Sensors and Actuators A 150 (2009) 78–86

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Sensors and Actuators A: Physical

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/sna

Fibre Bragg grating strain sensor and study of its packaging material for use in
critical analysis on steel structure
Tarun Kumar Gangopadhyay ∗ , Mousumi Majumder, Ashim Kumar Chakraborty,
Asok Kumar Dikshit, Dipak Kumar Bhattacharya
Central Glass & Ceramic Research Institute (CGCRI), Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), 196 Raja S.C. Mullick Road, Kolkata 700032, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Strain studies in civil structures, aircrafts, oil pipelines, etc. are pivotal in avoiding unexpected failures.
Received 21 August 2008 Long-term strain study of structures also helps in setting the design limits of similar structures. Conven-
Received in revised form tionally, most structures rely on maintenance schedules, visual inspection and a few conventional sensors.
20 November 2008
But the high cost of maintenance, lack of precision in visual inspection and susceptibility of sensors to
Accepted 21 December 2008
harsh environmental conditions have made structural health monitoring (SHM) a necessity.
Available online 31 December 2008
Over the past few decades, fibre Bragg grating (FBG) sensors have emerged as a suitable, accurate and
cost-effective tool in SHM. Fibre Bragg gratings are obtained by creating periodic variations in the refrac-
Keywords:
Strain measurement
tive index of the core of an optical fibre. These periodic variations are created by using powerful ultraviolet
Fibre-optic sensor radiation from a laser source. Periodic structure acts as a Bragg reflector of particular wavelength. Minute
Packaging of FBG sensor change in the periodic structure due to external perturbation will cause appreciable wavelength shift. This
Composite materials shift in turn can be translated to measurand related to perturbation. The main advantages of FBGs over
Polymer materials other optical sensor schemes are its low cost, good linearity, wavelength multiplexing capacity, resistance
in harsh environments and absolute measurement. FBG sensor technology is now on the verge of maturity
after almost two decades of active research and development in this field. Efforts are now concentrating
on delivering complete FBG sensor systems including front-end electronics.
This paper demonstrates with the aim to provide different design and experimental packaging proce-
dures of indigenously developed FBG sensors for strain measurement. Various model of loading on FBG
have been tried to explore with particular attention on the primary packaging of the sensor for application
on steel cantilever structure and cement concrete. Preliminary packaging has been done with composite
materials such as epoxy resin casting and fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) composites. Encouraging results
are obtained and presented in this paper. The results are compared with the standard FBG sensors and
with mechanical strain gauge.
© 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Strain studies in civil structures, aircrafts, oil pipelines, etc. are
pivotal in avoiding unexpected failures. Long-term strain study
of structures also helps in setting the design limits of similar
structures. Conventionally, most structures rely on maintenance
schedules, visual inspection and a few conventional sensors. But
the high cost of maintenance, lack of precision in visual inspection
and susceptibility of sensors to harsh environmental conditions has
made structural health monitoring (SHM) a necessity. Over the past
few decades fibre Bragg grating (FBG) sensors have emerged as a
suitable, accurate and cost-effective tool in SHM.
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 33 24649329; fax: +91 33 24730957.
E-mail addresses: tkg@cgcri.res.in, tkgee@hotmail.com
(T.K. Gangopadhyay).
The main advantages of FBGs over other optic sensor schemes
are its low cost, good linearity, wavelength multiplexing capac-
ity, resistance in harsh environments and transduction mechanism
which eliminates the need for referencing as in interferometric sen-
sors. FBG sensor technology is now on the verge of maturity after
almost two decades of active research and development in this field.
Efforts are now concentrating on delivering complete FBG sensor
systems including front-end electronics.
Several review papers on fibre Bragg grating applications have
been published [1–4]. Strain and temperature have so far been the
dominating measurand of interest [5–7]. Author is also made a
critical review on structural vibration using FBG and Fabry–Perot
sensors [8]. Recently the authors’ reviewed [9] the previous work of
FBG as strain sensors in structural health monitoring including the
present status and applications along with various encapsulation
techniques.
FBG’s are basically strain and temperature sensitive devices.
Bragg gratings can be inscribed directly in a standard optical fiber at

0924-4247/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.sna.2008.12.017
 T.K. Gangopadhyay et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 150 (2009) 78–86 79

Fig. 1. Transmission and reflection spectra from an FBG [14].

