2015 Bamboos in India PDF

BAMBOOS
IN INDIA
BAMBOOS
IN INDIA
Editors
Shailendra Kaushik
Yash Pal Singh
Dinesh Kumar
Manisha Thapliyal
Santan Barthwal
ENVIS Centre on Forestry

National Forest Library and Information Centre
Forest Research Institute
(Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education)
P.O. New Forest, Dehradun - 248 006
© 2015, ENVIS Centre on Forestry
All rights reserved. This book or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without
written permission of the publisher.
ISBN :
Editorial assistance
Vandana Uniyal
Ritu Negi
Ruchi Gupta
Cover design
Santan Barthwal
Disclaimer
All efforts have been made to make the information as accurate as possible. The views expressed by the
authors belong to them and do not necessarily reflect the views of the ENVIS Centre on Forestry or the
Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Govt. of India. The ENVIS Centre on Forestry is
no way responsible for any liability arising out of the contents of the chapters. Any discrepancy found may
be brought to the notice of the ENVIS Centre on Forestry.
Foreword
Bamboo is a valuable forest genetic resource which has been an integral component in
agroforestry landscape over the greater part of India since ages. Bamboo, an easily
grown, adaptable and fast-growing crop, is becoming popular as an eco-friendly
substitute for timber. In view of its increasing commercial utility, it is more appropriate
to refer bamboo as 'Green Gold' rather than 'Poor Man's Timber'. In the present
scenario, bamboo plays a significant role in well being of human society due to its
immense contributions towards generation of livelihood for millions of people.
This green resource is also being used as an industrial raw material for pulp and
paper, construction and engineering materials, panel products, fabric, food, source of
active minerals such as vitamins, amino acids, flavine, phenolic acid, polysaccharide,
trace elements, etc. which qualifies it to be an asset that fulfils the basic needs of human
survival, i.e., roti, kapda aur makaan (food, clothing and shelter). Many nutraceuticals
can be extracted from bamboo culm, shoot and leaf. All these have anti-oxidation, anti-
aging, anti-bacterial and anti-viral functions. At present, quite a few diverse bamboo
products have found their way into markets and many more innovative products are yet
to be developed.
This book 'Bamboos in India' is being published at an appropriate time when
bamboo is making successful inroads from traditional rural market into commercial
market. The book is an endeavour to compile and highlight the research leads which
have a potential in popularizing/upgrading bamboo to a future commercial bioresource
with enhanced acceptability. Greater commercialisation of this resource would
tremendously help in socio-economic upliftment of the rural communities. All the
contributors have put in special efforts in bringing out the contemporary research
findings on diverse aspects of bamboo. They have successfully attempted to bridge the
knowledge gaps keeping focus on future demands of bamboos in industry as well as in
day-to-day life. The credit for selection of articles and putting them in a rationale order
goes to editors. It is their second book after 'Eucalypts in India'. The focus on
agroforestry crops like eucalypts and bamboos will go a long way in giving momentum
to agriculture diversification since agroforestry has been marked as one of the potential
alternatives.
I sincerely hope that this publication serves its purpose of disseminating the
knowledge on bamboos among scholars, researchers, managers, policy makers and all
others having interest in this amazing plant.
(Dr. Savita)
Director, FRI
Preface
The contradiction between two sayings on bamboos, i.e., 'poor man's timber' and 'Green
Gold' is apparent. By conventional outlook, a thing popular among poor cannot be
precious also. In fact, these sayings have been coined to address the utility as well as
value of this giant grass. For quite long, bamboos were assigned to be weed. However,
the challenge for human survival has always been central to exploration and utilization.
Probably, the economic limits of the poor people led to invention of multifarious uses of
bamboos. That is how a weed changed to gold- the liability to asset. With the fast
changing face of science and the crisis in the domain of environment, many new
dimensions are adding to this species, for example, bamboo sequester 35 percent more
carbon than any other tree species making it a viable preference to combat climate
change. Besides, phytolith is another dimension to their carbon dioxide tapping ability.
Bamboos' wide distribution covering almost 13 percent of India's forests and wider
adaptability make them a viable choice for wastelands afforestation under 'Green India
Mission'. They can also be a useful species for large scale plantations in catchments of
various rivers, including Ganga and their tributaries to check siltation as they habour
microorganism that secrete protein useful in soil aggregation leading to reduced soil
erosion and siltation. It may be a valuable technology intervention for 'Clean Ganga
Mission'. The list of bamboo potentials is unending.
Documentation has become compulsion in this era of patent regime. It is also
important to make people aware of the changing face of knowledge with regards to
different facets of life, including plant species that too of useful ones like bamboo. That
is how this book on bamboos was initially perceived. We thought of presenting a
knowledge continuum on bamboos to the readers along with recent changes. The past
has been blended with the potential future. For example, classical taxonomy has been
enriched with the modern tool of molecular approach; bamboo has been brought out of
the isolated existence as pure plantation and becomes an integral part of agroforestry,
the interface with agriculture. It becomes more useful to common growers on the face
of growing crisis in agrarian sector. The interface between these two production
systems will not only create better income option in rural India but also open portals for
more judicious land use- an impetus to agriculture diversification. Data on bamboo
plantations provides a realistic knowledge base to our past estimates and become a vital
tool to planning process, both in agriculture as well as forestry sector.
Banik's chapter for its vastness, depth and coverage provides the interesting and
rich landscape for this book. Many chapters on protection and production get stud on
that. While addressing the issue of bamboo diversity, conservation and improvement,
molecular diversity of bamboos seem to have been better studied. New molecular
viii Preface
markers also have helped immensely in understanding their evolution. The

biotechnology may further be used for bamboos to get high quality plants in short
period while overcoming the problems of hybridization. Also, for developing
bamboos with added-values and improved nutritional and health characteristics. The
limitation of monocarpic nature (flowering once in life time) of the bamboo species
get a relief in the technological option of tissue culture and macro-propagation – the
book unfolds general and specific details of these aspects to get a taste of the range. It
also embraces the use and aesthetic together in the chapter on bamboo fibres. Further,
bamboo products have established a mark in the apparel industry as a consequence of
their unique properties, another little known aspect of this grass. Concept on
environment protection has necessitated tree felling in the tropical forests and, thus,
use of wood has been curtailed manifold. Several wood alternatives from non-wood
materials, such as plastic, metals, etc. have been projected but with limitations.
Bamboos have entered as viable alternative as almost all products which can be made
from wood can also be made from bamboos.
The incompleteness and imperfection are the driving force for struggle and
change. We accept it with grace and look forward for you critical views, so that, the
future journey may be better.
Editors
Contents
FOREWORD i
PREFACE iii
CONTRIBUTORS viii
1. Bamboo Systematics with Special Reference to Molecular Taxonomy

of Dendrocalamus 1
Swapnendu Pattanaik
2. Assessment of Bamboo Resources of India 15

H.K. Tripathi, P. Somasundaram, Rajesh Kumar and Prakash Lakchaura
3. Growth, Behaviour and Silviculture of Bamboos 27

Ratan Lal Banik
4. Bamboo: Flowering, Seed Germination and Storage 89

Manisha Thapliyal, Geeta Joshi and Falguni Behera
5. Anatomy of Indian Bamboos 109

P.K. Pande
6. Genetic Diversity in Bamboos: Conservation and Improvement for

Productivity 131
Ajay Thakur, Santan Barthwal and H.S. Ginwal
7. Biotechnology of Bamboos 147

Pooja Thapa, Devinder Kaur, Priyanka Sood, Rupali Mehta, Jasmine Brar,
Harleen Naddha, R.K. Ogra, Om Prakash, Amita Bhattacharya and Anil Sood
x Contents
l Tissue Culture Protocol for Dendrocalamus membranaceus 164

I.D. Arya, Sushma Sharma, Sudhir Sharma, Sudhir Chouhan and
Sarita Arya
8. Macro-Propagation Methods for Vegetative Multiplication of Sympodial

Bamboos 187
K.K. Seethalakshmi
9. Diseases of Bamboos and Their Management 195

C. Mohanan
10. Viral Diseases of Bamboos 213

P. Awasthi, A. Sood and V. Hallan
11. Insect Pests of Bamboos in India 227

R.V. Varma and T.V. Sajeev
12. Bamboos for Social Forestry 247

P. Shanmughavel
13. Bamboo Based Agroforestry Systems 261

S. Tewari, Ratan Lal Banik, R. Kaushal, D.R. Bhardwaj, O.P. Chaturvedi and
Anand Gupta
14. Bamboo Fibres in Textile Applications 285

Abhijit Majumdar and Sanchi Arora
15. Bamboo Based Composites: Material for Future 304

C.N. Pandey
16. Bamboos: Importance for Mitigation and Adaptation to Climate Change 326
Mohit Gera and Neelu Gera
Contributors
A.K. Gupta ICAR- Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation

218 Kaulagarh Road
Dehradun – 248 195
anand.env@gmail.com
Abhijit Majumdar Department of Textile Technology

Indian Institute of Technology
New Delhi – 110 016
majumdar@textile.iitd.ac.in
Ajay Thakur Tissue Culture Discipline

Genetics and Tree Propagation Division
Forest Research Institute, Dehradun – 248 006
thakura@icfre.org
Amita Bhattacharya Division of Biotechnology

CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology
Palampur – 176 061
amitabhatta@ihbt.res.in
Anil Sood Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Institute of Himalayan

Bioresource Technology, Palampur – 176 061
asood@ihbt.res.in
C. Mohanan Forest Health Division

Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi – 680 653
mohanemeritus@gmail.com
xii Contributors
C.N. Pandey Indian Plywood Industries Research and Training Institute

P.B. No. 2273, Yeshwanthpur P.O., Tumkur Road
Bangaluru – 560 022
cnpandey@ipirti.gov.in
D.R. Bhardwaj Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry

Dr. YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry
Nauni – 173 230
bhardwajdr_uhf@rediffmail.com
Devinder Kaur Division of Biotechnology

dev_aqua@yahoo.co.in
Falguni Behera Forest Tree Seed Laboratory, Silviculture Division

falgunifo@gmail.com
Geeta Joshi Tree Improvement Division

Institute of Wood Science and Technology
18th Cross, P.O. Malleswaram, Bangaluru – 560 003
geeta@icfre.org
H.K. Tripathi Forest Survey of India

Kaulagarh Road, PO-IPE, Dehradun – 248 006
tripathi_hk@rediffmail.com
H.S. Ginwal Genetics and Tree Propagation Division

ginwalhs@icfre.org
Harleen Naddha Division of Biotechnology

harleen_sweet4u@yahoo.co.in
I.D. Arya Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding Division

Arid Forest Research Institute, Jodhpur – 342 005
aryaid@icfre.org
Contributors xiii
Jasmine Brar Division of Biotechnology

jasminethapar83@gmail.com
K.K. Seethalakshmi Vanchur Kalam

Karimba Post, Palakkad, Peechi – 680 653
seetha@kfri.res.in
Manisha Thapliyal Forest Tree Seed Laboratory

Silviculture Division, Forest Research Institute
Dehradun – 248 006
thapliyalm@icfre.org
Mohit Gera Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy

P.O. New Forest, Dehradun – 248 195
mohitgera@ignfa.gov.in
Neelu Gera FRI (Deemed) University

PO-IPE, Dehradun – 248 195
neelugera@icfre.org
O.P. Chaturvedi ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation

218, Kaulagarh Road, Dehradun – 248 195
chaturvediopc@gmail.com
Om Prakash Division of Biotechnology

CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource
Technology, Palampur – 176 061
omprakash@ihbt.res.in
P. Awasthi Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR)

prachi.awasthi@gmail.com
P. Shanmughavel Department of Bioinformatics

Bharathiar University
Coimbatore – 641 046
shanvel_99@yahoo.com
P. Somasundaram Forest Survey of India, South Zone
8th Floor, B Wing, Kendriya Sadan,
Koramangala, Bangaluru – 560 034
sundaram21@ rediffmail.com
P.K. Pande Wood Anatomy Discipline, Botany Division

pandep@icfre.org
Pooja Thapa Division of Biotechnology

yanima06@gmail.com
Prakash Lakchaura Forest Survey of India

prakash_293@ rediffmail.com
Priyanka Sood Division of Biotechnology

priyankaihbt@gmail.com
R. Kaushal Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute

218, Kaulagarh Road, Dehradun – 248 195
kaushalrajesh1@rediffmail.com
R.K. Ogra Division of Biotechnology

rkogra@ihbt.res.in
R.V. Varma Forest Protection Division

Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi – 680 653
rvvarma@kfri.org
Rajesh Kumar Forest Survey of India

rajsus1@ rediffmail.com
Ratan Lal Banik 66, Peyara Bagan, Udayraj Pur, Madhyamgram
24 - Parganas (North), Kolkatta – 700 129
bamboorlbanik@hotmail.com
Rupali Mehta Division of Biotechnology

rupalimehta@gmail.com
S. Tewari Department of Agroforestry, College of Agriculture

G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology
Pantnagar – 263 145
saliltewari@gmail.com
Sanchi Arora Department of Textile Technology

Indian Institute of Technology
Santan Barthwal Genetics and Tree Propagation Division

santan@icfre.org
Sarita Arya Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding Division

Arid Forest Research Institute, Jodhpur – 342 005
aryas@icfre.org
Sudhir Chouhan Sheel Biotech Limited

Sudhir Sharma West Coast Paper Mill

Uttar Kannada, Karnataka – 999 999
Sushma Sharma West Coast Paper Mill

Uttar Kannada, Karnataka – 999 999
Swapnendu Pattanaik Institute of Forest Biodiversity

P.O. Hakimpet, PBN: 2129
Dulapally, Hyderabad – 500 014
pattanaiks@icfre.org
T.V. Sajeev Forest Health Division
Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi– 680 653
tvsajeev@gmail.com
V. Hallan Plant Virology Lab

hallan@ihbt.res.in
Bamboo Systematics with
1 Special Reference to
Molecular Taxonomy of
Dendrocalamus
Swapnendu Pattanaik
1. Bamboo Systematics – A Historical Perspective

Bamboos have always been a taxonomically challenging group of plants because
while the classification of flowering plants depends largely on the characteristics of
reproductive organs, flowering is rare in many bamboo species. Some bamboo
species flower at intervals as long as 120 years and for some there is no report of
flowering to date. The first classification of bamboos was attempted by Carl
Sigismund Kunth (Kunth, 1815) who made the bamboos (Graminae Bambusaceae)
one of 10 groups in his natural system of classification of grasses, thus,
conceptualizing what is today subfamily Bambusoideae. Further progress in the
classification of the Bambusoideae was provided by Christian Gottfried Daniel
Nees von Esenbeck (Nees von Esenbeck, 1835) in his treatment of Brazilian
bamboos, when he recognized two woody (Bambuseae and Arundinariae) and one
herbaceous (Streptochaeteae) group. This was soon followed by the first worldwide
treatment of bamboos 'Bambuseas Monographic' by Frank Joseph Ruprecht
(Ruprecht, 1839), describing 9 genera and 67 species. Thirty years later Munro
(1868) more than doubled this coverage, describing over 170 species in 20 genera,
in what remains one of the most useful references on bamboos (Soderstrom, 1985).
Munro's system was based on the foundation that Nees had laid down earlier but
expanded to include many more taxa. Later Bentham (1883) modified Munro's
scheme and in the account of Gramineae prepared for 'Genera Plantarum' included
four sub-tribes under Bambusoideae: Sub-tribe 1- Arundinarieae (Arundinaria,
Phyllostachys, Chusquea); Sub-tribe 2- Eubambuseae (Nastus, Guadua, Bambusa,
Thyrsostachys, Gigantochloa, Oxytenanthera); Sub-tribe 3- Dendrocalameae
( D e n d ro c a l a m u s , M e l o c a l a m u s , P s e u d o s t a c h y u m , Te i n o s t a c h y u m ,
Cephalostachyum); Sub-tribe 4- Melocanninae (Dinochloa, Schizostachyum,
Melocanna, Ochlandra). The end of the 19th century saw appearance of another
2 Swapnendu Pattanaik
significant monograph 'Bambuseae: The bamboos of British India' by James Sykes

Gamble in 1896. Gamble adopted Bentham's scheme, covered 15 genera and 115
species mostly from India, Nepal, Myanmar and Malaysia.
By the beginning of the 20th century, the study of bamboos had progressed further.
Notable works in the first half of the century included Rendle's (1904) treatment of 44
bamboos from China, publication of Les Bambusees by Edmond Camus (1913) and a
treatment of the bamboos of Assam by Bor (1938). Treatments had followed
Bentham's scheme until Aimee Camus (1935) proposed a new scheme in which all
genera having staminal filaments united to form a tube were placed in a separate sub-
tribe. Subsequently, however, Holttum (1956) disputing the schemes of both Bentham
(1883) and Camus (1935), offered a new classification based on the structure of the
ovary. Holttum's scheme suggested a close relationship between Bambusa and
Dendrocalamus on the basis of ovary features and he placed both in an informal 'sub-
tribe' - Bambusa-Dendrocalamus type. In all, Holttum's system of classification
included four sub-tribes A. Schizostachyum type (Melocanna, Ochlandra,
Schizostachyum), B. Oxytenanthera type (Oxytenanthera), C. Bambusa-
Dendrocalamus type (Melocalamus, Dinochloa, Thyrsostachys, Bambusa, Guadua,
Dendrocalamus, Gigantochloa, Racemobambos), and D. Arundinaria type
(Arundinaria).
The woody bamboos have always been the basis of the concept of the bamboo
group even though Nees had envisaged herbaceous bamboos in his scheme of
Bambusoideae. Indeed, herbaceous bamboos were neglected in the schemes of Munro
(1868), Bentham (1883), Gamble (1896), Camus (1913) and even the relatively
modern scheme of McClure (1961). In that year, however, a paper was published by
Prof. Lorenzo R. Parodi (1961) which brought into focus the bambusoid affinities of
certain gramineous genera. Parodi defined Bambusoideae in a system of classification
for the grasses of Argentina in which all woody bamboos were included in a single
tribe (Bambuseae), but three further tribes were established for herbaceous members:
Olyreae, Phareae, Streptochaeteae. As botanists began to look at plants more closely,
from the evolutionary perspective, the significance of the herbaceous bamboos began
to emerge and later authorities (Clayton and Renvoize, 1986; Soderstrom and Ellis,
1987; Watson and Dallwitz, 1992) all included herbaceous bamboos in a
heterogeneous Bambusoideae (Clark et al., 1995).
Among the modern traditional concepts of Bambusoideae, the circumscriptions
of Watson and Dallwitz (1992) is considered to be the most inclusive, which contained
14 herbaceous tribes along with the woody bamboo tribe Bambuseae. In comparison,
Soderstrom and Ellis (1987) separated the core Bambusoideae having five tribes
(Anomochloeae, Buergersiochloeae, Olyreae, Streptochaeteae and Bambuseae) from
those showing some relationships but lacking core Bambusoideae characters
Bamboo Systematics with Special Reference to Molecular Taxonomy of Dendrocalamus 3
(1. embryo formula F+PP or F-PP, 2. a linear hilum, 3. smaller embryo in comparison
to endosperm, 4. three lodicules, 5. first blade is horizontal in a seedling and preceded
by one or more bladeless sheaths, 6. rod like bicellular micro hairs, 7. a nonradiate
mesophyll and C3 photosynthetic pathway, 8. a mesophyll with both fusoid and arm
cells present, 9. vascular bundles usually more than one and superposed in the midrib
and 10. vertical orientation of silica bodies to the long cells) which were considered as
part of Bambusoideae sensu lato. While the most recent taxonomic treatment 'The
Bamboos of the World' by Ohrnberger (1999) provided a more restrictive view of
Bambusoideae (Fig. 1.1.). Ohrnberger limited the tribal assignments to Bambuseae
(woody bamboos) and five other herbaceous tribes including Puelia and Guaduella,
though the inclusion of Puelia and Guaduella in Bambusoideae was tentative and later
study (Clark et al., 2000) confirmed they should be excluded from the subfamily. They
retained four of the core Bambusoideae described by Soderstrom and Ellis (1987) but
moved Anomochloa, Streptochaeta, Phareae and other herbaceous tribes (as of
Clayton and Renvoize, 1986; Soderstrom and Ellis, 1987; Watson and Dallwitz, 1992)
out of Bambusoideae.
Clayton and Renvoize (1986) provided a provisional classification of the woody
bamboo tribe Bambuseae based on the ovary appendage as the primary criterion. By
taking the genera in a wide sense and ignoring aberrant species, they referred the
woody bamboos to three subtribes, viz., Arundinariinae, Bambusinae and
Melocanninae. The subsequent schemes of Soderstrom and Ellis (1987) and
Ohrnberger (1999) were more explicit and similar to a large extent. Soderstrom and
Ellis (1987) delimited nine subtribes under Bambuseae and expressed uncertainty
about the placement of a few genera, viz., Apoclada, Glaziophyton, Hitchcockella,
Oligostachyum and Racemobambos. Whereas, Ohrnberger's scheme included 10
subtribes. He merged the Nastinae and Neurolepidinae of Soderstrom and Ellis (1987)
in his subtribes Hickeliinae and Chusqueinae respectively, and placed the uncertain
genera Apoclada and Glaziophyton in subtribe Arthrostylidiinae, Hitchcockella in
Hickeliinae, Oligostachyum in Arundinariinae, and Racemobambos in
Racemobambosinae.
The Old World tropical subtribe 'Bambusinae' has been variously circumscribed
by the modern sytematists. Clayton and Renvoize's (1986) scheme included 25 genera
based on type of inflorescence, culm sheath characters and ovary characters. Later,
Soderstrom and Ellis (1987) narrowed down the subtribe to six genera based on floral
and vegetative key characters as other anatomical characters were found unhelpful at
this level. He also placed ten other genera as congeners with Bambusa and
Dendrocalamus. The circumscription of Wong (1995) was limited to the taxa available
in Peninsular Malaysia. Besides retaining five genera of Clayton and Renvoize (1986),
Wong (1995) described three new genera, which were initially included in Bambusa
by Holttum (1956). In the most recent scheme of Ohrnberger (1999), the subtribe
Bambusinae embraced seventeen genera and 297 species. He retained seven genera of
Clayton and Renvoize (1986) and the four additional genera described by Wong
(1995) in his scheme of Bambusinae. He placed six other genera in Bambusinae taking
total number of genera to 17. Many genera included in the scheme of Clayton and
Renvoize (1986) were moved to subtribes Arthrostylidiinae, Hickeliinae,
Shibataeinae and Racemobambosinae and some of the genera (Bonia, Gigantochloa,
Oreobambos and Oxytenanthera) placed as congeners in Soderstrom and Ellis's
(1987) scheme were given generic status. The fluctuating size of the subtribe
Bambusinae over the years reflect the problem whether to combine taxa based on
character similarities or to delimit taxa into subgroups based on key character
differences which is not easy in bamboos as the boundaries of many bamboo genera
are not well defined (Soderstrom and Ellis, 1987). As such, there are differences of
opinion with regard to the placement of Dinochloa, Melocalamus, Oxytenanthera and
Holttumochloa, in Bambusinae.
2. Molecular Taxonomy of Bamboos – The Modern Approach

