Example Dissertation

Investigation into the Design and Manufacture
of Solar Water Distillation System.
1. Introduction.
Water and energy are fundamental components of modern civilizations (UNIDO,

2003). It is indispensable to all forms of life and it is needed in almost all human
activities (Pacific Institution, 2009). Water can be defined as the common liquid in our
planet. The amount of water that covers the Earth’s surface is a staggering 71.1%
representing two third the size of Earth with the remaining of 28.9 % attributing to
land. The majority of the water is present as salty water in the seas and oceans.
Scientific statistics shows that the percentage of the salty water is approximately
97.5%, this effectively means that only 2.5% of the total amount of water on Earth is
potable, out of which, 1.6% is in the polar ice caps, and 0.36% present underground
which leaves a mere small percent in the lakes and rivers for daily use (Cammerman,
2009).
It is clear that fresh water is hardly accessible which deems it as a scarce source of
potable water; this is partly because roots from massive continue growth of
population and industries. According to the World Health Organization and UNICEF,
(2005) almost 50% of the developing countries’ population, which is about 2.5 billion
people, lack improved sanitation facilities. Furthermore, over 884 million people still
use unsafe drinking water sources. Thousands of children are sickened everyday
with diarrheal diseases because of the inadequate access to safe fresh water and
sanitation services, and about 5 children die every day from the same reason.
However sufficient quality of potable water and basic sanitation can cut this toll
dramatically. Thus the important questions arise, how can we tackle this issue? And
what are the possible effective solutions?
The limited natural water resources in the world pressure the scientist and engineers
to develop alternative sources by the use of energy. Despite the abundance of
renewable energy, the use of solar thermal and photovoltaic system is still in its
technological infancy. Over the last quarter century, these technologies have
certainly advanced technically to the point where they should be considered clean-
energy alternatives to fossil fuels. As the environmental concerns arise and these
AHMAD ALKHAYYAT, 04328963 1

technologies become more advanced, the use of these technologies becomes

crucial. At the present time sustainable energy has been recognised as a great
source and the use of such energy can grant an answer to these concerns and can
be one of the most effective solutions especially for the third world countries. This will
assist in reducing the energy usage and carbon emissions. Recently a lot of
researches have been done to effectively make use of the solar energy technologies
to generate electricity, light, heat, hot water and even cooling for homes. In addition,
solar energy can be used to purify sea water by using solar water distillation systems
and cook food with solar oven.
Desalination technique can be one of the solutions used to solve the matter related
to the shortage of drinkable water in poor countries. Al-Karaghouli & Renne, (2009)
stated that Desalination is a water treatment process that separates salts from saline
water to produce potable water or water that is low in total dissolved solids (TDS).
The aim of this project is to establish an applicable solution to satisfy the demand on
fresh water by the third world countries while spending less money and energy, by
the use of solar energy which is regarded as one of the best accessible renewable at
any time and place. In addition, it will help Sun Catchers Charity (SCC) to provide
solutions to areas where money and energy powers such as electricity and gas are
sparse.
This project is designed using raw materials that can be obtained even by poor
people. The idea behind this design is the use of a large water bottle as water still
because of its sustainable material nature. In addition, the project will outline the
design theory of the solar distillation systems, background about solar stills will be
discussed briefly in the next section. A 3D design drawing is produced to enhance
visualization and modifications. A prototype of the water distillation system will be
manufactured in order to analyse the main principles of the design theory as well as
testing to investigate the performance and efficiency rate of the design.

2. Aims of the Project.
The main aim of the project is to investigate the feasibility of solar water distillation to
produce potable water; it will also investigate the performance and efficiency of the
product. Besides, the project also aims to create a solution that helps SCC to tackle
the shortage of fresh water in the third world countries where the solar energy is
more accessible than any other form of energy. These aims can be achieved by:
• Analysing the performance and efficiency of existing stills.

• Investigating into manufacture of localised product that improves the existing
product if applicable otherwise new product will be created.
• Manufacture the solar still using raw materials.
• Testing of solar still.
3. Objectives of the Project.
The main objectives of this project can be summarised below:
• Literature review will be carried out in order to analyse the problem precisely.
• Benchmarking of the product with other existing ones available in the market.
• Performance testing of existing solar stills.
• Identify the main weaknesses and limitations of an existing solar still
• Apply Improvements and modifications of an existing water stills if applicable.
• Identify the design parameters.
• Creating a 3D Model for better visualization.
• Designing a new prototype of solar still using raw materials.
• Manufacture of new still, analysing its performance and efficiency.
• Technical report, conference/journal paper will be written.
4. Project Methodology.
The methodology of this project requires an up to date knowledge of information

related to the design of water solar distillation systems. The main aims and

objectives is to design and manufacture an efficient water solar distillation system

using large water bottles, to help reducing the demand on fresh water and to create
accessible sources of fresh water in the developing countries. In order to investigate
the feasibility of the distillation system a number of methods will be carried out in
which it can be summarized in the following points:
• Statement of the Problem: the main problem is the shortage of fresh water in
the developing countries. The main challenge is how to make use of a solar
power to purify water using disposable water bottles.
• Literature Review: this chapter discusses the water purifications methods. In

addition to analysing previous documented projects which will help familiarize
with the idea of designing the solar distillation system. Previous work will also
be analysed in order to identify strengths and weaknesses that will help
achieving a more effective solution. Issues indicated in this chapter will be
considered later on when designing the solar still. Furthermore, research
performed on solar energy will be critically analysed to obtain an optimum
results.
• Conceptual Design: this chapter will cover all the general ideas and solutions
of the designing process as well as the materials and processes of each
design. A number of solutions will be generated and analysed. An evaluation
technique will be used to evaluate the different designs in order to get hold of
the optimum solution.
• Final Design: A 3D design will be created to visualize the project properly.

After analysing the optimum solution and optimization technique will be used
to tackle its drawbacks. In the end, the supervisor will make the decision to
manufacture the design.
• Manufacturing Process: this chapter will cover the manufacture part of the
design and the materials needed for its manufacture process. All the

equipment and materials will be listed in order together before starting to

manufacture the prototype.
• Experiment Analysis and Discussion: this chapter will include all the
experimental procedures and theoretical analysis. A number of experiments
will be carried out to obtain the optimum solution in terms of efficiency,
performance and productivity. All the experiments will be subjected to
comparison to analyse the results clearly and efficiently.
• Conclusion: this section will cover the summarized results and main points of
the discussion.
5. Literature Review.
This chapter will discuss the different methods of desalination techniques and water
purification. The solar still is considered one of the methods used to distil water.
There are many ways to produce potable water, however each method require
energy to be run, the energy usage varies from method to another. These methods
will be briefly discussed in the next section. Furthermore, the main focus will be on
the small-scale water solar distillation system which is one of main processes of the
desalination technologies.
5.1 Background of Desalination Techniques.
The desalination is a process where sea water is subjected to treatment to

separate the salt and produce potable water. Al-Karaghouli & Renne, (2009)
provides useful discussion about the desalination technique, in which they are
mainly classified into two types: the first type can be defined as the sun of
processes which are based on physical change in the state of water or distillate
through evaporation, whereas the other type of processes use a membrane that
employ the concept of filtration. Al-Karaghouli & Renne, (2009) shows statistically
that the leader of these two processes in the market place which is the membrane
distillation process of reverse osmosis (RO) with a 44% of total capacity and
following closely the thermal process of multi-stage flash (MSF) with 40% of the

total capacity. The main sources of the desalination feeding water are sea water
with 58% and brackish ground water with 23% according to (Al-Karaghouli &
Renne, 2009). The main desalination technologies are shown in the graph below,
with an up to date details of these technologies in (Al-Karaghouli & Renne, 2009).
Figure (1). The Main Desalination Processes according to (Al-Karaghouli &

Renne, 2009)
The main problem lies in the selection of desalination process technology which is
considered to be a critical decision where decision maker requires up to date
information about the latest desalination technologies in order to make most use of
it. Al-Subaie, (2006) provides useful information about the technology selection
methodology and its main criteria. This project will focus on the solar distillation
technique.
Solar distillation mainly uses the sun radiation heat in a simple piece of equipment to
purify water which is commonly called a solar still. This solar still consist of a shallow
basin with a transparent glass cover. The basic principle of the solar still is that the
sun’s radiation heat up the water in the basin which causes evaporation. Moisture
rises, condenses on the inner surface of the transparent glass (cover) and runs down
to the collecting channel where the salt, minerals and impurities will be left behind.
McCracken & J, (1985) states that the basin-type solar still continues to be the most
economical when compared to other types. Although there are many existing design

variation of solar stills, only the basin still type will be discussed thoroughly in this
project. The following section will investigate the purification methods performances.
5.2 Water Purification Methods.
Water purification in its simple term is defined as the act of cleaning by getting rid
of impurities in water to produce water suitable for drinking, it is known as water
filtration. There are many methods and techniques to produce fresh water. One of
the simplest methods is boiling, where it requires high energy. However, this
method is not the safest; it is only used for urgent situation. There are different
techniques used at present to purify water, but the common methods are
summarised below:
• Ozone Filter: this type of filter uses the ozone O3 which is the most active
state of the Oxygen O2. Ozone is considered a true sterilant and has the
ability to kill permanently not only bacteria, but also viruses, spores, fungi and
many other microbes. On the other hand, it uses the oxidation process to
break down dissolved organic materials. According to Family Health News,
(2006) “Both the Food and Drug Administration FDA and Environmental
Protection Agency EPA certify that ozone destroys 99.9992% of all pathogenic
germs, while oxidizing (destroying) 99.9992% which is basically ALL other
pollutants in the water at the same time”.
• Activated Carbon Filter: this process main theory is that it works through
absorption of the problematic compounds to removes taste and odour as well
as other harmful contaminants. It has a highly porous material which attracts
the impurities to its large surface area. The carbon samples are expensive
and less effective when used frequently as explained in (Water Treatment,
2003).
• Ultra Violet Light: this process works by passing water through a chamber
which is flooded with Ultra Violet Light, this destroys the micro organisms. This
method is one of the effective methods used. The main issue with this method

is the maintenance as the pre-filter needs to be cleaned according to UK

Water Filter, (2008).
• Steam Distilled Water: this method is producing fresh water by a natural

process such as simple cooling and heating, like natural rain which results in
pure water droplets. This process only requires natural sources heat, steam
and gravity.
• Ion Exchange Filter: it is a filter which softens water by exchanging sodium

ions for "hardness" ions including calcium and magnesium. This type of filter
consists of a reservoir containing small beards of synthetic resin, brine tank
and a valve. These beads are treated to absorb either cations (positive) or
anions (negative) selectively. This type is considered as one of the common
tools of water treatment used nowadays. Its main function is to get rid of
scale-forming magnesium and calcium from hard water according to Herrman,
(1973).
• Redox and KDF Filter: KDF filters employ a matrix of zinc/copper alloy. This
eliminates a wide range of contaminants by utilizing electrochemical oxidation-
reduction (Redox Principle). Water Filter Online, (2009) states that “KDF
media can remove more than 95% of chlorine, iron, heavy metals, hydrogen
sulphide, and other contaminants from water”.
• Reverse Osmosis (RO): RO process employs a membrane to filter the

pressurized water from the contaminants, however not all impurities will be
removed. There is a need to use a cross flow process which guarantee that
the water produced is cleaned from any impurities according to Water
Treatment, (2009).
• Sediment Filter: this type of filter is made of a porous material where it purifies
water from visible and large inorganic contaminants. They are usually used in
households because of its simplicity in use and its low cost. This kind of
treatment will allow certain minerals like hydrogen sulphide and iron to

become solid, which, in turn, will make them much easier to trap in water
sediment filters.
5.3 Water Purification Methods Evaluation.
After specifying each method working principle, comparing each method is really
important to set on the best method of purification. The criteria of evaluation
between the purification methods are water output quality, efficiency, cost, and
maintenance and contaminants removal. The main issue is that it is difficult to
compare between each one as the information provided are not specific hence
some of the comments will be fairly accurate. The latest research shows that the
distillation and RO processes are more effective than the rest of the methods.
There are two tables below discussing the evaluation between these methods,
one discusses the general information of each method and the second table
discusses what contaminants each method can remove.
Output Output Maintenance

Efficiency Cost
Quality Capacity Required
Distillation Good Very good It is a time It depends on It requires
using efficiency quality of consuming the material maintenance as
water method. The of the need to
Renewable produced. maximum manufacture, clean the basin
Energy. achievement but it is regularly
was an considerably because of
average of low precipitate.
two cups a compared to
day. the others.
Ultra Violet Good High quality No waste of Very Change the bulb
Light (UV) efficiency water water expensive to every year. The
as the use produced processed, buy as the unit needs to be
of however is need to buy cleaned several
electricity is not as much the unit and a times per year.
very low. as RO. bulb.
Boiling Low Average Because of Low cost No maintenance
efficiency quality of evaporation, because use required.
compared water there is it is only
to the produced. waste in require
others. Hard water electricity to
particles processed. run other
cannot be than the
destroyed. chamber.

Output Output Maintenance

Efficiency Cost
Quality Capacity Required
Ozone Highly High quality No waste in The cost is It requires
Filter efficient as it water water under considerably cleaning the
kills 99.9% of produced treatment. high but it is ozone diffuser
the bacteria although it lower than from the filter
and germs in leaves no UV process. regularly. No
water. disinfectant tools required
residual in for
the water. maintenance.
Active It depends Very good No waste of The cost is Economic
Carbon on the pour quality. water under low as the maintenance as
material size. treatment. cartridge is the cartridge
Filter It can run Efficient for inexpensive needs to be
only on cold aesthetic to buy. changed every a
water. It has water few months
a good treatment. depending on
efficiency. the water usage.
Ion Good Fair quality No waste High It requires a
Exchange efficiency for of water water under operating carful
removing produced. treatment. cost. maintenance as
Filter dissolved bacteria is
inorganic. grown in unused
beads.
Redox and Good Fair quality It is effective Low cost due Regular
KDF Filter efficiency on as it does not at high water to in changes of the
removing kill bacteria temperature. expensive filter.
heavy metal or viruses. No waste of cartridges.
and chlorine water
from water. processed.
Reverse Efficiency It depends Waste of a The cost is Pretreatment is
Osmoses varies as it on the few gallons high where it required.
depends on membrane to produce depends on Membrane filter
high quality. one gallon of electricity needs to be
pressurized Average water. About used, pre- cleaned after a
water. water quality 3.6 gallons to treatment period of time.
is very good. produce and capital.
1gallon.
Sediment Fair Poor quality Little waste The cost is Regular clean of
Filter efficiency. of water of water as it very low due the filter every
compared to is trapped in to its cheap month. Regular
other the cartridge. cartridge. changes of the
methods. filter.
Table (1). Evaluation Table between Various Water Treatment Methods.

