OUTLINE

 TYPES OF PAVEMENTS
 DEFECTS IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
 TYPES OF FAILURES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS
 PAVEMENT EVALUATION
 OVERLAY DESIGN BY BENKELMAN BEAM
METHOD
 PRICIPLES OF HIGHWAY FINANCING
 Road Composition

Vehicle

Black Topping

Base Road Crust

Sub Base

300mm Sub Grade

450
Embankment
Ground Level
 TYPES OF PAVEMENT STRUCTURE

Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement

 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

 surfaced with bituminous (or asphalt) materials.

 these types of pavements are called "flexible" since the total

pavement structure "bends" or "deflects" due to traffic
loads.

 a flexible pavement structure is generally composed of several

layers of materials which can accommodate this "flexing".
STRUCTURE

 Surface course

 Base course

 Subbase course

 Subgrade
 RIGID PAVEMENT

• Those which are surfaced with portland cement concrete

(PCC).

• These types of pavements are called "rigid" because they are

substantially stiffer than flexible pavements due to PCC's

high stiffness.
STRUCTURE

 Surface course

 Base course

 Subbase course

 Subgrade
 FUNCTION OF COMPONENTS
Surface Course

 layer in contact with traffic loads – quality material

 provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness, noise control, rut

and shoving resistance and drainage.

 prevents the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the

underlying base, subbase and subgrade

subdivided into two layers

 Wearing Course. This is the layer in direct contact with traffic

loads. It is meant to take the brunt of traffic wear and can be removed
and replaced as it becomes worn.

 Intermediate/Binder Course. This layer provides the bulk of the HMA

structure. It's chief purpose is to distribute load.

Base Course

• immediately beneath the surface course.

• provides additional load distribution
• contributes to drainage and frost resistance. Base courses are
usually constructed out of:
•Aggregate. Base courses are most typically constructed from
durable aggregates
•HMA. In certain situations where high base stiffness is
desired, base courses can be constructed using a variety of
HMA mixes.
Sub base Course
• The sub base course is between the base course and the
subgrade.
•It functions primarily as structural support
• Minimize the intrusion of fines from the subgrade into the
pavement structure.
•Improve drainage.
•Minimize frost action damage.
•Provide a working platform for construction.
• The subbase generally consists of lower quality materials than
the base course but better than the subgrade soils. A subbase
course is not always needed or used. excavation.
Sub-grade
•The top soil or sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared
to receive the stresses from the layers above.
•It is essential that at no time soil sub-grade is overstressed.
•It should be compacted to the desirable density, near the
optimum moisture content.
DEFECTS IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

Flexible
Pavement
Distress

Surface Cracks Deformation Disintegration

Defects
 Surface
Defects

Fatty Smooth Hungry

Streaking
surface surface Surface

Flexible
Pavement
Distress

Surface Defects Cracks Deformation Disintegration

 FATTY SURFACE
POSSIBLE TYPE OF
SYMPTOMS
TREATMENT
PROBABLE CAUSES

1. Excessive binder in the

1. Sand-blinding
premix, spray, or tack
2. Open graded premix
coat
Collection of binder on the 3. Liquid seal coat
2. Loss of cover aggregates,
surface 4. Burning of excessive
excessively heavy axle
binder
load
5. Removal of affected area
 SMOOTH SURFACE
POSSIBLE TYPE OF
SYMPTOMS
TREATMENT
PROBABLE CAUSES
Slippery 1. Polishing of aggregate 1. Resurfacing with surface
under traffic, or dressing or premix carpet
excessive binder.
 STREAKING POSSIBLE TYPE OF
SYMPTOMS
PROBABLE CAUSES TREATMENT

Presence of alternate lean 1. Non uniform application 1. Application of new

and heavy lines of bitumen of bitumen, or at low surface
temperature
 HUNGRY SURFACE
POSSIBLE TYPE OF
SYMPTOMS
TREATMENT
PROBABLE CAUSES
Loss of aggregate or 1. Use of less bitumen or 1. Slurry seal or fog seal
presence of fine crack absorptive aggregate
 Cracks

