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Drives are employed for systems that require motion control – e.g. transportation system, fans,
robots, pumps, machine tools, etc. Prime movers are required in drive systems to provide the
movement or motion and energy that is used to provide the motion can come from various
sources: diesel engines, petrol engines, hydraulic motors, electric motors etc.
Drives that use electric motors as the prime movers are known as electrical drives. It is
estimated that about half of electricity generated is converted to mechanical energy and this
conversion is performed using electric drives.
A typical conventional electric drive system for variable speed application employing multi-
machine system is shown in Figure 1, which also known as the Ward-Leonard system. The
variable speed of the load is obtained by varying the terminal voltage of the DC motor, which is
fed by the DC generator. The AC motor is mechanically coupled to the DC generator and hence
runs at constant speed. Subsequently, the field excitation of the DC generator is adjusted in
order to provide the adjustable DC voltage to the DC machine. If the DC generator voltage is
adjusted to be lower than the back EMF voltage of the DC motor, the ‘motor’ will be operated in
regenerative braking mode. In other words, 4-quadrant operation is possible with this
configuration. Obviously, the system is bulky, expensive, inflexible and require regular
maintenance due to the present of the DC machines. In the past, for constant speed application,
induction and synchronous motors were widely. An efficient variable speed operation of AC
motors is only possible if both the frequency and magnitude of the 3-phase supply voltage are
adjustable; unfortunately this is used to be almost impossible.
Ia
variable
fixed speed
speed variable
AC DC DC
DC Load
motor generator motor
If
With the advancement in power electronics, microprocessors and digital electronics, typical
electric drive systems nowadays are becoming more compact, efficient, cheaper and versatile –
this is shown in Figure 2. The voltage and current (magnitude and frequency) applied to the
motor can be changed at will by employing power electronic converters. AC motor is no longer
limited to applications where only AC source is available, however, it can also be used when the
power source available is DC or vice versa
1
Power
Power Processor Motor Load
Source (Power electronic
Converters)
feedback
Control Control
Unit
Like other power electronic systems, modern electric drives is a multi-disciplinary field. The
drive systems can be broken into several different research areas, as depicted in Figure 3.
• Utility interface
• Renewable energy
• Machine design
• Speed sensorless
• Machine theory
• Non-linear control
• Real-time control
• DSP application
• PFC
• sensors
• Speed sensorless
• Power electronic converters
a) Motors
Motors obtain power from electrical sources. They convert energy from electrical to
mechanical - therefore can be regarded as energy converters. In braking mode, the flow of
power is reversed. Depending upon the type of power converters used, it is also possible for
2
the power to be fed back to the sources (regenerative braking) rather than dissipated as heat
(dynamic braking). There are several types of motors used in electric drives – the choice of
the type to be used depends on applications, cost, environmental factors and also on the
type of sources available. Broadly, they can be classified as either DC or AC motors:
DC motors (wound or permanent magnet)
AC motors
Induction motors – squirrel cage, wound rotor
Synchronous motors – wound field, permanent magnet
Brushless DC motor – require power electronic converters
Stepper motors – require power electronic converters
Synchronous reluctance motors or switched reluctance motor – require power electronic
converters
Power electronic converters are typically consists of power semiconductor devices and
passive elements, such as inductors and/or capacitors. The losses in power semiconductor
devices are minimized since they are always operated in either cut-off or saturated modes.
The conversion of electrical power from one form to another can be performed with either
single-stage conversion or multiple-stage conversion. For example a conversion from AC to
DC can be performed in two stages (ACàDCàDC) or it can be performed with single stage
conversion, i.e. ACàDC. The choice of which one to choose, in general, depends on
application requirements, such as control bandwidth, output voltage or current ripples, cost,
etc.
