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1. INTRODUCTION
AUTOMATION
Automation or industrial automation is the
use of control systems such as computers
to control industrial machinery and
processes, reducing the need for human
intervention.
Automation is the use of control systems
(such as numerical control, programmable
logic control, and other industrial control
systems), in concert with other
applications of information technology
(such as computer-aided technologies
[CAD, CAM, CAx]), to control industrial machinery and processes, reducing the need for human
intervention. In the scope of industrialization, automation is a step beyond mechanization. Whereas
mechanization provided human operators with machinery to assist them with the muscular
requirements of work, automation greatly reduces the need for human sensory and mental
requirements as well. Processes and systems can also be automated.
Automation plays an increasingly important role in the world economy and in daily experience.
Engineers strive to combine automated devices with mathematical and organizational tools to create
complex systems for a rapidly expanding range of applications and human activities.
Many roles for humans in industrial processes presently lie beyond the scope of automation. Human-
level pattern recognition, language recognition, and language production ability are well beyond the
capabilities of modern mechanical and computer systems. Tasks requiring subjective assessment or
synthesis of complex sensory data, such as scents and sounds, as well as high-level tasks such as
strategic planning, currently require human expertise. In many cases, the use of humans is more cost-
effective than mechanical approaches even where automation of industrial tasks is possible.
Specialised hardened computers, referred to as programmable logic controllers (PLCs), are
frequently used to synchronize the flow of inputs from (physical) sensors and events with the flow of
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outputs to actuators and events. This leads to precisely controlled actions that permit a tight control
of almost any industrial process.
Human-machine interfaces (HMI) or computer human interfaces (CHI), formerly known as man-
machine interfaces, are usually employed to communicate with PLCs and other computers, such as
entering and monitoring temperatures or pressures for further automated control or emergency
response. Service personnel who monitor and control these interfaces are often referred to as
stationary engineers in boiler houeses or central utilities departments. [2] In most industrial process
and manufacturing environments, these roles are called operators or variations on this.
Advantages and disadvantages
The main advantage of automation are:
Automation Impacts :
It increase productivity and reduce coasts.
Decrease in cost.
High accuracy, real time operation
Replacing human operators in tasks that involve hard physical or monotonous work[7].
Replacing humans in tasks that should be done in dangerous environments (i.e. fire, space,
volcanoes, nuclear facilities, underwater, etc)
Making tasks that are beyond the human capabilities such as handling too heavy loads, too
large objects, too hot or too cold substances or the requirement to make things too fast or too
slow.
Economy improvement. Sometimes and some kinds of automation implies improves in
economy of enterprises, society or most of humankind. For example, when an enterprise that
has invested in automation technology recovers its investment; when a state or country
increases its income due to automation like Germany or Japan in the 20th Century or when
the humankind can use the internet which in turn use satellites and other automated engines.
The main disadvantages of automation are:
Technology limits. Current technology is unable to automate all the desired tasks.
Unpredictable development costs. The research and development cost of automating a
process is difficult to predict accurately beforehand. Since this cost can have a large impact
on profitability, it's possible to finish automating a process only to discover that there's no
economic advantage in doing so.
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Initial costs are relatively high. The automation of a new product required a huge initial
investment in comparison with the unit cost of the product, although the cost of automation is
spread in many product batches. The automation of a plant required a great initial investment
too, although this cost is spread in the products to be produced.
Unemployment. It is commonly thought that automation implies unemployment because the
work of a human being is replaced in part or completely by a machine. Nevertheless, the
unemployment is caused by the economical politics of the administration like dismissing the
workers instead of changing their tasks. Since the general economical policies of most of the
industrial plants are to dismiss people, nowadays automation implies unemployment. In
different scenarios without workers, automation implies more free time instead of
unemployment like the case with the automatic washing machine at home. Automation does
not imply unemployment when it makes tasks unimaginable without automation such as
exploring mars with the Sojourner or when the economy is fully adapted to an automated
technology as with the Telephone switchboard.
Environment. The costs of automation to the environment are different depending on the
technology, product or engine automated. There are automated engines that consume more
energy resources from the Earth in comparison with previous engines and those that do the
opposite too.
Different types of automation tools exist:
ANN - Artificial neural network
DCS - Distributed Control System
HMI - Human Machine Interface
SCADA - Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
PLC - Programmable Logic Controller
PAC - Programmable automation controller
Instrumentation
Motion control
Robotics
Applications of Automation
Automated Video surveillance:
The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) started the research and
development of automated Visual surveillance and Monitoring (VSAM) program 1997-99 and
airborne Video Surveillance (AVS) program 1998-2002. Currently there is a major effort underway
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in the vision community to develop a fully automated tracking surveillance system. Automated video
surveillance monitors people and vehicle in real time within a busy environment. Automated
Highway Systems:
As demands for safety and mobility have grown and technological possibilities have
multiplied, interest in automation have grown. Seeking to accelerate the development and
introduction of fully automated vehicles and highways, Congress authorized more than $650 million
over 6 years for intelligent transport systems (ITS) and demonstration projects in the 1991
Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA). Congress legislated in ISTEA that “The
secretary [of transportation] shall develop an automated highway and vehicle prototype from which
future fully automated intelligent vehicle-highway systems can be developed. Such development
shall include research in human factors to ensure the success of the man-machine relationship. The
goal of this program is to have the first fully automated highway roadway or an automated test track
in operation by 1997. This system shall accommodate installation of equipment in new and existing
motor vehicles." [ISTEA 1991, part B, Section 6054(b)].
Full automation commonly defined as requiring no control or very limited control by the driver; such
automation would be accomplished through a combination of sensor, computer, and communications
systems in vehicles and along the roadway. Fully automated driving would, in theory, allow closer
vehicle spacing and higher speeds, which could enhance traffic capacity in places where additional
road building is physically impossible, politically unacceptable, or prohibitively expensive.
Automated controls also might enhance road safety by reducing the opportunity for driver error,
which causes a large share of motor vehicle crashes. Other potential benefits include improved air
quality (as a result of more-efficient traffic flows), increased fuel economy, and spin-off technologies
generated during research and development related to automated highway systems.[6]
Automated manufacturing:
Automated manufacturing refers to the application of automation to produce things in the
factory way. Most of the advantages of the automation technology has its influence in the
manufacture processes.
The main advantage of the automated manufacturing are: higher consistency and quality, reduce the
lead times, simplification of production, reduce handling, improve work flow and increase the
morale of workers when a good implementation of the automation is made.
Home Automation
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Home automation (also called domotics) designates an emerging practice of increased
automation of household appliances and features in residential dwellings, particularly through
electronic means that allow for things impracticable, overly expensive or simply not possible in
recent past decades.
2. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC)
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2.1 HISTORY OF PLC’S
The first Programmable Logic Controllers were designed and developed by Modicon as a
relay re-placer for GM and Landis. These controllers eliminated the need for rewiring and
adding additional hardware for each new configuration of logic. The new system drastically
increased the functionality of the controls while reducing the cabinet space that housed the
logic. The first PLC, model 084, was invented by Dick Morley in 1969 The first commercial
successful PLC, the 184, was introduced in 1973 and was designed by Michael Greenberg.
2.2 WHAT IS INSIDE A PLC?
The Central Processing Unit, the CPU, contains an internal program that tells the PLC how to
perform the following functions:
Execute the Control Instructions contained in the User's Programs. This program is stored in
"nonvolatile" memory, meaning that the program will not be lost if power is removed
Communicate with other devices, which can include I/O Devices, Programming Devices,
Networks, and even other PLC’s.
Perform Housekeeping activities such as Communications, Internal Diagnostics, etc.
O
I Central U
N Processing T
P Unit P
U U
T T
Fig. 2
2.2.1 The CPU is the brain of a PLC system. It consists of the microprocessor, memory
integrated circuits, and circuits necessary to store and retrieve information from memory. It
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also includes communications ports to other peripherals, other PLC's or programming
terminals. Today's processors vary widely in their capabilities to control real world devices.
Some control as few as 6 inputs and outputs (I/O) and others 40,000 or more. One processor
can control more than one process or manufacturing line. Processors are often linked together
in order to provided continuity throughout the process. The number of inputs and outputs
PLC’s can control are limited by the overall capacity of the PLC system hardware and
memory capabilities. The job of the processor is to monitor status or state of input devices,
scan and solve the logic of a user program, and control on or off state of output devices.
2.2.2 RAM or Random Access Memory is a volatile memory that would lose it's information if
power were removed. This is why some processor units incorporate a battery back up. The
type of RAM normally used is CMOS or Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor.
CMOS RAM is used for storage of the user's program (ladder logic diagrams) and storage
memory.
2.2.3 ROM or Read Only Memory is a non-volatile type of memory. This means you don't need an
external power source to keep information. In this type of memory, information can be read,
but not changed. For this reason the manufacture sometimes calls this firmware. It is placed
there for the internal use and operation of processor units.
2.2.4 EEPROM or Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory is usually an add-on
memory module that is used to back up the main program in CMOS RAM of the processor.
In many cases, the processor can be programmed to load the EEPROM's program to RAM if
RAM is lost or corrupted.
2.2.5 Input Module
There are many types of input modules to choose from. The type of input module used is
dependent upon what real world input to the PLC is desired. Some examples of inputs are
limit switches, electric eyes, and pushbuttons. DC inputs, such as thumbwheel switches, can
be used to enter integer values to be manipulated by the PLC. DC input cards are used for
this application. Since most industrial power systems are inherently noisy, electrical isolation
is provided between the input and the processor. Electromagnetic interference (EMI) and
Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) can cause severe problems in most solid state control
systems. The component used most often to provide electrical isolation within I/O cards is
called an optical isolator or opto coupler. The wiring of an input is not complex. The object is
to get a voltage at a particular point on the card. Typically there are 8 to 32 input points on
any one input module. Each point will be assigned a unique address by the processor. Analog
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input modules are special input cards that use analog to digital conversion (A to D) to sense
variables such as temperature, speed, pressure, and position. The external device normally is
connected to a controller (transducer) producing an electrical signal the analog input card can
interpret. This signal is usually 4 to 20 Ma or a 0 to 10 volt signal.
2.2.6 Output Module
Output modules can be for used for ac or dc devices such as solenoids, relays, contractors,
pilot lamps, and LED readouts. Output cards usually have from 6 to 32 output points on a
single module. The output device within the card provides the Connection from the user
power supply to the load. Usually silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR), triac, or dry contact
relays are use for this purpose. Individual outputs are rated most often at 2 to 3 amperes.
Output cards, like input cards have electrical isolation between the load being connected and
the PLC. Analog output cards are a special type of output modules that use digital to analog
conversion (D to A). The analog output module can take a value stored in a 12 bit file and
convert it to an analog signal. Normally this signal is 0 -10 volts dc or 4 to 20 Ma. This
analog signal is often used in equipment such as motor operated valves and pneumatic
position control devices.
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the programmed instructions. This could result in an output coming on for one or two scans
when in fact it should be off.
Execute program
2.4 COMMUNICATIONS
There are several methods to communicate between a PLC and a programmer or even
between two PLC’s. Communications between a PLC and a programmer (PC or Hand held)
are provided by the makers and you only have to plug in a cable from your PC to the
programming port on the PLC. This communication can be RS232; RS485 or TTY.
Communications between two PLC’s can be carried out by dedicated links
supplied/programmed by the makers (RS232 etc) or via outputs from one PLC to the inputs
on another PLC. This direct link method of communication can be as simple as, if an output
on the first PLC is on then the corresponding input on the second PLC will be on and then
this input is used within the program on the second PLC. If a word of input/outputs (16 bits)
are used then numerical data can be transferred from one PLC to the other (refer back to the
section on numbering systems). There are many other methods of communication between
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PLC’s and also from PLC to PC. Please refer to the manuals supplied with the PLC that you
are using for full details on communications.
Fig. 3
Function Block Diagram (FBD) - A graphical language for depicting signal and data flows
through re-usable function blocks. FBD is very useful for expressing the interconnection of
control system algorithms and logic.
Structured Text (ST)– A high level text language that encourages structured programming.
It has a language structure (syntax) that strongly resembles PASCAL and supports a wide
range of standard functions and operators. For example;
If Speed >100.0 then
Flow_ Rate =50.0+ Offset_ A1;
Else
Flow_Rate: = 100.0; Steam:=ON
End_if;
Instruction List (IL): A low level “assembler like” language that is based on similar
instructions list languages found in a wide range of today’s PLC’s. Sequential Function Chart
(SFC): A method of programming complex control systems at a more highly structured level.
A SFC program is an overview of the control system, in which the basic building blocks are
entire program files. Each program file is created using one of the other types of
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programming languages. The SFC approach coordinates large, complicated programming
tasks into smaller, more manageable tasks.
LD R1
MPC RESET
LD PRESS_1
ST MAX_PRESS
RESET: LD 0
ST A_X43
INPUTS OUTPUTS
Switches and Pushbuttons – Valves
– Sensing Devices – Motor Starters
Limit Switches – Solenoids
Photoelectric – Actuators
Sensors –
Proximity Sensors – Horns and Alarms
– Condition Sensors – Stack lights
– Encoders – Control Relays
Pressure Switches – Counter / Totalizer
Level Switches – Pumps
Temperature – Printers
Switches – Fans
Vacuum Switches
Float Switches
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Fig. 4
2. SCADA
SCADA stands for supervisory control and data acquisition. It generally refers to an industrial
control system a computer system monitoring and controlling a process.