The bamboo taxonomists have long been trying different sources of taxonomically
informative data for the classification because of apparent paucity of morphological
characters in bamboos, The availability of molecular data in the final decade of the 20th
century enabled taxonomists to review phylogenetic concepts of the Poaceae more
objectively. Initially DNA products, viz., isozymes and secondary compounds like
phenolics were used in exploring phylogenetic relationship among taxa (Chou and
Hwang, 1985), species identification (Alam et al., 1997) and assessment of
infraspecific polymorphism (Biswas, 1998).
Later on, variation in DNA structure itself was the subject of investigations
generating two different kinds of data, viz., restriction fragment data and gene
sequence data. Data so generated was analyzed using numerical concepts like
maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood. DNA fragment-based studies in
bamboos include the use of restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) in
Phyllostachys (Friar and Kochert, 1991; Taguchi-Shiobara et al., 1998) and
chloroplast DNA in Asian bamboos (Watanabe et al., 1994) and world bamboos
(Kobayashi, 1997). Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers have been
used in Phyllostachys (Gielis et al., 1997) and amplified fragment length
polymorphism (AFLP) markers in other bamboo studies (Loh et al., 2000; Suyama et
al., 2000; Pattanaik, 2008). DNA sequence-based studies in bamboos include the use
of chloroplast rpl16 intron sequences in reconstructing phylogenetic relationships
within Chusquea (Kelchner and Clark, 1997), the use of an internal transcribed spacer
(ITS) and the GBSSI gene sequence in the Thamnocalamus group and its allies (Guo et
al., 2001; 2002; Guo and Li, 2004), and the use of an ITS sequence in the Bambusa
group (Sun et al., 2005). There are also studies, simultaneously involving both
approaches as in Phyllostachys where AFLP and ITS sequences were used to
reconstruct phylogeny (Hodkinson et al., 2000). The Bamboo Phylogeny Group has
been working since 2005 to address the need for a robust, global phylogeny of
Bambusoideae and an updated tribal, subtribal and generic classification based on
molecular phylogenetic results.
The Bambusoideae is one of 12 currently recognized subfamilies of Poaceae,
receiving strong bootstrap support in comprehensive molecular analysis of the family
(Fig. 2.1.) (BPG, 2012). It is the only major lineage of grasses to diversify in forests
(Zhang and Clark, 2000). The complex morphology and unusual flowering behaviour
of most bamboos are likely the result of adaptations to forest habitat or the retention of
ancestral states like their broad, pseudopetiolate leaves with fusoid cells in the
mesophyll (Clark, 1997; Judziewicz et al., 1999). Molecular data have provided
convincing evidence for recircumscription of Bambusoideae to include only three
tribes, viz., Bambuseae, Arundinarieae and Olyreae, reflecting three main lineages of
Bambusoideae (Sungkaew et al., 2009).The tribe Bambuseae consists of about 784
tropical woody bamboos; the tribe Arundinarieae represents 533 temperate woody
bamboos and the tribe Olyreae represents about 122 herbaceous bamboo species.
Traditionally, Arundinarieae was classified in three subtribes, viz., the Arundinariinae,
Shibateinae and Thamnocalaminae, based on the presence or absence of
FAMILY
SUBFAMILY
TRIBE
SUBTRIBE
GENERA
SPECIES D. HAMILTONII 50 OTHER SPECIES
Fig. 1.1. Traditional circumscription of bamboos.

Source: Ohrnberger, 1999.
FAMILY
SUBFAMILY
TRIBE
SUBTRIBE
GENERA
SPECIES 41 SPECIES
Fig. 2.1. Current circumscription of Bambusoideae.

Source: BPG, 2012.
pseudospikelets and rhizome structure. The evident polyphyly among these subtribes
has led them to be abandoned in favour of 10 current lineages whose branching order is
unresolved. Within the Bambuseae, the three Neotropical subtribes, viz.,
Arthrostylidiinae, Chusqueinae and Guaduinae, as delimited by Judziewicz et al.
(1999) are supported by molecular phylogenetic analysis. Among paleotropical
subtribes, the Melocanninae, Hickeliinae and Bambusinae remain largely as
circumscribed by Soderstrom and Ellis (1987). A number of recently described genera
has been added in Bambusinae and Hickeliinae. The Racemobambosinae has been
restricted to genus Racemobambos, as molecular results indicated Neomicrocalamus
and Vietnamosasa to fall within Bambusinae.
Bambusinae is a paleotropical subtribe with its centre of diversity in southeast
Asia. It contains 28 genera (BPG, 2012), having no phylogenetic relationships. In the
study of Pattanaik (2008), Bambusa balcooa was placed within Dendrocalamus sensu
lato supporting the closeness, or even inseparability of these two genera. Melocalamus
and Thyrsostachys were recovered as sister lineages to Dendrocalamus and Bambusa.
Watanabe et al. (1994), the first to study phylogenetic relationships among Asian
bamboos using restriction fragment length polymorphism of chloroplast DNA,
recovered a clade representing subtribe Bambusinae sensu Ohrnberger (1999),
containing Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Gigantochloa and Thyrsostachys.
Internally, however, Watanabe's clade was poorly resolved among Bambusa,

Gigantochloa and Dendrocalamus, suggesting close relationships among these
genera. Thyrsostachys had emerged as a sister lineage to the other genera included in
Watanabe's study. The study of Loh et al. (2000), using AFLPs and RAPDs,
respectively also indicated a close relationship between Bambusa and Gigantochloa. The
combined evidence from these molecular studies suggested that the taxa belonging to
Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Dinochloa and Gigantochloa form a close complex but are
relatively distant from Melocalamus, Thyrsostachys and Oxytenanthera.
3. Dendrocalamus before the Availability of Molecular Tools
3.1. Generic Circumscription

Since Dendrocalamus was separated from Bambusa by Nees von Esenbeck in 1834,
over 70 species names have been assigned to the genus, although Ohrnberger (1999)
retains only 51 of them. Most of the species that were not being maintained by
Ohrnberger have been reduced to synonymy or to infraspecific rank. A few are
transferred to, or sunk into, other genera, e.g., Ampelocalamus (subtribe
Thamnocalaminae); Gigantochloa and Pseudoxytenanthera (Bambusinae).
After the genus was established, over 30 years passed before Munro (1868)
consolidated its utility in his famous bamboo monograph. Subsequently, additional
species were steadily distinguished, bringing the genus size to about 15 species by
1900 and to nearly 30 species by 1950. Post-World War II, there was little change until
the 1980s when many more species, particularly from China, were described.
The following description of Dendrocalamus is based on the accounts of Gamble
(1896), Seethalakshmi and Muktesh Kumar (1998) and Li and Stapleton (2006).
Species of Dendrocalamus are characterized by their sympodial rhizomes and large-
sized dense clumps. Culms are unicaespitose, erect or occasionally scrambling and
usually having a pendulous apex. In all cases several branches are found, up to three
of which may be dominant. Culm sheaths are deciduous, ligules conspicuous,
auricles small and often absent, blade usually recurved or erect. Foliage leaf blades
are usually large, with conspicuous ligules and usually lacking auricles. The
venation is not tessellate. The inflorescence is iterauctant and fully bracteate,
subtended by a narrow single-keeled prophyll. The pseudospikelets are clustered in
a soft or spiky globose mass at the nodes of leafless flowering branches. The
pseudospikelets are prophyllate, with two to eight florets, with or without a rachilla
extension. The fertile glumes are preceded by one or more bracts and up to two
empty glumes. The prophyll is narrow and single-keeled. The rachilla internodes
are usually abbreviated and not disarticulating. The lemma is broad, many veined
and sometimes long mucronate. The paleae of the lower florets are two-keeled, but
in the terminal floret rounded or imperfectly keeled. Lodicules are usually absent
but sometimes one to three are present. There are six stamens, with free (usually)
filaments, rarely united into a loose tube. The ovary is stalked with a hairy thickened
apex, and a very short, solid style. The long plumose stigmas number varies from one
to three. The caryopsis is characterized by a hairy apex and a slightly thickened pericarp.
The original description of Dendrocalamus was based on the type species
D. strictus. Subsequently, the description was expanded to include pericarp characters
which were used to distinguish between Dendrocalamus and Bambusa (Munro, 1868;
Bentham, 1883; Gamble, 1896). However, while, at present, it is taxonomically
convenient for Dendrocalamus to be recognized in a broad sense (its species being
distinguished by the presence of single-keeled prophylls throughout the inflorescence
Stapleton, 1991), the limits between Bambusa and Dendrocalamus are not
satisfactorily defined and there are intermediate species. As long ago as Holttum
(1956) recognized the close relationship between the two genera by analyzing ovaries
placing the two genera in a unit he called Bambusa-Dendrocalamus type. Evidence
from culm anatomy (Grosser and Liese, 1973) and embryology (Gopal and Mohan
Ram, 1985) has supported this point of view.
3.2. Infrageneric Proposals for Dendrocalamus

Various infrageneric classifications of Dendrocalamus have been proposed by
Chinese botanists. Hsueh and Li (1988) proposed the first infrageneric classification
of Dendrocalamus by recognizing two subgenera and five sections in it, limiting the
assignments to only those species reported from China. In this classification,
subgenera were recognized based on reproductive and vegetative characters, whereas
sections were segregated by reproductive characters. Species were delimited mainly
by vegetative characters like culm sheath, nodes and internodes. Ohrnberger (1999)
transferred D. patellares and D. mianningensis out of Bambusinae into genus
Ampelocalamus (Thamnocalaminae) and assigned species only to sections
Dendrocalamus, Bambusoidetes, Sinocalamus and Draconicalamus. Out of the 51
taxa recognized by Ohrnberger, 22 were assigned to particular sections while 29 taxa
were unplaced. A more recent taxonomic revision of Chinese Dendrocalamus (Li and
Stapleton, 2006) retains the subgenera proposed by Hsueh and Li (1988) but
disregards sectional assignments, merging sections Dendrocalamus and
Bambusoidetes as subgenus Dendrocalamus, and sections Sinocalamus and
Draconicalamus as subgenus Sinocalamus. Li and Stapleton (2006) transferred 11
taxa previously referred to subgenus Sinocalamus to subgenus Dendrocalamus. The
major problem in the infrageneric classification of Dendrocalamus is the paucity of
published morphological character information for many of the species. Twenty-
seven species do not appear to have been referred to any subgenus or section under any
of the proposed schemes.
4. Genus Dendrocalamus and Related Genera in Biochemical

and Molecular Studies
In a study involving five Dendrocalamus taxa and Arthrostylidium naibunensis W.C.
Lin and Chimonobambusa quadrangularis Makino, a Dendrocalamus cluster could
be differentiated from the other two genera using phenolic compounds and isozyme
patterns of esterase and peroxidase. Within Dendrocalamus two clusters were
recognized: Dendrocalamus asper associated with D. giganteus, while D. latiflorus
associated with its variety D. latiflorus var. mei-nung. However, Dendrocalamus
strictus was distant from these two clusters.
The more pertinent studies involving Dendrocalamus taxa are those of Loh et al.
(2000) Sun et al. (2005) and Pattanaik (2008). In the first study, two Dendrocalamus
taxa were sampled, with D. brandisii clustering with taxa from Bambusa, and D.
giganteus appearing phylogenetically distant from all other taxa included. In the
second study, three Dendrocalamus taxa were sampled. These three taxa did not form a
separate clade but clustered within Bambusa, which was split into two distinct clades.
D. membranaceus showed close affinity to D. strictus and both were placed within one
Bambusa clade, whereas D. latiflorus was associated with the other Bambusa clade.
The study of Pattanaik (2008) included 10 Indian Dendrocalamus taxa and five
outgroup taxa from subtribe Bambusinae. Neither the phenetic (Fig. 4.1.) nor the
phylogenetic (Fig. 4.2.) analysis adopted in the investigation supported monophyly of
the genus Dendrocalamus as circumscribed by Hsueh and Li (1988), Ohrnberger
(1999) and Li and Stapleton (2006) based on morphological data. The placement of
Bambusa balcooa and D. strictus suggested otherwise. Bambusa balcooa, instead of
forming a separate lineage, was recovered in cluster two shared with Dendrocalamus
hamiltonii and D. sikkimensis. This supports the findings of Stapleton (1994a, b, c) who
had reported the closeness of B. balcooa to Dendrocalamus species on morphological
grounds, stressing similarity in the profuse aerial roots at the culm nodes, the large
rhizomatous branch bases and the culm wax. Further similarities between B. balcooa and
D. hamiltonii can be found in the reproductive parts with both species having three
stigmas each. The placement of D. strictus near the root of the tree away from rest of the
Dendrocalamus sensu lato was not entirely unexpected considering the findings of
Chou and Hwang (1985) who had reported the isolation of D. strictus from other
Dendrocalamus taxa based on studies involving isozymes and phenolics.
The limited number of taxa, included in the aforementioned studies, has not
yielded any robust relationships or boundaries of Dendrocalamus. The Bamboo
Fig. 4.1. Neighbour-joining phenogram depicting phenetic relationships among 15 OTUs

sampled from subtribe Bambusinae. Numbers at the nodes indicate bootstrap (%)
support for the respective clusters.
Fig. 4.2. Cladogram depicting strict consensus of the two parsimonious trees obtained in
the maximum parsimony analysis of a character matrix of 470 AFLP markers. Length
=1480 steps (character state changes), CI = 0.317, RI = 0.289, RC = 0.092. Values above
segments indicate bootstrap support for the respective nodes. Bootstrap support for nodes
with less than 50 per cent support and which collapse under the 50 per cent majority rule
tree is not shown.
Phylogeny Group (BPG) (2012) has recognized 41 taxa under Dendrocalamus, the
phylogenetic relationships among which are yet to be established.
5. Conclusion
On account of rare flowering events in bamboos, the traditional classification
systems relied solely on vegetative characteristics. The earlier bamboo
classifications proved artificial when molecular level information like DNA
sequences were used by taxonomists to build more natural classification systems
reflecting the evolutionary history of bamboos. Molecular taxonomy has opened up
new possibilities in bamboo classification where vegetative characters, though
useful for identification in these infrequently flowering plants, have not been very
helpful. Analysis of similarities in molecules such as DNA sequences has helped
enormously in interpreting the relationships and evolution of most plants including
bamboos. As more and more taxa and molecules (plastid sequences) are included in
phylogenetic analyses, the subtribal and generic circumscription of bamboos will
become more robust.
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2 Assessment of Bamboo
Resources of India
H.K. Tripathi, P. Somasundaram,
Rajesh Kumar and Prakash Lakchaura
1. Introduction
Bamboos are a very important non-wood forest resources found in forest as well as
non-forest areas in the country. They are fast growing, widely present, renewable,
versatile and low cost natural resource. They are also known as green gold and poor
man's timber. With the growing demand of timber, bamboos are viable substitute for
timber in the country. They can grow in extreme diverse ranges of soil conditions
varying from organically poor to mineral rich; and moisture level from drought to
flooding which makes them effective for reclaiming degraded lands. Bamboos play an
important role in carbon sequestration and biodiversity conversation.
Bamboos belong to the grass family Poaceae (Gramineae). In India, there are
125 indigenous and 11 exotic species of bamboos belonging to 23 genera (Negi and
Naithani, 1994). India is second richest country of the world after China in terms of
bamboos genetic resources as per the FAO report on world forest resources
(Lobovikov et al., 2007). The principal bamboo genera occurring in India are
Arundinaria, Bambusa, Chimonobambusa, Dendrocalamus, Dinochola,
Gigantochloa, etc. More than 50 per cent of the bamboo species occur in Eastern India,
viz., Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim,
Tripura and West Bengal. Other areas rich in bamboos are the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, Bastar region of Chhattisgarh and the Western Ghats. Bambusa and
Dendrocalamus are found under tropical conditions, whereas Arundinaria and its
allies occur in the temperate region and are by far most common on higher elevations
in the Western and Eastern Himalayas. Dendrocalamus strictus is found predominant
in dry deciduous forests, while Bambusa bambos flourishes best in moist deciduous
forests. The most important bamboo species of the semi evergreen forests of
Andamans is Gigantochloa rostrata. In the eastern region, i.e., West Bengal, Assam
16 H.K. Tripathi, P. Somasundaram, Rajesh Kumar and Prakash Lakchaura
and Northeastern Himalayas, the commercially important bamboos are B. tulda,

D. hamiltonii and Melocanna bacciferra.
2. Methodology for Inventorization of Bamboo Resources

The Forest Survey of India (FSI) collects data on bamboos in its regular inventory
work. The inventory of bamboos is an integral part of National Forest Inventory
undertaken by FSI. The data on bamboo resources are collected under Forest and Trees
Outside Forest (TOF) inventory (FSI, 2010). The data on bamboos have been collected
from 178 districts along with other forest/TOF inventory data, between the periods
from 2002 to 2008. A two-stage sampling design has been adopted for national forest
inventory. In the first stage, the country is stratified into 14 physiographic zones, and
the districts are the sampling units. The 14 physiographic zones are - Western
Himalayas (WH), Eastern Himalayas (EH), North East (NE), Northern Plains (NP),
Eastern Plains (EP), Western Plains (WP), Central Highlands (CH), North Deccan
(ND), East Deccan (ED), South Deccan (SD), Western Ghats (WG), Eastern Ghats
(EG), West Coast (WC) and East Coast (EC).
A sample of 10 per cent districts (approx. 60 districts in the country) distributed
over all the physiographic zones in proportion to the areas, are selected randomly for
detailed inventory of forest and TOF in a cycle of two years (FSI, 2011).
3. Sampling Design
3.1. Forest
Systematic sampling design has been adopted to collect information on bamboos. For
forest areas, 36 grids of 2½×2½ are further sub-divided into sub-grids of 1¼×1¼ from
the 15×15 SOI toposheets on 1:50,000 scale. These 1¼×1¼ grids form the basic
sampling frame. Two of these sub-grids are, then, randomly selected to lay out the
sample plots at the centre of the selected grid. Other forested sub-grids in the districts
are selected systematically taking first two sub-grids as random start. The intersection
of diagonals of such sub-grids are marked as the centre of the plot at which a square
sample plot of 0.1 ha area is laid out to record the measurements on field forms.
3.2. TOF
The selected 60 districts spreading over 14 physiographic zones in the first stage
sampling are taken for detailed rural and urban inventory of TOF. Separate
methodologies are followed for inventory of TOF (Rural) and TOF (urban) which are
described in detail in the following sections:
Assessment of Bamboo Resources of India 17
3.2.1. TOF (Rural)