AC to DC conversion
Controlled
Diode DC-DC
rectifier
rectifier converter
AC DC control
AC AC control DC
3
DC to AC
Inverter
DC-DC Inverter (PWM)
converter (six-step)
DC control AC
DC control DC control AC
DC to DC
DC-DC
Converter
DC DC
control
AC to AC
Matrix
Converter
AC control
AC
c) Control Unit
Control unit is used to generate the switching signals to the power switches of the power
converters. The switching signals are generated depending on the control scheme adopted,
which depends on the desired drive performance and the type of motors used. A controller
can be as simple as few op-amps and/or a few digital ICs, or it can be as complex as the
combinations of several ASICs and digital signal processors (DSPs). The controllers can be
constructed from/using:
• analog circuit - which is noisy, inflexible. However, analog circuit ideally can provide
infinite control bandwidth.
• digital circuit – immune to noise, configurable. The bandwidth is obviously limited that
depends on the sampling frequency. Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA) devices are
gaining popularity due to their re-configurable features. However implementation of
sophisticated control algorithm and observers can be very difficult and complex.
• DSP/microprocessor – flexible, lower bandwidth compared to the digital circuit. DSPs
perform faster operation than microprocessors (multiplication in a single cycle). With a
DSP/microprocessor, complex estimations and observers can be easily implemented.
4
Most of the time, the control unit has to be electrically isolated from the power converters
using opto-coupler or pulse transformers, for the following reasons:
• Malfunction in power circuit may damage control circuit if no electrical isolation
is present.
• Safety for the operator – the high voltage and/or high current faulty condition in
the power circuit can be conducted to the control circuit normally maintained by
an operator/user
• Avoid conduction of harmonic to control circuit. Power electronic converters
generate harmonics that can conduct to the control circuit thus interfering with
its operation.
d) Source
Electrical sources or power supplies provide the energy to the electrical motors. Power
sources can be of AC or DC in nature and normally are uncontrollable, i.e. their magnitudes
and frequencies are either fixed or varying, depending on the sources of energy such as
battery, power utility, fuel cell, etc. Fixed frequency and fixed magnitude AC source is
normally obtained from power utility and can be either three-phase or single-phase; 3-phase
sources are normally for high power applications. In order to efficiently control the motor,
regardless of whether it is a DC or AC source (and depending on the type of the motor), it
has to be regulated using power electronics converters before being fed to the motor. Power
electronics converters typically have poor input power factor and it is sometimes necessary
for the power converters to be operated with high power factor; if this is needed, power factor
correction circuit has to be introduced.
e) Sensors
Sensors for voltage, current, speed or torque are required for closed-loop operation and
protections in electrical drive systems. Signals from these sensors have to be isolated from
the control unit for the same reasons as explained before. Electrical isolation in voltage and
current sensors are obtained using, for example, Hall-ffect sensors/devices. For high
performance drive system, the speed is obtained from high-resolution speed encoders or
resolvers. The terms ‘sensorless drive’ is normally referred to a drive system that does not
need a mechanical speed sensor but rather the speed is estimated using motor terminal
variables i.e. voltages and currents.
There can be several factors that affect the selection of different configuration of electrical drive
system such as:
a) Torque and speed profile - determine the ratings of converters and the quadrant of
operation required.
b) Capital and running cost – Drive systems will vary in terms of start-up cost and running
cost, e.g. maintenance.
c) Space and weight restrictions
d) Environment and location
Control unit:
• DC drives: Simple control – decoupling torque and flux by mechanical commutator – the
controller can be implemented using simple analog circuit even for high performance
torque control. This means that cheaper cost for the controller.
• AC drives, the types of controllers to be used depend on the required drive performance –
obviously, cost increases with performance. Scalar control drives technique does not
5
require fast processor/DSP whereas in Field Oriented Control (FOC) or Direct Torque
Control (DTC) drives, DSPs or fast processors are normally employed.
Performance:
• In DC motors, flux and torque components are always magnetically perpendicular to one
another thanks to the mechanical commutator and brushes. The torque is controlled via
the armature current while maintaining the field component constant. Fast torque and
decouple control between flux and torque components can be achieved easily.
