are more complex and rigid because they attempt to include or
treat other factors that might influence dependent variables. In our example, the time, manner of grouping and
venue of learning are factors that effects the achievements scores of respondents. Therefore, these are treated
accordingly under the true experimental design to ensure greater validity and reliability of the output of the
study. The commonly-used true-experimental design in research are classified into: a) Randomize posttest
only, b) Randomized pretest-posttest control group, and, c) the Randomize Solomon four group designs.

The Weak Experimental Designs

1. The One-Shot Case Study

This design involves one group. The researcher employs the treatment and administers the posttest
after the treatment. Let’s say in the mathematics class: The teacher researcher uses the cooperative learning
strategy. After the employment of the treatment, the posttest is given. The scores of the students will be the
basis for determining the magnitude of effectiveness of the cooperative learning strategy in teaching
mathematics.
2. The One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
This design is similar to the one-shot case study; however the researcher administers the pretest
before the treatment and the posttest after the treatment.
3. The Static-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
This design involves two groups-the experimental and control groups. This design is better than the
one-shot case study and one-group pretest and posttest design. Both groups receive separate treatments.
Let’s say the experimental group will be exposed to the cooperative learning strategy the control group to the
conventional lecture method. Both groups will be subjected to the pretest and posttest. The illustration is as
follows:

O1 X1 O2
O3 X2 O4
Where:
X1 = Experimental Group Treatment
X2 = Control Group Treatment
O1 = Pretest of the Experimental Group
O2 = Posttest of the Experimental Group
O3 = Pretest of the Control Group
O4 = Posttest of the Control Group
(not randomly formed)

Ex.: The cooperative learning strategy is a new approach to teaching. The absence of randomization
done to the groups of respondents is the limitation of this design. The age, year level, grade point averages are
among the possible factors that affect performance.

True Experimental Designs

1. Randomized Posttest-Only Control Group Design

This design nearly controls the reliability or consistency of the output. There are also two groups, similar
to the static group pretest-posttest design. However the presence of randomization and the absence of the
pretest make the difference. The absence of pretest is the limitation of the study. The pretest result will
describe if the two groups are equated or not. The randomization alone as the process of selecting participants
is not enough to tell if the two groups are equal.
R X1 O1
R X2 O2
Where:
X1 = Experimental Group Treatment
X2 = Control Group Treatment
01 = Posttest of the Experimental
02 = Posttest of the Control Group
R = Random Assignment

The absence of pretest is the limitation of the study. The pretest result will describe if the two groups
are equated or not. The randomization alone as the process of selecting participants is not enough to tell if the
two groups are equal.

2. Randomized Pretest- Posttest Control Group Design

The randomized Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design is similar to the Randomized posttest-Only
Control Group Design when it comes to application. The only difference is the presence of a pretest before
the employment of treatment. Pre-test results will tell if the two groups are equated. If the two groups are not
equal, there is a tendency to come up with predictive results that reveal a significant difference between the
performances of students exposed to two separate methods of teaching. Thus, the objective of identifying
which method of teaching is more effective will not be realized.
R O1 X1 O2
R O3 X2 O4
Where:
X1 = Experimental Group Treatment
X2 = Control Group Treatment
O1 = Pretest of the Experimental Group
O2 = Posttest of the Experimental Group
O3 = Pretest of the Control Group
O4 = Posttest of the Control Group
R = Random Assignment

3. The Randomized Solomon Four-Group Design

This design is the most powerful among the other experimental designs. It involves four groups of
respondents; two experimental groups and two control groups. Let’s say the researcher looks into the
effectiveness of cooperative learning strategy in teaching mathematics: the researcher divides 100 students
into four groups (1) Group A1; (2) Group A2; (3) Group B1; and (4) Group B2. Experimental group A1 will be
subjected to pretest and posttest; experimental Group A2 will be having the posttest only. Control group B1
uses the conventional lecture method with pretest and posttest while control group B2 has the posttest only.
Differences between the achievement scores of the four groups of respondents will be the major basis for
identifying which method of teaching is best suited to teaching mathematics. The illustration of this design is
as follows: and Counterbalanced Design. No randomization is done.

