TMR7 Experimental methods in Marine Hydrodynamics – week 35

Instrumentation (ch. 4 in Lecture notes)

100
90
80
Instrumentation,

Resistance [N]
70
60
data acquisition, 50
40
signal processing, 30
20
data reduction 10
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Speed [m/s]

Physical process Measurement result

(numbers)

1
 • Measurement systems
– Choice of instrumentation
– Calibration
– Signal Processing and Data acquisition
• Different types of transducers
– Measurements with strain gauges
– Pressure transducers
– Position measurements
– Velocity measurements

2
 How do we choose a measurement system?

• Objective of the experiment

• What do we need/want to measure

• How do we measure

• Post processing

• Data format for analysis and presentation

3
 Measurement systems

Analog signals Digital signals

+- 10 mV +- 10V DC
Amplifier Filter A/D

Transducers

4
 Measurement Systems - digital

Analog Digital signals

signals
Digital Measurement Ethernet
Amplifier MGC+

Transducers

5
 Data Acquisition with digital amplifiers

Transducer MGC+ amplifier PC computer

(strain gauge)

Analog Digital signal in

mV/V signal Physical units

Change of resistance Strain gauge excitation (amplification) Data acquisition software

due to elongation
Bridge balancing Collecting data
Analog to digital conversion Statistical analysis
Zero correction (tare) Presentation
Filtering and signal conditioning Storage to various file format
Conversion to physical units

- The digital amplifier contains analog amplifier, filter and A/D converter

6
 Calibration
• How to relate an output Voltage from the amplifier to the
physical quantity of interest

Known load Adjust calibration Known measurement value

factor
Analog signals Digital signals
+- 10V DC
+- 10 mV
Amplifier Filter A/D

Transducers
In a measurement:
Measurement value = transducer output  amplification  calibration factor
In a calibration:
Calibration factor = Known load / (transducer output  amplification )
7
 What is the calibration factor dependent
on?
• Type of strain gauges used (sensitivity) Sensor
• Shape of sensor and placement of strain gauges dependence

• Excitation voltage Amplifier

• Amplification factor (gain) settings
dependence

This means that one shall preferably calibrate the sensor

with the same amplifier and same settings as will be used in
the experiment

8
 Zero level measurement
• The measurement is made relative to a known reference
level
– Typically, the signal from the unloaded transducer is set as zero
reference
• Two options:
– Balancing the measurement bridge by adjusting the variable
resistances in the amplifier
• Tare/Zero adjust function in the amplifier
– First making a measurement of the transducer in the reference
condition (typically unloaded), and then subtract this measured
value from all subsequent measurements
• This is usually taken care of by the measurement software (Catman)
• In hydrodynamic model tests, we usually use both options
9 in each experiment
 Amplifiers
• Many different types:
– DC
– AC
– Charge amplifier (for piezo-electric sensors)
– Conductive wave probe amplifier
• Provides the sensor with driving current (Vin)
• Amplifies the sensor output from mV to (usually) 10V
DC
• Tare/zero adjust function (bridge balancing)
– Adjusting the resistances R1, R2, R3, R4 in the Wheatstone bridge
eK
B to get zero VG in unloaded condition
R

R-

Analog signals Digital signals

R
R+

A B G Vg
+- 10V DC
R
R

Amplifier Filter A/D

C

10
Transducers
Front view Vin
 A/D converters
• Conversion of analog 10V DC signal to digital
• Typically 12 to 20 bits resolution
• Typically 8 to several hundred channels
• Each brand and model requires a designated driver in the
computer, and often a custom data acquisition software

Analog signals Digital signals

+- 10V DC
Amplifier Filter A/D
11
Transducers
 A/D conversion – sampling of data
• The continuous analog signal is sampled at regular intervals - the
sampling interval h [s]
– The analog value at a certain instant is sensed and recorded
• The analog signal is thus represented by a number of discrete – digital
– values (numbers)
• The quality of the digital representation of the signal depends on:
– The sampling frequency f=1/h [Hz]
– The accuracy of the number representing the analog value
• The accuracy means the number of bits representing the number
• 8 bit means only 28=256 different values are possible for the number
representing the analog value => poor accuracy
• 20 bit means 220=1048576 different values => good accuracy
– The measurement range vs. the range of values in the experiment
– High sampling frequency and high accuracy both means large amounts of
data being recorded => large data files!
• The reason not to use high sampling frequency is mainly to reduce file size
12
 Sampling frequency