• In AC machines, in particular the induction machines, magnetic coupling between
phases and between stator and rotor windings makes the modeling and torque control
difficult and complex. Control of the steady state operating conditions is accomplished
by controlling the magnitude and the frequency of the applied voltage; which is known
as the scalar control technique. This is satisfactory for some applications, however for a
more demanding applications such as elevators, electric vehicles, machine tools, it
unacceptable because of the poor transient response and poor precision. The transient
response and precision can be improved by applying the vector control technique; the
decoupling between the torque and flux components is achieved through frame
transformations. Implementation of this control technique is complex thus requires fast
processors such as DSPs.
ω
Te
Te
ω ω
II I
T
Te III IV
Te
ω ω
Quadrant I
Both torque and speed are positive – the motor rotates in forward direction, which is in the same
direction as the motor torque. The power of the motor is the product of the speed and torque (P
= Teω), therefore the power of the motor is positive. Energy is converted from electrical form to
mechanical form, which is used to rotate the motor. The mode of operation is known as forward
motoring.
7
Quadrant II
The speed is in forward direction but the motor torque is in opposite direction or negative value.
The torque produced by the motor is used to ‘brake’ the forward rotation of the motor. The
mechanical energy accumulated during the braking, is converted to electrical energy – thus the
flow of energy is from the mechanical system to the electrical system. However the flow of energy
back to the source is only possible if the power converter is capable of doing so. The product of
the torque and speed is negative thus the power is negative, implying that the ‘motor’ operates
as a generator, i.e. in braking mode. The mode of operation is known as forward braking.
Example: In DC motor drive (separately excited or permanent magnet) for example, forward braking
is initiated when the armature terminal voltage of a motor rotating in forward direction is reduced
lower than the back EMF of the motor. This forces the current to flow in reverse direction thus
implying a negative torque (2nd quadrant). The motor speed reduces to a new steady state speed
and again operates in the quadrant 1.
Quadrant III
The speed and the torque of the motor are in the same direction but are both negative. The
reverse electrical torque is used to rotate the motor in reverse direction. The power, i.e. the
product of the torque and speed, is positive implying that the motor operates in motoring mode.
The energy is converted from electrical form to mechanical form. This mode of operation is
known as reverse motoring.
Example: If the motor initially operates in quadrant 1 (forward speed), it will have to operate in
forward braking first before the speed can be reversed (quadrant 3). In order to move from
quadrant 1 to quadrant 3, the voltage applied to the motor terminal has to be reversed.
Quadrant IV
The speed is in reverse direction but the torque is positive. The motor torque is used to ‘brake’
the reverse rotation of the motor. The mechanical energy gained during the braking is converted
to electrical form – thus power flow is from the mechanical system to the electrical system. The
product of the speed and torque is negative implying that the ‘motor’ operates as a generator,
i.e. in braking mode. This mode of operation is known as reverse braking.
The Newton’s Law states that, the net force acting on a body of mass M equals to the rate of
change of its mechanical momentum, which is the product of its mass and its velocity in the
direction of the net force. In the equation form, this is given by
(Mv ) dv dM
F=d =M +v (1)
dt dt dt
where F is the net force acting on the body, M is the mass of the body and v is its velocity. This
is illustrated by Figure 5.
x
v F = Fp − Ff
Fp dv
M Ff F=M
dt
8
dv
F=M
dt
For rotational motion (which is the case for rotating electrical machines), the force, the mass
and the linear velocity in translational motion are equivalent to the torque, the moment of
inertia and the angular velocity, respectively. Equation (1) can therefore be written as
(Jω) dω dJ
T=d =J +ω (3)
dt dt dt
where T is the net torque, J is the moment of inertia and ω is the angular velocity. The rotational
system which is analogous to the translational system of Figure 5 is shown in Figure 6.
θ
T = Te − Tl
TL
ω, Te
J dω
T=J
dt
dω
T=J (4)
dt
d 2θ (5)
T=J
dt 2
dω (6)
T = Te − Tl = J
dt
where Te is the internal electrical torque produced by the motor, Tl is the load torque and/or the
internal friction of the motor. T is the available torque at the shaft and is responsible for
accelerating the inertia of the motor. T is also known as the dynamic torque and it only exists
during the transient (i.e. acceleration and deceleration). In order to accelerate in forward
direction, Te –Tl must be positive; which means that the applied electrical torque must be larger
than the load torque. In order to decelerate, the net torque must be negative; the electrical
torque must be made smaller than the load torque and the motor operates in braking mode –
more on this later. Note that the speed is always continuous. A discontinuity in speed (i.e. step
change in speed) theoretically will require an infinite torque. This is analogous to the voltage and
current across a capacitor in which discontinuity in capacitor voltage is not allowed as it
corresponds to an infinite capacitor current.