Leading of SCADA companies
Invensys Wonder ware : In touch
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Siemens : WinCC
Allen Bradley: RS View 32 works
Industrial process include those of manufacturing production, power generation, fabrication, and
refining, and may run in continuous, batch, repetitive, or discrete modes.
Infrastructure processes may be public or private, and include water treatment and distribution,
wastewater collection and treatment, oil land gas pipelines, electrical power transmission and
distribution, and large communication system.
Facility processes occur both in public facilities an private ones, including building, airports, ships,
and space stations.
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The processing was distributed across multiple stations which were connected through LAN
and they shared information in real time. Each station was responsible for particular task thus
making the size and coast of each station less than the one used in First Generation. The
network protocols used were still mostly proprietary.
Third generation “Networked”
These are the current generation SCADA system which use open system architecture rather
than vendor controlled proprietary environment. The SCADA architecture utilizes open
standard and protocols thus distributing functionality across a WAN rather than a LAN. It is
easier to connect third party peripheral devices like printers, disk drivers, tape drives due to
the used of open architecture. WAN protocols such as Internet Protocols (IP) are used for
communication between the master station and communication equipment.
3.3.2 Alarm
Alarms are the notifications used to inform operator of process activity. Alarms represent
warning of process conditions that could cause problems and require and operator response.
A typical alarm is triggered when a process value exceeds a used defined limit
Use alarms to indicate to the operator when something goes wrong. An alarm can signal that
a device or process has stopped operating within acceptable, pre-defined limits or it can
indicate breakdown, wear, or a step out of sequence.
3.3.3 Recipe Management
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It is additional feature. Some SCADA software support it, some don not. Most of the plants
are manufacturing multi products. When you have different product to manufacture, you just
have to load recipe of the particular product.
A recipe lets you use different sets of values for the tags in a graphic display. You can create a
recipe with the Recipe editor or any text editor that produces an ASCII text file. You can also
create a recipe at runtime by saving the values in input fields in a graphic display, to the file
name specified in the Recipe field.
The operator uses a recipe to send values to the programmable controller for all input fields
in a graphic display, rather than one value at a time. Data can also be uploaded from the
programmable controller into input fields in the graphic display.
3.3.4 Security Management
Security provides the ability to control whether or not specific operators are allowed to
perform specific functions within an application. Security is based on the concept of the
operator “logging on”: to the application and entering a “User Name” and “Password.”
3.3.5 Tags
SCADA system typically implement a distributed database, commonly referred to as a tag
database, which contain data elements called tags. Tag is variable, which used to point to
specific memory location in input/output devices.
In the tag database you define the data you want RSView32 to monitor. You can organize
tags into groups using folders. This speeds up database creation because you can duplicate a
folder and its tags in a single operation. For example, if you have several similar machines
that require the same tags in the database, you can create a folder called Machine1 and define
its tags. To create the tags for Machine2 you would use the Duplicate Folder command and
specify Machine2 as the folder name. This creates a folder called Machine2 containing all the
tags that are in the folder Machine1.
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Three data types used in tag of SCADA
Digital - stores simple on/off information
Analog - stores numerical values
String - stores alphanumeric characters
Example of SCADA:-
DELHI METRO and Oil and Gas Plant
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ELECTRICAL BASICS
4.1 CHARGE
It is the fundamental property of matter. Electric charges are to two general types positive an
negative. For example, electrons have negative charges and protons have positive charge but
neutrons have zero charge.
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The electric potential difference is the difference in electric potential (V) between the final
and the initial location when work is done upon a charge to change its potential energy. In the
equation form, the electric potential is
V = VB-VA =
Rate of flow of current strength depends upon the potential difference.
The unit of potential difference is the volt.
Vs V
R1
R2
Vs R1
R2
Battery
4.4 RESISTANCE
Resistance may be defined as that property of substance which oppose the flow of an electric
current through it.
The unit of the resistance is the ohm (Ω)
R
R
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4.5 CAPACITOR
Capacitor or condenser are manufactured as electronic components for use in electrical
circuits. The two conducting plates separated by an insulating material (called dielectric)
forms a capacitor. The asic purpose capacitor is store the charge. The capacity of capacitor to
store charge per unit potential difference is called its capacitance. The unit of the capacitance
is farad (F)
A capacitor is a component which offers low impedance to a.c. but vey high impedance (resistance)
to d.c. The function of the capacitor is to block the d.c. voltage but pass the a.c. signal voltage.
Dielectric
0
Area A
Area A
+Q -Q
+Q -Q
d d
V + - V + -
Fig. 6a Fig. 6b
4.6 INDUCTORS
An inductors is a passive electrical component that can store energy in a magnetic filed
created by the electric current passing through it. An inductor’s ability to store magnetic
enery is measured by its inductance, in units of Henries. The electronic component which
oppose the change of current in circuit is called inductor.
The function of an inductor, in the electronic circuit, is to block a.c. signal but to pass d.c.
signal(or voltage).
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+ -
L
Let’s analyze a simple series circuit, determining the voltage drops across individual
resistors. R1
5KΩ
+
45V
10KΩ R2
-
7.5K
R3
Fig. 7
From the given values of individual resistance, we can determine a total circuit resistance,
knowing that resistance add in series.
R = r1 + r2 + r3
We can use Ohm’s Law (I=V/R) to determine the total current, which we know will be the
same as each resistor current, currents being equal in all parts of a series circuit.
R1 R2 R3 Total
VR1 = = V 10 20 15 45 Volts 10V
I 2m 2m 2m 2m Amps
VR2 = = R 5k 10k 7.5k 22.5k Ohms 20V
45V
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VR3 = = 15V
+
+ + +
6V R1 R2 R3
-
- 1kΩ - 3kΩ - 2kΩ
Fig. 8
Knowing the voltages across all components in a parallel circuit are the same, we can fill in
our voltage/current/resistance table with 6 volts across the top row knowing that branch
current add up in the parallel circuits to equal total current, we can arrive at total current by
R1 summing
R2 R6mA,
3 2mA,
Total and 3mA. R1 R2 R3 Total
V 6 6 6 6 Volts V 6 6 6 6 Volts
I 6m 2m 3m 11m Amps I 6m 2m 3m 11m Amps
R 1k 3k 2k Ohms R 1k 3k 2k 545.45 Ohms
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Pavg = VI cos
Where is the phase angle between the voltage and current. The additional term is called
power factor
R
4.13 FARADAY’S LAW
Faraday’s First Law :- This law states that when the flux linking with the coil or circuit
changes an emf is induced in it or whenever the magnetic flux is cut by the conductor an emf
is induced in the conductor.
Faraday’s second Law :- this law states that the magnitude of emf induced is directly
proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage or to the product of number of turns and
rate of change of flux linking the coil.