Hairline Alligator Longitudinal Shrinkage Reflection

Edge Cracks
cracks cracks cracks Crack crack

Flexible
Pavement
Distress

Surface Defects Cracks Deformation Disintegration

 SYMPTOMS PROBABLE CAUSES
Hairline Crack

Fine and short cracks at close intervals on 1. Insufficient bitumen, excessive filler or
the surface improper compaction
 SYMPTOMS PROBABLE CAUSES
Alligator Crack

Interconnected cracks forming series of 1. Weak pavement, unstable conditions of

small blocks subgrade or lower layers, excessive
overloads or brittleness of binder
 SYMPTOMS PROBABLE CAUSES
Longitudinal Crack

Cracks on a straight line along the road 1. Poor drainage, shoulder settlement,
weak joint between adjoining spreads of
pavement layers
 SYMPTOMS PROBABLE CAUSES
Edge Cracks

Cracks near and parallel to pavement edge 1. Lack of support from shoulder, poor
drainage, frost heave, or inadequate
pavement width
 SYMPTOMS PROBABLE CAUSES
Shrinkage Cracks

Cracks in transverse direction or 1. Shrinkage of bituminous layer with age

interconnected cracks forming a series of
large blocks
 SYMPTOMS PROBABLE CAUSES
Reflection Cracks

Sympathetic cracks over joints and cracks in Due to joints and cracks in the pavement
the pavement underneath layer underneath
Treatment:

•Treatment depends on whether the pavement is structurally

sound or unsound.
•Where the pavement is structurally sound, the cracks should
be filled with a low viscosity binder or a slurry seal or fog seal
depending on the width of the crack.
•Un sound cracked pavements will need strengthening or
rehabilitation treatment
 Deformation

Shallow Settlement &

Slippage Rutting Corrugation Shoving
depression Upheavel

Flexible
Pavement
Distress

Surface Defects Cracks Deformation Disintegration

 SLIPPAGE
POSSIBLE TYPE OF
SYMPTOMS
TREATMENT
PROBABLE CAUSES

1. Unusual thrust of wheels

Formation of crescent in a direction, lack or 1. Removal of the surface
shaped cracks pointing in failure of bond between layer in the affected area
the direction of the thrust of surface & lower pavement & replacement with fresh
the wheel courses material
 RUTTING
POSSIBLE TYPE OF
SYMPTOMS
TREATMENT
PROBABLE CAUSES

1. Heavy channelised
traffic, inadequate
Longitudinal depression in compaction of pavement 1. Filling the depressions
the wheel track layers, poor stability of with premix material
pavement material
 CORRUGATION
POSSIBLE TYPE OF
SYMPTOMS
TREATMENT
PROBABLE CAUSES

1. Lack of stability in the 1. Scarification & relaying

Formation of regular mix, faulty laying of of surfacing or cutting of
undulation surface course high spots and filling of
low spots
 SHOVING
POSSIBLE TYPE OF
SYMPTOMS
TREATMENT
PROBABLE CAUSES

1. Unstable mix, lack of

Localised bulging of bond between layers or 1. Removing the material to
pavement surface along with heavy start stop firm base and relaying a
crescent shaped cracks movement stable mix
 SHALLOW DEPRESSION
POSSIBLE TYPE OF
SYMPTOMS
TREATMENT
PROBABLE CAUSES

1. Presence of inadequate y
Localised shallow 1. Filling with premix
compacted pockets
depressions materials
 Disintegration

Loss of
Stripping Ravelling Pothole Edgebreaking
aggregate

Flexible
Pavement
Distress

Surface Defects Cracks Deformation Disintegration

 STRIPPING
POSSIBLE TYPE OF
SYMPTOMS
TREATMENT
PROBABLE CAUSES

1. Use of hydrophilic
aggregate, inadequate
1. Spreading and
mix composition,
Seperation of bitumen from compacting heated sand
continuous contact with
aggregates in the presence of over the affected areain
water, poor bond
moisture the case of surface
between aggregate &
dressing
bitumen
 RAVELLING
POSSIBLE TYPE OF
SYMPTOMS
TREATMENT
PROBABLE CAUSES

1. Poor compaction, poor

bond between aggregate
Failure of binder to hold the 1. Application of cutback
& bitumen, insufficient
aggregates covered with coarse sand
binder
 POTHOLE
POSSIBLE TYPE OF
SYMPTOMS
TREATMENT
PROBABLE CAUSES