Equation (4) relates the torque and the mechanical speed (or position) of the machine. For a
given electrical torque profile, with the known moment of inertia and the load torque, the speed
profile of the drive system can be determined. In a torque-controlled drive system, the speed is
9
governed by the load. If the load torque comprise of only the frictional torque which is
proportional to the speed, (4) can be written as
dω (7)
Te = J + Bω
dt
Equation (7) can be easily simulated using SIMULINK as shown in Figure 7. In the simulation, a
square wave torque is applied.
10
torque
0
-10
tref 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
speed
To Workspace2
0
1 1
-K- pos
s s -200
Torque
Add 1/J Integrator Integrator1 To Workspace1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
100
position
-K-
50
B
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Usually in a cascaded closed-loop control system in which the speed is to be controlled, the
reference torque will be generated by the speed controller. In such cases, the torque will be
governed by the speed.
If we multiply (7) with the angular speed, we obtain an equation describing the power balance,
dωm (8)
ωm Te = ωm Tl + ωm J
dt
dωm
p D = p L + ωm J
dt
Where pD = ωmTe is the driving power, pL = ωmTl is the load power and ωm J dωm is the change in
dt
kinetic energy. Integrating the equation with time and setting the initial speed ω(0) = 0, we
obtain the following:
t t t
dωm
w D = ∫ p Ddτ = ∫ p Ldτ + ∫ ωm J dτ
0 0 0
dτ
ω
w D = w L + J ∫ ωm dωm
0
1
wD = wL + Jω2m
2 (9)
The last term of (9) is the stored kinetic energy of the system. It is analogous to the energy
stored in a capacitor ( 12 Cv 2 ) or an inductor ( 12 Li2 ) . Similar to a capacitor voltage or an
10
inductor current, an angular velocity ω must be continuous. An abrupt (discontinuous) change
in ω will results in an infinite power.
ω Fl Fm
Tm
M
Tl r r
v
Figure 8 Translational and rotational motions
The relation between the torques and the linear forces are given by
Tl = rFl, Tm = rFm .
Also,
v = rω
dv Tm Tl d(rω)
Fm − Fl = M ⇒ − =M
dt r r dt
d(ω)
Tm − Tl = Mr 2 (10)
dt
Equation (10) states that the equivalent moment of inertia of the translational motion referred to
the axis of the pulley is given by Jequ = Mr2
11
ω 1, T m ω2
J2
Loss-free
J1 J3
gear
2r3
ω3
M3
The hoist drive system shown in Figure 9 can be represented by an equivalent system similar to
Figure 5. In order to do that, we need to obtain the equivalent moment of inertia and load
torque. If the mass M3 is considered being moved upwards, with the negligible frictional torque,
it can be shown that the torque equation for the equivalent system is given by
dω1 ω3 (11)
Tm = Je + r3 gM3
dt ω1
2 2
⎛ ω ⎞ ⎛ ω ⎞
where [
Je = J1 + ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ J2 + ⎜⎜ 3 ⎟⎟ J3 + M3r32 ]
⎝ ω1 ⎠ ⎝ ω1 ⎠
v
X
2r m
belt
Roller
Gear
Motor system
Figure 10 shows a belt conveyor drive system which is used to move load A which has a mass of
5 kg. Given that the frictional torque between the rollers and the belt is 25 Nm and the moment
of inertia of the rollers and motor are 250 × 10-3 kg-m2 and 300 × 10-3 kg-m2 respectively. The
radius of the roller is 0.2 m. The steady state speed of the motor is 1000 rpm and it is required
that the steady state speed of box A to be v = 3 m/s .