4.15 TRANSFORMER
Transformer is an ac machine that (i) transfer electrical energy from one electric circuit to
another (ii) does so without a change of frequency (iii) does so by the principle of electro-
magnetic induction and (iv) has electric circuits that are linked by a common magnetic
circuit.
When the output voltage of a transformer is higher than its input voltage, it is called the step-
up transformer and when it lowers the voltage it is called the step down transformer.
Transformers consist of a soft iron or silicon steel core and two windings placed on it.
The are insulated from both the core and each other. The core is built up of thin soft iron or
silicon steel lamination to provide a path of low reluctance to the magnetic flux. The
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windings connected to the supply man is called the primary and the windings connected to
the load circuit is called the secondary. In case of step-up transformer, low-voltage windings
is the primary and high voltage windings is the primary and high voltage windings is the
secondary while in case of step-down transformer the high-voltage windings the primary and
low-voltage windings is the secondary.
The action of a transformer is based on the principle that energy may be efficiently
transferred by induction from one set of coils to another by means of a varying magnetic flux
provided that both the sets coils are on a common magnetic circuit.
Mutual Inductance is where the magnetic flux of two or more inductors are “linked” so that
voltage is induced on one coil proportional to the rate of change of current in another.
A transformer is a device made of two or more inductors, one of which powered by AC,
inducing an AC voltage across the second inductor. If the second inductor is connected to a
load, power will be electromagnetically coupled from the first inductor’s power source to that
load.
Result
Fig. 9 VS
Secondary
Primary
Ip Magnetic Field Is NS
Vp VP
Vs R
∼
NP
Np Ns
Iron Core
The following is a short description the most common starting method for squirrel cage motors.
An overview of common problems when starting and stopping a motor with different starting
methods.
Direct-On- Line Start (D.O.L.)
Start –delta start
Autotransformer
Soft starter
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Drives(VFD)
Fig. 10
5.2 STAR-DELTA START
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Fig. 11
This is a starting method that reduces the starting current and starting torque. The device normally
consists of three contractor, an overload relay and a time for setting the time in the star-position
(starting position). The motor must be delta connected during a normal run, in order to able to use
this starting method. The received starting current is about 30% of the starting current during direct
on line start and the starting torque is reduced to about 25% of the torque available at a D.O.L. start.
This starting method only works when the application is light loaded during the start. This starting
method only works when the application is light loaded during the start. It the motor is too heavily
loaded, there will not be enough torque to accelerate the motor up to speed before switching over to
the delta position. When starting up pumps and fans for example, the load torque is low at the
beginning of the start and increase with the square of the speed. When reaching approx.80-85% of
the motor rated speed the load torque is equal to the motor torque and the acceleration ceases. To
reach the rated speed, a switch over to delta position is necessary, and this will very often resul t in
high transmission an current peaks. In some case the current peak can reach a value that is even
bigger than for a D.O.L. start. Application with a load torque higher than 50% of the motor rated
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torque will not be able to start using the start using the start-delta starter.
Fig. 12
5.3 AUTOTRANSFORMER
In this transformer , the variable voltage can be obtained. Adjustment of starting voltage by
proper tap on the Autotransformer. So, we can reduced the starting voltage is obtained by
tapping on Auto transformer. An autotransformer starter enables the start of squirrel cage
motors using a recued starting current, since the voltage is reduced during start. Contrary to a
star-delta connection is particularly widely used in English-speaking countries. During start-
up, the motor is connected to the autotransformer’s tapping. This means that the motor starts
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up with a reduced voltage and a correspondingly low current. The autotransformer reduces
the current in the mains supply line further and in accordance with its ratio. Like the start
delta connection, the autotransformer starter has a favourable torque-current take-up ratio. In
order to adapt the motor start characteristics to the torque requirement.
5.4 SOFTSTATER
A softstater has different characteristics to the other starting methods. It has thyristors in the
main circuit , and motor voltage is regulated with printed circuit board. The softstater makes
use of the fact that when the motor voltage is low during start, the starting current and
starting torque is also low, during the first part of the start the voltage to the motor is so low
that it is only able to adjust the play between the gear wheels or stretching driving belts or
chains etc. in other words, eliminating unnecessary jerks during the start. Gradually, the
voltage and the torque increase so that the machinery starts to accelerate. One of the benefits
with this starting methods is the possibility to adjust the torque to the exact need, whether the
application is loaded or not. In principle the full starting torque is available, but with the big
difference that the starting procedure is much more forgiving to the driven machinery, with
lower maintenance coasts as a result. Another feature of the softstarter is the softstop
function, which is very useful when stopping pumps where the problem is water hammering
in the pipe system at direct stop as for star-delta starter and direct-on-line starter. The
softstop function can also be used when stopping conveyor belts t prevent material from
damage when the belts stop too quickly
A drive is a system or a device which is used to control the amount of power provided to a
load without wasting energy.
Motor drives:
Saves Energy
Controls Motor speed
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Control Motor direction
Control Motion profile
The frequency convertor is sometime also called VSB(Variable Speed Drive), VFD (Variable
Frequency Drive) or simply Drives, which is probably the most common name. the drive consist
primarily of two parts, one which converts AC (50 or 60 Hz) to DC and the second part which
converts the DC back to AC, but now with a variable frequency of 0-250 HZ. As the speed the
motor depends on the frequency this makes it possible to control the speed of the motor by
changing output frequency from the drive and this is a big advantage if there is a need for speed
regulation during a continuous run.
Number of drives are used in industries but most common used of AC Drives.
An AC Drives is a device for controlling the speed of an AC motor by controlling the frequency
of the voltage supplied to the motor. It does this first converting 3 phase 50 Hz AC power to DC
power. Then, by various switching mechanisms, it inverts this DC power in to pseudo sine waver
3 phase adjustable frequency alternating current for the connected motor. Because of this, some
people call AC drives “inverters,” although this technically incorrect.
The frequency coming in to the converter has a fixed frequency of 50Hz. However, the
adjustable frequency coming out of the inverter and going to the motor can be varied to suit the
application. There are two general types of solid state frequency control system available: six
step an pulse width modulated (PWM) control. All AC drives use the pulse width modulation
(PWM) method of frequency control, and that is the one we will concentrated on here.
AC Lines
Low Pass
Convertor Inverter
Filter
Fixed Variable
Frequency Frequency
Fig. 13
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Three phase 50 Hz AC power is coming into the converter. The converter typically uses a rectifier
(which is solid state device that change AC to DC) to change the incoming 50Hz into a rectified DC
voltage.