Ion Exchange
Redox & KDF

Carbon Filter
Ozone Filter
Ultra Violet
Distillation
Sediment
Osmosis
Reverse
Boiling
Active
Filter
Filter
Filter
UV
Bacteria •••• •••• •••• •••• •• / / •••• /
Viruses •••• •••• •••• •••• • / / •••• /
Bad odor &

•••• / / •••• •••• / ••• •••• /
taste
Heavy metals / / / / •• ? •• ••• ••••
Chlorine •• / / ? •••• / ••• •••• /
Fluoride •••• / / / / •••• / •••• /
Iron / / / •••• / ? ••• ••• /
Organic ••• / / •••• •••• •• ? •••• ••••
Lead •••• / / ? / ••• ? ••• /
Magnesium •••• / / •••• •••• ••• / ••• /
Sulphur •••• / / •••• / ••• / ••• /
Arsenic ••• / / ? / ••• •• ••• /
Calcium ••• / / ? / ••• / ••• ?
Cadmium ••• / / ? / ••• / ••• /
Nitrates •••• / / ? / ••• / ••• ?
Sodium •••• / / ? / ••• ? ••• ?

The number of dotes corresponds to greater efficiency of each method to remove a particular Contaminants.
(/) = Cannot remove. (•) = Poor. (• • )= Good. (• • •) = Very Good. (• • • •) = Excellent. (?) = no sufficient
information provided.
Table (2). Efficiency of Water Purification Methods According to Johnson, (2005),

McCracken & J, (1985), Water Treatment, (2003), National Honey Board, (2004) &
ELKEN, (2007).

5.4 Solar Energy Analysis.
Solar energy can be defined as the emitted radiation from the sun in the form of
electromagnetic waves. These waves are self-propagating which does not require
a medium for its propagation. The spectral distribution of electromagnetic
radiation has been classified according to their wavelengths in angstroms. There
are visible and non-visible light regions. The visible region is considered as a tiny
fraction of the total amount of possible wavelengths as shown in figure 2. It is the
light that the human eyes are sensitive to.
Figure (2). Spectral Distribution of Electromagnetic Radiation

provided by (Wesley, 2002)
When these waves collide with an object the energy of these waves can be either
absorbed or reflected by the said object. According to the colours that appears in
the visible region the darker the colour is the more energy is absorbed. The only
colour that can absorb all type of wave frequencies is black. Whereas the white
colour reflect them. This is similar to the absorption process that takes place in
Earth’s atmosphere where sun radiation is being filtered resulting in an increase

in the air temperature. This, in turn produces the variation of energy that is seen
throughout the earth continents as apparent in figure 3.
Figure (3). Top Thermal Radiation for the Four Seasons Throughout the continents
over the length of 50 years provided by (Van Der Schrier & Severijins, 2005)

5.5 History of Solar Distillation.
Distillation Process has long been considered a method of separating salt from
sea water and purifies it into drinking water. According to McCracken & J, (1985)
Aristotle described a way to evaporate contaminated water and then condense it
for drinking use. Cooper, (1983) reports that the first civilization known to use the
solar distillation is the Arabian alchemists in the sixteenth century. However the
first documented references for a device was made by the Italian Nicolo Ghezzi in
1742. It is unknown whether this device has gone beyond the conceptual stage
while the first modern solar still was made by Charles Wilson in Las Salinas, Chile
in 1872. It consisted of 64 water basins made of black wood with inclined glass
cover.
5.6 The Main Application of Solar Distillation System.
The main application of the solar distillation system is as follows according to

McCracken & J, (1985).
• It is used mainly to separate salt from saline water or sea water to produce
drinking water as well as recovering the salt.
• It is used for recovering potable water from sewage by adding an activated
carbon to the filtered water to get rid of the odorous gasses while some of
them will evaporate.
• It is used for irrigation for field agriculture although it is not very promising
says (Cooper, 1983).
• It may be used to recover distilled water from polluted water bodies.

5.7 Solar Distillation System Process.
The main process of the distillation system is shown in the graph below.
Figure (4). Solar Distillation Process by (Dunham, 1987).
The graph shows the process theory behind the solar distillation where the sun
radiation energy passes through the glass cover to heat up the sea water in the
basin causing the water to vaporize to a cooler area with almost all the impurities
get left behind in the shallow basin. The vapour rises and condenses on the inner
side of the cover and accumulates as water droplets or sheets of water. Because
of the combination of tilted glazed surface and gravity the water directs itself into
the collecting troughs. The efficiency of the solar still can be defined as the
“energy required for the vaporization of the distillate that is recovered over the
energy in the sun’s radiation that falls on the still” by McCracken & J, (1985).
5.8 Solar Distillation System Design Variation.
Currently there are many designs of the solar stills, yet only four main categories
are used, these are concentrating collector stills, multiple tray tilted stills, tilted
wick solar stills and basin stills. According to the latest statistics 95% of all
functioning stills are of the basin type. The four main categories will be explained
briefly.

• Concentrating Collector Still: this type consists of parabolic mirrors that

focus sunlight onto an enclosed evaporation vessel which principle is
similar to the solar cooker. The concentrated sunlight provides high level of
temperature that is mainly used to evaporate impure water. Then the
vapour will be transported to a separate chamber where it condenses.
According to McCracken & J, (1985) this type has an outstanding
performance. However it has many drawbacks which limit its use because
of its high building cost and maintenance as well as its fragile nature.
Figure (5). Concentrated Collector Still in Mexico by (Brignoni, 2008).
• Multiple Tray Tilted Still: this type consists of shallow horizontal black trays
enclosed in an insulted container covered with a transparent glass. After
the sun light heats up the water, vapour will rise up and condenses onto
the glass cover. Then it will run down to the collection trough to be stored.
McCracken & J, (1985) instates that the efficiency of this type is 50%. This
however has many drawbacks because of its complicated structure in spite
of the fact it can be used in higher latitudes because of its tilted nature
which allows the sun rays to strike perpendicular to its glazing surface.

Figure (6). Multiple Trays Tilted Still Sketch by McCracken & J, (1985).
• Tilted Wick Solar Still: this type of still consists of a vessel containing the
sea water which is poured down to a capillary action of fibre to distribute
feed water over the entire surface of the wick in a thin layer with sunlight
exposed to water. it is efficient but is not widely used because of its high
construction cost and maintenance according to McCracken & J, (1985)
Figure (7). Tilted Wick Still Sketch by (Mathewson, 1980).

• Basin Still: this type is the most common type available at present. The
actual shape and concept has not changed since it was first built in Chile
1872. The only change is that it involves the use of new building materials
which may reduce the overall cost while increasing the efficiency and
performance to last longer. Basically it consists of a basin, a support
structure, a transparent glazing cover and a distillate trough. However, in
order to increase the efficiency insulation must be added under the basin
according to McCracken & J, (1985).
Figure (8). Basin Type Still by (Dove Bio Tech, 2009).
5.9 Solar Distillation System Design Factors and Parameters.
Before moving forward to the designing process several considerations should be

addressed. The designing process is an extremely important part of the project
where the prototype needs to be manufactured according to some data provided
and justified. Before designing the solar still a few questions arise, what are the
main factors that affect the efficiency of the solar still? How to increase the
productivity of the still? How to decrease the heat losses at certain areas in the
still? These questions require an answer before initiating the design.

There are many factors that affect the efficiency, performance and productivity of
solar stills. It is necessary to investigate the effect of all the design parameters
before taking the decision of installing the solar stills. First of all, the depth of
water in the still can play a huge role in increasing or decreasing the productivity
of fresh water, Tarawneh, (2007) observed in his results that there is a possibility
in increasing the fresh water productivity by lowering the water depth on the
basin-absorbing plate. Another experiment done by (Badran & Abu-Khader.
2007) proves that by decreasing the depth of the basin by about half of its original
size, the productivity increases by 25%. In addition, the glazing material
properties affect the temperature rate inside the still as the thermal energy
depends on the emissivity of the glazing material.
Many engineers uses polycarbonate plastic, single glazed glass, double glazed
glass and tempered glass. McCracken & J, (1985) showed in his report the
importance of having a strong glazing material which can withstand high
temperature as well as resisting wind and small movements. Adding reflectors
can increase the productivity of solar stills if the inclination angle should be set at
about 15° from vertical. The other factor is the insulation, an increase of
performance and productivity will be observed when the solar stills are insulated
in some part of it. The increase in efficiency leads to an increase of performance
and productivity. To investigate these parameters the need to evaluate the
technical and theoretical information provided by previous projects is essential.

5.10 Evaluation of Previous Projects.
This section will provide the critical literature review about solar still according to previously published projects. The idea
of analysing existing projects is to counter all the drawbacks of these projects, and to indicate the area of improvements.
In addition, these projects’ technical information is very important for argument discussion and will be used to compare it
with the actual results obtained. Furthermore, analysing the past works will lead to stand on the best possible design idea
to be generated. The table below will illustrate the main data acquired from published articles.
Area of
Author / Year Article’s Title Findings Comments
Improvements
El-Bahi & Inan, Analysis of a Parallel The proposed system minimized the The condenser shape Modifications are
1999) Double Glass Solar Still formation of water droplets which can be modified. needed especially in the
with Separate Condenser increases the absorbing of thermal Adding a small fan or lower glass cover
radiation. Having two glass covers pump can diffuse the because the
decreases the heat losses which vapor from the condensation was
results into an increase in the heating evaporator to the observed in the inner
plate temperature. The efficiency condenser. surface of it. The angle
increased from 40% to more than 70%. of inclination requires re
The effect of the wind on the water adjusted.
temperature.
(Tarawneh, 2007) Effect of Water Depth on Using plastic jacket lower the It was suggested The water splashing
the Performance maintenance efforts. By cooling the further investigation method was very
Evaluation of Solar Still glass cover increases water into water depth as the interesting as it
productivity. The efficiency was 70%, decrease of water increases the
whereas the productivity was observed depth would increase productivity; however
to be 6.7 Liter/day. The geographical the productivity. implementing this
location may significantly affect the method would increase
water productivity. the cost of manufacture.
(Shatat & Determination of Rational The productivity was found to be 5 Leakages throughout The manufacturing cost
2
Mahkamov, 2009) Design Parameters of a Kg/m .day. In terms of water the design was not is significantly high.
Multi-Stage Water production the experiment proves that prevented which There no use of any
Desalination Still Using the tube solar collector-four stage still causes the lower sustainable energy.
Transient Mathematical has a higher efficiency that multistage temperature. Regular maintenance
Modelling. stills and basin stills. required.

Area of
Improvements
Badran & Abu- Evaluating Thermal By decreasing the water depth from Better insulation can be The mathematical model
Khader Performance of a Single 3.5 cm to 2 cm increases the adopted due to the constructed was rather
(2007) Slope Solar Still. productivity 25.7%. The productivity is heat losses the system complicated.
proportional to the solar intensity. observed.
Al-Hussaini & Enhancing of Solar Still The productivity of water has No sign of insulation Theoretically the use of
Smith Productivity Using Vacuum increased by greater than 100%. The has been used through vacuum technology
(1995) Technology. absence of non-condensable air and the experiment. enhancing the water
convection heat loss from the water productivity, however the
increases the productivity. difficulty is that how to
create vacuum with
when using solar
energy.
Badran, O Experimental Study of the The productivity as increased by 29% The use of different The variation of design
(2007) Enhancement Parameters due to the use of asphalt in the basin. reflectors may affect dimensions are needed
on a Single Slope Solar By adopting splashing method the system efficiency. to investigate the
Still Productivity. combined with asphalt the productivity Different heating influence upon the
increase by another 22%. Increasing material can be used efficiency of the still.
the wind velocity increases the for comparison
productivity by 35%. It was observed purposes.
that the decrease in water depth will
increase the productivity. It was
suggested to use mirrors as a
reflective tool.
Rodonb & Volpes Heat Transfer Calculation Practical tool was developed using The data acquired are As the data obtained are
(1997) in a Free Convection Air calculation method in order to optimize simplified to perform theoretical data, the
Solar Collector. both dimensions and materials in the calculation. The need to model a
designing air collector. This method need to take into prototype to validate
was considering the unsteadiness account the heat losses these data.
phenomena that take place in the between the gaps and
collector which influence the connection holes which
performance of it. locates between the
inside and outside the
room.
Muller-Holst Water Cone The still is made using only Makrolon Heating plate material It has an expensive price
(2008) Polycarbonate PC type of plastic. It requires more of € 49 to buy.
produces 1 to 1.7 liter/day. investigation.

Area of
Improvements
2
Hiroshi & Yasuhito Increase in Distillate The inclined reflectors of 15° from If the 5kg/m .day is Different design
(2009) Productivity by Inclining vertical increase the productivity at any obtainable as stated parameters should
the Flat Plate External still inclination angle. The productivity the need to redesign looked at other than
Reflector of a Tilted-Wick of the inclined reflector is about 15% to the collection channel reflectors. Design
Solar Still in Winter. 27% more than one with a vertical as it appears to disable specification such and
reflector when the reflector’s length is to collect this amount of width are not specified.
half of the still length. water every day. There no external
container which store
the water produced as
the collection channel
inside the still seems to
be small.
Velmurugan et al Single Basin Solar Still Fin The use of fins and sponges enhance The use of different The production rate of
(2008) for Enhancing Productivity. the productivity increases from 1.88 to glazing material. The water is promising.
2
2.8 Kg/m . The use of sponges measured time is quite
decreases the water surface area in large (every hour).
the basin.
Kumar & Bai Performance Study on The evaporation rate was found to be The need to construct The efficiency of the
(2008) Solar Still with Enhanced higher when no surface cooling more than one design. design is considerably
Condensation. adopted. By increasing the cooling on No reflectors have low. It is essential to
the wall surface enhancing the been attached. further study the
condensation process. The still parameters that affect
efficiency is 30% and the maximum the efficiency of the still.
2
production of water is 1.4 L/m .day.
Fath, H High Performance of a By using two effect basin types the Insulation method was The efficiency is
(1996) Simple Design, Two productivity was indicated to be 10.7 only implemented in significantly high.
2
Effects Solar Distillation Kg/m .day in climate condition. one part of the still
Unit. whereas insulating
others parts is
recommended.
2
Kabeel, A Performance of Solar Still The productivity was 4 Liter/m .day. Reflectors can be The manufacturing cost
(2009) with a Concave Wick Using a concave shape heating plate obtained to increase is high. Theoretical study
Evaporation Surface. increases the still efficiency. the incident solar heat. of the performance is
needed.
Table (3). Summary of Technical Information Quoted from Previous Works.