Nyquist frequency fc
1
fc =
2h
Means:
•You need at least two samples
per wave period to represent
the wave in in the digitized data
•You should have more
samples per period to have
good representation …
•Less than two samples per
wave period will give “false
signals” (downfolding)
13
 Effect of folding

• To avoid folding: Response spectrum

– Make sure fc is high enough S
that all frequencies are
correctly recorded
fc
or

– Apply analogue low-pass

filtering of the signal,
removing all signal frequency
components at frequency
above fc before the signal is
sampled

14
 Filters – to remove parts of the signal
Amplitude
Ideal characteristic
Real characteristic
Removes high
frequency part of
Low pass filter signal (noise)

Removes low
frequency part of
High pass filter signal (mean value)

Retains only
signals in a certain
Band pass filter frequency band

Frequency
Analog signals Digital signals
+- 10V DC
Amplifier Filter A/D
15
Transducers
 Filtering – low pass filter
Asymmetric filtering (used in real-time)
2. 5
Averaging window
2

1. 5

0. 5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-0. 5

-1

-1. 5

-2

-2. 5

Symmetric filtering (can only be used after the test)

2. 5
Averaging window
2

1. 5

0. 5

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
-0. 5

Now!
-1

-1. 5

-2

-2. 5

16 Real time filters always introduce a phase shift – a delay

 Data acquisition without filtering

• It is OK to do data acquisition without filtering as long as there is

virtually no signal above half the sampling frequency
– so there is no noise that is folded down into the frequency range of interest
• Requires high sampling frequency
– (>100 Hz, depending on noise sources)
• Requires knowledge of noise in unfiltered signal
– Spectral analysis, use of oscilloscope

• Unfiltered data acquisition eliminates the filter as error source, and

eliminates the problem of phase shift due to filtering
– Drawbacks:
• Must have good control of high-frequency noise
• Large sampling frequency means large data files
17
 Selection of filter and sampling
frequency
• The problem with high sampling frequency is that result
files become large
– Double the sampling frequency means double the file size
– This is less of a problem for measurement of low-frequency
phenomena (ship motions etc.)
• Low-pass filter should be set just high enough to let the
most high-frequency signal of interest to pass unmodified
• Sampling frequency should then be set to at least twice the
low-pass filter cut-off frequency, preferably 5-10 times this
value
– 20 Hz Low-Pass filter → minimum: 40 Hz sampling
recommended: 200 Hz sampling
18
 Data acquisition software

• Communicates with the A/D converter

• Conversion from 10V DC to physical units
• Records the time series
• Common post-processing capabilities:
– Graphical presentation of time series
– Calculation of simple statistical properties (average, st.dev.)
– Zero measurement and correction for measured zero level
– Storage to various file format

19
 Length of records
- of irregular wave tests and other randomly varying
phenomena

• The statistical accuracy is improved with increasing length

of record. The required duration depends on:
– The period of the most low frequent phenomena which occur in the
tests
– The system damping
– The required standard deviation of the quantities determined by the
statistical analysis
• Rule of thumb: 100 times the period of most low frequent
phenomena of interest

20
 Length of records
- Typical full scale record lengths:

• Wave frequency response: 15-20 minutes

• Slow-drift forces and motions: 3-5 hours (ideally 10
hours)
• Slamming ??
• Capsize ??

• To study and quantify very rarely occurring events, special

techniques must be applied!