Fig. 2. A stainless steel cantilever structure has been fabricated in-house and FBGs
are placed on it for strain calibration.
any position, and several of them can be configured in series or par-
allel on different fibers and interrogated from the same light source
The Bragg wavelength B is also susceptible to temperature
enabling flexible sensor configurations. This paper demonstrated
changes. The change in wavelength is due to the combined effect of
with the aims to provide different design and experimental pack-
the thermal expansion of the core material and the thermo-optic
aging procedures of FBG sensors for strain measurement. Various
behaviour that induces a change in the refractive index of the fibre.
model of loading on FBG have been tried to explore with particular
The relative change in the Bragg wavelength due to temperature
attention on the primary packaging of the sensor for application on
change is given by
steel cantilever structure and cement concrete.
B
= (˛ + )T (4)
2. Principle of operation of FBG sensors B
where T is the change in temperature experienced at the FBG
Fibre Bragg gratings are obtained by creating periodic variations
location, ˛ is the thermal expansion and  is the thermo-optical
in the refractive index of the core of an optical fibre. These periodic
coefficient.
variations are created by using powerful ultraviolet radiation (holo-
For an FBG of central wavelength of 1550 nm, typical temper-
graphic method). Fig. 1 shows the internal structure of an optical
ature sensitivity B /T = 13 pm/◦ C [5]. However, the strain and
fibre with an FBG written in it.
temperature sensitivities of FBG sensors depend on the type of
In a single mode optical fibre, light travels in the fundamen-
fibres as well [6].
tal mode along the axis of the core of the fibre. When light passes
through an FBG, Fresnel reflections take place due to the variations
3.1. Experimental setup for FBG based strain measurement
in refractive index of the fibre. This is called coherent reflection. If
the criterion for constructive interference is met, then the incident
Although the application of bare FBG on real structural applica-
light satisfies the Bragg condition is given by [1].
tion is not advisable due to fragility of the silica fibre, a few tests
B = 2n (1) have been performed in the laboratory with bare FBG on a stainless
steel (Fig. 2) structure fabricated in-house. However these tests are
where B is the Bragg wavelength, n is the effective refractive index
essential to ascertain the strain-opto coefficient of the bare fibre.
of the FBG and  is the grating period. When the Bragg condition is
FBGs are placed on the axis of the cantilever for strain calibration
satisfied, reflections from each successive period will be in phase.
as shown in Fig. 2.
Light that does not satisfy the Bragg condition passes through the
The optical-setup is presented in Fig. 3. A tuneable fibre laser
FBG as if it were of uniform refractive index n (Fig. 1).
source emitting (1520–1570 nm) with a maximum power of 2 mW
is used for interrogation of 80–90% reflectivity FBG elements cen-
3. Strain measurement using FBG sensors
tered at 1551 nm. The laser, illuminated with a single-mode fibre
pig-tail, is directly connected to the FBG via a 50:50 (3 dB) fused
When an FBG is strained, the Bragg wavelength, B changes due
coupler (developed at CGCRI) which is also used to collect Bragg
to both the change in grating pitch,  (due to the simple elastic
wavelength reflected by the grating. The reflection coming from
elongation) and due to the photoelasticity-induced change of the
refractive index. The relative change in Bragg wavelength is given
by [2]
B
= (1 − e )ε (2)
B
where ε is the longitudinal strain experienced by the optical fibre
at the FBG location and e is the effective photo-elastic constant of
the fibre core material
n2
e = [p12 − v(p11 + p12 )] (3)
2
where pij are the silica photo-elastic tensor components and v is the
Poisson’s ratio.
For an FBG of central wavelength of 1550 nm, typical strain sen-
sitivity B /ε = 1.2 pm/microstrain [5]. Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of experimental set-up and steel cantilever.
80 T.K. Gangopadhyay et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 150 (2009) 78–86

Fig. 6. FBG interrogation system for strain sensing and data logger for strain gauge
Fig. 4. Fibre Bragg grating interrogation instrument has shown the wavelength peak measurement (inset: stainless steel cantilever structure).
of a FBG made in-house by CGCRI (micron optics, wavelength range 1520–1570 nm,
resolution 0.25 pm). Table 1
Comparison of strain responses of CGCRI-make FBG sensors and recorded value by
conventional strain gauge with theoretical strain.
FBG is detected by the PIN photodiode with wavelength accuracy
1 pm and resolution 0.25 pm (si720, Micron Optics). Force (N) Strain Strain Wavelength shift
(calculated) ␮␧ (measured) ␮␧ of FBG in pm
Bare FBG is placed on the surface of the steel cantilever; hence,
static and dynamic strain can be applied to the FBG via cantilever. 4.9 61.04 61 80
9.8 122.09 117 140
It can be placed for the measurement either on upper surface for
14.7 183.13 184 220
strains due to elongation or on the bottom surface for strain due 19.6 244.18 244 300
to contraction. Theoretical strain has been calculated at the point 24.5 305.22 315 380
of location on which the FBG is placed. Before applying load on 29.4 366.27 363 440
structure the wavelength reflection is recorded as shown in FBG 34.3 427.31 421 500