The second stage involves sampling in two phases in the selected districts. In the
first phase, high resolution, remote sensing satellite data is used for stratification of
TOF resources in the selected districts into three strata, namely, block, linear and
scattered. In the second phase, simple random sampling is followed to select
optimum number of sample points from each stratum. The methodology used for
stratification of tree resources of the district into block, linear and scattered is
described as follows:
Satellite data of IRS P-6 LISS IV (5.8m) for the desirable period were acquired
from National Remote Sensing Centre, Hyderabad for the selected districts.
Thereafter, the images were geometrically rectified with the help of Survey of India
toposheets on 1:50,000 scale. Mapping of TOF areas was carried out by digitizing the
green wash area taking them as proxy of forest areas and masking them out. The image
was, then, classified into vegetation, snow cover, alpine pasture, water bodies and
river beds. The classified image is visually analysed for editing and refinement. After
editing of the classified image, the final classified map is generated having three
classes in TOF areas, namely, block, linear and scattered which are treated as strata for
TOF inventory. From the classified TOF map, area under each stratum is calculated. In
addition, area which does not support tree vegetation, like rivers and water bodies,
riverbeds, snow covered mountains, etc. which are termed as un-culturable non forest
area, were also calculated.
The optimum plot sizes for block and linear strata are 0.1 ha and 10m 125m strip,
respectively. In case of scattered stratum, the optimum size of sample plot has been
ascertained as 3.0 ha for non-hilly district and 0.5 ha for hilly district. The sample sizes
for block, linear and scattered strata have been determined as 35, 50 and 50,
respectively for non-hilly districts and 35, 50 and 95, respectively for hilly districts.
Shortfall of desired sample points in one stratum is compensated from other stratum.
4. Data Collection
4.1. Plot Enumeration Form for Clump Forming Bamboos

The data on bamboos were collected from each main plot of 0.1 ha and the circular plot
of 2.0 ha around the plot centre. The plot of 0.1 ha is actually laid out in the field for
taking the measurements whereas the circular plot is not physically laid out and
information from circular plot is observed ocularly. The occurrences of bamboo, in an
area of 2.0 ha around the plot center, are recorded according to density and quality of
bamboo. The information of total bamboo clumps and their respective diameters
occurring in each 0.1 ha plot is recorded.
4.2. Bamboo Enumeration Form for Clump Forming Bamboos

In this form, data of each individual culm occurring in certain selected clumps in the plot
was recorded. For carrying out this analysis, it was determined whether a culm was green
sound, green damaged, dry and damaged. Then, further classified as current year's culms,
one to two-year-old culms and over two-year-old culms. In case of dry and decayed
culms (both sound as well as damaged), the age classification is not done. The culms,
other than the current year's and decayed culms (both green and dry) are further grouped
under diameter at breast height classes 2 to under 5 cm, 5 to under 8 cm and 8 cm and above.
4.3. Bamboo Enumeration and Analysis Form for Non-Clump Forming

Bamboos
In this form, information is collected for non-clump forming bamboos occurring in the
plot (touching North West semi-diagonal). For the purpose of counting of the culms
1/8th area of the plot (i.e. ½ of the North West quadrant) is taken. Information about
condition of the culms, age, average height and total numbers of culms are recorded.
4.4. Bamboo Weight Form

For determining correlation between green and dry weights of utilizable bamboo culm
length, data are recorded in Bamboo Weight Form. This form is, however, filled up for
plots in which bamboo has actually been found in 2 ha area. One mature bamboo culm
from each culm diameter class as described above are selected for felling from the first
clump enumerated in the plot. If, however, the required type of necessary number of
culms in any diameter class is not available in the first clump, the shortfall is
compensated from the clump next in the serial order of enumeration. In case, the
requisite numbers of suitable culms are not available from any other clump of the plot,
the required number of culms will be obtained from the area in the immediate vicinity
of the plot. The occurrence and density of clump forming and non-clump forming
bamboo are recorded as mentioned in Table 4.4.1.
Table 4.4.1. The occurrence and density of different types of bamboos

Code Item Clump forming Non clump forming
1 Pure bamboo 200 or more clumps ha-1 More than 12,000 culms
-1
2 Very dense 151-200 clumps ha 9,001-12,000 culms
-1
3 Dense 101-150 clumps ha 6,001-9,000 culms
4 Moderately dense 51-100 clumps ha-1 3,001-6,000 culms
5 Scattered 21-50 clumps ha-1 1,201-3,000 culms
-1
6 Sparse 1-20 clumps ha 1-1,200 culms
7 Bamboo present but clumps
completely hacked by people
8 No bamboo Bamboo totally absent
9 Regeneration crop Clump formation has not yet taken place
4.5. Bamboo Quality

Bamboo area is classified into bamboo site quality classes. The average of
measurements of tallest culms occurring in 2 ha area will decide the site quality.
Following codes will denote the bamboo quality classes (Table 4.5.1.).
Table 4.5.1. Bamboo site quality classification

Code Site class Description
1 I Average culm height 9 m or more for D. strictus and similar species and
14 m or more for Bambusa bambos and similar species
2 II Average culm height 6 m or more but less than 9 m for D. strictus and similar species and
10 m or more but less than 14 m for B. bambos and similar species
3 III Average culm height 2 m or more but less than 6 m for D. strictus and similar species and
2 m or more but less than 10 m for B. bambos and similar species
4 IV Regeneration crop
5 Not applicable
4.6. TOF Inventory

The information on bamboos from rural areas is recorded in plot enumeration form.
The name of the bamboo species, the diameter of clumps and number of culms in each
clump are recorded from each plot inventoried.
5. Estimation of Bamboos in Forests

The information on bamboos collected from 178 districts during the period from 2002-
2008 in the prescribed formats, viz., plot description form (PDF), plot enumeration
form (PEF), bamboo enumeration form (clump and non clump forming separately)
and bamboo weight form are entered in the data base using data entry module and used
for further processing.
For processing of the bamboo data, area factor (per plot area) is determined for
a particular district on the basis of number of plots falling in the recorded forest
area. Thereafter, the bamboo plots surveyed in the selected district are listed
according to bamboo density and quality. The bamboo plots when multiplied with
area factor gives the bamboo bearing area according to species and quality for that
district.
5.1. Clump per Hectare

From plot enumeration form number of clumps per ha for each species and clump size
classes are assessed. To estimate the number of clumps per ha in each quality and size
class the data of bamboo plot description forms and bamboo plot enumeration form are
merged together.
5.2. Culms per Clump

The number of culms per clump is obtained from bamboo clump analysis form by
quality and size class wise for each species by age and soundness of the culms.
Numbers of culms per clump in different age and soundness classes are estimated on
the basis of information obtained in plot enumeration form.
5.3. Culms per Hectare

By multiplying clump per with culms per clump, by quality and size class wise
according to species, the number of culms/ha is obtained.
5.4. Total Number of Culms

The culms per ha when multiplied with bamboo bearing area of the district by quality
and size class wise will give the estimated number of culms in the district by quality
and size class wise. The information on estimated culms is given into categories
namely, green sound, green damaged, dry sound, dry damaged and decayed.
5.5. Bamboo Growing Stock (Green)

The estimated numbers of culms are converted into equivalent green weight using
appropriate weight factors of different diameter class collected during the field
inventory for each species. The following weight factors are applied to obtain
equivalent green weight of bamboo: Green sound 1.0, green damaged 0.5, dry sound
2.0, dry damaged 1.0, and decayed 0.0.
5.6. Bamboo Growing Stock (Dry)

The dry-weight factor is considered for specific surveys, physiographic zone wise. By
applying this factor, green weight is converted into dry-weight. Generally, the dry-
weight varies from 52-60 per cent of green weight. The district wise data is used for
estimation of physiographic zone estimates. The national level estimates are obtained
by adding the estimates of the entire physiographic zone.
6. Estimation of Bamboos in TOF

In case of TOF, the data processing is carried out separately for block, linear and
scattered stratum. The area figures for block and linear stratum are obtained by digital
interpretation of remote sensing data, whereas the area of scattered stratum is
obtained by subtracting the area of block and linear patches from rural culturable
non forest area. Species and size class wise number of clumps per ha and culms per
clump is obtained for each stratum by multiplying the clump per ha with culms per
clump, the culms per ha are obtained. Thereafter, area factor of each stratum is used
for estimation of number of culms at district level. The district wise data is used for
estimation of physiographic zone estimates. The national level estimates are
obtained by adding the estimates of the entire physiographic zone. The culms per
clump and weight factor collected for forest inventory is used to estimate total
bamboos in TOF (Rural).
7. Results
The total number of culms at the national level has been estimated to be 23,297 M out
of which the percentage of green sound, dry sound and decayed has been observed as
79, 16 and 5 per cent, respectively. Size class 2-5 cm has contributed maximum
number of culms. The national and state-wise details of culms age-wise is given below
(Table 7.1.).
Table 7.1. Number of culms at country level (age and soundness) (in million)
Age class (yr) Culm size class (cm) Green sound Dry sound Decayed Total
Current 4,300 0 4,304

1-2 5,482
2-5 3,209 13,923
Over 2 5,233
1-2 1,537
5-8 448 3,403
Over 2 1,417
1-2 217
8+ 58 559
Over 2 284
1,111 1,111
Total culms 18,470 3,715 1,111 23,297
The information about equivalent green weight is given in Table 7.2. The total
estimated green weight of bamboo culms at national level is 169 Mt of which green
sound bamboos contribute 73 per cent and dry sound bamboos contribute remaining
27 per cent.
The information about state wise distribution of bamboo area in recorded forests
by site quality-wise is given in Table 7.3.
Table 7.2. Equivalent green weight at country level (age and soundness) (in '000 tonnes)
Age class (yr) Culm size class (cm) Green sound Dry sound Total
1-2 2-5 22,593 24,780 71,321
Over 2 23,948
1-2 5-8 23,293 14,118 62,597
Over 2 25,186
1-2 8+ 10,111 6560 35,394
Over 2 18,722
Total green wt. 123,854 45,458 169,312
Table 7.3. State- and Union Territory-wise distribution of bamboo area in recorded forests quality
wise in (km2)
State/UT Site Site Site Site Total country Percentage
class-I class-II class-III class-IV RF area of RF area
Andhra Pradesh 1,053 2,444 2,549 2,138 63,814 12.8
Arunachal Pradesh 3,366 7,463 4,842 412 51,540 31.2
Assam 1,953 3,638 1,583 64 26,832 27.0
Bihar 78 283 344 34 6,473 11.4
Chhattisgarh 3,108 1,763 3,873 2,624 59,772 19.0
Dadra & Nagar Haveli 28 10 7 10 204 27.0
Goa 182 24 56 46 1,224 25.2
Gujarat 1,713 835 968 575 18,927 21.6
Haryana 0 12 7 0 1,559 1.2
Himachal Pradesh 85 189 208 26 37,033 1.4
Jharkhand 831 574 1,426 772 23,605 15.3
Karnataka 3,480 1,616 1,417 1,673 38,284 21.4
Kerala 2,014 290 334 244 11,265 25.6
Madhya Pradesh 2,822 3,740 3,363 3,134 94,689 13.8
Maharashtra 3,277 2,812 2,118 3,258 61,939 18.5
Manipur 3,289 4,494 1,405 115 17,418 53.4
Meghalaya 1,495 2,434 816 48 9,496 50.5
Mizoram 3,462 4,438 1,250 95 16,717 55.3
Nagaland 1,741 2,364 741 56 9,222 53.1
Orissa 1,913 2,663 3,919 2,023 58,136 18.1
Punjab 2 40 32 1 3,058 2.5
Rajasthan 261 1,031 742 421 32,639 7.5
Sikkim 113 399 636 33 5,841 20.2
Tamil Nadu 780 1,025 662 798 22,877 14.3
Tripura 1,144 1,563 502 37 6,294 51.6
Uttar Pradesh 186 507 443 177 16,583 7.9
Uttarakhand 146 139 156 10 34,651 1.3
West Bengal 88 524 380 50 11,879 8.8
Total 38,611 47,314 34,779 18,874 7,41,971 100
As quality-wise bamboo bearing area for Andaman and Nicobar Islands,

Chandigarh, Delhi, Daman and Diu, Lakshadweep, Jammu and Kashmir and
Puducherry is very less, therefore, their separate information is not given.
Analyzing the results, as given in Table 7.4. the total bamboo bearing area of the
country is estimated to be 13.96 M ha which is 18.14 per cent of the recorded forest
Table 7.4. State- and Union Territory-wise bamboo bearing area by density classes in recorded
forest area (km2)
State/UT Pure Dense Scattered Bamboos present Regenera Total RFA
bamboo but clumps tion crop
completely hacked
Andhra Pradesh 26 1,795 3,963 309 2,091 8,184 63,814
Arunachal Pradesh 217 8,681 6,953 144 88 16,083 51,540
Assam 105 4,049 2,878 166 40 7,238 26,832
Bihar 1 239 393 75 31 739 6,473
Chhattisgarh 54 3,046 4,577 1,496 2,195 11,368 59,772
Dadra and Nagar
Haveli 0 15 28 3 9 55 204
Goa 0 40 212 12 44 308 1,224
Gujarat 0 799 2,408 367 517 4,091 18,927
Haryana 0 3 9 7 0 19 1,559
Himachal Pradesh 0 37 422 24 25 508 37,033
Jharkhand 14 898 1,571 509 611 3,603 23,605
Karnataka 0 1,925 4,390 297 1,574 8,186 38,284
Kerala 0 461 2,105 86 230 2,882 11,265
Madhya Pradesh 76 2,732 5,264 2,284 2,703 13,059 94,689
Maharashtra 56 2,618 4,604 1,468 2,719 11,465 61,939
Manipur 192 5,825 3,101 124 61 9,303 17,418
Meghalaya 63 2,815 1,830 68 17 4,793 9,496
Mizoram 226 6,116 2,757 104 42 9,245 16,717
Nagaland 101 3,064 1,644 65 28 4,902 9,222
Orissa 35 2,479 5,230 1,066 1,708 10,518 58,136
Punjab 0 5 39 31 0 75 3,058
Rajasthan 0 516 1,188 333 418 2,455 32,639
Sikkim 0 481 684 8 8 1,181 5,841
Tamil Nadu 5 650 1,707 130 773 3,265 22,877
Tripura 67 2,039 1, 079 43 18 3,246 6,294
Uttar Pradesh 2 311 647 189 164 1,313 16,583
Uttarakhand 0 67 329 47 8 451 34,651
West Bengal 0 362 582 58 40 1,042 11,879
Total 1,240 52,068 60,594 9,513 16,162 139, 577 741,971
area of the country. Arunachal Pradesh has maximum bamboo bearing area
(1.6 M ha) followed by Madhya Pradesh (1.3 M ha), Maharashtra (1.15 M ha) and
Chhattisgarh (1.14 M ha). However, in terms of percentage of recorded forest area
of the states it stands as follows: Mizoram: 55.3 per cent, Manipur: 53.41 per cent,
Nagaland: 53.14 per cent, Tripura: 51.56 per cent and Meghalaya: 50.47 per cent,
respectively.
It has been found that the pure bamboo brakes are found in less than 1 per cent of
the RFA of the country. The dense bamboos are found in about seven per cent of area,
scattered in about eight per cent of the area. About one per cent of bamboo area was
found completely hacked. Regeneration of bamboos was observed in only about 0.02
per cent forest area.
Occurrence of pure bamboo was observed maximum in Mizoram (226 km2)
followed by Arunachal Pradesh (217 km2), Manipur (192 km2) and Nagaland (101
km2). The dense bamboos was found maximum in Arunachal Pradesh (8,681 km2)
followed by Mizoram (6,116 km2) and Manipur (5,825 km2). The area with hacked
bamboo clumps was found maximum in Madhya Pradesh (2,284 km2) followed by
Chhattisgarh (1,496 km2) and Maharashtra (1,466 km2). The bamboo regeneration was
found maximum in Maharashtra followed by Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and
Andhra Pradesh.
The inventory results indicate that the maximum number of green sound
culms are found in Arunachal Pradesh (2,267 M) followed by Assam (1,723 M),
Manipur (1,654 M) and Mizoram (1,587 M). Dry sound culms are found
maximum in Madhya Pradesh (398 M), Rajasthan (206 M) and Arunachal
Pradesh (98 M). The estimate is based on 21,089 sample plots laid out in 178
districts during 2002-08.
In TOF areas, the total number of culms estimated at national level is 2,127 M
with an equivalent weight of 10.20 Mt. Eastern plains are contributing maximum
number of culms (943 M), followed by North East (289 M) and East Deccan (212 M).
The equivalent weight has also been observed maximum in the Eastern plain
physiographic zone (4.07 Mt) followed by North East (1.72 Mt) and East Deccan (0.97
Mt). To give estimates with an acceptable precision, the state-wise estimates of
number of culms and their weight are not given as the sample size was not adequate.
The estimate is based on 22,810 sample plots laid out in 178 districts during 2004-10.
The physiographic zone wise estimated number of culms and green bamboo stock is
given Table 7.5.
Table 7.5. State- and Union Territory-wise number of estimated culms by their soundness in recorded
forests area (no. in million)
State/UT Green Green Dry Dry Decayed Total
sound damaged sound damaged
Andhra Pradesh 553 284 60 138 63 1,098
Arunachal Pradesh 2,267 399 98 136 80 2,979
Assam 1,723 323 95 106 94 2,342
Bihar 235 35 24 14 19 327
Chhattisgarh 331 127 33 90 20 601
Contd. on next page...
Contd. from previous page...

Dadra & Nagar Haveli 2 1 0 0 0 3
Goa 9 1 2 2 0 14
Gujarat 93 21 22 28 7 171
Himachal Pradesh 110 50 47 57 27 291
Jharkhand 131 50 13 36 8 237
Karnataka 231 79 40 57 10 418
Kerala 95 20 17 20 5 158
Madhya Pradesh 943 286 398 421 222 2,269
Maharashtra 408 128 72 119 21 748
Manipur 1,654 381 54 138 70 2,297
Meghalaya 901 208 29 75 38 1,252
Mizoram 1,587 366 52 133 67 2,205
Nagaland 875 202 29 73 37 1,216
Orissa 489 231 47 123 54 944
Punjab 2 1 1 1 0 5
Rajasthan 390 110 206 198 122 1,026
Sikkim 182 24 9 8 5 229
Tamil Nadu 249 117 27 59 33 485
Tripura 597 138 20 50 25 830
Uttar Pradesh 94 28 43 44 26 234
Uttarakhand 98 45 42 50 24 259
West Bengal 499 69 40 19 33 661
Total 14,749 3,724 1,521 2,194 1,111 23,300
8. Estimation of Bamboos in TOF

In TOF, availability of bamboo culms and its stock is estimated at physiographic zone
level using the information on inventoried districts surveyed during 2004-2010
(Table 8.1.).
Table 8.1. Physiographic zone-wise bamboo estimation in TOF (Rural)
Physiographic zone Geographic area (km2) Total culms (M) Equivalent green weight (Mt)
Western Himalayas 329,255 120 0.55
Eastern Himalayas 74,618 83 0.32
North-East 133,990 289 1.72
Northern plains 295,780 57 0.24
Eastern plains 223,339 943 4.07
Western plains 319,098 8 0.03
Central highlands 373,675 124 0.53