1. Ingres of water into the

pavement, lack of bond
between the surfacing
Appearance of bowl shaped 1. Filling pothole with
and WBM base,
holes, usually after rain premix material
insufficient bitumen
content
 EDGE-BREAKING
SYMPTOMS
PROBABLE CAUSES
1. Water infilteration, poor 1. Cutting the affected area
lateral support from
Irregular breakage of shoulders, inadequate
pavement edge strength of pavement
edges
POSSIBLE TYPE OF
TREATMENT
to regular sections and
rebuilding with
simultaneous attention
paid to the proper
construction of shoulders
DEFECTS IN RIGID PAVEMENTS

 Failures in cement concrete pavements are recognized by the

formation of structural cracking

 The failures may be due to 2 reasons:

 Deficiency of pavement material

 Structural inadequacy of pavement system

DEFICIENCY OF PAVEMENT MATERIAL

• following are the chief causes which would give rise to the different defects or
failures of cement concrete pavement:

1. soft aggregate
2. Poor workmanship in joint construction
3. Poor joint filler and sealer material
4. Poor surface finish
5. Improper and insufficient curing

STRUCTURAL INADEQUACY OF PAVEMENT SYSTEM

• causes of this type of failures:
1. Inadequate pavement thickness
2. Inadequate subgrade support
3. Incorrect spacing of joints
TYPICAL RIGID PAVEMENT FAILURES

 Scaling of cement concrete

 Shrinkage cracks
 Spalling of joints
 Warping cracks
 Mud pumping
 Structural cracks
Scaling of cement concrete
 overall deterioration of concrete
Mainly due to the deficiency in mix or presence of chemical
impurities which damage the mix
Shrinkage of cement concrete

•During the curing operation of cement concrete pavements immediately after

the construction, the shrinkage cracks normally develops.
•The placement of cracks are in longitudinal as well as in transverse direction
 Blowup (Buckling)
PROBABLE CAUSES
SYMPTOMS

1. usually occurs in spring or summer and

A localized upward slab movement and
is the result of insufficient room for
shattering at a joint or crack
slab expansion during hot weather.
 Corner Break POSSIBLE TYPE OF
SYMPTOMS
PROBABLE CAUSES TREATMENT

1. Severe corner stresses

1. A crack that intersects
caused by load
the PCC slab joints near
repetitions combined
the corner.
with a loss of support,
2. A corner break extends 1. Full depth patch
poor load transfer across
through the entire slab
the joint, curling stresses
and is caused by high
and warping stresses..
corner stresses
 Durability Cracking POSSIBLE TYPE OF
SYMPTOMS
PROBABLE CAUSES TREATMENT

1. Series of closely spaced, 1. it is caused by freeze-

1. Full depth patch or
crescent-shaped cracks thaw expansion of the
partial depth patch can
near a joint, corner or large aggregate within
repair the affected area
crack the PCC slab
 Faulting POSSIBLE TYPE OF
SYMPTOMS
PROBABLE CAUSES TREATMENT

1. Faulting heights of less

than 3 mm (0.125 inch)
1. A difference in need not be repaired.
1. faulting is the result of
elevation across a joint Faulting in excess of 12.5
slab pumping
or crack mm (0.5 inches)
generally warrants total
reconstruction.
 Patching POSSIBLE TYPE OF
SYMPTOMS
PROBABLE CAUSES TREATMENT

1. Previous localized 1. Patches are themselves a

1. An area of pavement that
pavement deterioration repair action. The only
has been replaced with
that has been removed way they can be removed
new material to repair
and patched is through an overlay or
the existing pavement.
2. Utility cuts slab replacement.
 Popouts POSSIBLE TYPE OF
SYMPTOMS
PROBABLE CAUSES TREATMENT

1. Small pieces of PCC that

break loose from the
surface leaving small
1. Larger popouts or a group
divots or pock marks. 1. Popouts usually occur as
of popouts can generally
2. Popouts range from 25 - a result of poor
be repaired with
100 mm (1 - 4 inches) in aggregate durability.
a partial depth patch
diameter and from 25 -
50 mm (1 - 2 inches)
deep.
 Mud pumping POSSIBLE TYPE OF
SYMPTOMS
PROBABLE CAUSES TREATMENT