According to the table above the works done by different researchers were
summarized. This was essential to indicate the main technical information, the
weaknesses and the areas that require more investigation which will help
obtaining a quality results through this project. The highlighted points can be
summarized below:
• The fresh water productivity can be affected by a number of factors such as

water depth, glazing material, insulation, reflectors angles, and still
inclination angles.
• The decrease in water depth will increase the distillate productivity.
• The glazing material reflectivity, transmissivity, emissivity and absorptivity
are very important to enhance the heating plate temperature.
• Reflectors are quit important tools to focus the incident solar radiation to
enhance the temperature of the heating plate.
• The highest still efficiency recorded was 70%, whereas the highest
production rate was 10.7 Kg/m2.day in climate condition.
• There are many suggestions of adopting water splashing method and
vacuum technology as both increases the still efficiency by 30% and 100%
respectively. However, both techniques are challenging when using only
solar energy as the only energy source.
• The height from the heating plate to the top on the still has an influence on
the increase of the water temperature.
6. Project Challenges.
There are a number of challenges requires investigation when designing and

manufacturing the still. The overcome of these challenges leads to successfully
designing a quality still. The challenges can be summarized below:
• Design using raw, localise, obtainable sustainable material.

• Simplicity in design.
• Design for maximum efficiency (60% as minimum)

• Design for heat regeneration to reduce radiation heat loss.

• Design for constant minimum water depth.
• Air (vapour) leakage to be effectively reduced.
7. Project Planning & Design Procedures.
7.1 Design Overview.
This section of the project will show the main design processes to manufacture
the solar water distillation system. The use of renewable energy is the main focus
in this project as it uses the solar power from the sun to purify sea or brackish
water into potable water as discussed in previous chapters in this report. There
are many existing products that have been manufactured and performed
efficiently, as in some of them the efficiency exceeded 50%. However, the
drawbacks of these existing products are an issue where the need of design
improvements should be made in order to fully counter their drawbacks. The main
downfalls can be summarized in the following points:
• The manufacturing cost is very high.

• The maintenance process requires more efforts to clean and maintain the
still.
• The materials used in making the product are expensive compared to the
standard life of the third world countries societies.
• The materials used are not considered as sustainable.
• Complexity involved in the designing process.
From the drawbacks above, it is clearly analysed that there is a need of a new
product which can achieve high efficiency with low cost. The new design of solar
still is classified as a new product platform. The ideas of using large water bottles
arise because of its sustainable material nature which makes it an environmental
friendly material (More information regarding material properties can be found in
Appendix A and B). The process of the product specification development will
follow the theory development provided by (Ulrich & Eppinger, 2003). The main

focus of this section is the identification of customer needs which is part of the
development cycle. A range of concept designs will be generated to satisfy
customer needs. 3D design will be modelled to identify and visualise the
proposed design properly. This model will be subjected to analysis in order for
validation and its suitability for the proposed conditions of operation. The
proposed design will be selected and manufactured after materials selection are
investigated and it will be subjected to a number of tests hence to calculate the
still’s efficiency.
7.2 Mission Statement.
The following project mission statements which reflect the necessity of this
development process activity.
Product - Simplicity, Independency, mobility, safety, efficiency and

Description economy in addition to its sustainability are the main features of
solar water still design.
Key - To aid the developing countries by providing a solution to
Business counter fresh water scarcity issue.
Goals - To educate the people in these areas of the importance of
using the natural resources.
- To improve children health by creating sustainable purification
methods using solar energy.
Primary - To help Sun Catchers Charity (SCC) to aid orphanages,
Market schools and hospitals in developing countries.
Secondary - For individual family use.
Markets - Scalable to agricultural use.
- For coastal dwellers.
Assumptions - New product platform.
and - Renewable energy such as solar is used in operation.
Constraints - To be used in sunny areas.
- Sea and brackish water are to be distilled.
- To be designed for constant minimum water depth.
- Made from recyclable, reusable and disposable material.
- A 5 gallon sized bottle will be used in designing.
- The material should be existed everywhere.
- Heat regeneration cycle to be adopted.
Table (4). Mission Statement of Solar Water Distillation System.

7.3 Identification of Customer Needs.
The customer needs are identified by interviewing expert people in the renewable
energy field, observing existing products that are use by customers in the
developing countries and surveying people who are suffering from the shortage of
fresh water by contacting charity organizations who are supporting these
societies. One of the main non-profit charities that are collaborated to this project
is Sun Catchers charity.
According to SCC, the customer needs are based on the people who live in the
developing countries. The reasons of designing this new product are first, to aid
village size orphanages, schools and hospitals to counter the shortage of fresh
water. Second, to practice and promote the use of natural renewable energy
resources for surviving. Third, to educate the people about the necessity of
restoring and protecting the quality of nature through the use of solar power and
most importantly to improve the health of children who are diseased because of
the contaminated water by providing methods of purification. These are the main
aims of the design in which it is part of the customer needs that narrowed the
primary market.
According to SCC website, the overwhelming poverty and malnourishment

conditions of the third world countries societies requires constructing a simple
design that can operate efficiently with low maintenance effort. Based on the
charity information provided, some customer needs are specified where as others
can be easily identified as secondary needs that are based on the primary needs
provided by SCC. The general overall customer needs are identified in which the
product design criteria can be summarised as follows:
• Ease of use and handle.

• Ease of manufacture.
• Ease of maintenance.
• Ease of assembly.
• Ease of mobility and transportation.

• Safe and adequate product.

• To be made from sustainable materials.
• To be made from obtainable (raw) material.
• High product durability for wind resistance.
• High fresh water production rate.
• Operating in normal climate conditions.
• Economical product.
7.4 List of Interpreted Customer Needs.
This section discusses the interpreted data in terms of primary and secondary
customer needs. The interpreted needs are then listed as the secondary needs
are included within each interpreted need. The secondary indicated by the
number of (*), the more (*) means the more important a need is perceived to be.
The methodology of rating the needs was used according to Ulrich & Eppinger,
(2003). The interpreted needs are rated in order to enable the development
process to maintain the customer need and focus.
The still is convenient to

use and handle.
1 * * - The still components are easy to assemble.
2 * - The still height is adjustable.
3 * * - The still is portable and transportable.
4 * * - The still is suitable for all users.
5 * * - The still provides low technology.
6 * * - The still operates in any climate condition.
The still is easy to
maintain.
7 * * - The still is cleanable.
8 * * - The still provides smooth surface.
9 * * - The still provides easy, ready and smooth
access.
10 * * - The still resists corrosion.
11 * * - The still does not instill unpleasant taste to the
water.

The ease of filling the

still.
12 * * - The still provides easy water access.
13 * * - The still provides constant water depth.
14 *** - The still refills water independently.
The still stores the water
safely.
15 * * - The still provides collecting channels for
condensing vapor (water).
16 * * - The still top shape is convenient for water
collection.
17 * * - The still provides free access to collect water
in external container.
The still condenses fast.
18 * - The still is insulated.
19 * * - The still provides good condensation surfaces.
20 *** - The still provides free space between water
feed and condensation surfaces.
21 * * - The still prevent heat losses.
22 *** - The still provides space for parts attachments
* internally.
The still operates
independently.
23 * * - The still regenerates heat.
24 * * - The still provides refilling feed water process.
25 * * - The still stores fresh water internally.
26 * * - The still stores fresh water externally.
The still provides sunlit
area access from all
directions.
27 * * - The still extremely transparent.
28 * * - The still does not reflect sun radiations.
29 * * - The still provides focused sunlit area in all
directions.
The still is easy to store.
30 * * - The still size and shape is convenient.
31 * * - The still fits in standard packaging sizes.
32 * * - The still is easy to disassemble.
33 * - The still can be stored anywhere.
The still maintains high
feed water temperature.
34 * * - The still provides good absorption surface.
35 * * - The still reflects sun radiation to focused area.
*

The still is safe.

36 * * - The still does not consume electrical energy.
37 * * - The still provides easy handling.
38 * * - The still is well insulated in hot areas.
39 * * - The still does not have sharp corners.
40 * * - The still uses environmental friendly material.
41 * * - The still provides non-toxic material.
The still lasts long.
42 * * - The still is rigid.
43 * * - The still survives heavy use.
44 * * - The still resists small natural movements like
wind.
45 * * - The still resists high temperature.
46 *** - The still can be used anywhere.
47 * * - The still provides stability for inner parts.
The still looks
* attractive.
48 * * - The still is convenient to all users.
49 *** - The still weight and size are just right.
50 * * - The still is colorful.
Table (5). Hierarchical List of Primary and Secondary Customer Needs

7.5 Conceptual Designs.
A number of concepts were generated below with a brief description about the
main components and their process theory. In addition, the advantages and
disadvantages of each design will be highlighted. The idea of generating many
concepts is to stand on the optimum design before manufacturing the design.
7.5.1 Concept A.
The idea of this concept A is to divide the 5 gallon bottle horizontally into three
sections. The top part will act as a cover where the light is exposed; this will be
stacked onto the bottom one. The bottom part contains the sea water is
insulated using a square box and insulation material. The heating plate will be
floating on sea water allowing the water flow to pass through the holes made in
the Styrofoam around the heating plate. The floating heating design is
challenging as it requires the heating plate to partially submerge to allow
constant water level. This water level will be evaporated and then condenses

into the top cover where it collects into its bended edges. Reflectors are
attached into the top cover to concentrate more incident radiation into the
heating plate as shown below.
Figure (9). Sketch of Concept (A) Shows its Main Components.
The main advantages:
• The design provides easy access to internal parts of the still.

• Ease of assembly and disassembly is the merit of this design.
• It lacks maintenance efforts.
• Its conical top cover shape allows easy water collection after
condensation.
• The ease of emptying the fresh water by turning the top cover up side
down using the top tip cap.

The main disadvantages:
• There are difficulties into folding the edges of the top cover to make the
water collection area.
• Air leakage may occur between the top and bottom cover.
7.5.2 Concept B.
The idea of this design is to have a handled bottle laid horizontally. Two
sections as shown in figure 10 needs to be split to perform a cover and its
basin. The light is exposed on the top cover in order to heat up the heating
plate in the bottom part. The bottom part is filled with sand except a certain
area in the middle where the heating plate that contains the sea water is
located. The tip cap of the bottom part is sealed whereas the top one is open to
allow the water to pour out. Two semi circle piece of plastic are then glued on
the inside surface of the top cover to allow collection of water. A mirror is then
attached near the tip cap of the bottle top cover. When the heating plate is
being heated the vapour will arise and condense on the top cover surface.
Figure (10). Sketch of Concept (B) Shows its Main Components.

• It provides a wide sunlit area.

• Ease of assembly and disassembly.
• Low maintenance required.
• The ability to use the bottle for two products and replace the bottom part
with a square box.
• The sand stabilizes the heating plate.
• Because of its wide sunlit area, heat loss through the cover surface will be
increased.
• There is air leakage because the improper slacking of the top and bottom
parts firmly.
• The heating plate provides limited water level and there will be a need to
refill it every time the sea water evaporates.
• It is difficult to take out the water produced because of its top and bottom
part alignment.
7.5.3 Concept C.
This concept is generated using a vertically handled bottle. The bottle is cut
two third of its size from the top to allow easy access. The bottom part is filled
with sea water with the heating plate floating on it. The right hand side of the
bottle as shown in figure 11 is fully reflected using foil sheets on the inner
surface of the top cover. A condenser plate is placed inside the area provided
by the handle; the handle is then insulated from the outside to maintain heat.
This plate is attached to both heating plate and collecting channel for heat
regeneration purposes. The top tip is sealed to maintain heat temperature.

Figure (11). Sketch of Concept (C) Shows its Main Components.
• The design allows a reasonable sunlit area.

• Because of the condenser added, the heat regeneration is enabled.
• The use of the whole 5 gallon bottle creates more sea water volume.
• It is difficult to attach the condenser inside the middle of the cylindrical

shaped handle.
• The distance between the heating plate and the top surface of the bottle is
large which decreases its temperature.

• It is difficult to attach the collection channel around the inside of the top
part.
7.5.4 Concept D.
This idea of generating this design came from the steam pan theory of
operation. This design uses two 3 gallon water bottle placed on top of each
others. The top bottle holed in the bottom to allow the bottom’s top tip to be
inserted inside it at a certain height to perform a water collection area as
shown in the figure below. The purpose of the top bottle is to allow the water
vapour to travel and condense in its inner surface. Two plastic tubes are
attached to its both sides at the bottom.
The bottom bottle is cut into two sections as shown below. Half of the bottom
bottle is insulated at the outside to maintain the heat; plus reflector sheet is
attached to the inside. The other half is fully transparent to allow sun radiation
to transmit through to heat up the heating plate.
• This design provides a wider water collection area.

• It allows a reasonable sunlit area.
• The distance between the sunlit area surface and the heating plate allows
the heat to arise.
• A waste on the water vapour as some of it might condense on the top of

the bottom bottle rather than the top bottle.
• Water and air leaking in between the top and bottom bottle as taking off
the top bottle continuously widens the gap.
• The design does not guarantee to withstand a high wind velocity as it
might collapse.
• Its cost is doubled because of the use of two bottles.

Figure (12). Sketch of Concept (D) Shows its Main Components.
7.5.5 Concept E.
This design idea is to cut the bottle diagonally into two sections. The section
that has the top tip is used in this concept. This section will act as a cover to
allow wider area for heating plate to be exposed to the sun radiation. The
heating plate is placed inside the smaller box. This box is for sea water and the
bigger box is for insulation purposes. A condenser is attached to the heating
plate from the bottom and the collection channel as shown in the figure below.

Two tubes will be attached to both sides of the larger box to extract the water
out.
Figure (13). Sketch of Concept (E) Shows its Main Components.
• The bottle can be used for two products.

• The design provides reasonable area for water collection.
• Good sunlit area provided.
• It provides smaller water surface area in the heating plate which increases
the evaporation rate.
• The inclined surface of the top cover allows easy collection of condenses
water.
• It is difficult to control the air leakage.

• The sea water container is small.

• A waste of condense water may occur due to the geometrical shape of the
top cover.
• Water extraction is complicated due to small inclination degree.
7.5.6 Concept F.
This concept is quite similar to concept E in operational theory; however the

main difference is the use of the bottom section of the bottle that has been cut
diagonally.
Figure (14). Sketch of Concept (F) Shows its Main Components.
• This design provides a degree level on inclination to collect the condensed

water.
• Similar to concept E.
• Similar to concept E.