12
(iv) Calculate the electrical torque needed to accelerate box A from 0 m/s (standstill) to 3
m/s in 2 second.
Solution
(i)
3 m/s à 15 rad/s. The speed of the shaft is 1000 rpm = 104.72 rad/s. Hence ratio n1/n2 =
0.1432
(ii)
Moment of inertia as seen by the motor’s shaft is due to the roller, load A and motor.
Jequ = 300 × 10-3 + (0.1432)2 (250 × 10-3 + 5 × 0.22) = 0.3644 kg-m2
(iii)
The load torque is due to the frictional torque of 25 Nm only.
Tequ = (0.1432)×25 = 3.58 Nm
(iv)
Using the equivalent rotating system,
Te = Tequ + Jequ (dω/dt) = 3.58 + 0.3644 (104.72/2) = 22.67 Nm
The loads on the other hand will have their own T-ω characteristics. It is the intersection
between the motor and the load T-ω characteristics that determines the steady state speed. This
can be seen from (6) where at steady state dω/dt = 0 and Te = Tl.
The steady state torque-speed characteristic of the motor depends on the applied voltage or
current. Hence, by changing the point of intersections between the motor and load torque-speed
curves, different steady-state speeds can be achieved (Figure 12).
13
Different steady-state torque-speed
characteristics of the motor, Te
Torque
Torque-speed characteristic of
the load, Tl
ω1 ω2 ω3 speed
Different motor
speeds
Figure 12 Different steady state speeds (Tl = Te) for different motor’s T-ω characteristics
It should be noted that the graph in Figure 12 only displayed the steady state characteristics of
the load and motor. The transient responses before these steady state speeds are reached have
to be dealt with using the dynamic characteristics of the load and motor.
Frictional torque
Moving parts of the motor and load constitute the frictional torque. There are several types of
frictional as described in Figure 13 and explained below:
In practical drive system consisting of load and motor, all components of friction described
above exist simultaneously. However, in most of the cases, only one or two components are
dominating. For instance, a fan or a propeller will typically have the windage friction
dominating, whereas in paper mill and machine tools, the dominating one could be the viscous
friction.
14
Coulomb
ω
Windage
Figure 13 Frictional torque
Viscous
Speed Gravitational
torque Te
TL = rFL = r g M sin α
TL
Torque gM
α
FL
15
Thermal considerations
The losses in the machines contribute to the temperature increase in the machine. The various
parts of the machine have different temperature limits. Particularly important is the insulation
used for the windings which give rise to the different classes of machines. If the temperature
goes beyond the allowable temperature, it will cause an immediate breakdown (short circuit in
the winding) or it will deteriorate the quality and hence reduces the lifetime of the insulation
material. Allowable power losses are higher for materials which can withstand higher
temperature which translates to higher costs. The classes of the insulator used for the winding
in electrical machines are shown in Table 1.
Core losses
Mainly due to eddy current and hysteresis losses
The constructions of the machines are very complex; normally built from various types of
materials (heterogeneous) with complex geometrical shapes. To exactly predict the heat flow and
hence the temperature distribution is extremely difficult. Based on the assumptions that the
temperature limits of all parts does not exceed the temperature limits under certain operating
conditions, the motors can therefore adequately modeled as homogeneous bodies. Obviously,
this assumption cannot determine the specific internal thermal conditions for the motors.
Ambient temperature, To
p1 p2
INPUT POWER OUTPUT POWER
(losses) (convection)
16
Let us assume that a homogeneous body shown in Figure 15 represents a motor which has a
thermal capacity C. The input power, which is the losses incurred in the motor, is represented
by p1 whereas the output power, which is the power released as heat by convection, is
represented by p2. The output power due to radiation is assumed negligible because of the low
operating temperature and back radiation. Under a steady state condition, the input power
equals the output power; this is when the steady state temperature is reached. The equation
describing the power balance is given by
dT (12)
C = p1 − p2
dt
dΔT
C + αA(ΔT ) = p1
dt
or
dΔT p (14)
τT + (ΔT ) = 1
dt αA
where τT = C/(αA) is the thermal time constant. With ΔT(0)=0 and a step change in the power
input p1 from 0 to ph at t=0, the solution for ΔT is
ph
ΔT =
αA
(
1 − e −t / τ ) (15)
During cooling, i.e. when heat is removed at t=0, the temperature of the body decays to the
ambient temperature.