Rectifier
DC Voltage
AC Line voltage (rectified)
(non –rectified) V
V
t
t
Fig. 14
AC Voltage
DC voltage (inverted)
(non inverted)
V V
Inverter
t t
Fig. 15
The inverter section produces an AC output which is fed to the motor. Positive and negative
switching occurs within the inverter which produces group of voltage pulses. The output frequency
of an PWM drive is controlled by applying positive pulses in one half cycle, and negative pulses in
the next half cycle. The pulses within each group have varying widths that correspond to voltage
values. Notice on the output side of the inverter that the narrow voltage pulses represents the lower
voltage values on the sine wave and that the wider voltage pulses represent higher voltage sine wave
values. The varying of the pulse width gives this method its name of Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM).This diagram is only showing 6 pulsed per half cycle. For each specific frequency, there is
an optimum number of pulses and pulse width that closely simulate a pure sine wave.
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6. COMPONENTS
6.1 RELAY
A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another electrical
circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or close one
or many sets of contacts. It was invented by Joseph Henry in 1835
Fig. 16
6.2 CONTACTORS
When a relay is used to switch a large amount of electrical power through its contacts, it is
designated by a special name: contactor. Contactors typically have multiple contacts, and those
contacts are usually (but not always) normally-open, so that power to the load is shut off when
the coil is de-energized. Perhaps the most common industrial use for contactors is the control of
electric motors. The top three contacts switch the respective phases of the incoming 3-phase AC
power, typically at least 480 Volts for motors 1 horsepower or greater. The lowest contact is an
"auxiliary" contact which has a current rating much lower than that of the large motor power
contacts, but is actuated by the same armature as the power contacts. The auxiliary contact is
often used in a relay logic circuit, or for some other part of the motor control scheme, typically
switching 120 Volt AC power instead of the motor voltage. One contactor may have several
auxiliary contacts, either normally-open or normally-closed, if required.
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A contactor is a large relay, usually used to switch current to an electric motor or other high
power load.
Large electric motors can be protected from over current damage through the use of overload
heaters and overload contacts. If the series-connected heaters get too hot from excessive
current, the normally-closed overload contact will open, de-energizing the contactor sending
power to the motor.
Fig. 17
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terminal blocks have one input and one output contact. Dual level blocks are also called
double level and two tier, these terminal blocks have two levels of contacts.
They are used to save space and simplify wiring. Dual level bridged are also called double
level and two tier, these terminal blocks have two levels of contacts. They are used to save
space and simplify wiring. Bridged terminal blocks use a "bridge" to connect one level to
another for increased circuit flexibility.
Fig. 19
A circuit breaker is an automatically-operated electrical switch designed to protect an electrical
circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit. Unlike a fuse, which operates once and
then has to be replaced, a circuit breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to
resume normal operation. Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small devices that
protect an individual household appliance up to large switchgear designed to protect high voltage
circuits feeding an entire city.
1) Actuator lever - used to manually trip and reset the circuit breaker. Also indicates the status of
the circuit breaker (On or Off/tripped). Most breakers are designed so they can still trip even if
the lever is held or locked in the "on" position. This is sometimes referred to as "free trip" or
"positive trip" operation.
2) Actuator mechanism - forces the contacts together or apart.
3) Contacts - Allow current when touching and break the current when moved apart.
4) Terminals
5) Bimetallic strip
6) Calibration screw - allows the manufacturer to precisely adjust the trip current of the device after
assembly.
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7) Solenoid
8) Arc divider / extinguisher
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This tutorial is devoted to input devices but you can never separate it from the rest of the system as
in many cases they are all integral (e.g. a mechanical pressure gauge incorporates all of these
elements). A block diagram of a basic system is shown but they are usually more complex.
Fig. 20
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Most modern analogue equipment works on the following standard signal ranges.
Electric 4 to 20 mA
Pneumatic 0.2 to 1.0 bar
Older electrical equipment use 0 to 10 V. Increasingly the instruments are digital with a binary
digital encoder built in to give a binary digital output. Pneumatic signals are commonly used in
process industries for safety especially when there is a risk of fire or explosion. The advantage of
having a standard range or using digital signals is that all equipment may be purchased ready
calibrated. For analogue systems the minimum signal (Temperature, speed, force, pressure and so on
is represented by 4 mA or 0.2 bar and the maximum signal is represented by 20 mA or 1.0 bar.
This tutorial is an attempt to familiarise you with the many types of input sensors on the market
today. Usually such sensors are called PRIMARY TRANSDUCERS.
Things that we commonly measure are:
Temperature Pressure
Speed Flow rate
Force Movement, Velocity and Acceleration
Stress and Strain Level or Depth
Mass or Weight Density
Size or Volume Acidity/Alkalinity
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Figure 2
8. TRANSDUCERS
8.1 THERMOCOUPLES
When two wires with dissimilar electrical properties are joined at both ends and one junction is made
hot and the other cold, a small electric current is produced proportional to the difference in the
temperature. Seebeck discovered this effect. It is true no matter how the ends are joined so the cold
end may be joined at a sensitive millivolt meter. The hot junction forms the sensor end.
Fig. 21
Peltier showed that heat is absorbed at the hot end and rejected at the cold end. Thompson showed
that part ofthe e.m.f. is due to the temperature gradient in the wire as well as the temperature
difference between the junctions. Most thermocouple metals produce a relationship between the two
temperatures and the e.m.f as follows.
The relationship is nearly linear over the operating range.The actual characteristic and suitable
operating temperatures depends upon the metals used in the wires. Thevarious types are designated
in international and national standards. Typical linear operating ranges are shown for standard types.
It is important that thermocouples are standard so that the same e.m.f will always represent the same
temperature.
Type J 0 to 800oC
Type K 0 to 1200oC
Type T -199 to 250oC
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Type E 0 to 600oC
Type R/S 0 to 1600oC
Type B 500 to 1800oC
Type N 0 to 1200oC
Type L 0 to 800oC
Thermocouples come in several forms. They may be wires insulated from each other with plastic or
glass fibre materials. For high temperature work, the wire pairs are put inside a
tube with mineral insulation. For industrial uses the sensor comes in a metal enclosure such as
stainless steel.
Fig. 22
These work on the principle that the electrical resistance of a conductor change with temperature. If
a constant voltage is applied to the conductor then the current flowing through it will change with
temperature. The resistivity of the conductor change with temperature. A basic temperature sensor is
made by winding a thin resistance wire into a small sensor head. The resistance of the wire then
represents the temperature. This has an advantage over a thermocouple in that it is unaffected by the
temperature of the gauge end. The main type of wire used is PLATINUM. The sensors are usually
manufactured to have a resistance of 100 at 0oC and the value of is 0.00385 to 0.00390. A
typical operating range is -200 to 400oC.
A special type of resistance sensor is called a THERMISTOR. They are made from a small
piece of semiconductor material. The material is special because the resistance changes a lot for a
small change in temperature and so can be made into a small sensor and it costs less than platinum
wire. The temperature range is limited.