Experimental Group A1 O1 x O2
Control Group B1 O3 O4
Experimental A2 x O5
Control Group B2 O6

Where:
O1 = Experimental Group A1 pretest
O2 = Experimental Group A1 Posttest
O3 = Control Group B1 Pretest
O4 = Control Group B1 Posttest
O5 = Experimental Group A2 Posttest
O6 = Control Group B2 Posttest
X = Treatment
 The Quasi-Experimental Designs

Quasi-experimental designs include: the Time-Series Experimental Design; Matching-Only Pretest-

posttest Design and counterbalanced Design. No randomization is done among the designs; instead, the
employment of several techniques is the basis for controlling possible threats.

1. The Time-Series Experimental Design

This design is the elaboration of the One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design. The difference is in the mode
of application. It involves repeated measurements or observations over a period of time both before and after
the treatment. The illustration of this design follows:

O 1 O2 O3 O4 O5 X O6 O7 O8 O9 O10

Where:
O 1 – O5 = Pretests
O6 – O10 = Posttests
X = Treatment
In the time–series experimental design, the validity of results is due to repeated pretests and posttests.
When the results are equal to one another in the first, second third administrations, the pretest is valid as well
as in the posttest after the treatment.
2. The Matching-Only Design
Matching is the process of pairing two variables with equal values. The two groups have the same
characteristics before the treatment is given. When they are equated, the treatment will serve as the indicator
to determine which group performed better after its administration.
3. Counterbalanced Design
In this Design, each group is exposed to all treatments, no matter how many there are, but in a different
order. It illustrates that all treatments are given to the three groups of respondents. The difference is the order
of employment. Comparison of the results in the first, second and third analysis will be the basis for identifying
validity or which treatment is more effective. If no significant difference exists, we can say that all treatments
are effective or vice versa.

Factors to be Considered in Equating Groups

1. Randomization
2. Matching or Pairing. Match or pair students with equal characteristics like their Grade Point Average
3. Statistical matching

Quantitative Methodologies Qualitative Methodologies

Preference for precise hypothesis stated at the outset Preference for hypothesis that emerge as study develops

Preference for precise definitions stated at the outset Preference for definitions in context or study progresses

Data reduce to numerical scores Preferences for narrative descriptions

Much attention to assessing and improving reliability of Preferences for assuming that reliability of inferences in
scores obtained from instruments adequate

Assessment of validity through variety of procedures with Assessment of validity through checking sources of
reliance on statistical indices information (triangulation)

Preference for random techniques for obtaining Preferences for expert informant(purposive ) samples
meaningful samples
Preference for precise description of procedures Preferences for narrative /literary description of procedures

Preference design or statistical control of extraneous Preferences for logical in controlling or accounting for
variables extraneous variables

Preference for specific design control procedural bias Primary reliance for researcher to deal with procedural bias

Preference for statistical summary of results Preference for narrative summary of results

Preference for breaking down of complex phenomena into Preference for holistic description of complex phenomena
specific parts for analysis

Willingness to manipulate aspects, situations, or Unwillingness to tamper with naturally occurring