(16)
ΔT = ΔT(0) ⋅ e −t / τ
ph
ΔT αA
Heating
transient
τ t
17
ΔT
ΔT(0) Cooling
transient
τ t
If the thermal time constant is large, a temporary overload is therefore possible without
exceeding the temperature limits. Three typical modes of operation are:
- Continuous duty
- Short time intermittent duty
- Periodic intermittent duty
18
200
100
speed (rad/s)
0
-100
-200
0.19 0.2 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25
20
15
torque (Nm)
10
0
0.19 0.2 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.25
In most cases, the torque during this transient condition can be up to 3 times the rated torque
of the motor (for servo motor, it can be as high as 8 to 10 times the rated value). This
momentary high torque is possible due to the large thermal capacity of the motor with suitable
insulators used for the winding. The converter, which conducts the motor current, must be able
to sustain this condition. However since the thermal capacity of the converters (i.e. switching
devices) is small, the current cannot be higher than its rated value even for a short time.
Consequently, the current rating of the converter is normally set to equal the maximum
allowable motor current and this can be as high as the 3 times the motor rated current. The
maximum allowable torque during transient of a drive system is determined by the current
rating of the converter used whereas the continuous torque limit depends on the current rating
of the motor. The operating area of a 4-quadrant motor drive is shown in Figure 18. The
converter is normally protected from the over-current condition by the current limiter
mechanism within the converter system, which means that sustained overloads on the motor
has to be protected by an additional thermal protection mechanism. Above the base speed, ωb,
the toque is limited by the maximum allowable power, which depends on whether the transient
or continuous torque limit is considered. The speed limit basically depends on the mechanical
limitation of the motor.
Torque
Transient
Power limit for
torque limit
transient torque
Continuous
torque limit Power limit for
continuous
torque Figure 18 Limits for torque,
speed and power for drive system
Maximum
speed limit
- ωb ωb
Speed
19
Steady-state stability
The motor will operate at the steady-state speed (point where Tl = Te) provided that the speed is
of stable equilibrium. The stable equilibrium speed is investigated using steady-state torque-
speed characteristics of the load and motor.
A disturbance in any part of the drive will result in a speed to depart from the steady state
speed. However, if the steady-state speed is of stable equilibrium, the speed will return to the
stable equilibrium speed. On the other hand, if the speed is not of the stable equilibrium, the
disturbance will results in the speed to drift away from the equilibrium speed. It can be shown
that the condition for stable equilibrium is:
dTl dTe
− >0 (17)
dω dω
Torque
Torque
Te Tl
Tl Te
Tln Te2
Q1 Q2
Ten Tl2
Δω
Δω
ω1 speed ω2
speed
Let us take an example of Figure 19(a). Assume that there is a disturbance that causes the
steady state point to move away from the equilibrium point Q1, such that an increase in speed
occurs. A new load torque and motor torque at this new speed (ω1) which is according to Figure
9(a) are Tl1 and Te1 respectively. Clearly from the figure, Tl1 > Te1 and according to the equation
of motion for torque, the motor will decelerate. The deceleration will cause the motor to return to
its initial equilibrium point. Therefore point Q1 is said to be steady state stable. In Figure 19(b),
point Q2 on the other hand, is steady state unstable. At ω2, the electrical torque is larger than
the load torque and this causes the system to accelerate further away from Q2. It should be
noted that in electrical drive system with power electronic converters, the system can be brought
back to Q2 by altering the T-ω characteristic of the motor. This is typically done for example
using the closed-loop speed control system.
References
20
G.K. Dubey, “Fundamental of Electrical Drives”, Narosa, 1994.
W. Leonhard, “Control of Electrical Drives”, Springer-Verlag, 2001
21