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They are only used for a typical range of -20 to 120oC and are commonly used in small hand held
thermometers for every day use.
Fig. 23
8.3 LIQUID EXPANSION and VAPOUR PRESSURE SENSORS
These are thermometers filled with either a liquid such as mercury or an evaporating fluid such as
used in refrigerators. In both cases the inside of the sensor head and the connecting tube are
completely full. Any rise in temperature produces expansion or evaporation of the liquid so the
sensor becomes pressurized. The pressure is related to the temperature and it may be indicated on a
simple pressure gauge. Ways and means exist to convert the pressure into an electrical signal. The
movement may also directly operate a thermostat. These instruments are robust and used over a wide
range. They can be fitted with electric switches to set off alarms.
Fig. 24
8.4 BIMETALLIC TYPES
It is a well-known principle that if two metals are rigidly joined together as a two-layer strip and
heated, the difference in the expansion rate causes the strip to bend.
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Fig. 25
In the industrial type, the strip is twisted into a long thin coil inside a tube. One end is fixed at the
bottom of the tube and the other turns and moves a pointer on a dial. The outward appearance is very
similar to the pressure type. They can be made to operate limit switches and set off alarms or act as a
thermostat. (e.g. on a boiler).
The ordinary glass thermometer is also a complete system. Again the bulb is the sensor but the
column of liquid and the scale on the glass is the processor and indicator. Mercury is used for hot
temperatures and coloured alcohol for cold temperatures.
Fig. 26
The problems with glass thermometers are that they are
Brittle
Mercury solidifies at -40oC.
Alcohol boils at around 120 oC.
Accurate manufacture is needed and this makes accurate ones expensive.
It is easy for people to make mistakes reading them.
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Glass thermometers are not used much now in industry but if they are usually protected by a shield
from accidental breakage. In order to measure the temperature of something inside a pipe they are
placed in thermometer pockets.
Fig. 27
The Bourdon tube is a hollow tube with an elliptical cross section. When a pressure difference exists
between the inside and outside, the tube tends to straighten out and the end moves. The movement is
usually coupled to a needle on a dial to make a complete gauge. It can also be connected to a
secondary device such as an air nozzle to control air pressure or to a suitable transducer to convert it
into an electric signal. This type can be used for measuring pressure difference.
8.6.2 PISTON TYPE
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The pressure acts directly on the piston and compresses the spring. The position of the piston is
directly related to the pressure. A window in the outer case allows the pressure to be indicated. This
type is usually used in hydraulics where the ability to withstand shock, vibration and sudden pressure
changes is needed (shock proof gauge). The piston movement may be connected to a secondary
device to convert movement into an electrical signal.
Fig. 28
Fig. 29
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8.6.4 DIAPHRAGMS
These are similar in principle to the capsule but the diaphragm is usually very thin and perhaps made
of rubber. The diaphragm expands when very small pressures are applied. The movement is
transmitted to a pointer on a dial through a fine mechanical linkage.
Fig. 30
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Fig. 31a Fig. 31b
The principles of electric strain gauges are covered later. Strain gauges are small elements that are
fixed to a surface that is strained. The change in length of the element produces changes in the
electrical resistance. This is processed and converted into a voltage. A typical pressure transducer
would contain a metal diaphragm which
bends under pressure.
Other electric effects commonly used in transducers are CAPACITIVE and INDUCTIVE. In these
cases, the pressure produces a change in the capacitance or inductance of an electronic component in
the transducer. Both these effects are commonly used in an electronic oscillator and one way they
may be used is to change the
frequency of the oscillation. The frequency may be converted into a voltage representing the
pressure.
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Fig. 32
These use a light beam and a light sensitive cell. The beam is either reflected or interrupted so that
pulses are produced for each revolution. The pulses are then counted over a fixed time and the speed
obtained. Electronic processing is required to time the pulses and turn the result into an analogue or
digital signal.
8.9 TACHOMETERS
There are two types, A.C. and D.C. The A.C. type generates a
sinusoidal output. The frequency of the voltage represents the speed
of rotation. The frequency must be counted and processed. The D.C.
type generates a voltage directly proportional to the speed. Both types
must be coupled to the rotating body. very often the tachometer is
built into electric motors to measure their speed. Fig. 33
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These types have a mechanical element that makes the shaft of the meter rotate once for an exact
known quantity of fluid. The quantity of fluid hence depends on the number of revolutions of the
meter shaft and the flow rate depends upon the speed of rotation. Both the revolutions and speed
may be measured with mechanical or electronic devices. Some of the most common listed below.
Inferential Type Meters
The flow of the fluid is inferred from some effect produced by the flow. Usually this is a rotor which
is made to spin and the speed of the rotor is sensed mechanically or electronically. The main types
are:
Variable Area Types
There are two main types of this meter
Float type (Rotameter)
Tapered plug type.
Float Type
The float is inside a tapered tube. The fluid flows through the annular gap around the edge of the
float. The restriction causes a pressure drop over the float and the pressure forces the float upwards.
Because the tube is tapered, the restriction is decreased as the float moves up. Eventually a level is
reached where the restriction is just right to produce a pressure force that counteracts the weight of
the float. The level of the float indicates the flow rate. If the flow changes the float moves up or
down to find a new balance position. When dangerous fluids are used, protection is needed against
the tube fracturing. The tube may be made of a non-magnetic metal. The float has a magnet on it. As
it moves up and down, the magnet moves a follower and pointer on the outside. The position of the
float may be measured electrically by building a movement transducer
into the float.
A typical load cell consists of a metal cylinder with strain gauges fixed to it. When the cylinder is
stretched or compressed, the strain gauges convert the force into a change in resistance and hence
voltage. Since the elements require a supply voltage, the cell usually has 4 wires, two for the supply
and two for the output.
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Position sensors are essential elements in the control of actuators. The position of both linear
and rotary actuators is needed in robotic type mechanisms. There are three principle types.
RESISTIVE
OPTICAL
INDUCTIVE
Resistive Types
Fig. 34
Figure 28
A potentiometer is a variable electrical resistance. A length of resistance material has a voltage
applied over its ends. A slider moves along it (either linear or rotary) and picks off the voltage at its
position or angle. The tracks may be made from carbon, resistance wire or piezo resistive material.
The latter is the best because it gives a good analogue output. The wire wound type produces small
step changes in the output depending on how fine the wire is and how closely it is coiled on the
track.
Optical Types
Fig. 35
Optical types are mainly used for producing digital outputs. A common example is found on machine
tools where they measure the position of the work table and display it in digits on the gauge head.
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Digital micrometers and verniers also use this idea. The basic principle is as follows. Light is emitted
through a transparent strip or disc onto a photo electric cell. Often reflected light is used as shown.