interrogation system (Fig. 4). Two mechanical strain gauges are also
placed side by side on the cantilever to compare the data with FBG
sensor at the same location and to get direct strain through data
logger (Fig. 5). While applying load on the cantilever structure it
starts to bend and strain is translated to FBG. The complete set-up
is shown in Fig. 6.
4. Tensile tests and results with bare FBG
Theoretical values of strain on the axis of the cantilever (Fig. 2)
has been calculated using conventional strain equation [10].
 M
ı= = (5)
Y Yz
where ı is the strain developed at the axis of the cantilever,  is
stress due to load applied, Y is Young’s modulus of SS steel bar,
M is the total moment and z is the section modulus. Strain due to
different load has been calculated and plotted in Table 1.
While starting measurement initial wavelength spectra of the
bare FBG is recorded. A test for static strain measurements has
been performed on FBG. Actually the response of the laser system
is investigated for subsequent static loads on the FBG. A load is
gradually increased on one side of the cantilever and correspond-
ing wavelength shift is measured as shown in Fig. 7. Comparison
of strain responses of CGCRI-make FBG sensors, recorded value by
conventional strain gauge and theoretical strain is shown in Table 1.
Wavelength shift versus microstrain is depicted in Fig. 8. From the
data it is observed that the strain sensitivity of the developed sen-
sor is 1.25 pm/␮␧ which is tallied with theoretical value. The system
is tested to perform strain measurements up to about 450 ␮␧ with

Fig. 5. Strain gauge data logger for strain measurement and associated display of
strain on screen. (Make: TML, Japan, measurement range 1–20,000 microstrain, Fig. 7. FBG responses of CGCRI-make sensors before strain and after strain (used
resolution 0.1 microstrain). bare FBG).
 T.K. Gangopadhyay et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 150 (2009) 78–86
Fig. 8. Response of CGCRI-make FBG sensor force applied to steel structure (used
bare FBG before packaging).
linear range and manual loading on cantilever. To get reproducible
responses of CGCRI-make FBG sensors the strain has been mea-
sured on consecutive days (Fig. 9) using bare FBG before packaging.
To avoid the error on damping of steel structure during manual
loading, the linearity of the bare FBG has been tested on a calibra-
tion set-up using load cell. This FBG calibration set-up has been
developed at CGCRI as shown in Fig. 10 in which load cells are con-
trolled by personal computer and simultaneously wavelength shift
is captured on specially designed software (Lab view). Response of
CGCRI-make bare FBG against load applied through load cell appa-
ratus is shown in Fig. 11. The system is tested to perform strain mea-
surements on FBG with automatic loading up to about 200 g with
linear wavelength shift and strain sensitivity was tailed 1.25 pm/␮␧.
5. FBG strain sensor packaging with composite materials
By definition a composite is a composed material developed by
the synthetic layer assembly of two or more constituents, selected
filler or reinforcing agent and a compatible binder (i.e., resin) in
order to obtain specific characteristics and properties [11]. Each of
these constituent materials plays an important role in the process-
ing and the final mechanical performance of the end product. The
composite matrix improves the physical properties through specific
molecular rearrangement in the end product. The reinforcement
filler provides to improve the mechanical strength. The fillers and
the additives are used as process or performance enhancement and
to impart special properties to the final product. The properties of
a composite cannot be achieved by any of these components acting
Fig. 9. Reproducible responses of CGCRI-make FBG sensors to monitor strain on
consecutive days (used bare FBG before packaging) [14].
81
Fig. 10. FBG-strain calibration setup developed at CGCRI.
alone. The final goal in manufacturing a composite is to combine
similar or dissimilar materials in order to develop specific proper-
ties that are related to the desired characteristics. The concentration
of components is generally considered as the single most important
parameter influencing the composite properties [12]. Also, it is eas-
ily controllable all processable variables for altering the composite
properties.
5.1. Fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) composites
In recent years, many experiments and researches have been
carried out on laminated composites to obtain optimal mechani-
cal properties. Composite properties are highest in the orientation
direction of fibers. In practical application, most of the structures
are not loaded in single direction, it is necessary to orient fibers in
multiple directions. This demands evaluation of mechanical prop-
erties for different fiber orientations. The fibre weight fraction is
an important parameter influencing the mechanical properties of
composites. Bar-Yoseph and Pian [7] developed a new method for
calculating interlaminar stress (ILSS) concentration in angle-ply
Fig. 11. Response of CGCRI-make FBG sensor against load applied through load cell
(used bare FBG on load cell apparatus).
82 T.K. Gangopadhyay et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 150 (2009) 78–86

laminates. The aim of the work was to study the effects of fibre
orientations and fibre weight fraction on tensile strength, heat
deflection temperature (HDT), impact strength and hardness of
glass/epoxy laminated composites.

5.2. FRP composite for structure

To develop a composite structure the following points are very

important.