1. First, the pumping area

should be repaired with a
full depth patch to
Movement of material remove any deteriorated
underneath the slab or slab areas.
ejection of material from 2. Consideration should be
underneath the slab as a given to using dowel
result of water pressure. bars to increase load
[Water accumulated underneath Water accumulation transfer across any
a PCC slab will pressurize when underneath the slab. significant transverse
the slab deflects under This can be caused by such joints created by the
load. This pressurized water can things as: repair.
do one of the following: 1. a high water table, 3. Consideration should be
1. Move about under the slab. 2. poor drainage, given to stabilizing any
2. Move from underneath one 3. panel cracks slabs adjacent to the
slab to underneath an
4. poor joint seals pumping area as
adjacent slab.
This type of movement leads that allow water to infiltrate significant amounts of
to faulting the underlying material. their
This results in a slow removal of underlying base, subase
base, subbase and/or subgrade or subgrade may have
 Punchout POSSIBLE TYPE OF
SYMPTOMS
PROBABLE CAUSES TREATMENT

1. can indicate a localized

construction defect
such as inadequate
consolidation
1. Localised slab portion 2. can be caused by steel
broken into several corrosion, inadequate 1. Full depth patch
pieces amount of steel,
excessively wide
shrinkage cracks or
excessively close
shrinkage cracks
 Spalling POSSIBLE TYPE OF
SYMPTOMS
PROBABLE CAUSES TREATMENT

1. Spalling less than 75 mm

1. Excessive stresses at the
joint/crack
1. Cracking, breaking or
2. Disintegration of the
chipping of joint/crack
PCC from freeze-thaw
edges. Usually occurs
action
within about 0.6 m (2 ft.)
3. Misalignment or
of joint/crack
corroded dowel.
4. Heavy traffic loading.
(3 inches) from the crack
face can generally be
repaired with a partial
depth patch. Spalling
greater than about 75
mm (3 inches) from the
crack face may indicated
possible spalling at the
joint bottom and should
be repaired with a full
depth patch

Spalling
onset
PAVEMENT EVALUATION

 Pavement evaluation is the technique of assessing the condition of a

pavement, both structurally and from the point of view of surface

characteristics.

 It is also known as condition survey and rating of pavement

 Purposes of pavement evaluation are:

1. To research on the performance of pavement of different specifications

over a period of time

2. To assess maintenance needs such as patch repairs, renewals and

resealing.

3. To assess the need for structural overlays on distressed pavements.

 APPROACHES OF PAVEMENT EVALUATION
 Structural evaluation of pavement
Carried out by plate bearing test

 The structural capacity of the pavement may be assessed by the load carried
at a specific deflection of the plate
 Benkelman beam is the most commonly used as the measurement are simple
and easy

 Evaluation of pavement surface condition

Flexible pavements may be evaluated by the unevenness, ruts, patches and
cracks
Rigid pavements may be assessed by the cracks developed and by the faulty
joints affecting the riding quality
METHODS OF PAVEMENT EVALUATION

1. Visual rating

2. Present Serviceability Index

3. Roughness Measurements

4. Benkelman Beam Deflection Method

1. Visual Rating

 Inspecting the pavement surface for detecting and

assessing the amount of severity of various types of
damage.
Severe Rutting
VISUAL DISTRESS-RIGID PAVEMENTS
2. Present serviceability index

 PSI is a rating system involving the measurement of

permanent deformation, riding quality and the extent of
cracking and patching

 The rating is known by the term Present Serviceability

Index
3. Roughness Measurement
 The riding quality of pavement is determined by

 its structural adequacy

the traffic load repetitions it has been subjected to

the specification adopted for surfacing initially

 the maintenance input

 A measure of pavement can be obtained by monitoring its

roughness.
An equipment capable of integrating the unevenness of pavement
surface to a accumulative scale and that gives the Unevenness
Index of the surface in cm/km of road may be called , Bump
Integrator
Unevenness index, cm/km Riding Quality

In old pavements

Below 95 Excellent

95 to 119 Good

120 to 144 Fair

145 to 240 Poor(possible resurfacing)

Above 240 Very poor (resurfacing required)

In new pavements

Below 120 Good(acceptable)

120 to 145 Fair(acceptable)

Above 145 Poor(not acceptable)

4. Non Destructive Pavement Deflection Testing

 Pavements which have been subjected to traffic , deform elastically

under load

 The elastic deflection depends on various factors such as:

 subgrade soil type

Moisture content & compaction level of subgrade

Pavement thickness, composition, quality & condition

Drainage condition

Pavement surface condition

Wheel load
 Benkelman Beam
 The benkelman beam measures the deflections under standard wheel load
conditions.