The strip or disc has very fine lines engraved on it which interrupt the beam. The number of
interruptions are counted electronically and this represents the position or angle. This is very much
over simplified and you should refer to more advanced text to find out how very accurate
measurements are obtained and also the direction of movement.
Inductive Types
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they cancel each other out. When the core moves, the voltage in one secondary coil grows but
reduces in the other. The result is an output voltage which represents the position of the core and
hence the mechanism to which it is attached. The output voltage is usually converted into D.C. With
suitable electronic equipment for phase detection, it is possible to detect which direction the core
moves and to switch the DC voltage from plus to minus as the core passes the centre position. These
can be very accurate and are widely used for gauging the dimensions of machined components.
Analogue Sensors
Analogue Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage which is generally proportional to
the quantity being measured. Physical quantities such as Temperature, Speed, Pressure,
Displacement, Strain etc are all analogue quantities as they tend to be continuous in nature. For
example, the temperature of a liquid can be measured using a thermometer or thermocouple which
continuously responds to temperature changes as the liquid is heated up or cooled down.
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Digital Sensors
As its name implies, Digital Sensors produce a discrete output signal or voltage that is a digital
representation of the quantity being measured. Digital sensors produce a Binary output signal in the
form of a logic "1" or a logic "0", ("ON" or "OFF"). This means then that a digital signal only
produces discrete (non-continuous) values which may be outputted as a single "bit", (serial
transmission) or by combining the bits to produce a single "byte" output (parallel transmission).
One type of positional sensor that does not suffer from mechanical wear problems is the "Linear
Variable Differential Transformer" or LVDT for short. This is an inductive type positional device
which works on the same principle as the AC transformer. It is a very accurate device for measuring
linear distances and whose output is proportional to the position of its moveable core. It basically
consists of three coils wound on a hollow tube former, one forming the Primary coil and the other
two coils forming identical Secondaries connected electrically together in series but 180 o out of
phase either side of the primary coil. A moveable soft iron ferromagnetic core (sometimes called an
"armature") which is connected to the object being measured, slides or moves up and down inside
the tube. A small AC reference voltage called the "excitation signal" (2 - 20V rms, 2 - 20kHz) is
applied to the primary winding which inturn induces an EMF signal into the two adjacent secondary
windings (transformer principles).
If the soft iron magnetic core armature is exactly in the centre of the tube and the windings, the two
induced emf's in the two secondary windings cancel each other out as they are 180 o out of phase, so
the resultant output voltage is zero. As the core is moved slightly to one side or the other the induced
voltage in one of the secondaries will be become greater than that of the other secondary and an
output will be produced with the polarity of the output signal depending upon the direction of the
moving core. The greater the movement of the soft iron core from its central position the greater will
be the resulting output signal and the result is a differential voltage output which varies linearly with
the cores position. Therefore, the output signal has an amplitude that is a linear function of the cores
displacement. The phase of the output signal can be compared to the primary coil excitation phase
enabling suitable electronic circuits such as the AD592 LDVT Sensor Amplifier to know which half
of the coil the magnetic core is in and thereby know the direction of travel.
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The Linear Variable Differential Transformer
Fig. 37
When the armature is moved from one end to the other through the centre position the output
voltages changes from maximum to zero and back to maximum again but in the process changes its
phase angle by 180 degs. This enables the LVDT to produce an output AC signal whose magnitude
represents the amount of movement from the centre position and whose phase angle represents the
direction of movement of the core. A typical application of this type of sensor would be a pressure
transducers, were the pressure being measured pushes against a diaphragm to produce a force. The
force moves the inner core of the LVDT and thus produces an output voltage or a displacement
transducer where the movement or position of a system is monitored. Linearity, that is its voltage
output to displacement is excellent and LVDT´s offers good accuracy, resolution and sensitivity as
well as frictionless operation.
Rotary Encoders resemble potentiometers mentioned earlier but are non-contact optical devices
used for converting the angular position of a rotating shaft into an analogue or digital data code. All
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optical encoders work on the same basic principle. Light from an LED or Infrared light source is
passed through a rotating high-resolution encoded disk that contains the required code patterns,
either binary, grey code or BCD. Photodetectors scan the disk as it rotates and an electronic circuit
processes the information into a digital form as a stream of binary output pulses that are fed to
counters or controllers which determine the actual angular position of the rotating shaft.
There are two basic types of rotary optical encoders, Incremental and Absolute Position.
Incremental Encoders are the simplest of the two devices. Their output is a series of square wave
pulses generated by a photocell arrangement as the code disk, with evenly spaced transparent and
dark lines (slotted types are also available) on its surface, moves or rotates past the light source. The
encoder produces a stream of square wave pulses which, when counted, indicates the angular
position of the rotating shaft. The number of transparent and dark lines or slots on the disk
determines the resolution of the device and increasing the number of lines in the pattern increases the
resolution per degree of rotation. Typical encoded discs have a resolution of up to 256 pulses or 8-
bits per rotation.
The simplest incremental encoder is called a tachometer. It has one single square wave output and is
often used in unidirectional applications where basic position or speed information only is required.
The "Quadrature" or "Sine wave" encoder is the more common and has two output square waves
commonly called Channel A and Channel B. This device uses two photodetectors, slightly offset
from each other by 90o thereby producing two separate Sine and Cosine output signals. By using the
Arc Tangent mathematical function the angle of the shaft in radians can be calculated. Also the
direction of rotation is determined by noting which channel produces an output first, channel A or
channel B. This arrangement is shown below.
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Example of a simple Incremental coded disc
Fig. 38
One main disadvantage of incremental encoders is that they require external counters to determine
the absolute angle of the shaft within a given rotation. If the power is momentarily shut off, or if the
encoder misses a pulse due to noise or a dirty disc, the resulting angular information will produce an
error. One way of overcoming this disadvantage is to use Absolute Position Encoders.
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Photo-junction Devices - These photodevices are mainly semiconductor devices such as
the photodiode or phototransistor which use light to control the flow of electrons and holes
across their PN-junction.
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The Light Dependant Resistor Cell
Fig. 39
The most commonly used photoresistive light sensors is the ORP12 Cadmium Sulphide
photoconductive cell. This light depedant resistor has a spectral response of about 610nm in the
yellow to orange region of light. The resistance of the cell when unilluminated (dark resistance) is
very high at about 10MΩ's which falls to about 100Ω's when fully illuminated (lit resistance). To
increase the dark resistance and therefore reduce the dark current, the resistive path forms a zigzag
pattern across the ceramic substrate. The CdS photocell is a very low cost device often used in auto
dimming, darkness or twilight detection for turning the street lights "ON" and "OFF", and for
photographic exposure meter type applications.
One simple use of a Light Dependant Resistor, is as a light sensitive switch as shown below.
