Vibration Generations Mechanisms: Source Classification

Introduction

In classical acoustics/vibrations, which were largely developed during the 19-th

century, the essential aspects of sound and vibration in a fluid can only be radiated by
vibrating solid bodies. Driving the vibration of such bodies are dynamic forces of
various kinds, e.g., inertial forces in connection with shocks and electromagnetic
forces, as is the case with common loudspeakers. Thus, we will give due attention to
sound and vibration emission from vibrating structures, particularly large plates. The
most important contribution to the sound and vibration radiation from a plate is from
bending waves. That type of wave primarily involves motions perpendicular to the
plane of the plate, and can therefore excite sound and vibration waves in a
surrounding fluid. It is, however, apparent to all who have listened to water boiling in
a kettle, or the sound and vibration of airplane starting up, that there must be other
mechanisms of sound and vibration radiation than vibrating solid bodies. Vibration
can be defined as simply the cyclic or oscillating motion of a machine or machine
component from its position of rest. Forces generated within the machine cause
vibration. These forces may:
1. Change in direction with time, such as the force generated by a rotating unbalance.
2. Change in amplitude or intensity with time, such as the unbalanced magnetic
forces generated in an induction motor due to unequal air gap between the motor
armature and stator (field).
3. Result in friction between rotating and stationary machine components in much
the same way that friction from a rosined bow causes a violin string to vibrate.
4. Cause impacts, such as gear tooth contacts or the impacts generated by the
rolling elements of a bearing passing over flaws in the bearing raceways.
5. Cause randomly generated forces such as flow turbulence in fluid-handling
devices such as fans, blowers and pumps; or combustion turbulence in gas turbines or
boilers.

Rotating machinery deteriorates over time and develops faults. They are to be
corrected to provide long life and uninterrupted service to the extent possible. Once
any of these faults are developed, they provide symptoms, most significant of them
being vibration signatures. Some of the most common machinery problems that cause
vibration include:
 Rotor unbalance
• Reciprocating unbalance
• Permanent bow (Bent shaft or warped shaft)
• Rolling element bearing damage
• Oil film excited vibrations
• Casing or Foundation distortion
• Steam whirl
• Seal rub and Rotor axial rub
• Insufficient tightness in assembly of: Rotor (shrink-fits), Bearing liner, case, Casing
and support
• Misalignment
• Instabilities due to kinematic constraints
• Cracks
• Gear inaccuracy or damage
• Piping forces
• Journal and bearing eccentricity
• Bearing and support excited vibration
• Unequal x and y bearing stiffness
• Variable inertia from reciprocating parts
• Electrical unbalance
• Aerodynamic excitation
• Thrust bearing damage
• Coupling inaccuracy
• Structural resonance
• Critical speeds
• Pressure pulsations
• Oil seal induced vibration
• Torsional resonances

An unbalance in a rotor denotes that the center of gravity and the geometric center of
a disk are not at the same location. These two points can never be same even for a
perfectly made disk, since no material is homogenous. Most of the disks are made to
carry attachments like blades; all the blades mounted cannot be exactly identical.
Generator rotors are made with several windings and they cannot be manufactured to
be perfectly symmetrical in all respects.
4.1 Typical Causes of Rotor Unbalance (JS Rao, 1998)

Cause of Unbalance Observed Signs Frequency of

Disk or Component eccentric
on shafts
Dimensional inaccuracies
Eccentric machining or
forming inaccuracies
Oblique angled component
Bent shaft, distorted assembly,
stress relaxation with time
Section of blade or vane
broken off
Eccentric accumulation of
process dirt on blade
Differential thermal expansion
Trapped fluid inside rotor
Possible
condensing/vaporizing
with process cycle
Vibration
Detectable runout on slow rotation - one per rev
runs to bottom on knife edges
Measurable lack of symmetry one per rev 
Detectable runout one per rev 
Detectable angular runout - Measure one per rev 
with a dial gauge on knife edges
Detectable runout on slow rotation, one per rev 
often heavy vibration during rotation
Observable one per rev, Possible
Bearing vibration during operation process pulsations
Bearing vibration one per rev 
Shaft bends throws c.g. out one per rev 
Source of heavy vibration
Vibration reappears after balancing, one per rev
Apparent c.g. angular movement Possible
Occurs magnitude and
phase changes