21
 Transducer principles
- for strain and displacement measurements

• Resistive transducers
– Change of resistance due to strain – strain gauges
• Inductive transducers

22
 The old resistance measurement system

x kg

Towing Carriage

Ship model

Transducer = weights, wheels and string

Data acquisition = writing down total weight
23
 The new resistance measurement system
Data acquisition and signal conditioning system

A/D Filter Amplifier

Towing Carriage

Ship model

Transducer
based on strain
gauges
24
 Strain gauges

25
 Wheatstone bridge
B
Force K
• R is change of resistance due
to elongation of the strain gauge

R

R-
Strain
1 2

R
• gauges
R is known, variable resistances

R+
in the amplifier
• Vin is excitation – a known,
A B G Vg
constant voltage source

R
• Vg is signal

R
C

Side view Front view Vin

Supply of constant voltage
26
 Wheatstone bridge

• Constant voltage (can also be

Output voltage measurement

current) is supplied between A
and C
• The measured voltage (or
current) between B and G
depends on the difference
between the resistances R1-R4
• One or more of the resistances
R1-R4 are strain gauges
• If all resistances are strain
gauges, it is a full bridge circuit
• If only one resistance is a strain
gauge it is a quarter bridge
Supply of constant voltage
circuit
27
 Force transducer with two strain gauges, using
a Wheatstone half bridge

B
Force K

R-
R
Strain


1 2

R
R+
gauges

A B G Vg

R
R C

Side view Front view Vin

28
 Force measurement instruments:
Dynamometers
• 1-6 force components can be measured
• Strain gauge based sensors are most common
• One multi-component dynamometer might be made of
several one, two or three component transducers
• Many different designs are available
• Custom designs are common
• Special dynamometers for special purposes like:
– Propeller thrust and torque
– Rudder stock forces

29
 Three-component force dynamometer

30
 6 component dynamometer

31
 Inductive transducers

• Measures linear displacement

(of the core)
• Needs A/C excitation
• Used also in force
measurements in combination
with a spring or membrane

Linear variable differential transformer

32
 Pressure Measurements
- Transducer principles

Inductive

Strain gauge

Piezo-electric
33
 Pressure Measurements
- Requirements
• Stability is required for velocity measurements
– Strain gauge or inductive
• Dynamic response (rise time and resonance frequency) is
important for slamming and sloshing measurements
– Piezo-electric
– Strain gauge

34
 Position measurements

• Mechanical connection:
– Inductive transducers
– Wire-over-potentiometer
– Wire with spring and force measurement
• Without mechanical connection:
– Optical and video systems
– Acoustic systems
– Gyro, accelerometers, Inertial Measurement Units (IMU)

35
 Mechanical position measurements

Axial force transducer

Potentiometer
Measuring rotation
Spring

Wire connected
Wire connected to model
to model

Ship model

36
 Oqus-komponenter
Hardware

37
 Optical position measurement

• Remote sensing, non-intrusive measurement

• Using CCD video cameras
• Each camera gives position of the marker in 2-D
• Combination of 2-D position from two cameras gives
position in 3-D by triangulation
• Use of three markers on one model gives position in 6 DoF
by triangulation
• Calibration is needed for the system to determine:
– Camera positions and alignment
• The relative positions of the markers on the model must be
38
known to the system
 Triangulation Principle

❑ Position and orientation of the cameras are known

❑ Need two or more cameras to identify the marker
❑ Use triangulation to find out the 3D position of the markerkan beregne 3D
posisjonen til markøren

α β

39
 Calibration with a wand
❑ Calibrate the cameras based on a known geometry and position
❑ L-shaped object defines the co-ordinate system
❑ The cameras take pictures of the L, and define a camera based system
❑ A wand with a known marker spacing is used to define the volume calibration.
❑ By moving it around and ensuring the spacing is even throughout, the volume is calibrated.

y z

40
 Calibration with known markers
❑ Position of the camera's and markers are known and thus the position of the markers with
respect to the camera is calibrated.

y z

41
 Slik funker Oqus
Å måle i store volum

❑ Hvert kamera har begrenset målefelt (åpningsvinkel)

❑ For å måle i store volum benyttes derfor flere kamera
❑ Feltene til nabokamera må overlappe

42
43
 Measuring motions of a fish net

44
 A little example from Qualisys

45
 Velocity measurements

• Intrusive measurement (probe at point of measurement)