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Fig. 40
This basic light sensor circuit is of a relay output light activated switch. A potential divider circuit is
formed between the photoresistor, LDR and the resistor R1. When no light is present i.e. in darkness,
the resistance of the LDR is very high in the Mega ohms range so zero base bias is applied to the
transistor TR1 and the relay is de-energized or "OFF". As the light level increases the resistance of
the LDR starts to decrease causing the base bias voltage at V1 to rise. At some point determined by
the potential divider network formed with resistor R1, the base bias voltage is high enough to turn
"ON" the transistor TR1 and thus activate the relay which inturn is used to control some external
circuitry. As the light level falls back to darkness again the resistance of the LDR increases causing
the base voltage of the transistor to decrease, turning the transistor and relay "OFF" at a fixed light
level determined again by the potential divider network.
By replacing the fixed resistor R1 with a potentiometer VR1, the point at which the relay turns "ON"
or "OFF" can be pre-set to a particular light level. This type of simple circuit shown above has a
fairly low sensitivity and its switching point may not be consistent due to variations in either
temperature or the supply voltage. A more sensitive precision light activated circuit can be easily
made by incorporating the LDR into a "Wheatstone Bridge" arrangement and replacing the transistor
with an Operational Amplifier as shown.
Photojunction Devices
Photojunction Devices are basically PN-Junction light sensors or detectors made from silicon
semiconductors and which can detect both visible light and infrared light levels. This class of
photoelectric light sensors include the Photodiode and the Phototransistor.
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The Photodiode.
The construction of the Photodiode light sensor is similar to that of a conventional PN-junction
diode except that the diodes outer casing is transparent so that light can fall upon the junction. LED's
can also be used as photodiodes as they can both emit and detect light. All PN-junctions are light
sensitive and can be used in a photoconductive (PC) mode with the PN-junction of the photodiode
always "Reverse Biased" so that only the diodes leakage or dark current can flow. This reverse bias
condition causes an increase of the depletion region which is the sensitive part of the junction.
Fig. 41
The photodiodes dark current (0 lux) is about 10uA for geranium and 1uA for silicon type diodes.
When light falls upon the junction more hole/electron pairs are formed and the leakage current
increases. The leakage current increases as the illumination of the junction increases. Diode current
is directly proportional to light intensity. One main advantage of photodiodes when used as light
sensors is their fast response to changes in the light levels, but one disadvantage of this type of
photodevice is the relatively small current flow even when fully lit.
Photodiodes are very versatile light sensors and are commonly used in cameras, light meters, CD
and DVD-ROM drives, TV remote controls, scanners, fax machines and copiers etc, and when
integrated into operational amplifier circuits as infrared spectrum detectors for fibre optic
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communications, burglar alarm motion detection circuits and numerous imaging, laser scanning and
positioning systems etc.
The Phototransistor.
An alternative photojunction device to the photodiode is the Phototransistor which is basically a
photodiode with amplification and operates by exposing its base region to the light source.
Phototransistor light sensors operate the same as photodiodes except that they can provide current
gain and are much more sensitive than the photodiode with currents are 50 - 100 times greater than
that of the standard photodiode.
Phototransistors consist mainly of a bipolar NPN Transistor with the collector-base PN-junction
reverse-biased. The phototransistor´s large base region is left electrically unconnected and uses
photons of light to generate a base current which inturn causes a collector to emitter current to flow.
Fig. 42
In the NPN transistor the collector is biased positively with respect to the emitter so that the
base/collector junction is reverse biased. therefore, with no light on the junction normal leakage or
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dark current flows which is very small. When light falls on the base more electron/hole pairs are
formed in this region and the current produced by this action is amplified by the transistor. The
sensitivity of a phototransistor is a function of the DC current gain of the transistor. Therefore, the
overall sensitivity is a function of collector current and can be controlled by connecting a resistance
between the base and the emitter but for very high sensitivity optocoupler type applications,
Darlington phototransistors are generally used.
Photodarlington transistors use a second bipolar NPN transistor to provide additional amplification
or when higher sensitivity of a photodetector are required, but its response is slower than that of an
ordinary NPN phototransistor. It consists of a normal phototransistor whose emitter output is coupled
to the base of a larger bipolar NPN transistor. Because a darlington transistor configuration gives a
current gain equal to a product of the current gains of two individual transistors, a photodarlington
device produces a very sensitive detector.
Typical applications of Phototransistors light sensors are in opto-isolators, slotted opto switches,
light beam sensors, fibre optics and TV type remote controls, etc. Infrared filters are sometimes
required when detecting visible light.
Another type of photojunction semiconductor light sensor worth a mention is the Photothyristor.
This is a light activated thyristor or Silicon Controlled Rectifier, SCR that can be used as a light
activated switch in a.c. applications. However their sensitivity is usually very low compared to
photodiodes or phototransistors, as to increase their sensitivity to light they are made thinner around
the gate junction which inturn limits the amount of current that they can switch. Then for higher
current applications they are used as pilot devices in opto-couplers to switch larger more
conventional thyristors.
Photovoltaic Cells.
The most common type of photovoltaic light sensor is the Solar Cell. This device converts light
energy directly into electrical energy in the form of a voltage or current. Solar cells are used in many
different types of applications to offer an alternative power source from conventional batteries, such
as in calculators and satellites. Photovoltaic cells are made from single crystal silicon PN junctions,
the same as photodiodes with a very large light sensitive region but are used without the reverse bias.
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They have the same characteristics as photodiodes when in the dark. When illuminated the light
energy causes electrons to flow through the PN junction and an individual solar cell can generate an
open circuit voltage of about 0.58v (580mV). Solar cells have a "Positive" and a "Negative" side just
like a battery.
Individual solar cells can be connected together in series to form solar panels which increases the
output voltage or connected together in parallel to increase the available current. Commercially
available solar panels are rated in Watts, which is the product of the output voltage and current (VxI)
when fully lit.
Fig. 43
The amount of available current from a solar cell depends upon the light intensity, the size of the cell
and its efficiency which is generally very low at around 20%. To increase the overall efficiency of
the cell commercially available solar cells use Polycrystalline Silicon and Amorphous silicon, which
has no crystalline structure and can generate currents of between 20 to 40mA per cm 2. Other
materials used include Gallium Arsenide, Copper Indium Diselenide and Cadmium Telluride. These
different materials each have a different spectrum band response, and so can be "tuned" to produce
an output voltage at different wavelengths of light.
10 IMPORTANT CIRCUITS
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Industrial Automation
Fig. 44
STAR- DELTA
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Industrial Automation
Fig. 45
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Industrial Automation
A BOM can be defined products as they are designed (engineering bill of materials),a s they ordered
(sales bill of materials), as they are built ( manufacturing bill of materials), or as they are maintained
(service bill of materials).
Bill of material
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