A residual unbalance in a rotor and that a good design can keep it to a minimum
value, the operation of a machine, however gets this unbalance condition deteriorates
over a period. There could be erosion due to particle impact in a high speed flow,
corrosion in a wet steam environment on the mounted parts like blades or any of
several reasons that could be responsible to make the center of gravity change its
position during the running time of a machine. The centrifugal force is simply me2
directed radially outward and passing through the c.g. from the center of rotation.
Well balanced rootors are som
metimes subjected to defformations w
while runningg or under
statioonary conditiions. Typicaally they arisse from therm
mal stresses when the ro
otor is not
propeerly stabilizeed. Such a rotor
r is callled Bowed Rotor
R or a rrotor with Permanent
P
Bow.. A bowed rotor
r can be considered as the Jeffcoott model inn Fig. 4.1 wiith a static
deflecction from thhe bearing center
c line with a magnittude r0 at a phase angle a0,

Fig. 4.1 Unbalance

U W
Whirl Geomeetry with Bow
If thee rotor whirll amplitude decreases beefore the criitical speed, it indicates that there
is rottor bow preesent in phaase opposition with thee unbalance. At high speeds the
unballance predom
minates andd the bow beeing in oppoosition to thhe unbalancee plays no
role, the amplitud
de reaches a value of uniity as in the case of puree unbalance response.
r
Unbaalance phen
nomena:

 Most
M common cause and the easiest to
t diagnose.
 Condition
C whhere center of
o mass is noot coincident with center of rotation
 Typical
T causses: casting porosity, nonuniform
n density, losss of materiial during
opperation, manufacturing
m g tolerancess, machiningg, couplingss, bearings, anything
thhat affects th
he rotational mass distribbution
 Shows up as a vibration frequency
f exxactly equal to the rotatioonal speed (amplitude
prroportional to the amoount of unbbalance). Must do frrequency annalysis to
 diiagnose.
 Speed dependdent due to centrifugal
c f
force; vibrattion increasees as the squ
uare of the
sppeed
 Low
L axial reaadings, In phhase
 Unbalanced
U and
a balancedd motor specctrum

(a)

(b)
Fig. 44.2 Vibratio
on Signature (a) Balance rotor (b) Unnbalance rotoor (Wonk, Machinery
M Vibration)
Misalignment Phenomena:
 Coupling misalignment- shafts of the driver and the driven machine are not on the
same centerline (parallel or angular)
 Vertical or Horizontal- can be frustrating
 Why misalignment? Equipment from different suppliers are mated together.
Example: motors and pumps (centrifugal pump)
 Flexible couplings are used to take up misalignment (but could strain the
couplings, bearings and seals)
 Shows up as a series of harmonics of the running speed- as shafts are cyclically
strained towards each other (audible growl of misalignment)
 Misalignment is temperature dependent (vibration changes on warm up)
 High axial readings
 ~180 degrees out of phase (machine casing rocks out of phase with the machine)
 Less sensitive to speed changes. Forces due to misalignment remain constant with
speed
 Align first; and if a high 1X rpm vibration remains, then balance.

Resonance:
 Driving force applied to a structure is close to its natural frequency and
amplification occurs.
 Driving force can be residual imbalance in a rotating machine or broadband
turbulence due to fluid motion.
 Beams, plates have resonant frequencies, not just one (for single dof)
 Resonance is highly speed sensitive, damping decreases the maximum amplitude
and broadens the response curve
 Rotors have resonances (critical speeds)- remember rotors runs smoother above
the critical speed than below it; example: squeaking in an automobile at highway
speeds goes away with a change in speed
 An impulse will excite the system to natural frequencies
 Directional vibrations suggest resonance
 Key indicators: an audible pure tone, a clean sine wave in the time domain and a
single tall peak in the frequency domain
Identifying Resonance
 Stop the machine, do the bump test, measure natural frequencies. If these
frequencies appear in the spectrum when the machine is running, then you have
confirmed resonance.
 The second way is to watch the spectrum as the machine changes speed (coast-
down). The resonances don’t change frequency as the machine speed changes.