(i) In order to understand how composite materials perform in

structures, it is necessary to understand some basics about
Fig. 12. Comparison of properties of fibre, resin and composite.
their nature. Composite materials contain a mixture of two
or more types of fundamentally different components. They
have properties that are some combination of the properties FRPs have been used in small consumer-oriented sporting
of their components. boats for many years.
(ii) All materials that contain more than one component are not (viii) Composite materials are being used in civil engineering struc-
necessarily composite materials. For example, pearlitic steel tures. The tent-like roof on the new Denver International
is not considered a composite, although it contains more than Airport is made from a glass-based FRP that has been coated
one component, since its various parts are of the same nature. with Teflon. The same basic material has been used as the
(iii) Some materials that are considered composites are con- roof for a number of sports stadiums, such as the Metrodome
crete, steel-reinforced concrete, fiber-reinforced polymers in Minneapolis. Glass-based composites have been used in
(like graphite/epoxy or glass/epoxy), laminated wood, and nearly 100,000 underground fuel storage tanks; this use is
rubber tires. Concrete- and steel-reinforced concrete con- growing rapidly. Uses also include sandwich shell roofs for
tain more than one type of component (aggregate, cement exhibition structures, large-diameter pipe, and numerous
paste, and steel). Graphite- and glass-based FRPs contain gratings and structural shapes.
high-strength fibers surrounded by a more ductile resin. Rub-
ber tires contain the polymeric rubber-type material, carbon
5.3. Properties of FRP composites
particles, and, frequently, steel or other types of reinforce-
ment.
Properties of composites are strongly influenced by the prop-
(iv) The driving force behind the development of modem com-
erties of their constituent materials, their distribution and the
posite materials has been their high strength and stiffness
interaction between them. The composite properties may be the
when determined on a weight basis. Most of the original
volume fraction, sum of the properties of the constituents, or the
work on modem composites was in the aerospace industry.
constituents may interact in a synergetic way as to provide proper-
These industries are very weight sensitive, and a decrease in
ties in the composites that are not accounted for by simple volume
weight is a very important issue. This is the case even if the
fraction of the constituents. Concentration is usually measured in
FRP parts are more expensive than the parts they replaced.
terms of volume or weight fractions. The contribution of a single
Composites are now being used in the surface transporta-
constituent to the overall properties of the composite is determined
tion industry. They are frequently used on automobiles and
by this parameter. The concentration is generally considered as the
lightweight boats. Composites have also penetrated a number
single most important parameter influencing the composite prop-
of consumer sports areas, such as graphite/epoxy golf clubs
erties. Also, it is easily controllable all manufacturing variables for
and skis.
altering the composite properties. The orientation of the reinforce-
(v) One way to better understand composite materials is to exam-
ment affects the isotropic property of the system. In continuous
ine some current applications of composites. There are a
fiber reinforced composites, such as unidirectional or cross-ply
number of aerospace applications. They are used as struc-
composites anisotropy is desirable. The primary advantage of these
tural parts on many modem jet airplanes, such as the Boeing
composites is the ability to control the anisotropy by design and
767. The Voyager was the first airplane to fly around the world
fabrication.
nonstop without refueling. Its superstructure was mostly
The potential advantage for considering composites for any
made of composite materials. Similarly, the Gossamer Alba-
application is manifold, but for majority of cases the interest will
tross became the first human-powered vehicle to fly across
be on:
the English Channel. Such a vehicle could not be built with tra-
ditional metallic materials, for it would have been too heavy.
(i) Light weight manifested in the form of high specific properties.
(vi) Composites have also been used on land-based vehicles. For
(ii) Corrosive resistance.
example, the auto industry has formed a consortium to do
research on composite materials. They have successfully built
a Taurus whose superstructure is composed of five composite Comparison of properties of fibre, resin and composite is shown
panels that have been glued together. Glass-fiber-based com- in Fig. 12.
posites have been used to form the hopper in railroad cars.
The U.S. Army has recently designed and built an armoured 5.4. Primary packaging of FBG with polymer materials
vehicle that has a composite material hull. The U.S. Navy has
used composite materials to make mine sweeper ships. In the present experiment FBG has been packaged with Araldite