– Pitot and prandtl tubes for axial or total velocity measurement
– Three and five hole pitot tubes for 2 and 3-D velocity measurement
– Various flow meter devices
– Constant Temperature Anemometry
• Non-intrusive measurement (no probe at point of measurement)
– Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA or LDV)
• Measures velocity in a single point at each time instance
– Particle Image Velocimetry
• Measures flow field (2-D) in one instant

46
 Prandtl (pitot-static) tube

P = 12    V 2

V = 2  P 

47
 Pitot tube
• Measure only total stagnation pressure
• Smaller size than Prandtl tube
• Less accurate, due to sensitivity to static pressure
Ptot = Pdyn + Pstat = 12   V 2 +   g  h −   g  z
Ptot

V h
48
 State of the art CTA system

8/30/2018 Copyright © 2016. Dantec Dynamics. All rights reserved 49

49
 Constant Temperature Anemometry principle

• Consider a thin wire mounted to

supports and exposed to a velocity U. Current I Sensor dimensions:
length ~1 mm
diameter ~5 micrometer

• When a current is passed through wire,

heat is generated (I2Rw). In equilibrium,
Wire supports
this must be balanced by heat loss Velocity U
(St.St. needles)
Sensor (thin wire)
(primarily convective) to the
surroundings.
Copyright © 2016. Dantec Dynamics. All rights reserved

• If velocity changes, convective heat

transfer coefficient will change, wire
temperature will change and eventually
reach a new equilibrium.
50
 Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV)
• Velocity distribution in a plane
is found from the movement of
particles in a short time interval
• High-speed video is used to
capture images
• A sheet of laser light is used to
illuminate the particles in the
water
• Finding the velocity by
comparing the two pictures is
not trivial
• ”Seeding” the water with
suitable particles is another
practical challenge

51
 Laser Doppler Velocimetry (LDV or LDA)

Photo courtesy of Marin, the Netherlands

• Point measurement – must move the probe to measure at different

locations
• Calibration free
• Give 3-D flow velocity – also time history
52  can measure turbulence intensity
 Practical arrangement for stereo LDV
and PIV

53
54
Comparisons of velocity measurement systems
Pitot/Prandtl Probes
Intrusive measurement technique
– must take care not to influence
the flow.
Point measurement technique
Multidirectional probes require
constant calibration and
maintenance
Very low sampling frequencies
(<50 Hz), due to lag in system
Can get very accurate time
averaged results.
Fairly robust probes
Simple measurement technique
Very cheap
54
CTA
Intrusive measurement technique
– must take care not to influence
the flow.
Point measurement technique
Calibration is critical – must have
a known flow to calibrate the
instrument against.
Capable of high sampling
frequencies (>10 kHz)
Can get turbulence spectral
information fairly easily.
Very fragile – not too suited for
harsh environments – Access can
be challenging
Very safe technique
Fairly expensive
LDV PIV
Non-intrusive optical Non-intrusive optical
measurement technique measurement technique
Point measurement technique with Full field flow measurement
high spatial resolution technique – able to evaluate
instantaneous spatial information
No calibration needed Calibrations is critical
Sampling frequency highly Depending on seeding and
dependent on seeding density and equipment, capable of >1Khz
flow properties – high sampling sampling frequencies
frequencies are possible (>1 KHz)
Possible to measure near wall Depending on setup – 3D
flow – able to determine shear volumetric flow measurements are
stress if correctly set up possible
Needs optical access Needs optical access
Uses lasers – safety considerations Laser safety is critical as lasers are
quite powerful.
Somewhat expensive Very expensive
 Wave probes Wave probe amp.
wave probe
+-
output
10V DC
+-

Measurement of resistance,
Conversion to +-10V DC

Conductive wires

Water will short-circuit between the wires

55
 Relative wave measurements

56
 Acoustic wave probes
• Working principle:
A sound pulse is emitted, and the time it takes the reflected
sound to reach the probe is used to calculate the distance to
the water

• Benefits:
– Works also at high forward speeds
– Non-intrusive
– Calibration free
• Drawbacks:
– More costly
– Steep waves in combination with smooth surface (no ripples)
causes drop-outs, when no reflected sound reach the probe
57
 Now go forth and measure something

58