Breakdown of all Vibration Problems are mainly due to

 40% Unbalance
 30% Misalignment
 20% Resonance
 10% Others

Characteristics of vibration

Vibration is simply defined as "the cyclic or oscillating motion of a machine or

machine component from its position of rest or its 'neutral' position."
Whenever vibration occurs, there are actually four (4) forces involved that determine
the characteristics of the vibration. These forces are:

l. The exciting force, such as unbalance or misalignment.

2. The mass of the vibrating system, denoted by the symbol (M).
3. The stiffness of the vibrating system, denoted by the symbol (K).
4. The damping characteristics of the vibrating system, denoted by the symbol (C).

The exciting force is trying to cause vibration, whereas the stiffness, mass and
damping forces are trying to oppose the exciting force and control or minimize the
vibration. Perhaps the simplest and easiest way to demonstrate and explain vibration
and its measurable characteristics is to follow the motion of a weight suspended by a
spring. This is a valid analogy since all machines and their components have weight
(mass), spring-like properties (stiffness) and damping. In the real world of vibration
detection and analysis, it is not necessary to determine the frequency of vibration by
observing the vibration time waveform, noting the period of the vibration and then
taking and calculating the inverse of the period to find the frequency - although this
can be done. Nearly all modern- day data collector instruments and vibration
analyyzers providee a direct reaadout of the vibration frrequencies bbeing generatted by the
machhine.
Vibraation detectiion and anallysis play im
mportant rolees in the devvelopment annd testing
of neew or prototyype machinees. Vibration measurem
ments providee overall perrformance
data. Analysis techniques reveal trouubles that might
m be thee result of improper
installlation and adjustment
a ass well as impproper desiggn.
Fieldd Service: In
n spite of thhe many engiineering testts and qualitty control innspections,
vibraation problem
ms do occurr once a macchine is deliivered, instaalled and broought into
servicce.

Suchh problems may

m includee:
• Damagee to the machhine during transportatioon or installaation
• Impropeer alignmentt of couplinggs or pulleyss
• Weak or
o inadequatee base or fouundation
• Resonannce of the machine
m or a machine com
mponent
• Distortiion due to "ssoft foot" or piping strainn
• Machin
ne operating outside designed perform
mance param
meters
• Impropeer design off related com
mponents such as piping, duct work, etc.
e

Duee to the multiitude of probblems that caan result in vibratory

v forrces, a compplete
vibrration analyssis of the com
mplete installlation is often the only w
way to clearrly
defiine the sourcce of a probleem and the corrective
c acction requireed for its soluution.

Fig. 4.3 Viibration Signaature

4.2 Common Machinery Faults

Cause Frequency Amplitude

Less than 1x rpm
Difference frequency Comes and goes, caused by two machines running at
almost the same speed
Oil whirl Approx. 45% of 1x rpm Applicable to high speed machines
with plain bearings
Looseness 1⁄2, 11⁄2, 21⁄2, etc Decreases with load
Belts π(rpm)(pitch dia.) Note: Strobe light helps to see the
defect
Resonance Discrete peaks A serious condition with very high
amplitudes
At 1x rpm
Unbalance 1x rpm Mostly radial; a common fault
Misalignment 1x rpm + harmonics High 2x and 3x; high axial; a
common fault
Eccentricity 1x rpm Looks like unbalance; cannot be
corrected with weights
Looks like unbalance; can be corrected with massive balance weights near the center
Soft foot 1x rpm Dramatically decreases by
loosening one hold down bolt
Reciprocating 1x rpm + harmonics More than 0.005 inches indicates
misfiring

Medium frequencies
Misalignment 2x, 3x, + harmonics High axial; changes with
temperature; a common fault
Motor (electrical) 120 Hz + harmonics Stops immediately uopn
disconnecting power. Also causes
120 Hz sidebands at higher frequencies. Not usually destructive; an indication of the quality of
construction. Present on all motors and transformers to some degree.
Looseness 1⁄2, 11⁄2, 21⁄2, etc. Decreases with load
Bearings FTF = 0.4 x rpm High frequency shock pulses in
time domain OR = 0.4xRPMxN
IR = 0.6xRPMxN
N= no. of balls
Blades rpm x (no of blades) Benign