7.6 Product Concept Benchmarking Based on Needs.
Metric Benchmarking Parameters Concepts
Units
Imp
Need Metric Description A B C D E F
3,4,5,30,37
1
38,46 48
Suitability to all users. 5 Subj •••• •••• ••• •• ••• •••
2 1,5,32 Simplicity in design. 5 Subj •••• •••• •• • ••• •••
3 1,4,30,32 Ease of manufacture. 5 Nm •••• •••• ••• •• ••• •••
8,9,12,17 Ease of access and
4
22,47
4 Subj •••• •••• ••• •• ••• •••
parts attachment.
5 7,10,40,41 Ease of maintenance. 4 Subj •••• •••• •• • ••• •••
6 30,31,32,49 Ease of Transport. 4 Subj •••• •••• •••• •• •••• ••••
7 15,22,25 Internal space volume. 4 mm2 •• ••• •• •••• •••• ••••
8 7,8,19 Smooth surface finish. 3 Subj ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• •••
6,33,42,434
9
4,47
Shock/Weatherproof. 2 List •••• ••• •••• •• ••• •••
Resistance to high
10 4,30,45 4 List ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• •••
temperature.
Reliability of water
11 15,16 5 Subj •••• •• •••• ••• ••• •••
collection.
12 13,23,24 Independency. 5 Subj •••• ••• ••• •• ••• •••
Ability to prevent air
13 21 4 List ••• •• ••• •• ••• •••
and water leakage.
Distance provided
14 20,35,34 from sunlit area to 4 mm ••• •••• ••• ••• ••• •••
heating plate.
Protrude features/
15 19,39 4 mm •••• •• •••• •••• •• ••
edges rounded.
16 4,30,31,32 Number of parts. 3 Ons •••• •••• ••• • •• ••
Overall weight of the
17 3,4,30,49 4 Kg •••• •••• ••• • •• ••
product.
3,4,30,31 Size of the product.
18
49
4 List •••• ••• •••• • •• ••
19 27,28,29 Sunlit area dimensions 5 mm2 ••• •••• ••• •• •••• ••••
Time for assembly/
20 1,32 4 min •••• ••• ••• •• •• ••
disassembly.
Unit manufacturing
21 4 4 £ •••• •••• •••• •• ••• •••
cost.
21 10,11,40,41 Sustainable design. 5 Subj •••• •••• •••• •••• •••• ••••
Note: The number of dotes corresponds to greater perceived satisfaction of the need for each concept
(•) = Poor. (• • • •) = Excellent. Imp = Importance. Subj = Subjective.
The relative importance for each metric (1-5) the more the score is, the more importance the need is.
Table (6). List of Metrics for Solar Water Still with the Relative Importance
of Each Metric and its Unit.

7.7 Concepts Evaluation.
Concept sketches found in conceptual designs section can be clearly evaluated

after defining the customer needs. There are many techniques to evaluate the
conceptual design, according to Hurst, (1999) one of the common techniques is
the weighting and rating technique. In addition, the technique of Ulrich & Eppinger
is a powerful technique which is to convert the customer needs into design
specifications, this technique is reasonable to the approach of this project
because it turns the customer needs into actual design specifications by
establishing the metric value for the customer needs.
For example if the design has no sharp edges for safety reasons then one metric
should be the protruding features/edges rounded is used. It is possible to fulfill
the customer needs using more than one metric for example, the design is
shock/weather proof and the solar still resists wind. These two metrics can be
used to achieve the need of shock/weather proof and suitability for all users as
illustrated in the table. All design concepts were allocated against each metric to
identify how well each concept would perform against the metric.
The only difficulty that arises in this method is that in some cases the assigned
metrics cannot be measured until the design is fully constructed in spite of the
importance of this metric to specific needs. For example, resistance to high
temperature, independency, reliability of water collection and unit manufacturing
cost are important parameters. The assigned rating score of these parameters is
subjected to judgment and that is why all rating score are approximated values.
After allocating all the concepts against each metric, it was found that the leading
design was Concept A.

7.8 Chosen Design’s Specifications.
Evaluating process was very essential in order to find the best possible concept.
The final concept specifications were illustrated in the table below.
Metric Value Unit
Overall Dimensions Height: 340 Diameter: 270
mm
Thickness: 3
Heating Plate Dimensions Height: 5.5 Diameter: 220
Depth: 4 mm
Plate and border thickness: 1
Overall Weight 1.1 Kg
Sunlit Area Dimension mm2
Provided Distance between sunlit It is about 240
mm
area and heating plate
Size of the Still Relatively small Subj
Number of Components It consists of five components such
as top and bottom parts, heating Ons
plate, insulation material and sealer.
Bottom Part maximum Capacity 7.5 Liter
Heating Plate maximum Capacity 0.25 Liter
Material of Still Thermoplastic. Subj
Transparency. Transparent. List
Tools Required for Maintenance A piece of cloth for cleaning. Silicon
List
if there is water leakage.
Tools Required for Manufacture Scissor, silicon, black paint, brush, 5
gallon water bottle, two plastic
mixing bowls, piece of metal, List
insulation material, super glue,
hacksaw, aluminum foil and plug.
Time Required to Manufacture the It takes 30 to 60 min to manufacture
Still the still, however this is to provide
min
enough time to get the black paint,
silicon and super glue get dry.
Time for assemble / disassemble less than 60 to assemble
min
maintenance. less than 5 min to disassemble
Environmental friendly / less Recyclable, reusable and
List
pollution. disposable.
Table (7). Final Concept Specifications.

7.9 3D Modelling of Chosen Design.
The 3D model is designed using a 3D modelling package (Solid Works). The

purpose of generating a 3D model is to visualize the design component properly;
this will allow refinement of the design based on aesthetics, functionality and
analysis. The design components are shown in the figure below.
Plug
Top Cover
Water
Collection
Channel
Heating Plate
Styrofoam
Top Cover
Figure (15). 3D Model of Solar Water Still.
Some certain areas of the still need to be improved as it is quite complicated to

be manufactured such as the water collecting channel and the floating heating
plate. In addition, it is quite difficult to prevent air leakage through the edges of
the top and bottom parts which add to the improvements that are needed for the
manufacturing process. These improvements will be performed when
manufacturing the prototype and after the material selection of some components
are decided.

7.10 Material Selection.
Material selection is one of the important parameters required to manufacture the

prototype. First of all, the materials chosen must meet international safety
standards and performance requirements. In addition, the need to select
sustainable, obtainable and costless material is necessary in order to aid the third
world countries and educate them on how to build a solar still using these
materials. An effective technique called Ashby’s Material Selection Method can
be applied in this project which provides the ability to compare the suitability of
materials for a given application to quantifiable performance metrics based on
material properties. Recently there are numerous techniques using special
software to apply this method to these involve optimization of some aspects of the
method. Ashby’s technique uses material selection charts which show the main
properties of the materials (Material properties are provided in Appendix B).
Material properties, functional requirements and design specifications are needed

to decide each components material. The table below will illustrate the main
requirements needed for each component.
Recommended
Component Requirements
Materials.
Bottle - Rigid. - PC Plastic.
- Resist high temperature. - PET Plastic.
- Does not emit gases when heated.
- High trasmissivity and emissivity.
Water Collection - Resist high temperature. - PVC Plastic.
Channel - Low thermal conductivity.
Heating plate - Anti corrosion. - Iron.
- Non-Toxic. - Aluminum.
- Does not emit vapor or instill an - Steel.
unpleasant taste to the water under - Copper.
high temperature.
- High absorbance.
- High thermal conductivity.
- Maintain high temperature for a long
period of time.
Table (8). Material Selection for Each Component.

In building the prototype, it was suggested to build more than one design for each
component as to stand on the best material. In the following section a full
discussion that involves comparison tables and graphs will be presented to
observe the best material for each component.
8. Manufacturing Processes of Solar Still.
This section investigates the theory behind the design; a number of experiments will
be run to show whether the prototype is operated effectively or not. The first step was
to measure the main dimensions of the bottle then to identify the dimensions and
sizes of the internal components such as heating plate and condenser. The cost
aspect is the main factor that affects the decision of the bottle material, PC plastic
was chosen because its high maximum service temperature value of 124 ºC
compared to 73.4 ºC that PET has in spite of PET’s high trasmissivity and emissivity.
PC plastic was analysed using UV-Visible Spectrophotometer CE 6602 to obtain the
transmissivity percentage. It was found to be 82.58% Transmittance (The graph
obtained is found in Appendix C). After studying the heating plate material properties,
it was recommended to test each material and set on the best one. The main
equipments and tools required to build the still are shown in the figure below.
Figure (16). Equipments and Tools Required for Manufacturing Solar Water Still.

The 5 gallon bottle was divided into 3 sections using a hand saw. The top section
acts as the cover whereas the bottom section acts as the container of the sea water.
The most challenging part was the water collection channel as explained previously;
the top part’s edges was exposed to heat source to soften the plastic, however this
method did not succeed as the plastic was quite thick and require more heat to fold
the edges. Plastic food mixing bowl with almost the same bottle diameter was a
solution for this problem. This bowl flange diameter was 0.05 m bigger than the bottle
diameter which allows the top cover to perfectly be placed on top of it. The bowl is
cut at a height of 0.8 m from its top to make a hollowed inward drafted cylinder as
shown in the figure below. The top cover and the bowl are then glued together using
silicon.
Figure (17). Manufacturing of Solar Water Still Top Cover.
When trying to place the top cover on top of the bottom part air leakage occurs. To
prevent that, another bowl was used but this time it is glued on the bottom part using
silicon. The top cover is stacked onto the bottom part which provides a well air
leakage proof as shown in the figure below.

Figure (18). Manufacturing of Solar Water Still Bottom Cover.
The next step was to make four heating plate using three different materials as
shown in the figure below. All the heating plates are surrounded by plastic and
Styrofoam for insulation. Black paint was used to paint the heating plates. 6 holes
were made and distributed evenly in the Styrofoam to allow water to pass through to
refill heating plate continuously after applying some load on top of the heating plate
(Full installation instruction is available in Appendix D).
Steel
Copper
Small Aluminium
Large Aluminium
Figure (19). Different Heating Plate Materials.

9. Manufacturing and Experimental Procedures and Discussion of Results.
After successfully manufacturing the solar still, becomes crucial to verify the main
impact of applying heat regeneration, constant water level and reflectors on the solar
water still’s efficiency. Many experiments are performed to analyse solar water still’s
efficiency. Heating plate will be subjected to a number of experiments to identify the
best material in terms of determination of maximum temperature, evaporation time
and speed, cooling speed and its efficiency when used inside the still. To run the
experiments certain tools and apparatuses are needed and illustrated below:
• 500W lamp with adjustable height stand.

• Conductive tape (aluminium or carbon).
• Thermocouples and data logger.
• Serial cable and a computer.
• Black paint.
9.1 Manufacturing of Heating Plate.
These are the initial experiments that are performed to establish the best material
and design of the component.
• Experiment 1: Investigate the maximum temperature of using different

heating plate material.
• Experiment 2: Investigate the water depth and its impact on the different
materials.
• Experiment 3: Investigate the cooling speed of different materials.
• Experiment 4: Investigate the amount of energy that is falling on the
heating plate.

9.1.1 Experiment 1: Investigate the Maximum Temperature of Using Different

Heating Plate Materials.
There are three different materials that were chosen to design the four
heating plates. These are aluminium, stainless steel and copper. The lamp
light was exposed to each one of them individually with a fixed lamp height.
This experiment will identify the maximum temperature that the heating plate
can absorb. Before running the experiment the humidity of the room was
calculated using psychometer and recorded in the table below. It is necessary
to determine the relative humidity percentage as it affects the evaporation
rate significantly.
The heating plates were painted black to absorb maximum radiation.

Conductive aluminium tape was sticking in the centre of the heating plate to
allow using thermocouples type K. This type is the most common type of
thermocouples, it is consists of two wires nickel chromium and nickel-
aluminium. This type allows measuring temperature within a range of -250°C
to 1375°C with an error percentage of 0.4%. The assumption of neglecting
the thickness of the paint layer was made for ease of calculation. The
experiment was run for an hour to allow sufficient time for the temperature to
rise. Thermocouples type K were used and attached in the centre of the top
surface of each plate. Another one was left free to measure the room
temperature.
Unit
Wet Bulb Temperature. 16.5 °C
Dry Bulb Temperature. 23.5 °C
Relative Humidity. 48.9 %
Table (9). Relative Humidity Measurements.

140
120
100
Temperature °C 80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min)
TC-1 (Copper Plate) TC-2 (Steel Plate)
TC-3 (Small.Aluminium ) TC-4 (Large.Aluminium)
TC-5 (Room Temperature)
Figure (20). The Increase in Temperature for Different Heating Plates

Materials.
As observed in the graph above, the small aluminium plate was in the lead
with a maximum temperature of 120.72°C. The steel plate came in second
with a 116.44°C and then the large aluminium plate with a 111.32°C whereas
the copper came on behind with 100.43°C. The temperature in all of the
plates was increasing dramatically until the 20th minute and from 21st minute
until the 60th min the increase was gradual. The room temperature was stable
as expected.
9.1.2 Experiment 2: Investigate the Water Depth and its Impact on the
Different Materials.
Experiment 1 procedures were repeated in experiment 2 while adding a 50ml

of water in each plate. The purpose of this experiment is to investigate the
time needed to evaporate the added amount of water as well as the effect of
the water depth on the evaporation speed.

100
90
80
70
Temperature °C 60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Tim (min)
TC-1 (Copper Plate) TC-2 (Steel Plate)
TC-3 (S.Aluminium) TC-4 (L.Aluminium)
TC-5 (Room Temperature)
Figure (21). The Evaporation Time for Different Heating Plates

Materials.
The graph shows the evaporation time of each plate, surprisingly the small
aluminium came in third in spite of its dramatic increase of temperature
without water in experiment 1. The rapid change in temperature indicates that
water has evaporated. Large aluminium heating plate was leading in which it
took 53 min to evaporate all the water whereas the stainless steel came in
second with a 56 min. The time needed for copper and small aluminium plate
to evaporate all the water was 85 and 97 min respectively.
The reason why the small aluminium plate was not evaporating the water fast
is that the depth of water is critically affecting the evaporation speed, as the
water depth in the small aluminium plate was higher than the other plates.
The surface area of the heated water is proportional to the evaporation
speed. It was noticed that if the water is shallow the evaporation speed will
increase.