North Deccan 355,988 45 0.23
East Deccan 336,289 212 0.97
South Deccan 292,416 16 0.16
Western Ghats 72,381 30 0.28
Eastern Ghats 191,698 3 0.02
West coast 121,242 135 0.77
East coast 167,494 55 0.24
Total 3,287,263 2,127 10.20
9. Conclusion
It is said that 'if you can't measure, you can't manage'. Though the consumption pattern
of bamboos in India has been suggested by Dr. D.N. Tewari (Tewari, 1992) in
percentage for number of uses including pulp, housing, non-residential, rural
uses, fuel, packing including basket and transport but the bamboo resources were
not quantified. The study quantifies the bamboo bearing areas according to
density classes and site quality classes. It will enable the strategic planning more
realistic for management. Similarly it provides estimates for growing stock
according to age and soundness classes which may help in estimating the
potential production of bamboos. It also speaks volume about the status of
bamboos in forest area. Based on this information, management regimes may be
appropriately prescribed.
References
FSI (Forest Survey of India). 2010. Manual for national forest inventory of India.
2010. Dehradun, Forest Survey of India. 167p.
FSI (Forest Survey of India). 2011. India state of forest report. Dehradun, Forest
Survey of India. 286p.
Lobovikov, M.; Paudel, S.; Piazza, M.; Ren, H.; Wu, J. 2007. World bamboo
resources: A thematic study prepared in the framework of global forest resources
assessment 2005. Rome, FAO.
Negi, S.S.; Naithani, H.B. 1994. Handbook of Indian bamboos. Dehradun, Oriental
Enterprises. 234p.
Tewari, D.N. 1992. A monograph on bamboo. Dehradun, International Book
Distributors. 498p.
3 Growth, Behaviour and
Silviculture of Bamboos
Ratan Lal Banik
1. Introduction
Bamboos are tall grasses consisting of large canopies, and their stands are called
'bamboo forests' (Huberman, 1959; Warming, 1909). Bamboo vegetation essentially
describes both living composition of bamboo species (may be one or more), other
plants and animals including all microbial organisms that exist in the system. Different
species of bamboo are found both naturally and cultivated in farms. Depending on their
physiognomy they are sometimes called 'bushlands' (Warming, 1909) and 'bamboo
brakes' (Stamp, 1926).
Dendrocalamus strictus is the most common bamboo species which is widely
distributed in the dry hills 400-1,000 m, often termed as bushland, occasional to
common in dry regions of India, Myanmar and Thailand. This is the hardiest of all
Indian bamboos, thriving in regions which suffer periodically from excessive drought.
It is a major bamboo in forests of Uttar Pradesh, and spread over all the areas of Central
India Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra. The species occurs extensively
as undergrowth in the moist and dry deciduous forests especially on the middle and
lower slopes of hills and well drained valleys (Nath et al., 2008). Within its habitat the
species is frost-hardy as observed by Troup (1921) in the abnormal frost of 1905 in
northern India. Similarly, D. longispathus forms patches of vegetation in lower slopes
and valleys near the water courses (cherras) in the forests of Tripura, Mizoram, Sylhet,
Chittagong and Chittagong Hill tracts (Banik, 2014), and in the specific habitat like
moist gullies, Schizostachyum dullooa is common in these hills. Bambusa bambos is
another species occurring throughout India (except in the Himalayas and Sub-
Himalayan region and the valleys of Ganges and Indus). Myanmar, Sri Lanka,
Thailand. It is very common in Odisha, the Cancan and on the Western Ghats,
throughout South India, Nilgiris upto 950 m and higher occasionally. The species is
28 Ratan Lal Banik
abundant and thrives well in moist forest, extends up to 1,200 m in altitude, tolerates
20C, can establish and survive under conditions of low rainfall (600 mm per annum)
and, therefore, is a preferred cultivation species in drier parts of India like Punjab,
Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Running bamboos like Melocanna baccifera spread by means of long
underground rhizomes which send up multiple shoots and develop dense stands, are
often termed as 'bamboo brakes'; and in some cases form continuous vegetation of
'bamboo sea' (Banik, 2000). The species grows naturally throughout the hill forests of
northeast India (Garo Hills of Meghalaya, Assam, Tripura, Nagaland, Manipur,
Mizoram), Bangladesh (forests of Sylhet, Chittagong Hill tracts, Chittagong, Cox`s
Bazar) and Myanmar. Bamboo brakes more or less spread in patches, usually prefer
stream and river courses. The moist bamboo brakes formations is one of the dominant
features of B. bambos vegetation in Chandaka Forest and Elephant Reserve, Odisha; B.
tulda brakes form semi-pure to pure patches in moist and well-drained valleys near
Matamuhuri streams at Matamuhuri Reserves of Chittagong Hill tracts (CHTs). D.
hamiltonii forms patches to continuous brakes that are widely distributed in sub-
tropical and warm-temperate climate of northern part of the sub-continent up to 1,800
m in central Himalayas tarai region covering Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand to
northeast India in Arunachal, Nagaland, Manipur and south up to Mizoram, also along
the outermost foothills of Nepal, Bhutan and Sikkim as scattered to semi-continuous
'bamboo forests'. The species under Ochlandra are big size reed bamboo occurring
widely as an undergrowth in the low level semi-evergreen to evergreen forests of
Mysore (India) and on the mountains of southern India in Tinnevelly and Travancore at
1,000 to 1,065 m elevation in Tamil Nadu and Kerala, respectively and at Peradeniya in
Sri Lanka. It grows in the wet lowland also as pure patches of impenetrable thickets
along the sides of rivers and streams, covering many kilometres of the mountains
where other tree species are not allowed to come up, even elephants have to attempt
hard to get through it.
Different species have different growth rates, development patterns, and different
requirement of environmental conditions. Some of the aspect of growth and
silviculture are discussed in this chapter.
2. Culm Growth
2.1. Culm Emergence

Knowledge of culm emergence periodicity is important in managing the bamboo
clump. Banik (1993, 2000) studied the culm emergence periodicity of 13 bamboo
species and observed that culm emergence mostly takes place at the beginning of rainy
Growth, Behaviour and Silviculture of Bamboos 29
season, either from May or June, and may continue up to six or seven months ending
either in October or November (Table 2.1.1.).
The number of shoots emerging at the beginning (April to May) of growing
season was low. After that it sharply increased during June to August, and
gradually decreased in the following months (Table 2.1.1). About 28°C soil
temperature (50-200 cm depth), 26°C air temperature, above 60 per cent mean
relative humidity and monthly mean total rainfall within 100-800 mm seem to be
minimum requirement for culm emergence in south Asian countries (Banik,
2000). The emergence period varies from four to seven months depending upon
species (Table 2.1.1.). The felling of culms in the clumps should not be done
during the culm emergence period as the operation will damage developing culms
and even stop the emergence.
Table 2.1.1. The average number of emergent culms in different months from the clumps of some
bamboo species in relation to monthly climatic conditions at Chittagong
Species Month Emergence
period
(month)
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Bambusa balcooa 0 0 0 0 0.2 0.9 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.2 0 7
B. glaucescens 0 0 0 0 0.9 0.7 2.0 0.9 1.4 0.5 0.4 0 7
B. longispiculata 0 0 0 0 0 0.9 1.1 0.7 1.2 0.2 0.1 0 6
B. nutans 0 0 0 0 0 0.7 1.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0 0 5
B. polymorpha 0 0 0 0 0 0.7 0.9 0.9 0.6 0.7 0 0 5
B. tulda 0 0 0 0 0.07 0.5 0.7 0.6 1.2 1.1 0.6 0 7
B. vulgaris 0 0 0 0 0 0.7 0.9 1.0 0.3 0.3 0.07 0 6
Dendrocalamus 0 0 0 0 2.6 3.8 4.2 0.6 0 0 0 0 4
giganteus
D. strictus 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.8 1.0 0.4 0.7 0.3 0 6
M. baccifera 0 0 0 0 0.1 0.7 1.7 3.7 2.2 0.9 0.2 0 7
Oxytenanthera 0 0 0 0 0.2 0.4 3.7 6.1 4.4 1.4 1.0 0 7
nigrociliata
S. dullooa 0 0 0 0 0.2 0.6 1.8 2.8 1.2 0.09 0 0 6
Climatic conditions
Soil temperature C at different depths
50 cm 20.8 22.4 26.5 29.2 29.7 29.3 29.0 29.0 29.1 29.6 25.9 21.7
100 cm 22.1 22.8 25.3 28.3 29.1 28.9 28.7 28.6 28.5 28.5 26.5 23.5
200 cm 24.2 23.8 24.9 26.9 28.2 28.3 28.5 28.6 28.6 28.7 27.7 25.3
Average 22.3 23.0 25.5 28.1 29.0 28.8 28.7 28.7 28.7 28.9 26.7 23.4
Air temperature(C) 18.5 20.9 25.3 26.6 26.9 26.6 26,0 26,5 25.3 25.5 20.9 16.2
RH (%) 56.5 55.5 55.3 62.2 65.1 67.4 70.8 67.2 66.0 66.0 63.1 55.9
Total rainfall (mm) 17.9 12.7 33.6 117.5 375.6 566.3 783.0 426.1 321.6 247.1 95.1 13.6
Source: Banik, 2000, 2015
30 Ratan Lal Banik
2.2. Culm Elongation and Growth

The shoot starts to emerge from the soil mostly at the beginning of rainy season. Just
after the appearance of culms on the ground, they elongate very slowly for one to two
weeks and then gradually gain speed until they attain the optimum size and thereafter
the rate of elongation quickly slows down (Fig. 2.2.1a.) as 'energy' diverts towards
producing side branches from the nodes. The internodal length of the elongating culm
increases gradually from base towards the middle portion of culm and decreases
upwards. Usually, one by one, the sheaths drop off, the buds on the culm nodes put out
branches, and these produce their leaves. The elongation curves of three bamboo
species under study (Fig. 2.2.1a.) show two distinct peaks, first one (P1) being short
while second one (P2) is tall. These two peaks are due to the two rapid elongation
phases exhibited by the culm in its total growth period (Banik, 2000). The diameter
with which culm emerges do not show any diameter increment during or after the
elongation period and remain unchanged throughout its life. The size of the diameter
of a culm is determined by the size and vigour of the bud present in the mother rhizome
from where it originates but it continues to change in density and strength properties.
However, while elongating the thickness of culm's stem wall increases slightly.
The time period starting from the sprouting of shoot to the end of height growth
(culm elongation period) varies with the nature of bamboo species. The total culm
Fig. 2.2.1a. Rate and pattern of culm elongation in three bamboo species
(BB= B. balcooa, BV= B. vulgaris, MB = M. baccifera).
Source: Banik, 2000.
elongation periods for B. balcooa and B. vulgaris were observed to be within 75-85
days, and 55-60 days in M. baccifera. The culm emergence period, in most of the
species of Indian subcontinent is during May to October and elongation period is
mainly in rainy months (June-August) with peak elongation rates per day during the
middle and late wet season. Kadambi (1949) observed that, in general, years of
plentiful rainfall produced larger numbers of shoots than the years of deficient and
scanty rainfall. Rain also prompted the shoot emergence and culm growth of all
Japanese bamboos (Shingematsu, 1960). The culm elongation continues both day and
night in the genus Phyllostachys in Japan, and grows more during the day (Ueda,
1960), whereas in the tropical regions, bamboos grow during the night. The daily (24
hour) extension growth amounts to about 10-30 cm, but reaches 77 cm in B. balcooa,
66 cm in B. vulgaris, and 44 cm in M. baccifera during each of their total elongation
period (Fig. 2.2.1b; Banik, 1993a), 58 cm for D. giganteus (Osmaston, 1918), 90 to
120 cm in D. asper (Subsansenee, 1994), and up to 121 cm for Phyllostachys
reticulata (Ueda, 1960). Such rapid rate of elongation of culm was observed during
second half of the complete elongation period. In later part of the growing season
(October) the average total rainfall becomes low with a few numbers of rainy days,
and gradually the day length decreases which start inducing the dormancy in plant
body (Banik, 2000). Some growths continue into the dry season, mostly on branches
Fig. 2.2.1b. Daily maximum elongation rate of an emerging culm during vigorous
growth period in three bamboo species (BB= B. balcooa, BV= B. vulgaris,
MB = M. baccifera).
Source: Banik, 2000.
32 Ratan Lal Banik
and leaves of new culms in riparian sites. Not all culms complete elongation before the
onset of the dry season, and those that do, are permanently stunted. Such stunted and
incomplete growth of culms is frequently found in the bamboo clumps due to effect of
drought and erratic rainfall during growing season. This also significantly decreases
the total culm production. Scanty rainfall is likely to reduce turgescence, a condition
essential for culm elongation and growth (Kramer, 1959; Sharma, 1982). Mortality of
emerging and elongating culms was higher (50-60%) in September and October, when
average rainfall was low (Banik, 1983).
The reserve starch in one-year-old culms is highest just before sprouting, it
decreases greatly the period of growth of the sprouts and starts to increase after the
growth is completed; finally, the amount of reserve starch in the culm decreases again
when the growth of the rhizome starts and then gradually increases (Uchimura, 1980).
Moreover, during the later part of the growing season stored food materials in the
mother rhizome may become exhausted by supplying most of its food to the culms
produced and developed in the early part of the season. Therefore, it appears that
growth rate of new shoots (height grown per day) varies with the species and is
dependent on a number of factors like rainfall and ground moisture content, soil and
air temperature, amount of reserve and nutrition, available dark period (night), and
overall site condition where the plant is grown (Banik, 2000, 2015).
The daily growth of a culm of a bamboo is the sum total of daily elongation of the
internodes. The internodal elongation begins at the basal portion of the culm and then
gradually proceeds towards top. The cell division in the internodes of upper part of
culm is smaller than that in lower part. Culm elongation begins and ends in different
internodes as the growth of intercalary meristem present at the node gradually moves
from base to tip and completes within two to three, rarely four months; while in trees
the height growth is realized by primary meristem on apex and lasts throughout life
time. In intercalary growth the immature axis increases in length by the elongation of
cells in zones of secondary meristems each located just above the node. In the elongating
segmented axes of a bamboo plant the locus of each zone of intercalary growth is just
above the locus of insertion of a sheath (Banik, 2010a, Fig. 2.2.2.). There is empirical
evidence that the sheath may be the origin of substances that control, or at least influence,
the process of intercalary growth and possibly the initiation of roots and branch primordia.
The initiation of branch buds and root primordial on any segmented axis always takes
place within a zone of intercalary growth, before the tissue lose their meristematic
potential, and while the subtending sheath is still living (McClure, 1966).
2.2.1. Juvenile mortality of elongating culm

All emerging culms do not always develop into full-grown culms. The natural
mortality of emerging culms was found to be higher (28-69%) in thick-walled and tall
species (B. balcooa, B. longispiculata, B. nutans, B. vulgaris and D. giganteus),

whereas it was low (9-37%) in comparatively thin walled and small size bamboos
(B. tulda, D. longispathus, M. baccifera) species (Banik, 1983) (Table 2.2.1.1.).
Sharma (1982) also reported such high mortality in some thick walled sympodial
bamboos like Gigantochloa levis (60%) and B. vulgaris (70%). Clumps having a
congested sympodial rhizome system produce most of the culms within a short
distance. Therefore, competition for survival among the developing culms becomes
intense. This condition increases mortality percentage among the young developing
culms in the species with short-necked sympodial rhizome systems (Banik, 1983). On
the other hand, the mortality percentage is less in M. baccifera where the clumps are
open and diffused due to elongated (1.0-2.0 m) rhizome neck (Banik, 1980) (Table
2.2.1.1.). Kondas (1981) and Sharma (1982) had also opined that congestion could be
a factor for death of emerging culms. Besides, the stored food in the rhizome of mother
culm is not sufficient enough to meet the requirement of elongation of all the emerging
culms in tall thick walled bamboo species. Inadequate food supply could be another
reason for higher mortality in the elongating shoots of thick walled bamboo species
(Banik, 2000) (Table 2.2.1.1.).). The survival rate of emerging culms in some species
of Phyllostachys can be increased by applying the fertilizer (Ueda, 1960; Uchimura,
1980). The juvenile culm mortality was also found to vary among the clumps of a
species growing in the same site condition. Studies showed that transcription and
translation losses of DNA and RNA prevented the synthesis of protein and forced
bamboo shoots to stop their growth resulting in degradation in some clumps of the
same species (Xianhui and Yuemei, 1983).
Thus it appears that eco-physiological condition (clump congestion, soil
moisture, food storage, etc.) and genetic makeup of each species and clump seem to
influence the rate of mortality of emerging culms (Banik, 2000). Selection of mother
Table 2.2.1.1. Mortality (mean values) of emerging culm from full-grown clumps in different bamboo
species at Chittagong
Species Year 1978 Year 1979 Year 1980
Emerged Dead Mortality Emerged Dead Mortality Emerged Dead Mortality
Total No. (%) Total No. (%) Total No. (%)
Thick walled species
B. balcooa 2.9+ 0.9+ 31.0 3.8+ 1.4+ 36.8 3.5+ 1.5+ 42.9
B. longispiculata 8.2+ 2.4+ 29.3 6.1+ 1.7+ 27.9 9.2+ 3.0+ 33.0
B. nutans 8.1+ 3.3+ 40.7 7.3+ 3.0+ 41.1 9.1+ 4.0+ 43.9
B. vulgaris 9.0+ 6.1+ 68.0 8.9+ 6.2+ 69.6 8.7+ 5.9+ 67.8
D. giganteus 7.0+ 4.7+ 67.0 11.7+ 6.0+ 51.3 11.0+ 5.0+ 45.5
Thin walled species
B.tulda 12.6+ 4.7+ 37.3 3.6+ 1.1+ 30.6 6.8+ 2.0+ 29.1
D. longispathus 7.0+ 1.5+ 21.4 8.9+ 2.1+ 23.6 4.9+ 1.4+ 28.6
M.baccifera 2.9+ 2.7+ 10.3 25.5+ 2.5+ 9.8 33.2+ 2.9+ 8.7
Source: Banik, 1983, 2000.
34 Ratan Lal Banik
clump (candidate plus clump, CPC) having less juvenile mortality of culms is an
important parameter for raising quality planting materials (Banik, 1997a).
2.3. Production of Branches and Leaves

The growing culm is without branches, but branching begins either after the culm has
ceased elongation or in the following growth season. Simultaneously many thin
branches are also produced in assembly from each culm bud. Leaves start developing
within two to four weeks from the developing branches. Majority of the species (e.g.
B. balcooa, B. bambos, B. tulda, B. vulgaris, etc.) produce branches more or less
throughout from culm base to tip. In some bamboo species, culms of progressively
larger sizes (those approaching mature statures) have a progressively longer series of
budless lower above-ground internodes. As for example, mature size culms from
clumps of B. cacharensis, B. polymorpha, D. asper, D. giganteus, D. hamiltonii,
D. longispathus, Thyrsostachys oliveri, T. siamensis, may lack buds and branches in
the lower ½ to ⅔ or even ¾ of their length. Absence of knots due to non-development
of branches or branch complements these culms in making them more desirable raw
material for ease in working and machining in handicrafts or in bamboo-ply industry
(Banik, 2015).
Leaves on the M. baccifera seedlings are bigger, one and a half times more in size
than those of adult clumps (Fig. 2.3.1.) and these are also bigger than those of B. tulda
seedlings, probably because they trap more sunlight to produce higher amount of food
material required for rapid production of rhizome system with elongated necks
(Banik, 1994b). After about ten to twelve months the leaves produced by the seedlings
of M. baccifera attain more or less similar size as that of adult clumps. However, at
about 15 years of age the leaf size becomes elongated by 2 cm and slightly less in mid-
width than that of twelve months old plant (Banik, 2010a).
The leaves of all bamboos are very similar (oblong, lanceolate to linear
lanceolate) in general appearance, although most species usually have normal size
leaves and others have quite small leaves (e.g., B. polymorpha, Pseudoxytenanthera
stocksii, Thyrsostachys spp.), the size also depends much on the part of the plant from
which they are taken for observation. In D. hamiltonii, the leaves of young shoots and
the end leaves of strong branches are usually very large, while those of medium
branches are moderate in size and those of thin shoots from lower nodes are quite small
(Banik, 2015). During a twelve month cycle clumps of B. balcooa, B. bambos,
D. asper and D. hamiltonii produce big and comparatively small size leaves in warm
humid season (March-August) and in the beginning of dry winter season (October-
November), respectively. Bamboos that grow in moist habitat generally have larger
leaves than those species growing in drier sites.
Bamboos are, however, not purely evergreen plants. Most of the bamboo species
in the Indian sub-continent, partly shed their leaves in winter when it is dry (usually in
January-March) and renew the leaves simultaneously in a short time. T. oliveri,
cultivated in Tripura, also show deciduous behaviour during dry season. The clumps
of B. cacharensis and B. polymorpha are commonly cultivated bamboo species of
lower Assam and Tripura in India, and Sylhet in Bangladesh and most often show pure
evergreen crown. These areas have high to moderate rainfall but in some drier pockets
and severe drought season clumps of these species may exhibit deciduous behaviour.
These species find it difficult to survive if drought period is prolonged and severe. The
clumps of B. balcooa on some occasion, especially in drier habitat as observed in
Bankura, Cooch Bihar, near Pusa area of Bihar, Delhi and Uttar Pradesh in India and
northwestern part of Bangladesh and in prolonged drought period also exhibit pure
deciduous behaviour.
The amount of leaf fall in M. baccifera, G. andamanica (Oxytenanthera
nigrociliata), B. tulda and D. giganteus is 6.0, 5.6, 5.8, and 7.0 t ha-1, respectively
(Hassan and Islam, 1984). Leaf-decomposition starts in June-July and humification
reaches its peak in October-November. It is further reported that each of the bamboo
species contributes about 20 kg t-1 of organic matter to the soil more or less similar to
other broad-leaved tree species like Hevea brasilensis, Syzygium grande, etc. It is
beneficial to allow leaves to decompose on the ground for controlling erosion and
maintaining the soil nutrient level. The blanket of fallen bamboo leaves is effective
mulch to conserve moisture in the ground and as an organic fertilizer to rejuvenate the
soil. The constant higher temperature from 28-350C and high humidity favour the
development of certain kinds of microbes so that the resulting population can
decompose the material faster than the time when temperature fluctuates. Localities in
the northeast and some parts of south India, Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts
(CHTs), Cox`s Bazar and Sylhet areas in Bangladesh of the sub-continent receive a
high amount of precipitation and possess hot humid condition from April to mid-
November and such hot humid conditions favour the higher decomposition rate
than in most of the other part of sub-continent. The spreading foliage of the bamboo
crown takes the punch off the fierce tropical rains and softens their impact on the
ground. Leaves that fall up to 10 cm thickness per year also help absorb the impact
of rain. A study in China conclusively proved that the canopy and leaf litter of
temperate bamboo stands can intercept rainfall much higher than those by conifers,
pines and others.
2.4. Leaf Production in Relation to Culm Age