High frequencies
Gears rpm x (no of teeth) Sidebands at gear mesh frequency;
2x gear mesh usually larger
Cavitation 3-5 kHz broadband Usually benign; pressurizing inlet
helps
Bearing Broadband High frequency shock pulses

Root Cause Analysis

Machine vibration has several categories of causes that are discovered sometimes
after repair, but it is useful now to review them to gain more confidence in the
diagnosis. The major categories are –
• design defects
• manufacturing defects
• operational stresses
• maintenance actions
• aging
Design defects are mostly structural related with active resonances built-in because
of improper sizing and proportioning of the parts. Statically, the structure os O.K., but
is dynamically weak. This is not discovered until the machine is energized and
brought up to speed. This is more common than it should be, but designers are not
well equipped to predict or test for natural frequencies. In addition, the owners’
foundation or base has a significant effect on natural frequencies, which the designer
has little control over. Hence, resonances are best detected during startup testing and
corrected on-site with strategic stiffeners added.
Manufacturing defects are built-in during the casting, machining, heat-treating,
and assembly processes. They are latent defects that may show up in the first 24-
hours of running, or they may not be obvious during the run-in period, rather
appearing years later. The machine does not survive to a normal life expectancy.
Vibration may or may not be present. An example is residual stresses in a shaft that
gradually distorts the shaft over a period of years. Manufacturing defects are
difficult to control, impossible to predict, and elusive to fix. The best strategy to
deal with both design defects and manufacturing defects is to insist on startup
vibration testing with limits of acceptability in accordance with Table 1.
Excessive operational stresses can develop due to material buildup or erosion that
changes the balance condition, or thermal expansion that changes component
alignment. Both of these cause high dynamic loads at the bearings which lead to
accelerated wear out. These defects are easily detected with periodic vibration
measurements and there are well established methods to correct them on site.
Maintenance actions, or inactions, are the most common cause of machine failure.
It is well known in the repair business that a machine never goes back together the
same way. Some of this is due to rough handling, but some is simply the fact that field
repair is less controlled than the original factory build. The field environment is
darker, dirtier, and less precise tooling is available to control fits and alignments. The
repair is usually rushed by management. It is surprisingly difficult to install a bearing
into an aluminum housing in the field and not get it crooked. The first question to ask
in vibration analysis is “What recent maintenance activity has occurred on this
machine?” Other maintenance activities that affect vibration are –
• excessive localized heating, like welding on a shaft
• too high belt tension
• shaft, or bearing, misalignment
• substandard replacement parts
• coupling, or other component, binding
• lack of lubrication
• loose hardware
• replacing hardware with different weights that affect balance
• re-assembling hardware in different orientations (also affects balance)
• hammering on a bearing
• unclean, or burred, precision machine surfaces
Aging effects can only be detected with long term vibration monitoring. The two
dominant aging effects are residual stress relaxation and softening of structural joints.
The residual stresses left behind in machine components will always relieve
themselves over time. This process is accelerated at higher temperature. Shafts, being
long and slender components, are particularly vulnerable to bowing. The symptoms
are an increase in 1xRPM balance condition and beating up of the bearings. Bearing
replacements do not restore the original smooth running condition, and mass
balancing is unsuccessful, until the shaft is replaced.
All joints soften over time, and joints are the weak links in any structure. The
subtle symptom of this is lowering of the natural frequencies. This is usually first
detected with high vibration when the lowest natural frequency drops down into the
operating speed range of the machine. In the professional field of machine vibration
analysis, we are all guilty, at one time or another, of making the false assumptions
initially that machines are well designed, well manufactured, well operated, well
maintained, and that nothing changes with time.

“Fundamentals of Sound and Vibrations” by KTH Sweden [1], this book is used
under IITR-KTH MOU for course development.
Source:
http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112107088/13