conditions in studying complex phenomena phenomena

Major Characteristics of Qualitative Research

1.Naturalistic - Studying real world situations as they unfold naturally, non manipulative, unobtrusive, &
Inquiry noncontrolling; openness to whatever emerges- lack of predetermined constraints on outcome
2.Inductive - Immersion in the details and specifics of the data to discover important categories, dimensions
analysis & interrelationships; begin by exploring genuinely open questions rather than testing theoretically
derived (deductive) hypothesis
3. Holistic The phenomenon under study is understood as a complex system that is more than the sum of
perspective its parts; focus on complex interdependencies not meaningfully reduced to a few discrete
variables and linear cause-effect relationships
4. Qualitative data Detailed, thick description, inquiry in depth, direct quotations capturing people’s personal
perspectives & experiences
5. Personal contact The researcher has direct contact with and gets close to the people, situation, & phenomenon
& insight under study; researcher’s personal experiences and insights are an important part of the inquiry
and critical to understanding the phenomenon
6. Dynamic Attention to process; assumes change is constant and ongoing whether the focus is on the
systems individual or an entire culture
7. Unique case Assumes each case is special and unique ; the first level of inquiry is being studied, cross-case
orientation analysis follows from and depends on the equality of individual case studies
8. Places findings in social, historical, and temporal context dubious of the possibility or
Contextsensitivity meaningless of generalizations across time and space
9.Emphatic Complete objectivity is impossible, pure subjectivity undermines credibility; the researcher
neurality includes personal experience and emphatic insight as part of the relevant data, while taking a
neutral nonjudgmental stance toward whatever content may emerge
10. Design Open to adopting inquiry as understanding deepens and for situations change; avoids getting
flexibility locked into rigid designs that eliminate responsiveness; pursues new paths of discovery as they
emerge

Differences Between Qualitative and Quantitative Research Design

Methodological Characteristics Quantitative Qualitative

1. Approach Experimental or Ethnographic- behavior of people
Correlational Design -documenting or portraying the everyday
experience
Of individual
- in words
- in numerical numbers - narrative description, could be done by
-precise description of procedure interviewing

2. Researcher’s role Detached to avoid bias Immersed in the phenomenon of interest

3. Instrument Paper and pencil, Physical Inquirer
devices (human)-data gathering instrument
4.Setting Laboratory Natural(locale)
5.Insight Pre-ordinate Emergent – coming out naturally
6.Style Stable, fix Variable

7.Focus of Analysis
Variability/Differences
-Prefer statistical control of
extraneous variables
-depends on the result
Pattern
- Common practices
- prefer logical analysis

Sampling Designs

Sampling - the method of getting a representative portion of a population

Population - the aggregate or total of objects, persons, families, species or orders of plants or of animals.

Advantages of sampling:
1. It saves time, money and effort.
2. It is more effective.
3. It is faster and cheaper.
4. It is more accurate.
5. It gives more comprehensive information.

Sampling Designs
Scientific sampling
1. Restricted random sampling. It involves certain restrictions intended to improve the validity of the
sample.
2. Unrestricted random sampling. It is the best random sampling because no restriction is imposed. Every
member in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample.
3. Stratified random sampling. This design divides first the population into two or more strata. For each
stratum, the sample items are drawn at random.
4. Systematic sampling. It is a design in which all individuals in the population are arranged in a
methodological manner, i.e., alphabetical or chronological, and the _nth name may be selected in the
construction of the sample.
5. Multistage sampling. This design is done in several stages. The population individuals are grouped into a
hierarchy of units and sampling is done consecutively.
6. Cluster sampling. The population is grouped into smaller units or clusters for instance, districts,
municipalities or cities composed of population individuals and are selected by random sampling or
systematic sampling.

Nonscientific Sampling
1. Purposive sampling. It is based on choosing individuals as samples according to the purpose of the
researcher as his controls. An individual is chosen as part of the sample because of good evidence that he
is a representative of the total population.
2. Incidental sampling. It is applied to those samples which are taken because they are the most available.
The researcher simply takes the nearest individuals as subjects of the study till the sample reaches the
desired size.
3. Quota sampling. This design is popular in the field of opinion research because it is done by merely
looking for individuals with the requisite characteristics.

 Data gathering Instruments

1. Research Instrument. It is a devise designed or adopted by the researcher for data-gathering.

Therefore to arrive at accurate findings and conclusions, the instruments used by a researcher should be valid
and reliable to objectively answer the purpose of the study as discussed in the statement of the problem.
These instruments depend on the nature of the problem and the research design. Descriptive studies
usually employ questionnaires, interviews and observations while historical research uses documents and
observations. Experimental studies may or may not use questionnaires but manipulate variables, observations
and documentation.