In general, there are fewer leaves on one year old culms than on the older ones. Ueda
(1960) measured the fresh weight of leaves collected from 1, 2, 3-year old culms of a
36 Ratan Lal Banik
clump of M. baccifera in Assam and observed higher production of leaf biomass (1.10
kg per culm) in 2-year old culms than those of 1-year (0.70 kg) and 3-year (0.60 kg) old
culms. It was also observed in the clumps of D. longispathus that fresh weight of leaf
biomass was maximum in the two-year old culms then it decreased by about 30 per
cent and remained somewhat static in third and fourth years (Banik, 2000; Banik and
Islam, 2005). In fifth and sixth year the leaf production was drastically decreased
(Table 2.4.1.).
As a five-year old culm contains fewer numbers of leaves, it has little contribution
to photosynthesis and overall health of the clump. Thus it appears that both in
M. baccifera and D. longispathus clumps, felling of culms may be started after third to
fourth year of age. It is further observed that irrespective of culm age leaf contains
about 50 per cent moisture of its fresh weight.
Table 2.4.1. Influence of culm age on the leaf production in the clumps of D. longispathus
Culm age Number of leaves Total fresh weight (kg)
(yr) per culm Fresh weight Oven dry weight
1 1,406 0.67 0.31
2 6,975 2.09 1.15
3 4,790 1.44 0.75
4 4,877 1.16 0.62
5 1,755 0.48 0.28
6 907 0.29 0.14
Source: Banik and Islam, 2005.
Studies also show that there are more branches on three-year old culm of
D. asper because most of the buds on culm nodes break and produce branches at this
age, but the leaves on the two-year-old culms are young, greener in colour, have
more fresh weight and appear to be healthy as observed in a plantation raised at
Garh-Mukteshwar, Ghaziabad in Uttar Pradesh (Table 2.4.2.). The three-year and
older culms contain relatively older and less amount (fresh weight) of leaves in the
Table 2.4.2. Average values of growth parameter in the clumps of D. asper as affected by culm age
Culm Culm Culm Total Fresh weight (kg) Remark

age length DBH leaves Culm Branches/ Leaves
(yr) (m) (cm) (no.) only culm / culm
1 10.55 7.11 1,910.7 20.1 8.26 2.74 Culm emerged in the year 2006,
observed at 2007, soone-year old
2 10.45 5.40 3,585.0 9.0 7.66 3.34 Culm emerged in the yea r 2005,
observed at 2007, so two-year old
3 9.13 4.65 3,081.7 6.0 9.73 3.07 Culm emerged in the year 2004,
observed at 2007. Clump raised
in 2001
clumps of M. baccifera (Ueda, 1960), D. longispathus (Banik and Islam, 2005), and
D. asper and thus possess reduced photosynthetic capacity of the canopy. Different
age groups of culms in the clumps of Bambusa spp. may have similar pattern of leaf
production.
2.5. Culm Production and Clump Expansion

The number of new culms that develop from a clump varies by species, soil and
climatic conditions, method harvesting, size of clump and over-head cover, etc. If the
monsoon comes in the normal time, and the rainfall is well distributed and adequate in
amount, the production of new culm is good. But if the monsoon comes at the
abnormal time, or if there is a break after the first heavy showers, the production of
new culms is unfavourably affected (Ueda, 1960). The diameter of the successively
emerged culms increases with the age of the clumps. A study (Banik, 1988a) at
Chittagong showed that only one to three full-grown culms were produced per clump
in the first year after plantation of cuttings (Table 2.5.1.).
The number of FG culms gradually increased in the subsequent years and reached
a maximum (3.2-8.8) in the fifth year of clump age in all Bambusa species studied.
After that culm production gradually decreases in absence of felling, but the growth in
diameter and height were more or less similar to those of previous years. Culms
produced in the clumps of B. balcooa, B. longispiculata, B. tulda, and B. vulgaris up to
the fifth and sixth year of age made for a crowded condition due to the caespitose
nature of clump having short (7-12 cm) neck rhizome system. After that period, if
culms are not felled, the crowded condition would result in scarcity of space for the
new emerging culms and increase competition among them for survival. The rate of
clump-girth expansion slowed down after the sixth and seventh year of age in all these
Bambusa species due to decrease in culm production when no felling was done. In all
the species the FG culms which emerged in the first year after plantation were short
(1.5 m to 4.0 m) in length and narrow (0.7 cm to 1.6 cm) in diameter at breast height
(dbh). Similarly, in a clump of B. vulgaris planted in Dandeli, India, Kondas (1981)
observed that the culm production increased up to the fourth year after planting and
then decreased in the subsequent years.
The height and dbh of FG culm produced during six to seven years of clump age
were maximum and after that period these remained more or less static, if no felling
was done. Similarly the expansion of clump girth was rapid up to fifth and sixth year
after planting and the average clump girth varied between 232 cm and 456 cm within
this period depending on the species. Thereafter growth slows down in the clump
forming bamboos (Banik, 1988a). Considering the upper limit of clump girth
expansion, spacing between the planting stock may be kept not less than 5 m in the
38
Table 2.5.1. Annual production of full-grown (FG) culm and gradual expansion of clump girth in five bamboo species up to 10 years of clump
age without felling operation
Clump B. balcooa B. longispiculata B. tulda B. vulgaris M. baccifera

age (yr)
FG Clump FG Clump FG Clump FG Clump FG culms Clump girth
culms girth (cm) culms girth (cm) culms girth (cm) culms girth (cm) (no.) (cm)
(no.) (no.) (no.) (no.)
1 (1973) 1.2±0.2 28.5±2.0 1.8±0.4 30.0±5.2 3.0±0.5 87.0±13.2 1.6±0.2 50.0±4.5 2.5±0.5 92.2±20.5
2 (1974) 2.3±0.9 66.2±13.5 2.7±0.6 66.5±13.5 3.8±0.4 153.0±16.6 2.8±0.3 105.0±10.0 5.6±1.7 145.9±23. 2
3 (1975) 1.7±0.2 102.0±14.0 4.1±0.6 140.2±16. 5 8.2±1.3 243.0±28.3 3.2±0.7 162.6±22.0 12.5±2.5 301.0±42.0
4 (1976) 2.7±0.4 177.0±22.6 6.2±0.5 222.0±24.7 5.7±0.9 307.0±36. 5 5.3±1.2 273.4±35. 5 16.4±4.2 395.4±53. 3
5 (1977) 3.2±0.8 232.0±38.0 7.0±1. 3 286.4 ±20.6 8.8±2.3 439.3±56. 3 5.2±1.7 378.0±50. 3 23.6±7.2 529.3±105.6
6 (1978) 2.2±0.4 250.0±29.4 6.7±1. 3 372.0±28.2 4.5±1.0 464.0±51.0 3.6±0.8 456.3±62.1 25.3±4.6 624.3±115.2
7 (1979) 2.4±0.5 312.5±32.5 5.0±1.0 430.0±35.0 4.9±1.2 520.1±42.0 3.2±0.6 508.3±64.4 26.6±8.7 805.4±146.1
8 (1980) 1.8±0.5 320.5±24.0 6.6±1.4 507.6±66.6 3.7±0. 3 527.2±61.6 3.2±0.6 555.0±75.8 25.1±6.2 980.6±170.5
9 (1981) 2.2±0.5 376.0±53.7 5.8±1.0 648.3±109.6 4.8±1.8 571. 0±57. 6 2.6±0.6 603.0±58.0 31.1±8.0 1268.0±247.0
10 (1982) 2.2±0.5 414.2±58.3 5.7±1.6 690.0±132.3 2.7±0.4 586.7±207.8 2.8±0.7 705.0±114.5 35.7±13. 3 1432.3±281.0
Source : Banik, 1988a.
Ratan Lal Banik
case of clump forming cespitose species of bamboo. So the selective felling of older
culms can be started in the clump of all the clump-forming bamboo species after four
to six years of planting, to minimize the competition for space among culms. This also
helps in rejuvenating the clumps.
By nature a bamboo clump expands in a centrifugal manner in which most of the
younger culms are produced on the periphery enclosing the older ones. Although
bigger clumps produce more new culms, the ratio between new and old culms
decreases with the extension of the clump. Unlike other clump-forming bamboos,
e.g., Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, etc. a clump of M. baccifera starts producing very
strongly elongated rhizome necks from three to five years of age and thereby
exhibits non-cespitose nature of clump. Therefore, the rate and pattern of clump
expansion in M. baccifera are more or less similar to those of other clump-forming
bamboo species up to four to five years of clump age, after that period the expansion
of clump girth rapidly increases every year even up to 10th year of planting (Banik,
2000) (Table 2.5.1.). Owing to the presence of long rhizome neck (1.0-2.0 m) the
species produces culms at varying intervals in all directions forming a diffuse and
open type of clump which can accommodate the space required for the increased
number of FG culms and competition among them is likely to be minimum. After
seventeen years the site was visited again and the clump was found to be expanding
continuously and thus, the species aggressively covers the whole of hills in no
times. So the spacing during initial planting of M. baccifera may not be rigidly
maintained as 5 m similar to that of other clump forming bamboos; closer spacing of 2
to 3 m may also be opted for creating green cover quickly in the denuded hills and river
banks (Banik, 2010a).
2.6. Natural Senescence of Culms

The longevity of culms in the clump varies from species to species. Culms in some
bamboo species are very short lived and more commonly persist for five to ten years
(McClure, 1966). In eastern region of the sub-continent the life (in years) of culms in
the clump of D. longispathus and G. andamanica was 5 to 6, in B. tulda 5 to 10, in
B. polymorpha and M. baccifera 5 to 11, in B. longispiculata 6 to 9, in
D. giganteus 10 to 13, and in B. balcooa 11 to 14 years. Culms started dying at 5 years
of age in B. polymorpha, B. tulda, D. longispathus, M. baccifera and G. andamanica,
whereas death started at 10 and 11 years of age in D. giganteus and B. balcooa,
respectively. It appears that culm life in the bamboo clumps of somewhat thin walled
species is comparatively shorter than that in the clumps of thick walled cultivated
species (Banik, 2000). In B. longispiculata, mortality started when culms were six
years of age. So, a bamboo clump of different species, if left unharvested may contain
40 Ratan Lal Banik
living culms of different age groups, from one to six or even fourteen years old (Banik,
2000). It was observed in Karnataka that the individual culms of B. bambos started
decaying and dying after seven years with simultaneous death of roots and rhizomes
(Lakshmana, 1994). So any bamboo left up to seven years in B. bambos clump will not
add any incremental growth nor will it produce any new rhizome. The culms of
Japanese bamboo become mature in three to four years then gradually grow old and
weak and die in ten years or so (Ueda and Numata, 1961).
2.7. Rhizome and Root Growth

In caespitose types of bamboos (Bambusa sp., Dendrocalamus sp., Gigantochloa sp.,
Schizostachyum sp., Thyrsostachys sp., etc.) after seed germination plumule emerges
which rapidly develops into a thin stem bearing single foliage leaves arising alternately
at the nodes. Meanwhile fibrous roots develop from the base of the young shoot. One to
two shoots develop within four to six weeks from the base of the main young shoot.
The seedling of B. tulda attains four to five shoots (culms) stage at nine month age and
a tufted form of the young plant is developed (Banik, 1987) on the rhizome of
successive pointed buds, from which short rhizomes are developed below the ground
which move geotropically to curve upwards and form shoots (culms). The buds and
rhizomes, and the shoots arising from them, become successively larger and larger as
the time passes; and at about seven to eight years of age clump develops a stable short-
necked rhizome system (Fig. 2.7.1.). M. baccifera, a non-caespitose type, diffused
clump forming bamboo, soon after 15-21 days of seed germination develops fibrous
roots from the base of the young shoot of a seedling. Rhizome formation starts after 30-
Table 2.7.1. Below and above ground biomass in seedlings of B. tulda and M. baccifera in respect of age
and season
Species Age observed in Oven dry weight (g) Below:

(month)/ season Above ground Below ground Total Above
ground
Culm and leaves Rhizome Root
ratio
M. baccifera 3 month, 16.75± 3.36 2.81± 1.09 5.09±1.80 7.90 0.472
November after RS
B. tulda 3 month, 4.01± 0.71 0.32± 0.09 1.95± 0.44 2.27 0.566
September after RS
M. baccifera 6 month, 19.87±5.22 12.38±5.24 7.90±5.14 20.28 1.021
February after WS
B. tulda 6 month, 18.52± 3.70 1.72±0.21 14.90±3.42 16.62 0.897
December after WS
M. baccifera 10 month, 43.59±16.58 16.42±10.01 5.05±2.16 21.47 0.493
May after SSS
B. tulda 10 month, 42.08±6.28 10.63 ±5.31 27.47±17.39 38.10 0.905
March after SSS
RS= Rainy season, WS= Winter season, SSS=Spring-summer season.
40 days of seedling age (Banik, 1994b).The rhizome neck is more elongated and
development is strongly geotropic, carry a bud at the tip. After about five to six months
of seedling age, the rhizome takes a proper horizontal course for a very short distance
deep inside the ground and then moves with negative geotropism turning upward
piercing the soil, and the tip bud produces a new culm on the ground. Within eleven to
twelve months a tufted young plant is formed by the production of successive pointed
shoot buds on the aggressively developing young rhizome system. After three years of
age it starts producing 50-70 cm elongated rhizome neck and at five to seven years
onward it form diffused clumps, and finally at about 16-18 years it reaches up to 1-2 m
(Banik, 2010a) (Fig. 2.7.2.).
During initial 3 months of age the production of above ground biomass is high in
seedlings of both caespitose B. tulda and non-caespitose M. baccifera, and
accordingly the below and above ground ratio become low (Table 2.7.1). After six
months of age during autumn to winter the reserves increased in below-ground
organs (rhizomes and roots) reached nearer to amount of above-ground in B. tulda,
and thus below- to above-ground ratio value became 0.897, but in M. baccifera
below-ground biomass was little higher than that of above-ground and ratio was
1.021. At ten months of age (observed in March) the biomass reserves in below-
ground organs of B. tulda further increased to double of six months age and became
more or less same as that of the above ground; the below- to above-ground ratio was
0.905 (Table 2.7.1.), where as in M. baccifera the ratio value decreased to 0.493 due
to less biomass reserve in below-ground organs. The caespitose bamboo B. tulda
seedlings, continue to store more biomass reserve in below-ground organs up to ten
months of age to boost the above-ground growth in next growing season, but non-
caespitose diffused clump forming M. baccifera could produce more above-ground
biomass at ten months age much earlier to B. tulda (Table 2.7.1.). The above growth
data support the field observation of better performance of clump growth in
M. baccifera and B. tulda seedlings when transplanted in the field after the age of six
and ten months, respectively.
The movement and elongation of rhizome neck of M. baccifera goes on either
actively or slowly throughout the year below the ground even in winter and dry season,
rapidly in spring, irrespective of seasonal variation (Banik, 1999). In contrast to
M. baccifera most of the tropical clump forming caespitose bamboo species, e.g.,
Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Gigantochloa, Schizostachyum, Thyrsostachys, etc.
possess compact pachymorph rhizome system (3-10 cm short rhizome neck) and
exhibit seasonal (spring-summer-rainy) movement and growth in a year. The
knowledge of rhizome growth periodicity is essential for developing a scientific
management system for optimizing the yield of bamboo forests. Any deep soil work in
the Melocanna forest would interrupt the normal growth and elongation of rhizome
42 Ratan Lal Banik
neck, and thus adversely influence the culm production and clump expansion (Banik,
1999, 2010a).
In monopodial bamboo having leptomorph rhizome (Phyllostachys sp.) one-year
old seedlings tiller and grow thickly, the 2-year-old ones have side buds, some of
which sprout out or grow down into soil and develop horizontally as short rhizomes
(Naixun and Wenyan, 1994), which is distinctly later than that of bamboos with
pachymorph rhizome (Banik, 2015).
3. Silviculture
3.1. Distribution and Ecological Factors

The bamboo forests in northern hemisphere are extensively confined within 15-25
especially tropical monsoon Asia comprising, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka,
Myanmar, Thailand, Malayasia, Indonesia, Philippines and Indo-China, the upper
limits being China and Japan; and at higher altitude as in Himachal, Uttarakhand and
Sikkim of India alongwith Nepal and Bhutan. The major genera found in the sub-
continent include Arundinaria, Bambusa, Cephalostachyum, Dendrocalamus,
Gigantochloa, Melocanna, Ochlandra, Schizostachyum and Thyrsostachys. From the
moist, primeval forests to the cool mountain foothills, bamboo is a natural partner of
humans of all walks of life and living without it is scarcely imaginable.
Some important environmental conditions for the growth of bamboo plants are
discussed below:
3.1.1. Topography and soil condition

Bamboos grown in flatland are usually more productive than in the hills. Culm yield
and above ground biomass in the flatland are about four times as much as those in the
hill side. Differences in longitude, latitude, elevation, slope direction and gradient will
result in varied sun radiation, duration of sunshine, and consequently there will be
much differences in the condition of water, heat and light. With the increase in
elevation, the temperature goes down and humidity goes up gradually; and the layer of
humus becomes thick, resulting in varied growth condition and species distribution at
different elevation. Further, differences in slope direction and slope gradient will
result in the change of physical and chemical properties of the soil. The shoot
emergence in spring is earlier in the southern slope of a hill than that in the northern
slope and annual growing period of the stand is longer than that in the north slope.
There are more shoots in a unit stand at the southern slope but they are usually small in
size and culms have short internodes. On the contrary, there are less number of shoots
in the north slope, which area usually large in size with long internodes as observed in
M. baccifera.
Among the land of different slope gradients, a gentle terrain with a slope at 10 to
o
30 is most favourable for the bamboo stand growth. The level ground usually has
thick surface layer of soil but it is often too moist and poorly aerated. The optimum
condition for high yield in a bamboo clump includes loose well-aerated and thick soil,
moderate moisture humidity and rich organic matter. Lyall (1928) stated that the
geologically younger soils are more suitable for bamboo than the older soils. A wide
range of textural variation and soil depth, however, do not interfere with the normal
growth of bamboo, provided the drainage, rainfall and temperature conditions are
favourable (Qureshi et al., 1969). According to Uchimura (1980) soils high in N, P2O5,
K2O, CaO, and SiO2 promote best growth of bamboo culms. Soil N content is the most
important factor affecting bamboo growth, but organic matter, texture, aeration, base
exchange capacity and depth are also important (He and Ye, 1987). Most bamboos
occur in well-drained, sandy-loam to clay loam soils. Top soils that are suitable for
bamboo vary in colour from yellow to brown-yellow, and heart soil colour are clear
red, yellow-brown to blue-grey (Uchimura, 1987). Soil pH range of 5.0-6.5 is the most
suitable for bamboo; some species may grow even at pH 3.5. Bamboo can neutralize
acidic soil. Saline soil is not suitable for bamboo growth. Loose and fertile soil with
high content of organic matter, good water holding capacity and water permeability
facilitates rhizome growth. Compact and heavy soil has low water permeability and
poor nutrient retaining power. In such soils, the growth of rhizomes is retarded and
they remain abnormally twisted, and short.
The suitability of the site condition for a bamboo stands is, usually, judged from
clump growth, e.g. mean breast-height diameter and whole culm height. As mentioned
above, topography and soil condition are the main factors affecting stand growth
within the same climatic region. Thus soil and topographical factors may be used for
differentiating the site types within a certain area.
3.1.2. Temperature and light

The majority of clump forming bamboos grow at temperature ranging from 7oC
(sometimes 2o-3oC) to 40oC. In general, high temperature accelerates the growth of
bamboo and low temperature inhibits it. The clump forming types are generally present
in the humid tropics mainly in places where the average temperature is higher than 20oC.
The enduring low temperatures in winter lower the function of photosynthesis and
absorption of water by roots, and make the growth of a normal tall bamboo impossible.
Therefore a number of shrub-like bamboo species such as, Arundinaria and
Thamnocalamus are found in the cooler environment (snow-line) of the Himalayas.
44 Ratan Lal Banik
Bamboo, in general, prefers light for its healthy growth. A certain amount of
overhead cover improves the quality of bamboos at the expense of quantity. Partial
sunlight and freedom from weed competition are essential for the survival of bamboo
seedlings during the natural regeneration process (Banik, 1990). B. tulda seedlings
produce elongated culms, five to seven times more in height, when grown under the
partial shade of pigeon pea (Cajanas cajan), Boga medula (Tephrosia candida), and
dhaincha plant (Sesbania sp.) during first two years of planting.
Bamboo clumps growing in the open sites produce culms of much better quality
and quantity than the clumps growing under heavy shade. Thinning operations in the
plantations facilitate entry of sunlight to the forest floor and, as a result, bamboo
appears as undergrowth. Branch buds on the nodes of the lower portion of culms of B.
polymorpha, B. cacharensis, D. asper, D. giganteus, D. hamiltonii, D. strictus, M.
baccifera and T. oliveri usually remain dormant and do not produce branches, but in
some occasions when sun light penetrates through the crown to the lower culm nodes,
it activates the buds thus small branches and leaves are produced on these nodes; this is
usually seen in the clumps grown at the periphery of a compact plantation.
Architectural studies of bamboo crown showed that the structure is adapted to
capitalize on the high light regime of the early successional environment (Rao et al.,
1990). Thus, in general, a bamboo clump is more efficient in trapping the sun light than
many other tree species.
3.1.3. Altitude
Altitude also affects the distribution of bamboo with respect to form or type even in the
tropical region. A number of bambusoid plants present in the alpine belt to temperate
forests of India are mainly distributed in the states of Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,
Uttar Pradesh, Darjeeling, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh in the Himalayas in the
north zone, and Nilgiris in the south. The forest zone occur between 1,500 and 3,050 m
in to wet, moist, and dry condition. The climatic feature of the region is that it
experiences extremely low temperatures, often below freezing during winter. Dense
mist prevails during monsoons and is a characteristic climatic feature of this region. The
naturally growing bamboos on this hilly region are mostly short and represent the genus
Arundinaria, Chimonobambusa, Semiarundinaria, Sinobambusa and Thamnocalamus.
The clump-forming type is observed to predominate in low and medium altitude from sea
level to 700 m, while the nonclump-forming type occurs more abundantly at high
elevation up to 3,300 m (Numata, 1987; Uchimura, 1987). Altitude and temperature are
closely related and it is difficult to separate one from the other, generally, a rise in the
altitude by 270 m accounts for a fall of 1oC in mean temperature. Some species of
Phyllostachys are cultivated at high elevations in India and Nepal but they also occur
at low elevations in countries of the temperate zone (Uchimura, 1987).
3.1.4. Rainfall and cyclones

