Human Development

Adolescence

• Culturally defined period between childhood and adulthood

• Puberty:
– Hormonal changes promote rapid physical growth and sexual
maturity

• Puberty tends to increase body awareness and concerns

about physical appearance

More on Puberty

• Timing of puberty affects boys and girls differently

– When boys mature early, self-image and athletic ability are

enhanced; they are more popular, relaxed, dominant, and more
likely to get into trouble
– When girls mature in elementary school, they tend to be less
popular and have poorer self-image; maturation in junior high is
correlated with greater peer prestige and more positive body
image; they are more likely to get into trouble
Adolescence
(Continued)

• Identity formation is a key task of adolescence

– Spurred by cognitive development

– Influenced by ethnic heritage
• More acceptable to prolong identity explorations today compared to
the past
• Adolescence and young adulthood more emotionally turbulent than
midlife or old age
Lawrence Kohlberg and Moral Development

• Moral Development:

– When we acquire values, beliefs, and thinking abilities that guide

responsible behavior
– Starts in childhood and continues into adulthood
• Kohlberg:

– Stage theorist, like Freud and Erikson

– Posed moral dilemmas to children of different ages to study
moral development
Kohlberg’s Three Levels of Moral Development
 • Pre-conventional:

– Moral thinking guided by consequences of actions (punishment,

reward, exchange of favors)

• Conventional:

– Reasoning based on a desire to please others or to follow

accepted rules and values

• Post-conventional:

– Follows self-accepted moral principles, not those supplied by

outside authorities

More on Moral Development

• Gilligan (1982) pointed out that Kohlberg’s theory is concerned with

justice
• Gilligan proposed that caring is also major element of moral
development
Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Dilemmas

• Overview of psychological conflicts that occur during a “typical” life

• During each stage of life, person confronted with psychosocial dilemma
between personal impulses and the social world
• Dealing with the dilemma “successfully” produces healthy
development and satisfaction
Stage One: Trust versus Mistrust (Birth-1)

• Children are completely dependent on others

– Trust:

• Established when babies given adequate warmth,

touching, love, and physical care

– Mistrust:

• Caused by inadequate or unpredictable care and by cold,

indifferent, and rejecting parents

Stage Two: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (1-3)

• Autonomy:
 – Doing things for themselves

• Shame and Doubt:

– Overprotective or ridiculing parents may cause children to doubt

abilities and feel shameful about their actions

Stage Three: Initiative versus Guilt (3-5)

• Initiative:

– Parents reinforce via giving children freedom to play, use

imagination, and ask questions

• Guilt:

– May occur if parents criticize, prevent play, or discourage a

child’s questions

Stage Four: Industry versus Inferiority (6-12)

• Industry:

– Occurs when child is praised for productive activities

• Inferiority:

– Occurs if child’s efforts are regarded as messy or inadequate

Stage Five (Adolescence): Identity versus Role Confusion

• Identity:

– For adolescents; problems answering, “Who am I?”

• Role Confusion:

– Occurs when adolescents are unsure of where they are going

and who they are

Stage Six (Young Adulthood): Intimacy versus Isolation

• Intimacy:

– Ability to care about others and to share experiences with them

• Isolation:

– Feeling alone and uncared for in life

Stage Seven (Middle Adulthood): Generativity versus Stagnation

• Generativity:
 – Interest in guiding the next generation

• Stagnation:

– When one is only concerned with one’s own needs and comforts

Stage Eight (Late Adulthood): Integrity versus Despair

• Integrity:

– Self-respect
– Developed when people have lived richly and responsibly
• Despair:

– Occurs when previous life events are viewed with regret

– Experiences heartache and remorse
Well-Being During Adulthood

• Self-acceptance
• Positive relations with others
• Autonomy
• Environmental mastery
• Purpose in life
• Continued personal growth
Midlife Crisis (Gould, 1975)

• Crisis of Questions (Ages 29-34): What is life all about?

• Crisis of Urgency (Ages 35-43): More aware of death
Middle Age Issues for Men (Levinson, 1986)
• Half of men defined midlife period as “last chance” to achieve goals
• Smaller percentage experienced serious midlife decline
• A few men able to “break out” of flawed life structure
Middle Age Issues for Women: Mid-Life Crises?

• More likely to change personal identity in midlife rather than focus on

external goals
• More accurately defined as “midcourse correction” than “crisis” for
men and women

Gerontology and the Study of Aging

• Gerontologists study aging and its effects

• Most likely to stay mentally sharp in old age if:
 – You remain healthy
– You live in a favorable environment
– You are involved in intellectually stimulating activities
– You are flexible
– You are married to a smart spouse
– You maintain your perceptual processing speed
– You were satisfied with midlife accomplishments
Successful Aging

• Psychological characteristics shared by the healthiest, happiest older

people:

– Optimism, hope, and interest in future

– Gratitude and forgiveness
– Empathy
– Connection with others
Ageism

• Discrimination or prejudice based on age

• Intellectual Abilities:
– Fluid Abilities:

• Abilities requiring speed or rapid learning; based on

perceptual and motor abilities

– Crystallized Abilities:

• Learned (accumulated) knowledge and skills; vocabulary

and basic facts

Death and Dying

• Elizabeth Kubler-Ross was a thanatologist:

– One who studies emotional and behavioral reactions to death

and dying
 • Kubler-Ross’ Five Basic Reactions to Death

– Denial and Isolation:

• Denying death’s reality and isolating oneself from

information confirming that death will occur: “It’s a
mistake; the doctors are wrong.”

– Anger:

• Asking “Why me?” Anger may then be projected onto the

living

• Bargaining:

– Terminally ill will bargain with God or with themselves: “If I can
live longer I’ll be a better person.”

• Depression:

– Feelings of futility, exhaustion, and deep sadness

• Acceptance:

– If death is not sudden, many will come to terms with death and
accept it calmly

Types of Child Discipline

• Power Assertion:

– Using physical punishment or a show of force

• Withdrawal of Love:

– Withholding affection

• Management Techniques:

– Combine praise, recognition, approval, rules, and reasoning

Side Effects of Child Discipline

• Power Assertion:

– Children tend to be aggressive, violent, defiant, not spontaneous,

and hate their parents

• Withdrawal of Love:
 – Children tend to be self-disciplined, anxious, insecure, and
dependent on adults

• Management Techniques :

– Children tend to have high self-esteem

Spanking

• No long-term damage if backed up by supportive parenting

– Frequent spanking leads to increased aggression and more

problem behaviors

More on Child Discipline

• Consistency:

– Maintaining stable rules of conduct

• Physical punishment and withdrawal of love should be used with

caution
• Making a distinction between feelings and behavior is important for
clear communication
• I-message tells children what effect their behavior had on you
• Natural and logical consequences