Classification of data-gathering instruments:

a. Researcher Instruments
The researcher obtains information or data himself with little or no direct involvement of other people.
b. Subject Instruments
The data is collected by directly involving the respondents. Ex. Data maybe collected by asking for a
copy of the available science facilities and equipment, indicating actual numbers, from the list, the researcher
may determine extent of availability and adequacy.
c. Informant Instrument
The data collected from those knowledgeable or aware of the subject. The researcher may ask school
administrators, science teachers and students to evaluate extent of availability and adequacy of science
facilities and equipment of the SUCs in Region 1.

Commonly-Used Research Instruments

1. Questionnaire
Is a written or printed form containing the objectives of the study. This is administered on the respondents
to elicit the required data based on procedures made by the researcher. It is the most convenient and also
the easiest way to gather data. The researcher may or may not personally administer the questionnaire
provided all instructions are clearly specified. There are two types of questionnaires, the open-ended and
close – ended.

Open-ended (Divergent) questionnaire

Profile of the Mathematics Instructors of BISU

Name : __________
Age : __________
Seminars Attended : __________
Subjects Taught : __________
Organizations/Affiliations : __________

Marriage Practices of Indigenous People in the Hinterland Municipalities of Ilocos Sur

1. What tribe do you belong to? _____________________________________________________

2. Briefly describe the marriage practices of your tribe.___________________________________
3. What animal/s and how many are to be butchered for the wedding? _______________________

Closed-ended (Convergent) questionnaire

1. Sex: Male____ Female_____

2. Civil Status: _____Single_____Married____ Widow________
3. Highest Educational Attainment:
_____Bachelor’s Degree
_____Bachelor’s Degree with MA/MS Units
_____Masteral Degree
_____Others, please specify

Identified Mistakes in Writing Questions in Questionnaires (Bluman, 2011)

a. Asking biased questions. Ex.: Are you going to vote for Gibo even though the latest survey
indicates that he will lose the election?
b. Using confusing words. Ex.: Do you think people will live longer if they were on a diet?
c. Using double-barreled questions. Ex. Are you in favor of the Sin Tax bill to lessen the number of
smokers in the country?
d. Using double negatives in questions. Ex.: Do you feel that it is not appropriate to have areas
where people cannot smoke?
 e. Ordering questions improperly. Ex.: At what age should an elderly person not be permitted to
drive? A later question might ask the respondent to list some problems of elderly people.

Other factors that could bias a survey:

 The participant may not know anything about the subject of the question but will answer the question
anyway to avoid being considered uninformed.
 Many people will make responses on the basis of what they think the person asking the questions
wants to hear.
 Participants will, in some cases, respond differently to questions depending on whether their identity is
known.
 The time and place where a study is conducted can affect the results.
 The type (whether open-ended or close-ended) of questions asked influences the responses.

2. Interview

It involves face-to-face contacts between the interviewer and interviewee. Sometimes a researcher
interviews to confirm data obtained from the questionnaire. However, interviews alone would be enough for
gathering data, depending on the nature of the problem. This data-gathering technique is quite laborious
especially when the population is large. The researcher should personally meet respondents and needs to
have adequate interviewing skills so that the objective of the study may be achieved. According to Sison
(1991), the interviewer must be skilled in asking questions and sizing up people: alert, keen and free of
prejudices or biases: even-tempered, and most importantly, he must have a thorough knowledge of the
subject
a. Structure Interview
b. Unstructured Interview

3. Observation

is another technique in data-gathering. It is essential for both qualitative and quantitative studies. This
is used to enrich findings in descriptive studies where questionnaires and interviews have been employed

a. Informal observation- records only what transpires is casual conversation with respondents. There
is no limit when it comes to information; it depends on the results of the investigation.
b. Formal observation -the researcher makes a guide on what to observe. Possible responses or
answers may also be outlined.

 Statistical Treatment
Non-Parametric Tests
Parametric Tests