High temperature and humidity requirements are common characteristics of plants
originating in the monsoon areas of Southeast Asia. The distribution of bamboos in
India has been related to the rainfall (Gamble, 1896). Bamboos hardly occurs in zones
with less than 1,015 mm of rainfall or in frost prone areas. The upper limit of rainfall is
not known but the species are also found to grow in zones with over 6,350 mm rainfall.
The most common range is 1,200 to 4,000 mm per year. Rainfall is an important factor
and 1,000 mm seems to mark the minimum annual precipitation requirement. As the
water requirement of bamboos is high, the amount of rainfall is also a limiting factor to
distribution (Numata, 1987). Rainfall promotes growth of the culm during speedy
elongation period but not towards the end of the process. Combined effect of high
temperature and rainfall usually result in higher rate of clump growth.
3.1.5. Influence of flood

Generally a bamboo clump cannot tolerate waterlogging, especially in the growing
season. The bamboos grown in the flood plains can tolerate short seasonal floods.
Flooding for a longer period is not a favourable condition for any bamboo species of
India. During the devastating flood of 1998 water was flowing 1.0 to 2.0 m above the
surface and submerged the land up to 35 to 92 days in 52 districts out of total 64
districts of Bangladesh. It is apparent from a limited study (Banik, 2000) that about
30-50 per cent clumps of B. balcooa, B. vulgaris and B. tulda were partly or fully dead.
About 40-60 per cent newly emerged culms of different bamboo clumps rotted and
died as they were sunk under water for more than a month. About 90 per cent clumps of
M. baccifera got damaged and died under flood. Underground rhizomes system in the
waterlogged condition might suffer from oxygen deficiency and thereby face problem
in respiration.
Species such as Ochlandra travancorica, O. stridula, O. scriptoria that are
indigenous to the states of Kerala and Tamilnadu in India and northern Sri Lanka, are
mostly found in marshy areas and riverbanks that get flooded in the monsoons.
P. purpurata (P. heteroclada) and P. atrovaginata are monopodial species that can
grow in wet soils and waterlogged areas. Interestingly, the rhizomes of these
monopodial species have air-canals. It is reported from Vietnam that in extreme cases,
some species such as B. stenostachya can also tolerate submerged condition (flood) up
to one month.
3.1.6. Influence of fire

Bamboos can stand fire and grazing to a limited extent due to its well developed
underground rhizome system. The widespread population of M. baccifera throughout
eastern India, Bangladesh, northern Myanmar and Thailand (Banik, 2000); species of
46 Ratan Lal Banik
Thyrsostachys in Thailand and Schizostachyum in Vietnam mainly occur as secondary

vegetation due to the destruction of tropical rain forest by fire, shifting cultivation,
logging and warfare. Most of the bamboo forests are secondary vegetation on
abandoned fields (Numata, 1987).
3.1.7. Inundation and saline environment

Bamboos are not naturally found in saline coastal inundation or mangrove forests.
However, people in the coastal area of Bangladesh and India have been cultivating
bamboos in offshore homestead/farmlands. The common and most successful species
is B. vulgaris. B. balcooa and B. nutans are also extensively cultivated in the lower
parts of Odisha. B. atra (B. lineata) is found in the tidal swamp forest of Andamans
and, therefore, can be tried in coastal areas.
3.2. Raising of Bamboo Plantation

As an annually growing resource, bamboo provides woody material for several
subsistence purposes of the community. If bamboos were to be replaced with trees
only, would lead to a severe and rapid degradation of forests and forest cover (Banik,
2000).The important role of planted forests in mitigating climate change, conserving
biodiversity, combating land degradation and developing green economy has been
increasingly recognized (Winjum and Schroeder, 1997). Negative ecological and
social impacts of planted forests and the challenges confronting planted forests have
given rise to serious concern across the globe (Ferraz et al., 2013). So efforts should be
made to raise mixed plantations of bamboos, either by mixing dissimilar clones
(seeds/seedlings of different flowering populations, cohorts) of same bamboo species
and/or by planting more than one bamboo species in an area. Thus, a locality would
have mosaic plantation with a mixture of different bamboo species or cohorts (Banik,
2010a); this would buffer the large scale death of bamboos in a locality due to
gregarious flowering. Such practice would enhance the diversity both at species and
genetic level. Further, planting of narrow crowned deciduous local tree species at wide
spacing would improve the ecological diversity of the site.
3.2.1. Major considerations in plantation

Following issues are important while undertaking a plantation programme :
1) Ideal climatic condition are – rainfall above 1,000 mm; temperature
maximum 450C, minimum 50C; less windy; it prefers direct light, but can do under
planting also. The planting site should be flat land to gentle slope, moist,
well-drained, free from water logging; sandy loam with organic matter; not
saline, pH 4.0- 6.5.
2) The site should have infrastructure for aftercare, like, watering, misting, overhead
shade net for providing partial light to the plants; in transit nursery before
transplanting to the open nursery bed and field.
3) There should be an easy availability of skilled labourers in nursery and field.
4) Timely availability of capital should be ensured for nursery works and field
operations.
5) Appropriate field based technology and information should be available.
6) Selection of right species suitable to the local climate is vital for plantation success.
7) While selecting the species consider marketing opportunity of the produced
bamboo and other crops from the proposed plantation.
3.2.1.1. Type of planting material: These may be seeds (direct sowing in case of
M. baccifera), seedlings, culm- and branch-cuttings, and offsets. This chapter does not
have the scope to describe the techniques of production and nursery management of
culm and branch cuttings, offsets/rhizomes, and macroproliferation. Those details are
available in another chapter in this book and also in other publications (Banik, 1980,
1987, 1994, 1997a, 2000, 2008, 2010b; Surendran and Seethalakshmi, 1985), manuals
of INBAR and INFO-sheet/handbook of NMBA. Nowadays, tissue culture plants
(TCPs) are also available for some bamboo species.
3.2.1.2. Naturally grown wild seedlings: Naturally grown seedlings of bamboos are
also used as planting material depending on the availability. Wild seedlings of
bamboos, look like rice or wheat seedlings and are often seen as a thick mat on the
ground just below the flowering mother clumps. These densely populated seedlings
compete strongly in the wilderness for survival and should be thinned out to minimise
competition (Banik, 1990). These thinned out wild seedlings (wildlings) of different
bamboos can be successfully utilized as planting materials. Experience shows that
four to six leaved stage of wild seedlings of B. bambos, B. cacharensis,
B. polymorpha, B. tulda, D. giganteus, D. hamiltonii, D. longispathus, D. strictus,
G. andamanica, Schizostachyum dullooa, etc., are the best size for collection, while in
M. baccifera germinating seeds (seedlings) are best. However, six to nine months old
wild seedlings can also be collected, but collection and transplanting in the nursery
have to be done during May-June after onset of rains. Rain makes the soil in forest
floor soft and moist and as a result the shock due to injury in the rhizomes and roots
during collection becomes less. Immediately after collection these should be
transported to the nursery for bagging and hardening. Care should be taken during
transportation of these bare rooted planting stocks. Seedlings can be damaged by
overheating, dryness and physical damage during transportation. Seedlings should be
protected from sun, wind, and excessive drying. The bare root and rhizome portion of
the collected seedlings may be bundled (one bundle contains 10-20 seedlings
48 Ratan Lal Banik
depending on size) by wrapping with water soaked paper towel/jute sheet. Side
branches and few leaves may be trimmed off to cut down the transpiration surface of
the transporting seedlings. All bundles are then stacked side by side on the floor in
trucks and railway-wagon. During long distance transportation through truck,
sprinkle cool water on them time to time (excess watering rot the seedlings) and put
insulated cover to protect against the sun in well ventilated condition. Prefer to move
in the night, early morning or on rainy days. Soon after arrival to the nursery these
seedlings are transplanted to polythene bags containing soil, sand and mixed with
FYM/cowdung (2:1:1). At the beginning, seedlings have to be properly fogged with
water for a week while keeping under partial shade for hardening by placing overhead
shade-net (60%) for healthy growth. Seedlings need regular weeding and daily
watering (misting) at the nursery stage.
3.2.1.3. Identification of the bamboo planting material (BPM): It is very difficult to
identify the bamboo species by looking at seeds. The seedlings, cuttings and TCPs of
the different species look similar at the young stage, and as a result identification of the
desired species is also very difficult or in most cases impossible. Moreover when more
than one bamboo species are raised in a nursery, they should be properly labelled with
the species name, source and date of collection/germination or rooting of cuttings to
prevent wrong identification of planting materials.
3.2.1.4. Source of planting materials: Record should be maintained of geographical
source. Tall, handsome, large-culm type of Bambusa bambos commonly found in the
hills of south India. Clumps of largest size and fine conditions are found in the hills
of Circars, especially about the Godavari, on the hill ranges of the eastern and
southern scarps of the Mysore plateau and in the Nilgiris. But most of the clumps of
this species found on the low hills of Odisha, lower Bengal, south eastern part of
Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Uttar Pradesh of India; northern Bangladesh,
and across Myanmar are comparatively dwarf, very thorny, thickly interlaced
branched and small-culm type which are often crooked and knotty. The dwarf
thickly branched and very thorny type is commonly cultivated as fences at the
periphery of homestead and vegetable gardens; and is also getting popularity as border
fence. Similarly, in D. strictus (a) Common type i) grows everywhere, has ordinary
form producing medium-sized culms with thick wall. ii) culms are hollow with
relatively thin walls, generally found in depressions, on cooler aspects, and where
conditions are more favourable. iii) clump does not attain a big size, culms solid or
nearly so, usually found on ridges and on hotter aspects. (b) Large type - grows within
the forests of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Odisha has practically no side branches to a
great height and seldom shows sign of congestion. The culms are big with long,
straight and smooth internodes. Such types may be seen in certain localities, as for
example, Nauri, Lansdowne division in Uttarakhand. In north Bihar's Samastipur and
Pusa such type is also found and locally called 'dominee' baans. Clump looks somewhat
similar to B. balcooa. (c) Dwarf type - this is of a small size and only rarely forms
clumps. It is typically found in some places of Madhya Pradesh and to a limited extent
elsewhere.
In case of TCPs, in most cases, the identity and explants source of mother plant are
not mentioned while procuring the material. A buyer should be sure that the supplied
TCPs are from a number of selected elite mothers (more number of tested clones) of
bamboo species of his choice. In fact effort should be made to procure more number of
clones of a species to maintain wide genetic base in the plantation. In some occasions it
has been observed that TCPs may develop undesirable growth form (bushy, lanky,
variegation in leaves, albino, precocious flowering in nursery or in the field, etc.)
probably due to unverified source and/or continuously prolonged reculturing of too old
mother culture stocks stored under stress condition. These factors are important
consideration. So the suppliers should be trustworthy and dependable and also provide
a note of clonal numbering of the cultures and plantlets raised from the cultures.
However, even then TCP with proven sources and protocol can provide rapid
multiplication of huge number of plant material required to raise large scale
commercial bamboo plantation.
Therefore, planting materials (seeds, seedlings, cuttings, offsets, TCP, etc.) of
suitable and right `source` should be collected for raising plantation in accordance with
the objective of utilization and marketing.
3.2.1.5. Seedlings of better growth-form: Even within a species there are great
variations in growth-forms observed in the nursery beds, especially when seedlings
are raised from the seeds after gregarious flowering. Different types of growth-form
like, grassy, grassy erect, erect and very erect have been seen among the seedling
population of B. glaucescens, B. tulda and D. strictus (Banik, 1980); and bushy
seedlings in B. bambos (Kondas et al., 1973). The erect and very erect type grew
faster with elongated nodes and wider culm diameter while the somewhat bushy
forms developed with many small culms. The erect and very erect (not lanky), and
vigorously growing type of seedlings should be selected (juvenile selection) and
multiplied through rhizome separation (macroproliferation method of
multiplication) to produce more plants selected type (clone) for raising a bamboo
plantation of maximum growth potential (Banik, 1997a). The grassy and bushy type
may be utilized as ornamentals or bonsai plants.
3.2.2. Nursery management of planting materials (seedlings, cuttings, offsets, etc.):

The following are some important operations for producing healthy planting materials:
The approximate size of nursery bed to stock the planting material may be 1.2 m width
x 6-10 m length. The bed should be levelled so that there is no accumulation of water,
50 Ratan Lal Banik
and may be prepared on flat cemented platform. The seed germination bed is usually
elevated having media of smooth mixture of sand, soil and FYM/cowdung in ratio of
2:1:1, while the propagation bed should have only clean sand of 23 cm depth for
proper initiation and development of roots in cuttings.
Polythene bags should be black with few holes at bottom and lower portion of all
side for proper drainage of excess water. Size of about 16 cm width x 20 cm length is
found adequate for proper growth of rhizome that ensures the ultimate health of
bamboo planting materials.
The bags should be filled with potting mixture (soil, sand and FYM/cowdung
/vermi-compost in 2:1:1) ratio and kept ready before transplanting the seedlings
from the seed beds, and removing the rooted cuttings from propagation bed. Slowly
shake the bag so that growth mixture tightly fill the bags and no air pockets exist
inside the bag. Add some potting mixture in the top of the bag to fill the space
created due to shaking. Press the medium mixture firmly with fingers at the base
of the plant, especially cutting, to keep it in place. Watering should be done
slowly in the form of shower (mist) till the whole depth (column) of the medium
gets fully soaked. Thus the media mixture would tightly fix around the roots. Add
some potting mixture in the top of the bag to fill the space created to watering. Shift
these bags to hardening site.
Watering is essential, but excess causes damping off. Necessary facilities for
irrigation (misting and fogging) are required for proper rooting and hardening,
especially immediately after transfer of seedlings from seed bed or wild seedlings
from forest floor or cuttings from propagation beds to polythene bags. Fogging is
essential to harden the TCP by maintaining high humidity around the freshly obtained
plantlets from the suppliers.
Initially, one partial (60%) sun light should be provided by placing the polythene
bags containing plants under overhead shade-net at least up to four to six month of age,
then gradually shift the polythene bags with plants to direct sun. Initial partial shade
would improve the length of the seedlings at early stage.
Regular weeding, soil loosening, adding soils and FYM/cow-dung in the
polythene bags are essential. One may apply fertilizer through water - both foliar and
ground. The increase in total biomass was found to be much greater (88%) due to N
treatment than phosphorus treatment (24%). The highest total biomass (7.31 g/plant)
of B. tulda seedling was obtained in plants fertilised with N and P as compared to
2.94g/plant in control. A two-split application at four and eight weeks after
germination or rooting in cuttings was superior to single application.
Protect plants from grazing by cattle, goats, monkeys, rabbits, wild pigs,
elephants, etc. Care should be taken that the plants remain free of disease. Control pest
and diseases by cleaning and providing sanitation in the nursery area; if insect attack is
severe, consult experts. Any symptom of fungal attack should be immediately attended
to by spraying 0.25 per cent Bavistin solution.
Frequent shifting of polythene bags with bamboo seedlings, cuttings, etc. from one
bed to other is essential otherwise the roots and rhizomes of one bag penetrate the
adjacent bags, get intermingled with one other and thus plants cannot be transferred to
the field plantation without damage and injuries. It is better to house the polythene bags
with plants on cemented platform to prevent root and rhizome penetration below the
ground.
3.2.2.1. Handling and field plantations of TCP: For field planting, TCPs should be
fully hardened and healthy. These should be of minimum 60 cm in height, minimum
three to four shoots with four to eight leaves per shoot, and well developed root and
rhizome system with adequate number of secondary and tertiary roots and root hairs to
enable growth and survival under field planting conditions.
3.2.3. Some popular local bamboo species for plantation and their major
utilization: Following bamboo species are most popular in the sub-continent for
raising plantation (Table 3.2.3.1.).
Instead of clear felling a 2.5 m wide strip, cleaning of land surface is preferred
during site preparation depending on weed density in the area. Avoid burning of cut
jungles and weeds. The land can be prepared in three ways, such as, overall land
preparation, strip land preparation and land preparation for spot planting. The strip land
preparation is generally adopted on hill slope planting. To prevent the soil erosion and
water loss, strip land preparation can be made parallel to the contours. Manual site
preparation reduces erosion and nutrient run-off. The plantations pits of 45 cm x 45 cm
x 45 cm are usually dug in the centre of cleaned strip keeping some more space (say, 15
cm) to fill with mixture of loose sandy soil and FYM/humus around the outside of the
plant during planting. The spacing of 5 m x 5 m, 6 m x 6 m between the pits are practiced
mainly for production of timber culm. However, spacing may be changed depending
on the purpose of plantation. Closer spacing (2 m x 2 m, 3 m x 3 m or 1.5 m x 1.5 m) are
practised for quicker regreening the land, gully plantation, biomass production, control
of soil erosion and conservation of water catchment area. In species like Thyrsostachys
oliveri closer spacing, 1.2 m x 1.2 m or 2 m x 1.5 m are maintained for yielding straight
culms.
Fertilizer and manure should be applied at least two to three week before
planting. Fill up the pits with soil, FYM (10 kg), urea (20 g), triple superphosphate
(20 g) and muriate of potash (10 g). A treatment against ants and termites may be
carried out by spraying of the soil with Decis (deltamethrine) at 15 g m-2 or with Diazinon
(240 g l-1).
52 Ratan Lal Banik
Table 3.2.3.1. A list of local bamboo species for plantation in the sub-continent
Note: Type of plantation suitable for: For Pln= Forest plantation, Com Pln=Commercial Plantation, Orn/Ln Pln =
Ornamental/Lawn Plantation, So Wc Pln= Soil erosion control and water conservation plantation.
Utilization: AS= Agarbatti sticks, ES= Edible shoot, FN=Fencing, FI=Furniture industry, FR= Fishing rod, MT= Mats,
NI=Novelty items, ST=Structural and construction works, PP=Pulp and paper industries, OR=Ornamental purpose,
KT=Kite making.
3.2.4. After care of newly raised plantation: Planting should be started at the onset of
rainy season with nine to twelve months old planting material. During first, second and
third year the following field operations should be practiced.
3.2.4.1. Protection from fire, grazing and trampling: Some dead, leafless branch of
any thorny plants may be put around the newly planted bamboo plant to prevent the
entry of grazing animal. Fire lines of 5-7 m wide are usually made along the vulnerable
boundary to control spread of fire, and this line can also be used as inspection road for
monitoring the sites.
3.2.4.2. Ring (1.0 m wide) weeding/vine cutting: around the plant is carried out at the
beginning and later part of rainy season, may repeat in fourth year depending on the
weed density.
3.2.4.3. Gap filling: Usually 15-20 per cent of mortality is observed after first year of
plantation. The vacant pits need to be filled up sometimes up to third year during rainy
season.
3.2.4.4. Loosening of soil: Soil is loosened around the plants, mounding is needed if
rain water stagnates at the base of young plants. Drain out stagnant water from the
clump bases after heavy rain.
3.2.4.5. Mulching: After light soil works cover the base of the plants with mulch at the
end of rainy season. Mulching protects the young plants from desiccation during dry
period; also increases the soil temperature in winter.
3.2.4.6. Intercropping: Some legume crops, like pea (Pisum sativum), mung
(Phaseolus aureus), lentil (Lens esculenta), soybean (Glycine max), arhar (Cajanus
cajan), etc. are grown also on raised land while crops like okra (Hibiscus esculentus),
turmeric (Curcuma longa), ginger (Zingiber officinale) are grown in between the
planting rows. In comparatively wet land, mustard (Brassica spp.), Sesbania sp, can be
grown. Sometimes rice (Oryza sativa), wheat (Triticum aestivum) and maize (Zea
mays) are also cultivated in widely spaced (9m x 9m, 10m x 10m) bamboo plantation at
the early stage of plantation establishment. However, crops should not be planted too
close to the bamboo plants; usually one metre space is left from the base of a bamboo
plant. Tree crop Aegle marmelos, Areca catechu, Phyllanthus emblica, Albizzia sp.,
Gmelina arborea, Tectona grandis, Toona ciliata, Lagerstroemia speciosa, Ziziphus
mauritiana, Dalbergia sisso, Populus alba, P. gamblei, etc. can be planted at wider
spacing, commonly 12 m x 10 m, 15 m x 15 m or more as the case may be.
3.3. Bamboo Stand