9.1.3 Experiment 3: Investigate the cooling speed of different materials.
After performing experiment 1 and 2 it became obvious that the two most
effective materials were large aluminium and steel. The reason for choosing
these two is because they provide high heating plate temperature and
evaporate water with less time. This experiment was done to investigate
which material is best at maintaining temperature after removing the heat
source. This criterion is important for the project. The main difficulty in this
experiment is that it is quite hard to identify which one cools fast as the
cooling process depends on many parameters as emissivity, mass and
thermal conductivity of the material.
In addition, the steel, large and small aluminium plates were having similar
mass value of approximately 0.1Kg except the copper plate was 0.24Kg. As
all the plates were painted in black, it is hard to determine the actual value of
emissivity as the darker the colour is the more the emissivity value is. The
only parameters that allows the comparison to be done if the thermal
conductivity of the material. According to Fourier Law, it is stated that the rate
of conductive heat transfer is proportional to the transfer coefficient and the
temperature gradient of the material. In other word copper has the best
conduction coefficient among the others. After a period of 60 min, the
aluminium plate reaches the 33 °C in about 48 min where as the steel
reaches the same temperature in 21min. The table below will illustrate the
data obtained from this experiment and previous experiments.
Max Evaporation Cooling Time

Temperature. Time.
Unit
ºC min min
Material
Copper. 100.43 97 -
L. Aluminum. 111.32 56 48
S. Aluminum 120.72 85 -
Steel. 116.44 53 21
Table (10). Evaluation Table of Different Heating Plate Materials.

9.1.4 Experiment 4: Investigate the Amount of Energy that is Falling on the

Heating Plate.
In order to perform the theoretical analysis successfully, it is crucial to

determine the amount of energy that is falling on to the heating plate. A block
of aluminium with a certain mass and heat capacity is used. The block was
insulated in all areas except the top using Styrofoam. Four thermocouples
were distributed on each side of the bottom block to measure its temperature.
The purpose of that is to check whether each side of the block is absorbing
the same amount of energy. The block was placed inside the still and the
lamp was placed at different distances from the still’s top cover. The
experiment was run for an hour to allow sufficient time for the temperature to
increase. The table below shows the main specification of the aluminium
block.
Unit
Dimensions 0.7 x 0.045 m
Mass 0.161 Kg
Area 0.00392 m2
Heat Capacity 900 J/Kg.K
Table (11). Main Specifications of Figure (22). Thermocouples Positions

Aluminium Block. on the Block.

80
70
60
Temperature (°C)
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min)
TC-1 Outer Surface TC-2 Heating Plate at 30mm
TC-3 Heating Plate at 40mm TC-4 Heating Plate at 50mm
TC-5 Room Temperature
Figure (23). The Increase in Temperature at Different Lamp Distances in an

Aluminium Block.
The experiment was run for an hour as shown in the figure above. Each
distance trend has increased gradually. The reasonable moment to measure
the amount of energy is when the trends is in steady state condition with no
significant fluctuation by taking 30th and 50th min temperature reading of
each trend and apply the incident energy formula . . ∆ . The
temperature increase between these two points was used as ∆ (Full
calculations can be found in Appendix E). The table below shows the amount
of energy absorbed at different distances.
Distance Incident
from Still Energy
m W/m2
0.3 185.7
0.4 146
0.5 111.2
Table (12). The Increase in Temperature of Aluminium Block at

Different Distances.

9.2 Solar Water Still Experimentations.
This section will investigate the efficiency and productivity of the solar water still
as a whole unit after deciding all the material and components. The experiments
of this section will be carried out in stages to determine the effect of each change
applied in each stage. The stages are:
• Stage 1: Investigating the efficiency of solar still.

• Stage 2: Investigating the efficiency of solar still by adding reflectors.
• Stage 3: Investigating the efficiency of solar still by adding condenser for
heat regeneration.
9.2.1 Stage 1: Investigate the Efficiency of Solar Still of using Floating Heating
Plate.
The initial experiment was run for two hours to determine how many ml of
water the still can produce and to test the effect of using floating heating plate
that provide constant minimum water level. This experiment was repeated
twice, one with using restricted water level of 100 ml and two by using a
constant minimum water level. These initial tests were performed without
using reflectors and heat regeneration (condensers) to stand on the still’s
efficiency. The bottom part of the still was filled with sea water at a depth of
0.6 m. The heating plates were then floated on top of it carrying about 125 ml
of water. A load of about a quarter of kilogram is added on top of the heating
plate to allow the plate to submerge in sea water at a certain level where the
water is allowed to pass through the holes.
Heating plates were experimented separately. Thermocouples were used to

measure the temperature at certain areas in the still such as the inner and
outer surface of the still, heating plate, sea water temperature and room
temperature. The top cover is then stacked on top of the bottom part. Lamp
light was exposed at a distance of 0.3m as shown in the figure below.

Figure (24). Experiment Setup.
Color Notation Position

TC-1 Outer Surface
TC-2 Inner Surface
TC-3 Heating Plate
TC-4 Sea Water
TC-5 Inside Still
TC-6 Bottom Condenser
TC-7 Top Condenser
TC-8 Room Temperature
Note: not all the notations are the same
in all the experiment, each notation is
mentioned in the graph’s bottom legend.
Figure (25). Thermocouples’ Positions on the Solar Still.

80 40
70 35
60 30
Temperature (°C)
Water Produced
50 25
40 20
30 15
20 10
10 5
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time (min)
TC-1 (Outter Surface) TC-2 (Inner Surface)
TC-3 (Heating Plate Fixed) TC-3 (Heating Plate Constant)
TC-4 (Sea Water) TC-5 (Inside Still)
TC-6 (Room Temperature) Water Produced (Fixed)
Water Produced (Constant)
Figure (26). The Temperature Increase and the Amount of Water Produced
for Two Different Heating Plate Operation Conditions.
According to the figure, the trends of the heating plate’s temperature

increase rapidly in the first 30 minutes and arises slowly until it reaches its
maximum of 52.02 ºC when using restricted water level whereas the
maximum temperature recorded for the heating plate using constant amount
of water was 47.72 ºC. There are many reasons for this change in
temperature between the two heating plates, first is because the heating
plates were not insulated properly as they were losing heat through
conduction and convection with sea water which has affected the heated
water. The temperature difference between the sea water and the heating
plate is large, that is why when the refilling process occurred. The
temperature of the heating plate had decreased. The heating plate will be
subjected to improvement.
The trend did not show any significant increase. The amount of water being
produced was 38 ml within 160 minutes of operation. On the other hand, the

amount of water being produced when using constant level of water was 30
ml. There was no sign of deforming in any of the surfaces as well as the
Styrofoam that insulated the heating plate. This indicates that the experiment
was performed successfully.
9.2.2 Stage 2: Investigating the Efficiency of Solar Still by Adding Reflectors.
In the second stage, another experiment was done yet modification was
applied by adding reflectors. It was indicated that some radiations were
wasted when exposing the light on the heating plate as some of them were
more focused on the sea water rather than the heating plate because the
heating plate diameter is smaller than the bottom part. It was necessary to
add reflectors above this location to reflect as much radiation as possible as
shown below.
Top View Isometric View
Figure (27). Top View of the Wasted Radiation Area and Isometric View of
Added Reflectors.
After adding the reflectors in the area indicated in the figure above the
experiment was run. Stage 1 procedures were repeated to stand for the
efficiency of the still. A graph was plotted to indicate whether there are any
improvements achieved.

80 50
70 45
40
60
Temperature (°C)
Water Produced
35
50 30
40 25
30 20
15
20
10
10 5
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Time (min)
TC-1 (Outter Surface) TC-2 (Inner Surface)
TC-3 (Heating Plate Fixed) TC-3 (Heating Plate Constant)
TC-4 (Sea Water) TC-5 (Inside Still)
TC-6 (Room Temperature) Water Produced (Fixed)
Water Produced (Constant)
Figure (28). The Temperature Increase and the Amount of Water Produced for
Two Different Heating Plate Operation Conditions with Reflectors.
According to the figure above the change in temperature occurs by adding

the reflectors as the temperature of both heating plates was increased by
approximately 3°C. The indicated maximum temperature for the constant
level of water was 51.61°C whereas the heating plate with fixed level of water
maximum temperature was 55.64°C. It was noticed that the outer and inner
surface of the still was recording similar results to its previous experiments,
the results was copied into this graph. 16% of the increase was indicated
when the reflectors were added as the fixed level and constant level of water
was 36 and 44 ml respectively.
This means that the efficiency of the solar still has increased by adding the
reflectors. As the aim of the project was to design the still for minimum
constant level of water, the heating plate will be subjected to improvements to

achieve minimum constant level of water with higher performance in

improvements section.
9.2.3 Stage 3: Investigating the Efficiency of Solar Still by Adding Condenser

for Heat Regeneration.
A piece of aluminium was added to help removing heat from the condensing
cover as well as regenerating heat. The idea behind it is to have heat cycle
inside the still where it is supposed to reduce the heat losses through the
condensing cover; this can be achieved when the heat giving off in
condensation travels by conduction to the heating plate. It is designed to be
hanged on the water collection channel wall and attached to the heating plate
from its bottom. It is insulated in the middle using Styrofoam as shown in the
figure below.
Figure (29). Position of the Condenser.
An experiment was run to distinguish the effect of using this idea and its
impact on the still’s efficiency. The thermocouples were used and attached to
the same positions in the first stage adding to it the top and bottom part of the
condenser to measure the temperature differences between them and to
analyse if the heat regeneration is occurring. The result of this experiment is
shown below.

80 45
70 40
60 35
Water Produced (ml)

Temperature (°C)
30
50
25
40
20
30
15
20 10
10 5
0 0
0 50 100 150 200
Time (min)
TC-1 (Outer Surface) TC-2 (Inner Surface)
TC-3 (Heating Plate) TC-4 (Sea Water)
TC-5 (Inside Still) TC-6 (Bottom Condencer)
TC-7 (Top Condencer) TC-8 (Room Temperature)
Water Produced
Figure (30). The Temperature Increase and the Amount of Water Produced by
Adding Reflectors and Condenser.
The graph above shows an increase in the heating plate by approximately 1

°C to reach 52.56 °C. The trend stabilizes after the 90th min showing no
significant changes. It was noticed that the change in temperature in TC-3 and
TC-5 was steady compared to the sharp increase in the previous experiment.
This is mainly because the condenser preventing the heating plate from
submerging properly into the sea water.
The temperature difference between the top and bottom part of the condenser
did not exceed the 2.5 °C border in most of the experiment. The top part’s
maximum temperature was 56.98 °C whereas the bottom part’s maximum
temperature was 54.30 °C. Surprisingly, the temperature of the top part was
higher than the bottom part; this is mainly because the light was exposed on
the area where the top condenser was hanged.

Applying the heat regeneration method increases the heating plate’s

temperature and decreases the temperature of the inner surface of the top
cover by approximately 2 °C compared to previous experiment. In addition to
that, the productivity has increased by 15 %. When running the experiment, it
was noticed that the heating plate is imbalanced when hanging the condenser
to the water collection area. This is because the condenser is not flexible
enough to let the heating plate floats freely on the sea water. This will be
subjected to improvements.
10. Improvements and Modifications of Solar Still.
After analysing the experiments on the solar still, it was found that some components
need to be modified to achieve quality results. The heating plate that losses some of
its heat by conducting with sea water. In addition to the insulation issue in the
heating plate, the condenser flexibility was a problem which prevents the heating
plate to be balance on sea water. These issues are tackled and discussed briefly
below.
10.1 Heating Plate Modifications.
The heating plate lower part was insulated with two layers of Styrofoam with a
plastic stripe of 0.06 m surround it to prevent the water from reaching the plate
from the sides. Furthermore, the investigation of the heating plate refilling process
shows that it is better to refill the heating plate from the bottom by drilling a hole in
the middle rather than from the sides. Finally, reflector sheets were stuck on the
plastic strips to focus more light on the heating plate. These issues were tackled
successfully.

Before After
Modifications Modifications
Figure (31). Heating Plate After and Before Modifications.
10.2 Condenser’s Modifications.
The condenser flexibility was the main issue as it prevents the heating plate to
move freely as well as imbalance problems. The piece of aluminium was
shortened to a third of its original length. A conductive aluminium tape was used
to make the condenser more flexible as it was attached its top and bottom parts.
After attaching the conductive tape the piece of aluminium was insulated with two
layers of Styrofoam as shown in the figure below.
Before After
Modifications Modifications
Figure (32). Condenser After and Before Modifications.

Figure (33). Condenser Hanged on the Inner Area of Water Collection.
10.3 Final Test.
After applying the modifications on the above components, the solar still was
experimented to stand on its efficiency and water productivity as well as analysing
the impact on applying these modifications. This experiment was run for about
180 min, as to provide more time for temperature to arise.
80 45
70 40
60 35
Water Produced (ml)

Temperature (°C)
30
50
25
40
20
30
15
20 10
10 5
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (min)
TC-1 (Outer Surface) TC-2 (Inner Surface)
TC-3 (Heating Plate) TC-4 (Sea Water)
TC-5 (Inside Still) TC-6 (Bottom Condencer)
TC-7 (Top Condencer) TC-8 (Room Temperature)
Water Produced
Figure (34). Final Experiment’s Result.

The graph shows the effect of the improvements that were done to its main
components. The increase in temperature in the heating plate was obvious as its
maximum temperature reaches 59.61 °C. This is mainly because the bottom of
the heating plate was insulated completely with two layers of Styrofoam. In
addition to that, the plastic stripes surrounds the heating plate prevents the sea
water from passing through. The modified condenser provides good flexibility
which gives proper balance to let the heating plate float freely.
The temperature difference between the top and bottom part of the condenser
reaches the 3.5 °C as the maximum recorded temperature for the top part and the
bottom part were 64.86 °C and 61.88 °C respectively. A drop in temperature was
noticed in the inner surface of the top cover. The overall satisfaction of this
experiment was high as the productivity increases by 14 % to reach 42 ml in 120
min. After analysing the experiment, it was necessary to verify whether the heat
regeneration method is operated effectively and to check whether the still has the
ability to produce water with no heat source. The graph below shows the trend of
heating plate’s temperature.
70 16
60 14
Water Produced (ml)

12
50
10
Temperature (°C)
40
8
30
6
20
4
10 2
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min)
TC-3 (Heating Plate) TC-4 (Sea Water) TC-5 (Inside Still)
TC-6 (Bottom Condencer) TC-7 (Top Condencer) TC-8 (Room Temperature)
Water Produced
Figure (35). Cooling from Normal Operation.