(vii) Composite materials are being used extensively in the sport- LY556, epoxy-A and Araldite HY951, epoxy B as hardener which is
ing world. Glass-based FRP poles are commonly used in pole obtained from Huntsman & Co. Ltd., Basel 4057, Swizerland. Araldite
vaulting. Graphite/epoxy golf club shafts are highly desirable LY556 is the epoxy resin and used with a liquid diglycidyl ether
because of weight. Graphite/epoxy skis were also popular as of bisphenol A and N,N -bis (2-aminoethyl) ethane-1,2-diamine.
they are light and because of their light-weight glass-based Both resins were used as received with no additional purifica-
 T.K. Gangopadhyay et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 150 (2009) 78–86
Fig. 13. FBG casting in epoxy-resin (78–22%) as primary packaging for strain mea-
surement.
tion. The chemical structure of the resin components are as follows
[11–13]:
(a) DGEBA-diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A.
(b) AEEDA-N,N -bis (2-aminoethyl) ethane-1,2-diamine.
The two resins are mixed in the molar ratio of 4:1 at room
temperature. The curing mechanism is exothermic due to chem-
ical reaction between hydroxyl groups of bisphenol epoxy and
diamine of AEEDA. The molecular structure of epoxy network is
due to cross-linking density, enhances mechanical property at room
temperature. The extension of network formation in the chemical
reaction depends on how much diamine is involved with hydroxyl
group of epoxy. The details curing kinetics has been reported by
Musto et al. [15].
Primary packaging of FBG with epoxy-resin (78–22%) has been
done as shown in Fig. 13. Here FBG is embedded inside the casting.
The size of the cured sheet is 50 mm × 15 mm having 3 mm thick-
ness. PVC sleeves of 250 ␮m diameter have been used to protect the
fibre at both edges of the sheet. The chemical bonding in between
epoxy-diamine and epoxy-dianhydride is an exothermic reaction.
The exothermic heat from chemical bonding in between epoxy A
and epoxy B at initial curing period affect on wavelength curve. This
phenomena occurs during curing through chemical bonding due to
the cross linking of polymer chains, as a result a network structure is
found. The process has been made on-line i.e., FBG was connected
with interrogation system so as to observe the wavelength shift
from the grating while curing of the polymer packaging materials.
The on-line data shows in Fig. 14 in which a few airy peaks are signif-
icant in the starting region (around 1-min duration) of the reaction
due to thermal stress on the grating. The reflected wavelength is
gradually shifted nearly 0.14 nm which is equivalent to 112 ␮␧ to
settle down the packaging material. After the curing process this
small pellet can be used as primary packaging.
Fig. 14. Wavelength shifting during polymer packaging on bare FBG.
83
Fig. 15. Response of CGCRI-make FBG and polymer packaged sensor to monitor
strain (when FBG is placed on the top surface of the cantilever) [14].
5.4.1. Tensile tests and results with FBG after packaging
This packaged FBG (sensor pellet) has been used on the steel
cantilever structure for testing with load in two manners. Firstly, it
is rigidly fixed on the top of the cantilever. Wavelength shift due to
loading on cantilever has been recorded in the similar way as it is
done in the case of bare fibre (discussed in Section 4). Wavelength
shift vs. load has been plotted in Fig. 15. As observed in the result
420 pm of wavelength shift (strain ≡ 336 ␮␧) has been observed for
29N of applied load and strain sensitivity was tailed 1.25 pm/␮␧.
Secondly, the sensor has been fixed rigidly at the bottom of
the cantilever and wavelength shift due to loading on cantilever
has been recorded (Fig. 16). Due to downward loading, the bend-
ing of the cantilever has been turned downward direction and the
FBG sensor exerted a compressive load. As observed in the result
0.22 nm (220 pm) of wavelength shift (strain ≡ 176 ␮␧) has been
observed for 1.4 kg of gradually applied load and strain sensitivity
was confirmed 1.25 pm/␮␧.
5.5. Packaging material testing
Properties of composites and packaging materials on the sensor
are very much important as applied load has been exerted on FBG
in reduced manner. Load distribution will be uniform on FBG if the
composites materials have high storage modulus and sheer strength
and homogeneously network structure formation occurs. Different
tests are performed to evaluate the characteristics of the sensor
pellet.
5.5.1. X-ray diffraction
The amorphous phases of epoxy resin coated silica fibre was
recorded with an X’ Pert Philips MPD system (PW1710) Cu LFF X-ray
Fig. 16. Wavelength response of compressive load on the FBG inside polymer pack-
aging using steel structure (PS294-1, dated 13-04-06).
84 T.K. Gangopadhyay et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 150 (2009) 78–86
Fig. 17. XRD profile of epoxy-resin packaging materials.
tube operating at 40 kV and 20 mA using Cu K␣ ( = 0.154056 nm)
radiation. A scanning step size of 0.020 and scanning speed of 0.5 s
per step were adopted for this measurement.
Fig. 17 represents wide angle X-ray diffraction (XRD) profile for
epoxy polymer resin packaged silica fibre. There are two amorphous
halos observed at 18.8◦ and 42.6◦ which corresponds to amorphous