 Two kinds of deflection measurements are possible:

1. Rebound deflection, which is the elastic deflection. In a well-designed

road, the deflection is entirely and recoverable.

2. Residual deflection, which is the non-recoverable deflection. As it

loses a portion of its elastic properties and a permanent deflection takes
place.
 STRENGTHENING OF EXISTING PAVEMENT
 Strengthening can be done by providing additional
thickness on the pavement in one or more layers, which is
called overlay.

 If completely deteriorated- rebuild

 In partially damaged pavement section- patch repair works

to be done before overlay
 TYPES OF OVERLAY
1. Flexible overlay over flexible pavements

2. Cement concrete or rigid overlay over flexible pavements

3. Flexible overlay over cement concrete pavements

4. Cement concrete overlay over rigid pavements

 The choice of overlay depends on

1. total overlay thickness required

2. local materials

3. wheel loads
 OVERLAY DESIGN BY BENKELMAN BEAM
DEFLECTION STUDIES
 A well compacted pavement section or one which has been well
conditioned by traffic deforms elastically under each load
application

 When the load moves away, there is an elastic recovery or rebound

deflection of the pavement surface.

 The amount of rebound deflection is a measure of structural

stability of the pavement system.

 Larger the rebound deflection – weaker the pavement structure

which may require earlier strengthening or higher overlay thickness.
 Benkelman Beam
 The benkelman beam measures the deflections under standard wheel load
conditions.

 Two kinds of deflection measurements are possible:

1. Rebound deflection, which is the elastic deflection. In a well-designed

road, the deflection is entirely and recoverable.

2. Residual deflection, which is the non-recoverable deflection. As it

loses a portion of its elastic properties and a permanent deflection takes
place.
 Benkelman consists of a lever 3.66m long pivoted 2.44m from the end
carrying the contact point which rests on the surface pavement.
 The deflection of the pavement surface produced by the test load is
transmitted to the other end of the beam where it is measured by a dial
gauge.
 The movement of the dial gauge end of the beam is one-half of that at the
contact point end.
 The load on the dual wheel can be in the range 2.7 to 4.1tonnes.
 The procedure of measuring the rebound deflection is as follows:

1. Select 10 points along the outer wheel path (i.e., 60cm from the pavement
edge)

2. Bring the rear dual wheel assembly of the truck over the marked point &
insert the probe of the beam between the dual wheels so that the probe is
placed exactly over the point where the deflection is to be measured.

3. A standard wheel load of 4085kg is used for the test, the tyre pressure being
5.6kg/cm2

4. The dial gauge reading is noted initially(D0) in the position described in step
2

5. The truck is driven forward at a slow speed an dial gauge readings D1 & D2
are taken when the truck stops at 2.7m and 9m from the measuring point,
and when the rate or recovery is equal to .025mm per minute or less

6. Pavement temperature is recorded

7. If D1-D2≤0.025mm, the actual rebound deflection is 2(D0-D2)

8. If D1-D2>0.025mm, correction needed for the vertical movement of

the front legs;

the true deflection is obtained by the formula:

D=(D0-D2)+K(D1-D2)

K is constant for a particular make of Benkelman beam

K-2.91 for Benkelman Beams found in India

i.e., D=(D0-D2)+.0582(D1-D2)mm
HIGHWAY FINANCE
 Basic principle in highway financing is that the funds spent on highways are

recovered from the road users.

 The recovery may be both direct and indirect

 two general methods of highway financing are:

1. Pay –as-you-go method

the payment for highway improvement, maintenance and

operation is made from the central revenue

2.Credit financing method

The payment for highway improvement is made from

borrowed money and this amount and the interests are re-

paid from the future income.

Thank You

Lect. Chinnu Anna Jacob

School of Architecture
HITS