According to the graph, as the heat source was removed the outer surface of the
top cover cools down allowing water vapour to condense. The heating plate trend
falls dramatically in the first 30 min while it decreases slowly later similar to all
trends. The recorded temperature of the heating plate after 90 min was 35.7 °C.
The still was left for about 6 hours and the recorded heating plate’s temperature
was 30.89 °C. This temperature did not reach the room temperature as a result
the still efficiency is high and it can be used after sunset using the its stored
energy. The recorded amount was 14 ml of water within 90 min.
11. Further Discussion and Comparison of Experimental Results.
After analysing the experiments above, it is easy to compare between each

experiment to establish the impact of water depth, adding reflectors, adopting heat
regeneration method and applying improvements on some components of the still.
First of all, the water depth plays an important role in increasing the temperature of
the heating plate as well as the productivity as explained in experiment 2. The
increase in the heating plate area with minimizing the depth of heated water results
in an increase in the evaporation rate therefore productivity rate increases. The
evaporation rate is proportional to the area that is the main reason for the
productivity increase occurring in the second experiment between the large and
small heating plate.
In the following experiment, the investigation of the amount of energy is falling on the
heating plate was calculated as a result the more energy is directed to the still equals
to an increase of the energy being absorbed by the heating plate therefore the
productivity increases. In addition to that, the closer the heat source is more energy
is being absorbed by the heating plate. That is exactly what happened in the
experiment when the distance of the same lamp power varied within arrange of 10
cm starting from 30 to 50 cm from the still as shown in table 28. The energy
decreases when the distance between the lamp and the still increases.

The purpose of the initial experiments was to choose the best material among a
variety of materials that can be used in this project. In addition, the experimentations
were carried out in different stages to investigate the impact of each modification on
the solar water still. The graph below shows the heating plate Temperature trend in
the experiments done previously in this project.
The results show that when the heating plate and the condenser insulated properly,
the water production increase. In addition, the difference in temperature is obviously
high as the maximum temperature of the heating plate without adding reflectors and
heat regeneration was 47.72 °C that means the rate of evaporation considerably
small, however when adding reflectors the temperature increases to 51.61 °C
recording a difference of approximately an increase of 4 °C. Furthermore, the
temperature increases more when adopting heat regeneration to reach 52.56 °C.
However, in the third stage the experiment was terminated due to the improper
balance of the heating plate because of the condenser plate stiffness as a result it
partially sinks the heating plate into the sea water as it decreases its temperature.
70
60
50
Temperature (°C)
40
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200
Time (min)
Stage 1: Heating Plate Stage 2: Heating Plate
Stage 3: Heating Plate Final Stage Heating Plate
Figure (36). Heating Plate’s Temperature Trends in Different Experiments.

The amount of water produced depends on the surface area of the heating plate and
the amount of heated water. The productivity of each experiment varies as by adding
a reflector the productivity percentage increased by 15% whereas by adding reflector
and adopting heat regeneration the productivity increases by 31 % about doubled
that ensures the heat regeneration method is working successfully. The graph below
shows the water productivity trends.
45
40
35
Water Produced (ml)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time (min)
Stage 2: Water Produced Stage 3: Water Produced
Final Stage Water Produced Stage 1: Water Produced
Figure (37). Amount of Water Produced Trends in Different Experiments.
In the final stage the experiment was subjected to modifications to some of its
components. As noticed in the above graph that the water productivity increases
when added reflectors and applying heat regeneration methods with proper
insulation for both heating plate and condenser. The productivity arises by 65 % from
stage 1 to the final stage and 34 % from stage 3 to the final stage, this huge increase
is because the modifications that were applied previously in this project. This means
that insulating the heating plate’s bottom was very effective as well as the method
that allows the water to travel from the centre of the plate instead of the sides. Heat
regeneration was effective as its main principle is to regenerate the heat lost back to
the plate; this allows the still to regenerate heat without using heat source for a

limited period of time. The table below illustrate the main results of all experiments.
These experiments were run for about 360 min, however the results shows that the
amount of water produced in every 120 min is contributing as 32% of the 360 min
that means the actual data was multiplied by 3 (All data and spreadsheets of
Experiments can be found in Appendix I).
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Final Stage Unit

Incident Energy 185.7 185.7 185.7 185.7 W/m2
Maximum
47.72 51.61 52.56 59.61 °C
Temperature
Mass Flow Rate 3.61x10-3 4.17x10-3 4.72x10-3 5.83x10-3 Kg/s
Water Produced 78 90 102 126 ml
Water Produced 0.624 0.720 0.816 1.008 Litre/m2
Water Produced 0.104 0.120 0.136 0.168 Litre/m2.hour
Water Produced 1.25 1.44 1.63 2.02 Litre/m2.day
Percentage
100.0 114.5 131.1 165.0 %
Increase
Table (13). Comparison between Each different Stage’s Experiments.
In the final stage of the project the still can produce up to 2.02 Litre/m2.day. The
amount of water human needs may vary depending on age, gender, human activity,
health statue and climate. Children by five years old need 1.5 litres of water whereas
children by 10 years need 1.75 litres of water (Coughlan, 2002). On the other hand, it
is important for adults to have up to 2.5 litre of water daily (Mail Online, 2007). From
these figures, it is obvious that this design satisfies children and adults daily demand
of water
12. Theoretical Analysis.
This section covers all the theoretical analysis of this project. It is quite important to
obtain the energy balance equation of the solar still as to make sure all the values
obtained are scientifically realistic. The steady state equation the energy goes in
must come to balance the equation. The energy balance of the solar still involving
the absorber, sea water and plastic can be written as the energy received by the
heating plate is equal to the summation of the energy gained by the heating plate,
energy gained due heat regeneration, energy of sea water and water produced,

energy lost by convective heat transfer between heating plate and water and
Radiation losses.
QLoss Due Air

QWater Evap QWater
Qin QRegeneration
QLoss Due Conduction and Convection
Figure (38). Solar Still System Analysis.
It is quite difficult to calculate the losses due conduction and convection because of
the uncertainty of heat transfer and loss coefficient value. The energy balance
equation can be written as:
Energy Energy Energy of

Gained by
Heating Plate
+ to Heat
Water
+ Heat
Regeneration
=
Energy to Energy to
Evaporate
Water
+ Heat the
Plate
+ Losses
The amount of energy going in must be equal to the amount of energy going out of
the system. However, the results obtained for these variables show that this is not
the case. The calculation was performed in two scenarios (Full calculation can be
found in Appendix F):
- Scenario 1: System efficiency without heat regeneration.

- Scenario 2: System efficiency with heat regeneration.

The table below show all the comparison of the two scenarios.
Without Heat With Heat

Unit
Regeneration Regeneration
Mass Flow Rate 5.09 x 10-6 5.83 x 10-6 Kg/s
Water Produced 6.32 x10-3 7.24 x10-3 Litre/day.m2.W
System’s
64 71 %
Efficiency
Table (14). Comparison between the Two Scenarios.
In the first scenario the losses percentage was huge, that is the reason why the
efficiency was low. The only reason for this is that is that a big fraction of the
exposed radiation is being reflected from the heating plate from inside to outside
environment. Furthermore, the emissivity of wavelength, transmissivty of the
aluminium and plastic cannot defined as the aluminium material was painted in black
paint, it is known that the black objects are absorbing more energy with emissivity
almost equals to one. Therefore, it is quite difficult to obtain the reflected incident
radiation value from the heating plate to outside. As a result this causes huge
radiation losses which it is approximately 36%.
When adopting the heat regeneration method the efficiency increases by 7% to

reach 71%. That means it is possible to use the heat regeneration to increase the
efficiency of the solar still, thus the productivity increases. In the second scenario the
mass flow rate increases from 5.08 x10-6 to 5.83 x10-6, the losses were reduced as
the heat was transferred back into the heating plate because the condenser as it is
acting as a heat exchanger to regenerate heat. The productivity increases from
6.32x10-3 to 7.24 x10-3 litre/m2.day.W.
What if the heating plate temperature increases by 10 °C? How much water the
system can produce using same operational condition? If it is possible to increase
the heating temperature to reach 70 °C the amount of water produced is equal to
0.195 litres, 9.05 x10-6 Kg/s and 11.2 x10-3 Litre/m2.day.W. This means the amount
of water being produced will be increased by 155 %. This is an impressive
percentage for a simple design. The table below compares the actual values with the
projected values (Full Calculation of this case can be found in Appendix G).

System System
Unit
Actual Values Projected Values
Heat Plate
59.61 70 °C
Temperature
Water Produced 7.24 x10-3 11.2 x10-3 Litre/day.m2.W
Percentage Increase 100 155 %
Table (15). Comparison between the Actual and Imaginary Values.
As for future work, if the heating plate could be increased the water produced will be
increased dramatically, this can be done by eliminating the losses due radiation and
increasing the reflectors area to focus more radiation on the heating plate.
13. Comparison of Existing Products.
It is quite important to compare the obtained data from this project to these from
previous researches carried out using different methodologies. There many factors
that make it difficult to compare between this project and other projects because this
project uses heat regeneration technique as well as different size, shape and
operation conditions. However it is obvious that this simple design can compete with
others. The comparisons are in terms of the amount of water produced in litre/m2/day
within a specific energy level and system efficiency. The table below compares the
results of this project results against other researches in ascending order.
Water Water Energy

Efficiency
Produced Produced Level
Author and Research Topic Litre/m2.day Litre/m2.hr.W W/m2 %
Study by (Alani, 2009) 3.96 22.57 x10-3 220 87.5
This Project 2.02 7.24 x10-3 186 71.5
Study by (Bouchekima, 2002) 1 - 350 50
Study by (Kumar & Bai, 2008) 1.4 - 600 30
Table (14). Water Productivity Comparison between Previous Different Projects.
It is clear that this project has the ability to produce a reasonable amount of water
with less energy although this design was experimented in the lab whereas other
projects designs were tested in an environmental condition in which they were

exposed to a various weather conditions such as wind. Furthermore, the amount of

solar energy is being exposed to other projects in the table is considerably high; this
would increase the temperature of the condensing area as well as evaporated he
water produced if it was not insulated properly.
14. Cost of Manufacture.
The costing is crucial chapter in this project as it is identify the main cost to build this
design as this design meant for overwhelming poverty and malnourishment
conditions of the third world countries societies. The need to identify the resources
including tools used to build this project. It was assumed that the 5 gallon water
bottles are supplied for free. The table below show the estimated value needed t
build one unit.
Tools Dimension Source Quantity Cost per Item Total Cost

List mm List Ons £ £
Forward
Aluminium sheet 500 x 250 x 0.5 Metals
1 3.75 3.75
Styrofoam sheet 350 x 350 x 5 - 1 1.0 1.0
Plastic mixing
270 ASDA 2 0.59 1.18
bowl
Hacksaw - Poundland 1 1.0 1.0
Adhesive Multi purposes Poundland 1 1.0 1.0
Silicon - Poundland 1 1.0 1.0
Silicon gun - Poundland 1 1.0 1.0
Foil - ASDA 1 1.0 0.61
Metal black paint 500 ml B&Q 1 4.94 4.94
Paint brush set small Poundland 1 1.0 1.0
Total Cost 16.52
Table (15). The Cost to Manufacture One Unit of Solar Still.
The total cost to build one solar still unit is approximately £16.5 without taking into
account the payment for the person who is going to build it. In addition, when
designing the still not all the tools were bought as some of them were available in the
university workshop. By other meaning, the actual design cost less than £3.0 to
build. Another point to consider is that there it is not necessary to buy all the
equipment as some of them are available and obtainable with any household.

Furthermore, if it is considered the design to be built in any third world country the
cost will drop dramatically as the cost to buy the tools vary from region to region. The
table below show the required price to build 100 solar still units.
Tools Dimension Source Quantity Cost per Item Total Cost

Forward
100 3.75 375
0.6 x 0.005
Styrofoam sheet B&Q 7 6.98 48.86
6 m length
Plastic mixing
270 ASDA 200 0.59 118
bowl
Foil 40 m Length Poundland 1 3.12 3.12
Tools Total
603.86
Cost
No. Hours Wage Total Cost

hr £/hr £
Worker 1 Manufacture the heating plate. 60 7.0 420
Manufacture the still and the
Worker 2 condenser.
60 7.0 420
Wages Total
840
Cost
Total Cost 1443.86
Table (16). The Cost to Manufacture One Hundred Unit of Solar Still.
The cost required to manufacture 100 units of this design is approximately £1445.0.
It is possible to decrease the tools total cost by 30% if the equipments and tools were
bought in packages. In addition, the job requirement does not require skilled people.
The amount of wage paid for each worker is estimated to be a normal part-time job
wage.

15. Sustainability in Design.
This project depends on solar energy. The solar energy has been used for a long
time. Until recently, the environmental awareness and rising oil prices pushing
societies limit. The potential of emerging solar energy technologies that directly
harness the limitless energy of the sun is increasingly desirable and economically
feasible. The solar still was made using sustainable materials to satisfy the current
situation of environmental issues that affecting the whole earth. The points below
describe the solar still sustainability:
15.1 Environmental Aspect.
• The material used in building the solar still are recyclable, reusable and
disposable as they are considered as polluted free materials which they
are non-toxic, anti-corrosion and does not distil unpleasant smell in which
they are considered environmentally friendly when operated under normal
conditions.
• The energy required to run the still is a non polluted energy in which it
does not produce any emissions.
• The solar energy used is non-consumptive as it does not need any
destructive process to extract its energy, it can be collected freely from its
limitless resource the sun.
• Harmful chemicals that leave negative impact on environment are not used
in building the solar still.
15.2 Economical Aspect.
• Manufacturing the solar still is inexpensive which does not require buying
special tools and equipments to be able to build the solar still as the
materials used were available everywhere.
• The solar energy used in cost effective as it does not requires any fees to
run the solar still using the energy from the sun.

• The use of solar energy will save societies finances permanently. In

addition to that, it offers greater efficiency compared to other energies
resources.
The simplicity in design makes it very elegant for all users; there are no sharp or
dangerous equipments or tools needed to construct the still other than a scissor. This
product can be used as a method for water purification and heating water which
makes a suitable product for third world countries. By adopting heat regeneration
technique, it is possible to use the solar still for a period of time even with unavailable
heat source. This technique provides greater efficiency and water productivity.
16. Conclusion.
A solar water distillation system was designed and manufactured and its
performance was studied in the university laboratory. The design was constructed
using a 5 gallon water bottle. This project confirms the possibility to manufacture
effective solar water still using sustainable material with minimising cost. The major
results of the present work can be summarised in the following points:
• The use of greenhouse solar stills was found to be an attractive method for
obtaining potable water for a small-scale demand. The technical and
economical advantages of this method such as simple and costless
technology provide a sufficient solution for the scarce of fresh water.
• It was necessary to investigate all the operational parameters before
starting to manufacture the product such as the effect of water depth,
minimum constant water level, adding reflectors and applying heat
regeneration technique.
• The possibility to increase the water productivity can be achieved when
lowering the water depth as investigated in the second experiment.
Lowering the water depth leads to an increase in the evaporation rate.
• Constant minimum water depth was achieved.