phase of epoxy resin. At 2 of 18.8◦ corresponds 1 1 0 and 0 2 0 lattice
plane [11]. The peak halo intensity is too much reflects packing of
molecular chains with high density. Amorphous silica peak at 25.7◦
was also observed when scale resolute in between 24◦ and 30◦ .
5.5.2. Thermo gravimetric analysis
Schimadzu model TGA-50 instrument was employed to measure
thermal history from room temperature 30 ◦ C to 600 ◦ C using few
milligrams of samples in the pan at 10◦ /min heating rate.
Fig. 18 shows thermal history of resin up to 600 ◦ C, which rep-
resents that there was no significant weight loss up to 300 ◦ C. The
loss of weight is 4.71%, between 300 ◦ C and 340 ◦ C, further weight
loss of 48% between 340 ◦ C and 425 ◦ C and finally total loss of 85%
at 600 ◦ C. The weight loss taken place at the different stages of ther-
mal treatment due to either structural change of the materials or
thermal decomposition reactions of the components in presence of
Fig. 18. TGA figure of epoxy-resin packaging materials.
Fig. 19. DSC profile of epoxy-resin packaging materials (a. endotherm, and b.
exotherm).
oxygen with evaporation of gas. From the graph it has been observed
that the sample is thermally stable up to 300 ◦ C temperature. The
molecular epoxy interpenetrating network structure of the cured
samples are unaffected at low temperature, the crosslink density at
room temperature not bring significant change of the mechanical
property [11].
5.5.3. Differential scanning calorimetry
The thermal study of the epoxy resin was done in a PerkinElmer
DSC-diamond instrument using pyris software under dry nitrogen
atmosphere. The samples of (2–8)mg were made in aluminium pan.
They were then heated at the scan rate of 10◦ /min. The peak temper-
ature and the enthalpy of epoxy resin melting were measured from
the endotherm using a computer attached to the instrument. The
enthalpy of melting and the crystallization temperature were mea-
sured using a dynamic heating and cooling method. The DSC was
calibrated with indium before the experiment. The crystallization
temperature (Tc ) and the melting temperatures (Tm ) were taken
as the temperatures of the minimum and the maximum of both
endothermic and exothermic peaks, respectively.
Fig. 19a and b represents DSC thermogram of chain packing
of epoxy crystal melting (Tm ) and crystallization (Tc ) endotherm
and exotherm, respectively. The crystals are melted at 76.86 ◦ C and
crystallize at 66.32 ◦ C, respectively.
5.5.4. Scanning electron microscope
In order to observe the phase structure of epoxy blends, the sam-
ples were fractured under cryogenic condition using liquid nitro-
gen. The etched specimens were dried to remove the solvents. The
epoxy resin was carbon coated under vacuum sputtering, and SEM
micrographs were taken through a SEM (LEO S-430 i), UK instru-
ment under active voltage of 15 kV at different magnifications.
 T.K. Gangopadhyay et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 150 (2009) 78–86
Fig. 20. (a and b) SEM images of epoxy-resin packaging materials.
The following two figures (Fig. 20a and b) are represented
scanning electron micrographs (SEM) of epoxy resin at different
magnification which was derived from polymeric resin A (diamine)
and resin B (dianhydride). The fractured surface of epoxy resin
shows that fibril structure network structure. The fibrils are thin
and widely dispersed in the whole structure of the sample. There
was no porosity observed, which reveals that it was continuous
homogeneous interpenetrating network (IPN) molecular polymeric
domain structural matrix. The degree of cross linking that occurs
during curing inside the molecular chain networks, cross linking
of polymer chains surrounded by uncured materials as a result of
flexibility increased [12].
The epoxy networks structure show a single-phase morphol-
ogy. It can be explained that the effects of solubility parameter and
chemical interaction in-between epoxy and hardener. The com-
bine equation of the Flory–Huggins equation and the Hildebrand
equation [16], the free energy of mixing can be expressed as
Gm
ϕ ϕr
 Wavelength vs. load is depicted in Fig. 22. It has been observed
2 e
= ϕe ϕr (ıe − ır ) + RT ln ϕe + ln ϕr
V Ve Vr
where ϕe , ϕr are the volume fractions, and ıe , ır are the solubility
parameters and Ve , Vr are the molar volumes of epoxy and hard-
ener, respectively. Since ϕe , ϕr are fractions (<1), the second term
(change in entropy) is always negative. During curing of epoxy resin,
the value of Ve and Vr increases which results in a decrease in
second term in the above equation. At a critical point of overlap-
ping concentration during chemical reaction, the change of molar
free energy (Gm ) becomes positive and as a result phase sepa-
ration occurs. However, if (ıe − ır ), i.e., the difference between the
solubility parameters of the epoxy and the hardener is very low,
then the change in entropy due to the curing reaction, cannot make
85
Fig. 21. FBG casting in FRP composites as primary packaging for strain measurement.
Fig. 22. Wavelength response of compressive load on the FBG inside FRP packaging
using steel structure (PS294-1, dated 12-04-06).
Fig. 23. Schematic model shown glass fiber and epoxy composite.
free energy change of mixing (Gm ) positive prior to overlapping