A bamboo stand is composed of the standing bamboos at different ages, in which culms
components of various ages are present. The difference in vigour and capacity of
accumulating organic matter of bamboos in a stand will lead to difference in the
capacity of production and biomass formation. The growth of the stand is characterized
by the increase in volume, number and weight, including shoot emergence, new culm
growth, branch and leaf spread, and the development of rhizome system including buds
and roots. Under tropical rain forest conditions, bamboo possesses luxuriant growth
with a vigorous underground rhizome system and it grows either in pure stands or
54 Ratan Lal Banik
mixed with trees as understorey and/or intercrop. Descriptions of bamboo stand may
often be generalized or inferred by composition or ecological description such as
continuous, dense, patchy, scattered, dominant crown, understorey, etc.
The stands are divided into pure stand and mixed stand. The stand composition is
expressed in terms of the crown cover which can be divided in to ten equal parts. For
example: pure stand means all the ten parts in a unit area are covered with bamboos.
Similarly in a mixed stand composition bamboo could be, say, six bamboos, three trees,
one shrub; meaning the mixed bamboo stands contains sixth-tenths of bamboo, two-
tenths trees and one-tenth shrubs. The clumps of M. baccifera, B. polymorpha, B. tulda,
and D. longispathus are also found to grow as an understorey inside the well thinned
crop of deciduous timber species of T. grandis, L. speciosa, T. ciliata, Albizia spp. and
G. arborea in Assam, Tripura, CHTs and Sylhet forests. The clumps of D. hamiltonii
always occur as associated crops in the exposed condition and rarely under the tree
canopy. They also provide essential food, e.g., leaves, emerging shoots and tender
twigs, etc. for wildlife species, like elephant, monkey, porcupine, rabbit and shelter for
some birds. In Nepal, Bhutan and Uttarakhand in India Drepanostachyum species
occur as understorey bamboos of the warm broadleaved forest type such as Schima-
Castanopsis and serve as fodder for wild animals. Thamnocalamus, frost hardy
bamboo species are found from 2,800 m-3,500 m in temperate forest and provide food
for animals such as bear and red panda (Ailurus fulgens) and shelter for birds like
pheasant. Red pandas are strongly associated with old growth Bhutan fir (Abies densa)
forest dominated by a dense cover of Yushania and Arundanaria bamboo (Dorji et al.,
2011). Thus, mixed bamboo vegetation and understorey bamboo species are an
essential component in many forest ecosystems (Taylor et al., 2004). The mix of plant
species is important for maintaining high levels of nutrients in the soil. There are some
microbes and bacteria which can decompose the litters and help to loosen the soil.
Presence of vesicular arbuscular mycorrihzae (VAM) Glomus albidum,
G. fasciculatum, G. mosseae, and Gigapora sp. were found in healthy clumps of
B. bambos in Kerala (Appasamy and Ganapathy, 1992).
Clearfelling of forest, burning and other disturbances tend to assist bamboo
vegetation as, while its timber associates are killed, bamboos regenerate itself by
sending up new culms from its perennial subterranean rhizomes with less or no
competition. This is particularly the case with M. baccifera which tends to suppress
other species due to its aggressive habit and has the ability to grow in valley, steep slope
and top of the hills of CHTs, Mizoram, Manipur (Tamenglong and Jiribam area),
Nagaland, Tripura and Arakan in Myanmar. In such a pure stand, rarely a mixture of
two or more bamboo species is found. If at all it forms a mixed stand, it may be 90-95
per cent M. baccifera and rest are B. tulda, D. hamiltonii, D. longispathus,
Schizostachyum sp., etc. as found in these areas.
3.3.1. Understanding efficiency of bamboo stand structure: The stand structure is

the vertical and horizontal organization component of the bamboo clump (culms and
rhizomes) in ages and numbers, which determines its properties and functions. Higher
economic output can be achieved from a bamboo stand having proper density, age, size
of the culms and rhizomes. The dominance of young and strong rhizomes in a bamboo
stand affords greater capacity to absorb mineral elements, and store higher amount of
carbohydrate, resulting in greater shoot production and growth. The healthy
underground rhizome system is vital base organ of the system and responsible for
vegetative reproduction and expansion. The one- to two-year-old culms are soft and
usually not economically useful but are important in the stand for continuation of
production of new bamboos. The number of leaves and leaf biomass are highest in two-
year old culm of D. longispathus (Banik, 2000; Banik and Islam, 2005) (Table 2.4.1.),
and M. baccifera (Ueda, 1960) then gradually decrease as the culm gets older. The
older culms (more than three years old) in a clump fail to produce sufficient numbers of
new branches and leaves, and thus have less amount of photosynthetic surface that
allows less amount of food storage in the rhizome. As a result, shoot production gets
reduced in the clumps having older culms. Thus, one-to two-year, and in some case a
few three-year old culms (for mechanical strength to the clump) should be retained in
the stand. Majority of bamboo species growing naturally in the moist habitat in high
rainfall zone in northeast India and Chittagong Hill tracts commonly possess
comparatively bigger size of leaves. It was found that the total fresh weight of leaves
roughly equals the total fresh weight of new culms that develop annually (Ueda, 1960).
Further, growth and development also depend on the genetic character of the species
along with environmental conditions.
A scientific management of nutrient in a bamboo stand is a very essential
consideration to maintain the productivity. It is suggested to allow the leaves, twigs,
and thin tips of harvested culms to accumulate and rot in the forest floor which helps in
cycling of the nutrient.
3.3.1.1. Impact of bamboo on soil properties: Bamboos are fast growing, fibrous and
shallow rooted plants and hence nutrient cycling is more within the upper 15-20 cm
from soil layer. In most cases, rhizomes lie in soils 20-50 cm deep. In B. tulda roots are
mostly distributed within 33 cm and in M. baccifera 66 cm of soil surface
(Table 3.3.1.1.1.).
The occurrence of maximum amount of bamboo roots in the upper portion of the
ground help in binding the surface soil and thereby controlling soil erosion.
The soil colour, structure, texture, and the development of subsurface horizons are
greatly influenced by the growth of continuous vegetation of M. baccifera,
D. hamiltonii, D. longispathus in the hills of northeast India and CHTs, and reed
56 Ratan Lal Banik
Table 3.3.1.1.1. Distribution of root of a well developed clump of B. tulda and M. baccifera at different
soil depths
Soil depth from Average amount of root present per 10 cm3 below the ground
surface to bottom
(cm) B. tulda* M. baccifera**
Biomass (g) Percentage Biomass (g) Percentage
0-33 Not reported 83.00 19.94 70.38
33-66 NR 12.0 6.74 23.80
66-100 NR 4.0 1.25 4.41
100-150 NR 1.0 0.40 1.41
NR 100 28.33 100
* White and Childers (1945); ** Banik (2010a, b).
bamboo (Ochlandra travancorica) in Kerala when compared with adjacent non-

bamboo areas. Every year huge amount of litter falls on the ground and quickly gets
decomposed. As a result bamboo growing soils are mostly brown to dark in colour,
coarse textured, loose and acidic with higher content of organic matter. Due to the
growth of bamboo, soil improves with respect to pH, exchangeable Ca, Mg, and K
(Pant et al., 1993) Among the exchangeable cations in the reed bamboo
(O. travancorica) growing soils in Kerala, Ca dominates and the order of abundance is
Ca >Mg >K >Na (Sujatha et al., 2008).
Bamboo forests hold captive a large amount as carbon sinks. When a newly
planted bamboo forest reaches its final size after several years and no longer increases
in height, culm thickness or density, this forest has reached a state of biological
equilibrium. Every year bamboos are harvested from the clump and thus the above-
ground biomass is utilized. As the clumps become older the below-ground portions
remain unharvested and biomass allocation gets higher. The above-ground/below-
ground ratio of biomass in a M. baccifera clump was 2.03, 2.41, 2.51, 2.74 and 2.07 at
ten-month, three-year, five-year, seventeen-year and twenty five-year age,
respectively (Banik, 2010). Further study shows that the canopy architecture of
M. baccifera showed maximum plasticity in respect of biomass formation any time
between seventeen to twenty-five years of clump age. The existing Melocanna
vegetation extended over large tract of land in the region from the forests of northeast
India, Sylhet, Chiitagong, CHTs up to Myanmar have been serving as storehouse of a
huge amount of carbon (organic matter) inside the rhizome net-work than other
bamboo species of short necked rhizome system, and thus has immense impact on the
carbon sequestration.
Bamboo soil is a good sink of soil organic carbon (SOC) accumulating 181.22 m t
of SOC in crop land. Overall estimates suggest that soils supporting bamboo species
(D. longispathus, M. baccifera) can hold up to 177.49t SOC ha-1 of degraded jhum land
in Mizoram (Jha and Lalnunmawia, 2004). Higher content of organic carbon

(2-2.5%) was noted in the bamboo growing soils when compared with other forest
plantations. The soil organic carbon pool under bamboo amounts to 92 t ha-1 at 70 cm
depth comparable to both forest and regenerated forest in the northern Central
Upland of Vietnam and 20 per cent higher than land cultivation with cassava or maize
(Ly et al., 2012).
3.3.2. Management Practices for Bamboo Stands: In general it is felt that the
existing practices of bamboo grove management are mostly traditional and have little
scientific back up. With the present awareness of bamboo as a cash crop, people are
showing interest in raising bamboo plantation. So it has become more relevant with
advent of commercial bamboo plantation for the maximization of production of
desired raw material to feed the bamboo based industries.
Grown for different purposes: In order to achieve the expected fast growth, high
quality and more productive yield species should be selected that are suitable for
particular environmental conditions and bring economic benefits. According to the
currently prevalent intensive production management practices, bamboo stands can be
categorised into five end-use types (Fu Maoyi and Banik, 1996): timber stand,
including timber-and-shoot stands, edible shoot stand, pulp stand, ornamental stand,
and water/soil conservation stand. The following cultural operations have to be
practised for healthy growth of the bamboo clumps.
3.3.2.1. Stands for culm timber: The end-product of sympodial species, such as
B. balcooa, B. bambos, B. cacharensis, B. nutans, B. polymorpha, B. tulda, B. vulgaris,
D. brandisii, D. giganteus, D. hamiltonii, D. strictus, Gigantochloa sp., M. baccifera,
Pseudoxytenanthera stocksii, T. oliveri, etc. is three to four years old culm timbers. The
recommended stand density is 600-700 clumps per hectare (depending on the species
nature) each clump containing 10 to 20 culms at one to three years of age. The naturally
grown B. tulda in best areas of Assam forest yields 12.5 tonnes (dry) per ha on a four
year cycle. The yield of cultivated variety of B. tulda in the villages of Assam and
Tripura is further high about 20-23 t ha-1. The annual yield of culm timber generally
ranges from 3 to 10 t ha-1, sometimes reaching 25 to 40 t ha-1 in well managed clumps
grown in homesteads, by planting the quality planting material, like cuttings/offsets of
B. bambos, B. balcooa, B. cacharensis, B. nutans, B. vulgaris, D. hamiltonii,
D. strictus, P. stocksii, etc. produced from high yielding plus clump, and also by
juvenile selection of vigorously growing seedlings of B. bambos, B. polymorpha,
B. tulda, D. hamiltonii, D. strictus, etc. under scientific management practices. There is
a 'growth-form' (Banik, 1995) of B. balcooa locally called 'Shilbarak' cultivated in
58 Ratan Lal Banik
Assam, Tripura and Sylhet (Bangladesh), which possesses tall (25-29 m), big dbh
(12-15 cm), and very thickwalled culms, each culm pole is 80-95 kg in weight; and on
an average minimum of five culms can be harvested from a mature clump. Due to large
size and strong nature, annually about 606.2 millions poles of these cultivated bamboo
species are used for constructing rural houses, temporary bridges, scaffolding, and
pandals for religious and social gathering, cultural meetings; and about 4 million poles
for making rickshaw hood, boat roof, punt pole and bullock cart in Bangladesh only
(Banik, 1992; 2000). These figures should be much higher for such utilization in India.
The quantity of bamboo (B. bambos) used from the rural sector in Kerala during 1987-
1988 was around 3.2 million culms. Presently all these species are also utilized as raw
material for industries like furniture making, bamboo ply-wood, and others besides
traditional use in pulp and paper making.
Some species are grown for both culm timber and edible shoots, so they may be
termed as 'timber-shoot stand' or 'multipurpose stand'. In the hills, in north-east India,
Myanmar and Bangladesh, the indigenous people manage the bamboo groves of
different species (D. hamiltonii, D. longispathus, B. bambos, B. polymorpha,
M. baccifera, etc.) for culm timber and edible shoots.
Some timber stand may even serve ornamental purpose, the common species are
B. multiplex, B. ventricosa, B. vulgaris var. striata, B. vulgaris cv. wamin,
D. giganteus, Lingnania (Bambusa) chungii, T. oliveri, T. siamensis, etc. Cultural
measures for multipurpose stand differ somewhat with those employed for single-
purpose stand. The culm tips of D. hamiltonii have been tended and bent in the form of
a gate in a park (Fig. 3.3.2.1.1.).
3.3.2.1.1. Loosening of soil: Soil around each of the plants are loosened carefully just
before the start of dormant dry winter. This is usually practised in homestead, small
bamboo groves and flat lands. Loosening the soil to a depth of 6-12 cm and removing
weeds around bamboo clumps every summer or autumn are to be done carefully
without damaging the underground rhizomes or buds on them to stimulate shoot
sprouting, prevent bamboo roots from getting entangled, and increase nutrient supply
for shoot production. Soil-loosening and weeding could be combined at the end of
winter so that underground buds get exposed to higher temperatures and air.
3.3.2.1.2. Mounding and mulching: Adding of new soil (mounding) to the clump
base at the beginning of rainy season improves aeration condition for rhizome during
flooding caused by sudden heavy showers (Fig. 3.3.2.1.2.1.). Shoot must be covered
with moist soil to prevent damage from excessive heat and sunlight before the hot
summer, 350-400C. Mulching has been found very effective for the better growth of
bamboo clumps. Mulching with bamboo leaves, rice straw, litter of other plants or
water hyacinth (as seen in homesteads of eastern part of the sub-continent) improves
the aeration, fertility status and preserve moisture in the ground thus promoting
healthy culm production by nourishing and protecting the mother rhizome. It is best not
to sweep away the bamboo leaves from the base of the clumps, as they keep the soil soft
and moist, and recycle silica and other natural chemicals necessary to improve the
clump health. Studies showed that mulching (at least 2 cm thick) with the crushed
bamboo prevented the decrease of the soil water content, and the total requirement of
irrigated water was reduced by 20 per cent compared to no mulching (Omoto et al.,
2011). It keeps the soil temperature lower than the other mulches and increases made
the electrical conductivity in the soil.
3.3.2.1.3. Fertilizer application: Fertilizers should be applied about a month before
sprouting periods so that the effects appear at the time of sprouting and growth
(Uchimura, 1980); It should be applied twice a year. The first application should be
done during April-May in north and northwest, but February-March in northeast and
south, about six weeks after raking the soil directly at the base of the bamboo clumps.
About 10-20 kg of composted organic manure or 150-200 kg of pond silt may be
applied per clump. The second fertilizing, called top dressing, is carried out between
June and August, when bamboo shooting is most active. Each clump may receive 0.5
kg of chemical fertilizers (urea or ammonium sulphate) or 10-12.5 kg of fermented
farmyard manure. Then, the clump bases must be covered with earth. Chemical
fertilizers should not be allowed to come in direct contact with young shoots, the shoots
may wither and die. Watering should be done at this stage to ensure proper nutrient
distribution.
A good alternative to chemical fertilizer is the addition of 6-8 t ha-1 vermicompost.
A vermiculture bed (1 m wide x 25-30 cm high x10 m long) may be prepared in
between the rows of plantation; 10 per cent land (1,000 sq.m) per ha is utilized for
this purpose. Litter mixed with cow dung is placed in the bed for one to two week and
then a few earthworms are added, gradually the population of earthworm increases
and starts producing compost. Such vermicompost may be yielded at three to four
cycle per year; the output per cycle is about 58,110 kg x 3.5 times = 203,385 kg total
yield in a year. This improves land's quality, controls weed and provides extra income
to the farmer.
3.3.2.1.4. Watering: On the homestead and in marginal lands irrigation of the
clumps by a bucket of water once a fortnight during the drier months of the year is
adequate.
3.3.2.1.5. Protection from fire and animal: During drier months fire in the field may
burn the mulch and kill the plants. Regular watch is essential. The plant may also be
browsed by cattle and buffalo. Monkey, wild boar, rabbit and porcupine like to eat
young bamboo shoots. So bamboo stands need to be protected throughout the year.
Trenches may be dug at boundary lines to prevent the entrance of grazing animals,
including elephants.
60 Ratan Lal Banik
3.3.2.1.6. Pruning of branches: Bamboo clumps like B. balcooa and B. bambos

possess long stout branches throughout the culms. Specially, the branches of B. bambos
bear thorns at all the nodes. As a result, it becomes difficult to take care and manage the
clumps by coming closer to the plants. Harvesting of culms from the clumps also
becomes difficult and in some occasions impossible. It is recommended to prune
thoroughly all such branches growing at the basal to mid nodal portion of more than
two year old culms. The four to six months old branches of this bamboo (B. bambos) are
cut/ pruned from the standing culms during the months of December- January from
mid to lower culm part (Fig. 3.3.2.1.6.1.), and thereafter utilized to make fence at the
boundary of homestead, farms and crop land. The pruned out branches of B. bambos
provide supplementary income for the farmers in Kerala and drier parts of Bihar,
Jharkhand and West Bengal. Such stout branches are also used as support for small
climbing vegetable annuals, and also as fire wood. These branches are sometimes
used as reinforced materials at the centre of mud wall for construction of houses.
Pruning is not necessary in a thick bamboo stand where branches are less on the culm
due to crown compactness.
In the hills of Uttarakhand, during March-April it was observed that the culms of
D. hamiltonii and D. strictus lopped at the top induced more branches and foliage
below, which were being used as fodder. The culm height is thus controlled and the
leaves can be easily harvested for use as cattle fodder.
3.3.2.1.7. Sanitary felling: Damaged, dying, dead, rotten, malformed and weaker culms
need to be cut from the clumps and taken out. It improves the health condition of the
clumps by facilitating proper growth and development of new shoots (Banik, 2000).
Thinning of bamboo is a pre-requisite for sustaining the vigour of rhizomes by reducing
competition, encourage new sprouting (of culms), and also lessen fire and insect threats.
There was an increase in culm production of D. strictus for the next two or more years
after each cleaning and thinning (Kadambi, 1949). Bamboo in general is resistant to
insect and fungal attacks. Integrated management reduces the insect and fungal
diseases.
3.3.2.2. Stand for edible shoots: Edible bamboo shoots, rich in proteins and cellulose,
are traditionally considered as quality natural food in many Asian countries, and are
gradually finding acceptance in Europe and the Americas. After removing the sheath
the inner tender portion is thoroughly washed in water and then cut into pieces. The
pieces are usually consumed as vegetable ingredients in curry or soup by mixing with
fish or meat, and also as pickle.
In the vast region of northeast India and Chittagong Hill tracts the major supply
comes from M. baccifera followed by D. hamiltonii and D. longispathus. Shoots of
these species are commonly used as food by the local tribal people of Tripura,
Mizoram, Manipur (Tamenglong), Meghalaya (Garo), Chittagong, Chittagong Hill