• Proper insulation of heating plate can increase the temperature differences

between the sea water and the plate’s temperature, therefore the
productivity increases.
• It is quite obvious that when adding reflectors to the system, it increases
the temperature of the heating plate thus the evaporation rate and the
efficiency was increased by 16%.
• Heat regeneration technique provides an extra energy to reheat the water
internally; as a result the efficiency increases by 7% in the final stage.
• The system can produce up to 14ml of potable water in 90 min when
removing the heat source.
• The water solar still has the ability to produce 2.02 litre/m2.day, 5.83 x10-6
Kg/s and 7.24 x10-3 Litre/m2.day.W.
• The efficiency of the still was 64% as approximately 36% radiation losses.
17. Recommendation for Further Studies.
Due to time limitations only two prototypes were constructed and tested. Other
consideration may be carried out such as the use of different improvments techiques
to increase the productivity and performing expeiments on different still materials. a
number of recommendations are suggested for further study are summarised below:
• To increase the evaporation rate, the projected area of the heating plate
could be increased by extending the reflectors area to concentrate more
energy as some of the radiations are wasted.
• The geometrical orientation of any surface will greatly influence the rate of
heat transfer. The study of radiation shape factor is quite complicated
however, it leads to identify if this surface has the ability to exchange
radiation.
• The limitation of water collection area as it withstand a maximum capacity
of 0.45 Litre of water, this may impede the collection of the water. This can
be encountered by attaching small tape on the top cover.

• When performing the testing, the top part of the heat regeneration plate
must be shaded.
• Heat regeneration plate can be subjected to further implementation by
using different insulation technique to increase the temperature difference
along the plate, thus the productivity increase.
• Thermal efficiency could be investigated accurately by using CFD
software’s packages. This study will provide evidences to prove that most
of the heat losses are due to radiation. In addition, using CFD provide
sufficient information in which improvement may carried out to maximize
efficiency.

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19. Bibliography.

Appendices

Design Issue Environmental Issue Others
Polycarbonate - PC plastic is easy to shape and join and - It has the ability to be reheated - It is quite expensive compared to
(PC) used for high strength and toughness and reshaped. other polymers.
applications. - It does not emit fumes when - Maximum and minimum working
- It has a good strength, low density, burnt. temperature is 130 ºC and -130 ºC.
transparent, high toughness and good
UV resistance,
Polyethylene - PET has good strength and stiffness. - It can be reheated and reshaped. - It has low fracture toughness.
Terephthalate - I t is recyclable, reusable and - Compared to other polymers it is - It is used to make water bottles,
(PET) disposable. potentially easier to separate and thick-walled bottle can be reused
- It has an excellent transmissivity. recycle. whereas thin-walled can be recycled.
Aluminium - It has the ability to self protect with very - It is easily recycled which - It is reasonably cheap metal.
AHMAD ALKHAYYAT, 04328963

Alloys effective thin oxide layer to resist requires 1% of the energy - It has low strength and high ductility
corrosion. needed to produce the metal. when it is raw, however when it is
- It has high strength and stiffness to - Because of its low weight nature, alloyed with Si, Cu, ZN, and Si and
1. Appendix A. Materials Information.
weight ratio. High electrical and thermal it has low emissions metal. heat treatment its strength
conductivity. increases.
- It easy to recycle and shape. - It is quite difficult to arc weld.
Mild Steel or - It has high strength and stiffness to - It rusts easily and needs to be - It contains 0.1 – 0.2% of carbon.
Plain Carbon weight ratio. protected by galvanizing, - It is cheap and strong which they are
Steel - Good strength with high toughness. painting and other coatings. mainly used for construction and
- Easy to shape, weld and recycle. - It is quite easy to recycle, transportation.
- Its toughness improved by cold working. however most stainless steels - It is very cheap compared to other
are not magnetic which it is hard metals.
to be sorted from mixed waste. - Poor electrical and thermal
conductivity.
Stainless Steel - It has high strength with good - Because of it contained - It is more expensive steels
toughness. Chromium and Nickel its ability containing 25% of Chromium and
- Its stiffness if high. to resist corrosion are excellent Nickel.
- It is quite easy to shape, weld and and its strength and toughness - Poor electrical and thermal
recycle. are high. conductivity.
Copper - It has high electrical and thermal - It has good corrosion resistance. - It is quite expensive metal.
conductivity. - it is easy to recycle - Its strength depends on the alloyed
84
- Easy to shape. material.
2. Appendix B. Materials Properties.
Polycarbonate
Note:
Terephthalate
Plain Carbon
Polyethylene
Mild Steel or
(Styrofoam)
Polystyrene
Aluminium
Stainless
The material properties
Copper
Alloys
(PET)
Steel
Steel
(PC)
data were extracted and
averaged from CES
EduPack 2009.
General Properties Unit

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Density 1.18 e 1.35 e 1.04 e 2.7 e 7.85 e 7.85 e 8.93 e Kg/m
Price 2.76 1.125 1.06 1.135 0.468 4.81 2.335 GBP/Kg
Mechanical
Unit
Properties
Young’s Modulus 2.22 3.45 1.9 75 208 200 130 GPa
Shear Modulus 0.83 1.24 0.7 28 82 79 64 GPa
Bulk Modulus 3.8 5.08 3 67.5 166.5 142.5 138 GPa
Poisons Ratio 0.399 0.389 0.393 0.34 0.29 0.27 0.345 -
Yield Strength 65 59.4 42.45 265 323 585 265 MPa
Tensile Strength 66.2 60.4 46.2 304 464 1360 325 MPa
Compressive
78 65.4 46.7 265 232 585 265 MPa
Strength
Fatigue Strength at
26.5 24.15 18.7 89.3 248 464 130 MPa
107 Cycles
1/2
Fracture Toughness 3.4 5 0.9 28.5 61.5 105 60 MPa.m
Elongation 110 165 2.4 22.5 36.5 37.5 26.5 %
Thermal Properties Unit
Melting Point 149 238.5 - 576 1505 1410 1031 ºC
Glass Temperature 174 74 92 - - - - ºC
Maximum service
124 77 90 165 375 785 265 ºC
Temperature
Minimum Service
-98 -98 -98 -273 -53.2 -271.5 -273 ºC
Temperature
Thermal Conductivity 0.2 0.145 0.126 155.5 51.5 18 275 W/m.K
Specific Heat 3 3 3
1.6 e 1.45 e 1.73 e 900 483 490 380 J/Kg.K
Capacity
Thermal Expansion
129 117 121.5 22.5 12.3 16.5 17.5 µstrain/ºC
Coefficient
Optical Properties Unit
Optical Optical
Transparency Quality
Excellent
Quality
Opaque Opaque Opaque Opaque -
Refractive Index 1.57 1.57 1.58 - - - - -

Polycarbonate
Terephthalate
Plain Carbon
Polyethylene
Mild Steel or
(Styrofoam)
Polystyrene
Aluminium
Stainless
Copper
Alloys
(PET)
Steel
Steel
(PC)
Material Recycling Unit
Recycle or
Down cycle or
Combust for Energy
or
Recovery
Landfill or
Biodegrade or
Renewable source or
Embodied Energy,
46.4 35.2 38.9 19.7 8.96 12.3 18.15 MJ/Kg
Recycling
CO2 Footprint ,
2.38 0.979 1.2 1.07 0.7 1.43 1.46 Kg/Kg
Recycling
Heat of Combustion
31 23.6 41.3 - - - - MJ/Kg
(net)
Combustion CO2 2.77 2.29 3.37 - - - - Kg/Kg
Toxicity Rate Non Non Non Non Non Non Non -

3. Appendix C. PC Plastic Test Using UV-Visible Spectrophotometer CE 6602.
Instrument Peaks by
Data Unit Unit Data Unit
Parameters Height
Range 100 %T 453.7 nm 82.58 %T
Start λ 370.0 nm 628.5 nm 75.51 %T
Finish λ 800.0 nm 652.5 nm 75.36 %T
Bandwidth 2.0 nm Peaks by
Scan Speed 5.0 nm/s W/Length
Threshold 0.67 %T 453.7 nm 82.58 %T
628.5 nm 75.36 %T
652.5 nm 75.51 %T

4. Appendix D. Installation Instructions of Solar Still.
Step 1.
Make sure all the equipments and tools are available before
starting to build up the solar still. The necessary tools and
equipments are:
- Scissor and ruler. - Aluminium sheet 35 x 35 x
- Silicone and silicone gun. 0.05 cm.
Super
- Super glue. - Black paint and brush.
Glue
- 1 x 5 gallon water bottle. - Styrofoam sheet.

- 2 x plastic mixing bowl. - Rubber plug.
- Hack Saw - Aluminium foil.
Step 2.
Cut a circle shape 20 cm in diameter from the aluminium
sheet using a scissor. Then cut the remaining aluminium into
long stripes 3 cm wide. The aluminium circle will act as the
base of the heating plate. Drill a small hole in the centre of
the plate for water refilling. Use the super glue to stick the
stripes onto the aluminium circle edge to form a border. Wait
for 2 minutes to let the glue get dry, and then paint the whole
design with black paint using a brush. Cut a 2 x circles from
the Styrofoam sheet.
Step 3.
While giving plenty of time for the paint to dry, cut the bottle
into 3 sections as shown in the figure. The top and bottom
parts will be used to build the still. The middle part will be
used for maintenance purposes. Use the bowls to make the
water collection channel. Turn the bowls upside down and
mark 7cm high from its base as indicated in the figure, then
cut the top section very gently using a scissor to prevent
cracking the plastic. Cut the remaining plastic into stripes for
later use
Step 4.
First place the top cover with the cut bowl to make sure that it
is perfectly fit. Use the silicone gun fill in the edges of the
bowl and then place the top cover onto the cut bowl, leave it
until it gets dry.

Step 5.
Put super glue on top of the bottom part to stick the cut bowl
onto it. Place some weight on top of the bowl make sure no
gaps between the bottom part edge and the base of the cut
bowl. Wait for about 1 minute to let the glue dry. Use the
silicone to cover any gaps inside and outside the bottom part
to prevent air leakage.
Step 6.
Make sure the heating plate paint is dry, and then use the
silicone to cover the gaps inside and outside the border; this
is to prevent the water leakage. Provide some time for
silicone to dry. Take the 2 Styrofoam circles that were cut in
step 2. Glue the two circles together using normal adhesive.
Then glue them at the back of the heating plate.
Glue the remaining bowl plastic to form a plastic frame that

surrounds the heating plate to prevent water from pass
through the sides of the plate when it is submerged. Use the
silicone to stick hollowed small cylindrical aluminium in the
hole to cover the Styrofoam, this to prevent the water from
travelling into the layers of Styrofoam and make the
insulation more effective.
Step 7.
Take the aluminium foil and cut it into stripes. Glue these
stripes into the areas indicated in the graph. The aluminium
foil is used for reflecting the sun arrays inside the bottom part
where it helps to focus the radiations on the heating plates.

Conductive Step 8.
Aluminium
Tape Styrofoam Take one stripe of aluminum and cut it into two parts 6 cm
long and 5 cm wide. Use the conductive aluminium tape to
Aluminium
Sheet connect the two piece of aluminium, this will provide
flexibility to the condenser. Use the Styrofoam stripes that
were cut before to insulate the one piece of aluminium.
Glue the Styrofoam to both sides of the aluminum piece,
with taking into account the aluminium tape is stuck before.
Bend the other piece to hang on the water collection
border.
Step 9.
Assemble all the parts together. First, fill in the bottom part
with sea or brackish water at the indicated level (10 cm
deep). Second, place heating plate on the sea water, and
then attach the condenser into the edge of the water
collection area. Third, add 0.3 Kg of weight on top of the
floating heating plate to let it submerge. Stack the top cover
on the bottom part. Forth, use a rubber sealer to block the
top tip cap. Carry the still to sunny areas and wait until the
end of the day to collect the fresh water. To take out the
fresh water, only turn the top cover upside down and pour it
from the top tip cap into a glass.