concentration [17].
5.6. Primary packaging of FBG with fibre reinforced plastic (FRP)
composites
Primary packaging of FBG with FRP composite has been success-
fully done (Fig. 21). Glass fiber and epoxy resins are composed with
one by one layer with high impact hot press. Here FBG is embed-
ded inside the FRP casting. This process is also continued on-line
connected with interrogation unit. The dimension of the sheet cast-
ing is (47 × 12) mm having 2 mm thickness. The details studies have
been done and will be published in next publication.
In similar test (as Section 5.4.1) has been performed using FRP
composite packaging material and FBG is bonded in side the sheet.
(6) 0.35 nm (350 pm) of wavelength shift (strain ≡280 ␮␧) for 1.6 kg of
gradually applied load and strain sensitivity was tailed 1.25 pm/␮␧.
Fig. 23 has shown schematic model of glass fiber and epoxy compos-
ite where glass fiber are aligned directionally and epoxy network
structure bonded glass fibers through layer by layer structure gives
a high mechanical impact strength.
6. Conclusion
This paper presented design and experimental packaging of
indigenously developed FBG sensors for the strain measurement.
A few models of loading on FBG have been tried to explore on bare
FBG and placing the FBG on steel cantilever structure. Preliminary
86 T.K. Gangopadhyay et al. / Sensors and Actuators A 150 (2009) 78–86
packaging with epoxy resin casting has been used on steel structure.
Encouraging results are demonstrated. The results are compared
with the standard FBG sensors and with mechanical strain gauge.
Practical modelling has been tried for the bonding composite at
the interface of bare fibre and coating, coating and adhesive layer,
adhesive layer and host material and validated the results using
load application.
Finally the study of packaging material has been performed to
evaluate the characteristics of the sensor pellet. X-ray diffraction
profile, thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) for
epoxy polymer resin casting with FBG have been performed to con-
firm the packaging performance. These are the new tests to observe
the packaging characteristics of fibre-optic sensors. Encouraging
observations obtained and presented in this paper.
The study conclude that for better strain transfer from the host
material to the FBG sensors, a thin layer of adhesive, a high modulus
coating material and a sufficient embedding length of the sensor is
appreciable. Further scope of study is to optimise the thickness of
the epoxy-layer on FBG surface considering strength of the packag-
ing embodiment as well as load transfer to sensor.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the support, guidance
and encouragement provided by the Director, Central Glass &
Ceramic Research Institute (CGCRI), Kolkata, India. The work has
been carried out under the project Technology for Engineering Crit-
ical Assessment (TECA), CORR 0022. The authors would also like to
thank Dr. Dipten Bhattacharya, Scientist and Dr. N.R. Bose, Ex. Sci-
entist of CGCRI for their valuable suggestions on characterization
of polymer materials. They thank the staff members of Fibre Optics
Laboratory, CGCRI for their help and co-operation.
References
[1] W.W. Moorey, G.A. Ball, H. Singh, Applications of fibre grating sensors, Proc. SPIE
2839 (1996) 2–7.
[2] P. Ferdinand, S. Magne, V. Dewynter-Marty, C. Martinez, S. Rougeault, M. Bugaud,
Applications of Bragg grating sensors in Europe, in: Proceedings of the 12th
International Conference on Optical Fibre Sensors, Williamsburg, USA, 1997,
pp. 9–14.
[3] Y.J. Rao, Recent progress in applications of in-fibre Bragg grating sensors, Optics
Lasers Eng. 31 (1999) 297–324.
[4] B. Lee, Review of the present status of optical fibre sensors, Optical Fibre Technol.
9 (2003) 57–79.
[5] Y.J. Rao, Fiber Bragg grating sensors: principles and applications, in: K.T.V. Grat-
tan, B.T. Meggitt (Eds.), Optical Fiber Sensor Technology, vol. 2, Chapman & Hall,
London, 1998, pp. 355–389.
[6] X. Shu, Y. Liu, D. Zhao, B. Gwandu, F. Floreani, L. Zhang, I. Bennion, Dependence
of temperature and strain coefficients on fiber grating type and its application
to simultaneous temperature and strain measurement, Opt. Lett. 27 (9) (2002)
701–703.
[7] P. Bar-Yoseph, T.H.H. Pian, Calculation of interlaminar stress concentration in
composite laminates, J. Composite Mater. 15 (1981) 225–239.
[8] T.K. Gangopadhyay, Prospects for fibre Bragg gratings and Fabry–Perot inter-
ferometers in fibre-optic vibration sensing, Sensors Actuat. A: Phys. 113 (2004)
20–38.
[9] M. Majumder, T. Kumar Gangopadhyay, A.K. Chakraborty, K. Dasgupta, D.K. Bhat-
tacharya, Fibre Bragg gratings as strain sensors—present status and applications,
Sensors Actuat. A: Phys. 147 (2008) 150–164.
[10] S. Timoshenko, D.H. Young, Engineering Mechanics, 4th ed., vol. 1, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1956.
[11] X. Kornmann, M. Rees, Y. Thomann, A. Necola, M. Barbezat, R. Thomann, Epoxy-
layered silicate nanocomposites as matrix in glass fibre-reinforced composites,
Compos. Sci. Technol. 65 (2005) 2259–2268.
[12] Neeraj Gupta, I.K. Varma, Effect of structure of aromatic diamines on curing
characteristics, thermal stability, and mechanical properties of epoxy resins, J.
Appl. Polym. Sci. 68 (11) (1998) 1759–1766.
[13] I. Stewart, A. Chambers, T. Gordon, The cohesive mechanical properties of a
toughened epoxy adhesive as a function of cure level, Int. J. Adhesion Adhesives
27 (2007) 277–287.
[14] T.K. Gangopadhyay, M. Majumder, A.K. Chakraborty, N.R. Bose, A.K. Dikshit, K.
Dasgupta, S.K. Bhadra, D.K. Bhattacharya, Development of on-line strain sen-
sor using FBG for engineering critical analysis on structure, in: International
Conference on Sensors and Related Networks (SENNET’07), VIT-Vellore, India,
12–14 December 2007, pp 42–46.
[15] P. Musto, M. Abbate, G. Ragosta, G. Scarinzi, A study by Raman, near-infrared
and dynamic-mechanical spectroscopies on the curing behaviour, molecular
structure and viscoelastic properties of epoxy/anhydride networks, Polymer 48
(2007) 3703–3716.
[16] Y.-D. Lee, S.K. Wang, W.K. Chin, Liquid-rubber-modified epoxy adhesives cured
with dicyandiamide. I. Preparation and characterization, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 32
(8) (1986) 6317–6327.
[17] M. Ochi, J.P. Bell, Rubber-modified epoxy resins containing high functionality
acrylic elastomers, J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 29 (1984) 1381–1391.
Biographies
Tarun Kumar Gangopadhyay graduated bachelor of Electrical Engineering in 1989
and Master of Electrical Engineering in 1991, both from the Jadavpur University,
Calcutta, India. He graduated Ph.D. in December 2005 in the field of fiber-optic sen-
sor from the University of Sydney, Australia. His Ph.D. thesis title is: ‘Measurement
of vibration using optical fibre sensors’. During 1995–1999, he went to Australia
in AusAID scholarship for commonwealth countries and there he was involved in
the research and development of optical fibre vibration sensors for electrical power
industry with High Power Testing and Optical Fibre Sensors Group, School of Elec-
trical and Information Engineering, The University of Sydney, Australia. He worked
there in the field of intrinsic and extrinsic single-mode fibre-based sensors and fibre-
optic interferometry. He has got many awards and prizes for his research work from
The University of Sydney and Australian Photonics. Presently he is employed as a
Senior Scientist in the Optical communication Fibre Division at Central Glass and
Ceramic Research Institute (CSIR), Kolkata, India. Recently he worked to develop
Fibre Bragg Grating (FBG) temperature sensor for high voltage (400 kV) power trans-
mission line application. He is currently involved in R&D work of optical fibre sensors,
FBG sensors for smart structures, FBG sensors for power line application, chemi-
cal sensor using fibre ring resonator and development of fibre-optic components
such as bi-directional coupler and WDM couplers. His current research interests are
development of FBG sensors, chemical and gas sensors, bio-medical sensors and PM
fibre coupler for Gyro application. He has authored several journal papers and inter-
national conference papers. He is a member of Optical Society of America (OSA),
USA.
Mousumi Majumder obtained her B.Tech in Electronics and Telecommunication
Engineering from the North-Eastern Hill University, India in 1997. She had joined
the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, India in 1998. Presently she is
employed as a Scientist in the Instrumentation Division at Central Glass & Ceramic
Research Institute, Kolkata, India. Her professional interests lie in Material character-
ization, and usage of various strain sensing platforms in Structural Health Monitoring
and Refurbishment.
Ashim Kumar Chakraborty has obtained his M.E. (Hons.) degrees in Instrumen-
tation and Electronics from Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India in 1990. He served
Simon Carves Limited, India before joining as a scientist in the Instrumentation Sec-
tion of Central Glass and Ceramic Research Institute (CSIR), Kolkata, India in 1987
where he is presently a senior scientist and the head of the section. He has active
interest in technology development and has participated in a number of sponsored
research projects. He has served as the research project leader for development of
FBG strain sensors under TECA (2004–2007), a network project among CSIR labora-
tories, India. His current research interests are in the area of technology development
for specialty glasses and optic fiber sensors.
Dipak Kumar Bhattacharya, a graduate in Metallurgy obtained his doctoral degree
from the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India in 1995 working on the sub-
ject of correlation of Barkhausen Signal and magnetic hysteresis loop parameters
with microstructures in steels. His professional interests lie in materials processing
& characterization, and R&D project management. He has worked in various NDT
techniques for the evaluation of remaining life assessment of engineering materials
and structures in the power and petrochemical plants. He is presently heading the
Analytical Facility Division and Programme Management Division in Central Glass &
Ceramic Research Institute, Kolkata, India. He has more than 70 publications in Inter-
national Journals. He is the Chief Editor of the Journal of Nondestructive Evaluation
published by the Indian Society for NDT.