5. Appendix E. Full Calculation of determining the amount of energy that falling

onto the aluminium block.
TC-2 TC-3 TC-4
TC-1 Outer Heating Heating Heating TC-5 Room
Time
Surface Plate at Plate at Plate at Temperature
30mm 40mm 50mm
Minutes °C °C °C °C °C
0 37.97 22.96 22.14 20.69 22.06
1 41.66 23.78 23.61 21.43 21.78
2 46.45 24.45 25.23 21.81 22.09
3 49.39 25.06 26.47 22.23 21.85
4 51.67 25.71 27.57 22.59 22.17
5 53.82 26.37 28.5 22.98 22.26
6 55.42 27.01 29.28 23.36 22.3
7 56.52 27.65 30.04 23.7 22.6
8 57.45 28.25 30.63 24.03 22.64
9 58.18 28.88 31.31 24.41 22.9
10 59.01 29.54 31.84 24.77 22.81
11 60.02 30.15 32.32 25.15 22.95
12 61.03 30.74 32.78 25.51 22.98
13 61.57 31.37 33.19 25.89 23.01
14 61.96 31.94 33.66 26.2 23.18
15 62.36 32.56 34.01 26.54 23.04
16 62.59 33.13 34.38 26.84 23.07
17 63.35 33.75 34.69 27.15 23.29
18 63.35 34.32 35 27.48 23.34
19 63.6 34.88 35.28 27.78 23.41
20 63.56 35.52 35.56 28.1 23.28
21 63.65 35.97 35.86 28.39 23.39
22 64.1 36.49 36.08 28.7 23.3
23 64.74 37.02 36.34 28.98 23.49
24 65.01 37.52 36.57 29.26 23.43
25 65.25 38.04 36.73 29.52 23.51
26 65.56 38.52 36.92 29.82 23.39
27 66.06 39.02 37.08 30.07 23.52
28 66.03 39.46 37.26 30.36 23.57
29 65.9 39.95 37.42 30.62 23.6
30 65.62 40.3 37.68 30.85 23.64
31 65.83 40.59 38.05 31.01 23.88
32 66.15 40.93 38.32 31.16 23.56
33 66.16 41.25 38.59 31.29 23.49

TC-2 TC-3 TC-4

TC-1 Outer Heating Heating Heating TC-5 Room
Time
Surface Plate at Plate at Plate at Temperature
30mm 40mm 50mm
Minutes °C °C °C °C °C
34 66.46 41.52 38.78 31.55 23.47
35 66.59 41.86 39.01 31.79 23.67
36 66.51 42.13 39.29 31.93 23.54
37 66.72 42.44 39.54 32.01 23.67
38 66.29 42.72 39.81 32.18 23.64
39 66.56 43.18 39.99 32.32 23.76
40 66.95 43.51 40.12 32.56 23.73
41 66.74 43.89 40.37 32.73 23.52
42 67 44.22 40.57 32.88 23.55
43 67.23 44.56 40.79 33.11 23.7
44 67.78 44.81 41.01 33.34 23.59
45 67.9 45.11 41.31 33.62 23.66
46 68.27 45.32 41.52 33.79 23.72
47 68.5 45.48 41.86 33.95 23.75
48 68.74 45.69 41.98 34.07 23.6
49 68.88 46.06 42.19 34.22 23.59
50 68.09 46.33 42.42 34.46 23.57
51 68.99 46.71 42.59 34.73 23.69
52 69.1 47.03 42.76 34.88 23.57
53 69.23 47.21 42.87 35.01 23.63
54 69.51 47.46 42.98 35.17 23.49
55 69.75 47.62 43.11 35.35 23.59
56 69.89 48.03 43.24 35.49 23.81
57 69.99 48.28 43.39 35.73 23.77
58 70.12 48.52 43.51 35.87 23.84
59 70.09 48.96 43.62 35.99 23.71
60 70.28 49.32 43.78 36.05 23.82
The table above show the temperature readings for the aluminium block at different
distances. Using the equation . . ∆ obtained from (Eastop & McConkey,
1993). This equation is used to calculate the incident energy at 0.3 m lamp distance
as the same methodology will be repeated for the other distances.

Unit
Dimensions L x W 0.7 x 0.045 m
Mass m 0.161 Kg
Block Area AB 0.00392 m2
Heat Plate Area AP 0.125 m2
Heat Capacity CpAL 900 J/Kg.K
Lamp Power Lp 500 W/m2
Lamp Distance Ld 0.3 m
Temp @ 30 min T30 40.30 ⁰C
Temp @ 50 min T50 46.33 ⁰C
Temp Difference ∆T 6.03 ⁰C
Time Difference ∆ sec
The incident energy can be found by substituting the data above into the equation
obtained . . ∆ .
∆

∆

0.161 900 6.03 873.75
873.75

0.728 /0.00392
20 60
0.728

185.7 /
0.00392
Energy levels for different lamp distances are then calculated.
Distance Incident
from Still Energy
m W/m2
0.3 185.7
0.4 146
0.5 111.2
This approach was essential to find the amount of energy falling onto the heating
plate. The calculation below shows the how much energy is falling on the plate within
6 hours.
! "#$%&'#( #')*+ ,- (.' /0,$1 )'2 ,- (.' 3'2(%#* 402('
!
5 185.7 0.125 23.21

6. Appendix F. Theoretical Analysis.
The energy balance can be written as:
Energy Energy Energy of

Gained by
Heating Plate
+ to Heat
Water
+ Heat
Regeneration
=
Energy to Energy to Heat
Evaporate
Water
+ Water to Plate
Temperature
+ Losses
The calculation will be carried twice one with heat regeneration and one without heat
regeneration calculation for comparison to ensure the effect of heat regeneration.
Unit
Specific Heat of Water CPW 4.187 KJ/Kg.K
Specific Heat of Water Vapor CPEvap 1.996 KJ/Kg.K
Enthalpy of vaporization Hfg 2257 KJ/Kg.K
Amount of Water Produced
- 0.110 Litre
without Condenser
Amount of Water Produced
- 0.126 Litre
with Condenser
Temperature of Sea Water TW 32 J/Kg.K
Temperature of Heating
TP1 57.23 ⁰C
Plate without Condenser
Temperature of Heating
TP2 59.61 ⁰C
Plate with Condenser
Thermal Conductivity of
K 235 W/m.K
Aluminium
Temperature of top
TTOP 64.86 ⁰C
Condenser
Temperature of Bottom
TBOT 61.88 ⁰C
Condenser
Change in Temperature ∆T - 2.98 ⁰C
Area Right Angle to Direction
AR 0.0000265 m2
of Heat Flow
Change in Length ∆x 0.17 m

Scenario 1. Without Heat Regeneration.
The energy gained by heating plate was calculated to be 185.7 W/m2 and 23.2 W.
The energy to heat water equation can be written as:
6!7 89: . 7 . 7
,;#( ,- 2(') 4),&;$'&
89:
%' <'#(
=.>>=
89: 5.09 10A? B*/C
? @ ?= @ ?=
6!7 5.09 10A? 4.187 10E 32 F 273

6!7 6.5 /C
The energy to heat the water to plate temperature’s equation can be written as:
6!5 89: . 7 . 5> G 7
6!5 5.09 10A? 4.187 10E 57.23 G 32
6!5 0.54 /C
The energy to evaporate the water equation can be written as:
689: 89: . 7 . 5> F 89: . 3HI
689: 5.09 10A? 4.187 10E 57.23 F 273 F 5.09 10A? 2257 10E
689: 18.53 /C
The balance equation can be written as:
! F 6!7 6!5 F 689: F J,CC'C
23.2 F 6.5 0.54 F 18.53 F J,CC'C
29.7 19.1 F J,CC'C
The system efficiency without heat regeneration:
P;(;( 19.1
KLMNO 64 %
"#;( 29.7
Scenario 2. With Heat Regeneration.
6!7 89: . 7 . 7

,;#( ,- 2(') 4),&;$'&

89:
%' <'#(
=.> ?
89: 5.833 10A? B*/C
? @ ?= @ ?=
6!7 5.833 10A? 4.187 10E 32 F 273

6!7 7.45 /C
Energy of Heat Regeneration can be written as conduction equation:
∆
6RIS GB . .
∆@
A .TU
6RIS G235 0.0000265
=.>V
6RIS 0.11 /C

6!5 89: . 7 . 5> G 7
6!5 5.833 10A? 4.187 10E 59.61 G 32
6!5 0.67 /C
689: 89: . 7 . 5> F 89: . 3HI
689: 5.833 10A? 4.187 10E 59.61 F 273 F 5.833 10A? 2257 10E
689: 21.3 /C
! F 6!7 F 6RIS 6!5 F 689: F J,CC'C
23.2 F 7.45 F 0.11 0.67 F 21.3 F J,CC'C
30.76 22 F J,CC'C
The system efficiency with heat regeneration:
P;(;( 22
KLMNO 71.4 %
"#;( 30.76
Without Heat With Heat

Unit
Regeneration Regeneration
System’s Efficiency 64 71 %

7. Appendix G. Case 1. The Increase in Heating Plate Temperature.

If the temperature of the heating plate increases by 10 °C, how much water the
system is going to produce using the same operational condition?
6!7 89: . 7 . 7
6!7 89: 4.187 10E 32 F 273
6!7 89: 1.277 10? /C
Energy of Heat Regeneration can be written as conduction equation:
∆
6RIS GB . .
∆@
G2.98
6RIS G235 0.0000265
0.17
6RIS 0.11 /C
6!5 89: . 7 . 5> G 7
6!5 89: 4.187 10E 70 G 32
6!5 89: 159.106 10E /C
689: 89: . 7 . 5> F 89: . 3HI
689: 89: 4.187 10E 70 F 273 F 89: 2257 10E
689: 89: 1.436 10? F 89: 2257 10E /C
! F 6!7 F 6RIS 6!5 F 689: F J,CC'C
23.2 F 89: 1.277 10? F 0.11
89: 159.106 10E F 89: 1.436 10? F 89: 2257 10E F J,CC'C
23.31 F 89: 1.277 10? 89: 159.106 10E F 1.436 10? F 2257 10E
23.31 F 89: 1.277 10? 89: 3.852 10?
23.31
89: 9.05 10A? B*/C
3.852 10? G 1.27710?

8. Appendix H. Product Specifications and Features.
Metric Value Unit

Overall Dimensions Height: 340 Diameter: 270 mm
Thickness: 3.0 Area: 0.54 mm2
Heating Plate Dimensions Height: 5.5 Diameter: 220
Depth: 6.0 mm
Plate and border thickness: 1
Overall Weight With water: 9.0
Kg
Without water: 1.1
Sunlit Area Dimension mm2
Provided Distance between sunlit
It is about 240 mm
area and heating plate
Internal Space Volume Top Part: 0.029
m3
Bottom Part: 0.035
Size of the Still Relatively small Subj
Number of Components It consists of five components such
as top and bottom parts, heating
Ons
plate, insulation material and
sealer.
Water Collection Area Maximum
0.5 Liter
Capacity
Bottom Part maximum Capacity 7.5 Liter
Heating Plate maximum Capacity 0.25 Liter
Material of Still Thermoplastic. Subj
Transparency. Transparent. List
Tools Required for Maintenance A piece of cloth for cleaning.
List
Silicon if there is water leakage.
Tools Required for Manufacture Scissor, silicon, black paint, brush,
5 gallon water bottle, two plastic
mixing bowls, piece of metal, list
insulation material, super glue,
hacksaw, aluminum foil and plug.
Time Required to Manufacture the It takes 30 to 60 min to
Still manufacture the still, however this
is to provide enough time to get the min
black paint, silicon and super glue
get dry.
Time for assemble / disassemble less than 60 to assemble
min
maintenance. less than 5 min to disassemble
Environmental friendly / less Recyclable, reusable and
Subj
pollution. disposable.
Mass flow rate 5.83 x 10-6 Kg/s
Water Produced 2.02 Litre/m2.day

9. Appendix I. CD of all data and spreadsheets of experimentations.

10. Appendix J. Project Planning: Gantt Chart

11. Appendix K. Project Costing.
The table below shows the estimated costing for the whole projects including the
tools and equipments prices and wages for project personnel.
. Tools Dimension Source Quantity Cost per Item Total Cost

Forward
1 3.75 3.75
Styrofoam sheet 350 x 350 x 5 - 1 1.0 1.0
Plastic mixing
270 ASDA 2 0.59 1.18
bowl
Foil - ASDA 1 1.0 0.61
Double Tripod
500 W ScrewFix 1 17.99 17.99
Light Source
Thermocouples Type K Pico Tech 8 6.0 48.0
Data Logger - Pico Tech 1 249 249.0
Computer - PC World 1 180 180.0
Tools Total
511.47
Cost
No. Hours Wage Total Cost

hr £/hr £
Supervisor - 12 35 420
Author - 600 20 12000
Wages Total
12420
Cost
Total Cost 12931.47
The final cost of the project is £12391. The table above does not include the
electricity bill in which it will increase the cost. It was not expected to cost this
fortune, however the benefit of testing this design provides an effective solution of
purifying water using limitless and priceless energy.

12. Appendix L. Project Specifications Form.

13. Appendix M. Project Risk Assessment Form.

14. Appendix N. Project’s TOR Review and Ethics Form.

15. Appendix O. Project’s Agenda.

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Investigation into the Design and Manufacture

of Solar Water Distillation System.

Water and energy are fundamental components of modern civilizations (UNIDO,

AHMAD ALKHAYYAT, 04328963 1

technologies become more advanced, the use of these technologies becomes

AHMAD ALKHAYYAT, 04328963 2

2. Aims of the Project.

• Analysing the performance and efficiency of existing stills.

3. Objectives of the Project.

The main objectives of this project can be summarised below:

The methodology of this project requires an up to date knowledge of information

AHMAD ALKHAYYAT, 04328963 3

objectives is to design and manufacture an efficient water solar distillation system

• Literature Review: this chapter discusses the water purifications methods. In

• Final Design: A 3D design will be created to visualize the project properly.

AHMAD ALKHAYYAT, 04328963 4

equipment and materials will be listed in order together before starting to

5.1 Background of Desalination Techniques.

The desalination is a process where sea water is subjected to treatment to

AHMAD ALKHAYYAT, 04328963 5

Figure (1). The Main Desalination Processes according to (Al-Karaghouli &

AHMAD ALKHAYYAT, 04328963 6

5.2 Water Purification Methods.

AHMAD ALKHAYYAT, 04328963 7

is the maintenance as the pre-filter needs to be cleaned according to UK

• Steam Distilled Water: this method is producing fresh water by a natural

• Ion Exchange Filter: it is a filter which softens water by exchanging sodium

• Reverse Osmosis (RO): RO process employs a membrane to filter the

AHMAD ALKHAYYAT, 04328963 8

5.3 Water Purification Methods Evaluation.

Output Output Maintenance

AHMAD ALKHAYYAT, 04328963 9

Output Output Maintenance

Table (1). Evaluation Table between Various Water Treatment Methods.

AHMAD ALKHAYYAT, 04328963 10

Redox & KDF

Viruses •••• •••• •••• •••• • / / •••• /

Bad odor &

Chlorine •• / / ? •••• / ••• •••• /

Fluoride •••• / / / / •••• / •••• /

Iron / / / •••• / ? ••• ••• /

Organic ••• / / •••• •••• •• ? •••• ••••

Lead •••• / / ? / ••• ? ••• /

Magnesium •••• / / •••• •••• ••• / ••• /

Sulphur •••• / / •••• / ••• / ••• /

Arsenic ••• / / ? / ••• •• ••• /

Calcium ••• / / ? / ••• / ••• ?

Cadmium ••• / / ? / ••• / ••• /

Nitrates •••• / / ? / ••• / ••• ?

Sodium •••• / / ? / ••• ? ••• ?

Table (2). Efficiency of Water Purification Methods According to Johnson, (2005),

AHMAD ALKHAYYAT, 04328963 11

5.4 Solar Energy Analysis.

Figure (2). Spectral Distribution of Electromagnetic Radiation

AHMAD ALKHAYYAT, 04328963 12

AHMAD ALKHAYYAT, 04328963 13

5.5 History of Solar Distillation.

5.6 The Main Application of Solar Distillation System.

The main application of the solar distillation system is as follows according to

AHMAD ALKHAYYAT, 04328963 14

5.7 Solar Distillation System Process.

Figure (4). Solar Distillation Process by (Dunham, 1987).

5.8 Solar Distillation System Design Variation.

AHMAD ALKHAYYAT, 04328963 15