tract (CHTs), Sylhet and Mymensingh. In natural condition the production potential of
clumps is not fully utilized because of combination of several factors like over
exploitation both for culm and shoot, and cattle browsing. Besides, other essential
clump management practices like periodical weeding, fertilizing, irrigation and
mulching which are important for optimizing the shoot production are not being
practised in the natural bamboo forests.
3.3.2.2.1. Shoot characters and edibility of some local species: Fairly acceptable
taste and easy availability (about 70-95 per cent of the total bamboo resources) of
shoots of M. baccifera has made the species most common bamboo vegetable for the
tribal people of Tripura and Chittagong hill tract. There is great variation in colour,
shape and size of shoot and edibility among and within the bamboo species (Banik,
1995, 1997b). The shoots of D. longispathus, M. baccifera, S. dullooa and T. oliveri are
somewhat cylindrical while in B. balcooa, D. asper, D. giganteus, D. hamiltonii, etc.
There are more or less conical and big in size.
The weights of sheath cover and edible portions of shoot are more or less the same
in all the species except B. bambos, B. vulgaris and D. longispathus. In B. bambos and
B. vulgaris the weight of edible portion of shoot is higher than that of sheath covers. But
in D. longispathus edible portion is comparatively less in weight (Banik, 1997b)
(Table 3.3.2.2.1.1.). Among different bamboo species studied, B. polymorpha,
D. longispathus and M. baccifera were found to produce shoots with somewhat bitter
to sweet taste and pleasant flavour at raw state. The shoots of S. dullooa are bitter in
taste and very rarely used as food. With two changes of water in cooking, the unpleasant
Table 3.3.2.2.1. Weight and edibility characteristics of the shoots of some important bamboo growing
in the sub-continent
Species Basal diameter Fresh weight (%) Taste Flavour Colour Texture
Sheath Edible part
B. bambos 8.6 35.5 64.5 Bt – S.Bt As-T.Bt Yl Cr-Tu
B. longispiculata 6.2 45.6 54.4 Bt – S.Bt S.Bt-As Cm Cr-Tn
B. polymorpha 9.8 47.6 52.4 S.Sw-Sw As-Sw Cw Cr-Tn
B. tulda, 5.4 49.2 50.8 V.Bt-Bt Bt-As Cw Tu-Cr
B. vulgaris 10.3 30.5 69.5 Bt-S.Bt S.Bt-As Wh Tu-Cr
D. giganteus 17.6 58.2 41.8 V.Bt-Bt T.Bt-As Cm Tn-Cr
D. longispathus 5.6 52.8 47.2 S.Bt-S.Sw Pn-Sw Cm Tn-Cr
M. baccifera 4.7 44.2 55.8 S.Bt-Sw Sw-As Cw Cr-Tn
S. dullooa 4.2 47.8 52.2 Bt-S.Bt Bt-As Cm Tn-Cr
T. oliveri 6.3 46.2 53.8 S.Bt T.Bt-As Wh Tn-Cr
Taste and Flavour: Bt = Bitter, Sw = Sweet, Pn = Pungency, As = Astringency, S = Slight. T = Trace, V = Very.
Texture: Tn = Tender, Tu =Tough, Cr = Crisp, Fb = Fibrous. Colour: Yl = Yellow, Cw = Creamy white.
62 Ratan Lal Banik
taste is practically dispelled, and ordinary seasoning with salt (2% of solution) and
butter makes the bamboo agreeably palatable. In general, the older and tall shoots are
more fibrous than younger ones (Kennard and Freyre, 1957).
The cultural measures for a shoot stand differ from those for a timber stand because
the former needs better site conditions in terms of light, heat and water. When growing
some of the tropical or sub-tropical bamboos for edible shoot production, the base of
the clumps must be mounded up with soil, mixed with organic manure in each winter to
provide darkness to the young shoots which are going to emerge in the spring
(Herklots, 1972). This prevents the development of chemical substances that give rise
to an intensely disagreeable odour and taste in cooking.
3.3.2.2.2. Fertilizer application: An edible-shoot stand consumes more mineral
nutrients from the soil than a culm-timber stand and, hence, the application of organic
or chemical fertilizers is important. In the case of chemical fertilizer, NPK fertilizers
(without silicon) should be used. The ratio of N, P and K will vary with site
conditions. The ratio could be 4:3:1 or 5:2.1. Up to 1.5 t ha-3 of NPK fertilizer should
be applied annually. The standard fertilizer applications per hectare of bamboo shoot
farms of 230 kg of nitrogen, 150 kg of phosphorus, and 200 kg of potassium was
found to improve the yield in shoot farms of China. There may be a delay in
absorption of nutrients if the fertilizers are applied directly on the ground. So,
sometimes an alternative method of 'foliar spray' could also be tried (Uchimura,
1980). In the area where the leaves of the bamboo clumps were sprayed with alpha-
naphthalene acetic acid (Alpha-NAA) plus urea it, showed better results than the
plants supplied with NPK spread directly on the ground. About 5 kg farmyard
manure may also be applied per clump. The shoot yield usually increases more than 30
per cent by the application of fertilizer. The best time of fertilizer application is one or
two months before shoot emergence.
Some farmers in Assam, Tripura and West Bengal practice a special method of
edible shoot production. Just at the time of emergence from the ground the shoot is
covered with an earthen pot. Some weight is put on the lid of the pot so that shoot below
the cover cannot push out the pot during the process of elongation. While developing,
within a few days, the shoot bulges in to cabbage like shape or may coil around inside
the pot. Such shoots are usually soft and possess less amount of pigment as they
develop in darkness inside the pot. This type of edible shoot is usually favoured by the
plain land people for making curry.
In most species shooting starts from May and reaches the peak from early July to
late August. The shooting intensity decreases from later part of September and ends
around late October to November. This period is, usually, short in north western part of
India. Normally, depending on the species, the annual shoot yield is 2-4 t ha-1. But with
the intensive management the yield can be increased. Normally about two to four
healthy shoots are left in the clump at the time of harvest, these ultimately become
healthy young culms and next year can produce more shoots. According to Kennard
and Freyre (1957) sufficient new shoots should be allowed to mature, to maintain the
clump in a healthy and vigorous condition.
3.3.2.2.3. Irrigation: Irrigation might be required for intensively managed shoot
stands when there is no rain for more than ten days, especially during shooting period.
3.3.2.2.4. Mulching: Compared with the untreated one, mulches enhance the shoot
yield and quality. Mulching promotes made early shoots emergence and also prolong
the shooting period. Qungen et al. (1996) observed that mulches increased soil
temperature to varying degrees. The average soil temperature at 10, 20 and 25 cm
depths were increased by 5.33, 3.83 and 1.750C by rice stalk, rice chaff and bamboo
leaves, respectively during winter (December-January). The increased soil
temperature boosted the physiological activity of underground rhizomes of bamboo
plants and stimulated the sprouting of shoots. The highest yield increase of 117 per cent
was obtained with pine leaves, while the highest value increase of 270 per cent was
recorded with rice chaff.
3.3.2.2.5. Harvesting of edible shoot: The shoots are harvested usually within heights
of 20 to 30 cm. During shoot collection, some vigorous shoots should be left to grow
into bamboo culms. Collection should be prohibited in the early part of the rainy season
to allow them to grow and maintain the bamboo forests to obtain future benefits. It is
profitable to thin out by selecting the late sprouts, using them for food because many of
the sprouts that will develop later than the vigorous sprouting period, generally develop
into poor bamboo culms (Ueda, 1960). The shoot must be cut short, using a special
chisel, upward and along the culm base, to leave the cut surface flat. Care should be
taken not to damage other young shoots nearby. Tool for shoot harvesting must be sharp
and the shoot must be cut close to the rhizome. After shoot harvesting, during early
parts of the day, it is better to treat the exposed rhizomes with a contact fungicide
(Captan 0.2-0.4%) before covering with soil and followed by soil drenching. This helps
in preventing the mother rhizome from infection and allows quick wound healing.
Bamboo stands managed in this way can produce 10 to 30 t of edible shoots per hectare
annually for sympodial species.
When shoots were harvested continuously for seven years in the clumps of
five bamboo species it was observed that the shoot production per clump increased in
the second and third year (Banik, 1997b). The shoot production decreased per
clump after the third year in B. bambos, fourth year in B. longispiculata and fifth
year in B. polymorpha, B. vulgaris and T. oliveri. After six years of continuous
harvest, B. bambos, B. longispiculata and B. polymorpha stopped shoot production.
However, B. vulgaris and T. oliveri produced very few shoots with poor weight
(Table 3.3.2.2.5.1.). The continuous harvesting of all shoots from a clump during the
64 Ratan Lal Banik
first and second year activated the remaining culm buds on the underground rhizomes,
resulting in the emergence of an increased number of new shoots in the third and fourth
year. Digging up the shoots from bamboo plants revealed that the harvesting had
stimulated 100 per cent of the dormant buds to develop into shoots excluding those
attacked by insects or rotten ones (7% of all the buds).
Table 3.3.2.2.5.1. Trend in shoot production in different bamboo species as affected by continuous
harvesting from a clump for seven years
Year Parameter Species
B. bambos B. longispiculata B. polymorpha B. vulgaris T. oliveri
I Mean number of total shoot
20.0 66.0 17.5 35.7 22.0
2nd Mean number of total shoot

31.0 94.0 16.0 51.7 31.0
3rd Mean number of total shoot

10.0 83.5 31.0 66.3 22.5
4th Mean number of total shoot

6.0 30.0 34.0 40.0 26.0

3.0 18.0 18.0 32.3 18.0

2.0 6.0 9.0 24.3 15.5

0 0 0 15.3 10.0
Parameters: A = Mean number of total shoot harvested per clump. B = Mean oven dry weight of total shoot harvested per
clump. C = Mean oven dry weight of a shoot harvested per clump.
Source: Banik, 1997b.
The harvesting of all shoots continuously from a clump for more than three to four
years hampers new bamboo production in a clump, and, therefore, continuous
harvesting of all shoots for more than four years should be discouraged. Thus selective
harvesting every year has been advised (Banik, 1997b). In fact, the local tribal people
in CHTs and northeast India usually do not harvest all the shoots from a bamboo
clump. After three to four years they move from the harvested clump to a new clump.
However, they usually harvest selectively about 30 to 40 per cent of the total number
of shoots emerged in a year and as a result it improves the size and health of shoots
that are left in the clump for the production of full-grown culms. The ethnobotanical
knowledge of bamboo grove management for shoot production is based on
experience and supports the result of the above study. Therefore, the casual
statement made by some people that harvesting of edible bamboo shoots is an
important reason for declining the bamboo resources of the sub-continent is not
factually correct. Selective harvesting of shoots from a bamboo clump, as practised by
the local people, may be an important procedure for bamboo grove management and
can produce 10 to 30 t ha-3 yr-3 depending on the species and site conditions.
3.3.2.4.1. Stand as raw material for pulp production: To obtain high quality paper,
the raw materials for pulping must have long fibres and low silica and lignin content.
The species of Bambusa show better pulping properties than Dendrocalamus and small
size bamboo like, Schizostachyum. However, M. baccifera is one of the best pulp and
rayon yielding bamboo species.
The pulp and paper mills purchase bamboo culms by weight, not by number,
because the utilization is dependent on cellulose content. Like other plants, the fresh
weight of a culm includes its total moisture, cellulose and other chemical content.
The amount of moisture in a culm may vary with age, season of measurement and
type of species. A study on five naturally grown bamboo species (B. tulda, D.
longispathus, G. andamanica, M. baccifera and S. dullooa) of CHTs shows that a
culm may contain 60 to 87 per cent moisture at one month age, 50 to 72 per cent at six
month and thereafter up to nine months it varies within 49 to 57 per cent (Banik,
2000). After twelve months age the moisture content reduces between 35 and 47 per
cent and then in subsequent years it becomes more or less constant to 22 to 40 per
cent. If the culms are harvested before nine months of age they may contain more
than 50 to 70 per cent moisture by weight. So, the pulp and paper mills should not
purchase bamboo culms less than nine months of age (harvested in March of the next
year) (Banik, 2000). Since the maximum fibre content in a culm is already
achieved by the time the culm is one year old, and as lignin and silicon
66 Ratan Lal Banik
accumulation increases with age, the culms for pulping should be harvested when
they are young.
3.3.2.4. Stands for water conservation and controlling soil erosion or
embankment protection: The spreading foliage takes the punch off the fierce
tropical rains and softens their impact on the ground. Leaves that fall up to 10 cm
thickness per year also help absorb the impact of rain. A study in China conclusively
proved that the canopy and leaf litter of temperate bamboo stands can intercept
rainfall much higher than those for conifers and pines. Wide, spreading adventitious
root system just below the ground provides spongy net-like condition both for rain
water conservation and soil binding. The extensive underground root-and-rhizome
system makes bamboo a good instrument to arrest the ravages of water erosion in
areas prone to it (such as slopes and lowlands). Naturally, mixed bamboo stands not
only play an important role in soil/water conservation, but also provide habitats for
wild animals. In some occasions, instead of selective felling of these stands,
practices of clear felling or uncontrolled felling have been adversely affecting the
growth and development of bamboos. Besides, periodic gregarious flowering after
30-50 years interval kills most of the bamboo clumps in the forest creating denudation
of the hill slopes. As a result, rate of soil erosion increases. Bamboo like M. baccifera
which have an open and diffuse type of clump with underground long necked (1-2 m
long) pachymorph rhizome system form a complete underground network over the
entire area that gridlocks the soil and does not give way even under considerable
pressure from strong monsoon rains. Leptomorph bamboos have rhizome system that
criss-cross the ground and is stronger than the clumping bamboos but not as strong as
that of the long necked pachymorph rhizome having diffuse type clump of M.
baccifera. Species of Bambusa and Dendrocalamus are also extensively planted on the
lands susceptible to floods, and along riverbanks for embankment protection. A10 km
long plantation of B. vulgaris was raised by the Tripura Forest Department along the
bank of River Gumati in Udaypur (Fig. 3.3.2.4.1.1.), and local farmers plantation of B.
balcooa and B. vulgaris along the Tauchandrai canal at Teliamura, Tripura, for
stabilizing the ground and land erosion. About 22 km long private plantation of B.
bambos raised on the bank of a canal, Masalgaon in Harda/Khandwa district of
Madhya Pradesh has been successfully controlling the land erosion and improving the
water conservation in the nearby forest areas. Every year recurrence of flood in the
Gangetic plain areas of north Bihar causes heavy losses and damages of properties,
standing crops and lives of the people. A plantation of B. bambos was raised during
1999-2000 along the embankment areas (Pusa-Birauli) of the Burhi Gandak River
in Bihar to stabilize and bind the ground against the flood water current and thus
has reduced the intensity of flood, and as a result the plantation saved the lives and
property in these areas. The thorny B. bambos also discourages the cattle from
grazing and trampling the embankment. Methods of cultivation are similar to
the ones adopted for the timber stands, except that higher clump and culm
densities are maintained. Surveys of such stands along Jiulongjiang and
Dayingjiang Rivers in China have shown that each clump can protect up to 12 m3 of
river embankment, besides yielding shoots and bamboo-timber (Fu Maoyi and
Banik, 1996).
A study was conducted along three major Indian rivers namely, Mahi ravines at
Vasad (Gujarat), Chambal ravines at Kota (Rajasthan), and Yamuna ravines at Agra
(UP) encompassing about 15 ha gullied land at each location to understand the utility
of bamboo plantations on extremely degraded ravenous lands for controlling soil
erosion on beds and banks of gullies and streams (Mishra and Krishna Rao, 2012).
Bamboo saplings (D. strictus) were planted at 4 m x 4 m in gully beds of watershed
and also at close spacing 2 m x 2 m in two rows on bori bunds. It has been observed
that bamboo plantation based interventions absorb more than 80 per cent of rainfall.
Lowest runoff, soil loss and nutrient loss occurred in bamboo plantation with small
earthen check dams followed by bamboo with trenches. Bamboo based
interventions reduced the nutrient losses varying from 50-67 per cent. The high stem
flow amount and funnelling ratio of bamboo plants in comparison to deciduous and
coniferous plants makes better rainfall absorption and hydrologically best suited
plantation in degraded ravine lands. Maximum silt deposition was recorded in gully
treated with bamboo plantation with earthen gully plugs. According to Mishra and
Krishna Rao (2012) the annual return from the bamboo based interventions for gully
beds are Rs. 88,780, Rs. 70,000 and Rs. 63,910, in 'bori-bund reinforced with
bamboo', 'trenching' and 'bamboo live check dam' treatments, respectively. The
benefit cost ratio works out to be 2.09, 2.05 and 1.96 in 'bori-bund reinforced with
bamboo', 'trenching' and 'bamboo live check dam' treatments, respectively. These
interventions can be implemented in degraded gully beds. It was concluded that such
bamboo based interventions would give net annual return of Rs. 700 per 10 m length
from 7th year onwards.
3.3.2.5. Land reclamation stand: Bamboos are known to successfully grow on

degraded land with a thin layer of top soil. It has been seen from the land reclamation
project in the villages of Kotwa and Rahimabad of Uttar Pradesh. (Narayanan and
Kutty, 2003). In 1960s, the rich loam of the area attracted brick manufacturers. The
earth was dug up to make bricks and the fertile land became barren. With no trees
around, the mud swirled up and dust storms became very common. In summer the
temperature used to shoot up to 500C. The fast growing bamboos provided a solution.
68 Ratan Lal Banik
Although over 4000 ha of land had been degraded by brick mining, the project initially
covered only 106 hectares (Narayanan and Kutty, 2003). Seedlings of B. bambos, D.
strictus and cuttings of B. vulgaris var. striata and D. giganteus were planted during
1996. In 2003, after seven years, the differences in the land were perceptible. The red
earth had been replaced by green expanses. Bamboos grew in abundance. And, on what
was once degraded land where only few grass grew, people had begun farming once
again. The ground water level that had dipped to 40 metres deep rose to 33.7 metres, the
land became productive and the micro-climate improved. Over 70 percent of the
migrants were back in the village.
3.4. Harvesting
3.4.1 Factors considered in bamboo harvesting: The important factors for

consideration in harvesting of bamboo forest are felling cycle, intensity of felling,
method of felling and transportation of felled bamboo to the marketing centres and/or
to factories. However, transportation is not so difficult for the homestead and village
grown bamboos due to the presence of accessible roads.
3.4.1.1. Felling age and cycle of harvesting culm: The new culms are produced from
the youngest rhizomes generally located along the periphery of the clump. These one-
year-old culms are not strong and durable so they are not useful in any construction
works and have little demand in the market and are susceptible to pest attack, whereas
the culms three to four years of age are strong and durable. So most of the old culms
(three years and above) are harvested and one-to two-year-old culms are left in the
clump. The practice is to leave an equal number of older culms and the one-year-old
culms in the clump. As the culms are selectively felled the system is known as selection
felling. As regards the felling cycle, based on the conclusions drawn from the field
experiments, and also from the experiences in different states of India, a three or four
years felling cycle appears to be the most suitable (Tewari, 1992). This system of
bamboos is being worked on a three-year or four-year rotation. The bamboo forests are
divided into three blocks and cutting is restricted to one block each year. However, for
pulping and papermaking, one-year-old bamboo culms are harvested when fibre
quality is superior and lignin content is less compared to that of older culms (Fu Maoyi
and Banik, 1996).
3.4.1.2. Clearfelling: Clearfelling is not a common practice in bamboo forest.
3.4.2. Harvesting from natural bamboo forests in north-eastern and eastern part
of the sub-continent and their transportation: The existing felling and transportation
practices of bamboos from different states of north-east India, Chittagong, CHTs and
Sylhet forests of Bangladesh and Myanmar in the sub-continent are unique and
interesting to learn the management of bamboo resources in these hilly areas. The felling
processes and steps are:
l Mohal System: It follows three-to four-year felling cycle with definite intensity
of felling. Felling operations are carried out in a number of steps. Transportation
of harvested bamboo poles are mostly through water courses (hilly streams
and rivers)
l Permit system: It involves shoulder load transportation
In all the above mentioned areas the vast bamboo forests are generally felled on a
three-to four-years cycle and felling rules prohibit cutting one-year, two-year old and a
few older ones equal to the average of one-and two-year- old culms per clump.
3.4.2.1. Season and harvesting age: In most of the forests of northeast India,
bamboos are not allowed to be harvested for three months from June to mid-September.
These three months are the maximum shoot emerging period, and therefore, closed to
harvest. Bamboos are found not durable if harvested in March-May (summer). The
local ethnic people harvest bamboos in a specific time of the year. They cut bamboo
during November to March, the dry winter season of the year. In Manipur
(Tamenglong) October to January is the best season for bamboo harvest. However, for
local use bamboo is also harvested temporarily in off-season. In CHTs felling starts in
October and lasts for about 120 days in a season. The three months period from 16 June
to 15 August is a closed season for harvesting. In Sylhet forest the permission for
harvesting bamboos remains valid from 1 January to 31 December, with a gap of three
months from 16 June to 15 August and during this period harvesting is not allowed
(Banik, 2000, 2010b).
Generally, bamboos are worked on a three-to four-year cycle, and felling rules
prohibit cutting one-year-old, two-year-old and a few older culms left scattered in the
clump. Only three-year-old and older culms are selectively harvested from the clumps.
In some occasions, especially in jhum areas, clear felling of all the culms are practised
by the local hill people. During large scale plantation programme to all plants along
with bamboos are clear-felled, debris is collected and burnt for preparing the land.
During first year after clear-felling the stumps produce a very large number of big-size
juvenile leaves (in case of M. baccifera, G. andamanica) which attract animals for
grazing and remain vulnerable to fire damage during dry season. The emerged culms
are very thin and short. Clumps require initial five to seven years to produce
merchantable size culms, if not disturbed further. In case of gregarious flowering when
clumps die in large numbers, clear felling is carried out to remove the dead and dry
bamboos.
70 Ratan Lal Banik
Felling is purely manual using a sharp tool (bill hook or locally called as dao) for
cutting bamboos from the clump. The dao is a 0.3 - 0.6 m long and 4-5 cm wide, flat,
iron-made sharp knife. Only the mature bamboos are allowed to be cut from the clump.
The local indigenous people can identify the ripe/mature bamboo from the sound by
beating the back side of dao on the bamboo stem. The mature bamboos have smooth
surface with light yellowish colour and absence of culm sheath. Young bamboos are left
in bush. There is a belief that if bamboos are felled in the first day of new moon
bamboos will be more durable and resistant to ghoon.
The harvesting of bamboos (60-95 per cent is M. baccifera out of total
bamboo forest, other species are B. tulda, D. hamiltonii, D. longispathus,
S. dullooa, etc.) from different forest areas are narrated below that include a
three phases operation:
l The felling of bamboo stems 0.3 to 0.45 m above the ground, their trimming,
cutting into pieces for bundling and extraction by shoulder load.
l Transporting of bamboo includes bunching and rafting through river water/streams.
l Then the bamboos are stacked on the river bank side depot for loading on to trucks
for transporting to the local district markets and outside bigger markets.
The following steps are involved from the point of extraction to transporting of
bamboo through water ways to temporary local village market (Banik, 2010):
Step I - Bamboos are harvested from the natural forests on the hills and along
the stream bank by local tribes, both men and female, in two phases - roadside
cutting or cutting on the hills and rolling the felled culms to the nearby water ways (river/
streams).
On an average, a labourer can cut, trim, carry and stack 40-50 bamboos per day that
is equivalent to about 100 kg to 120 kg of muli bamboo poles up to river or any water
ways (before rafting). So, only for extracting one tonne about ten man days are
required. In roadside cutting, cutters cut bamboo along the road extending to an average
lead of 90-150 m.
After felling, the culms are pulled out of the clump, then limbed and trimmed for
handling and cut into pieces of 1.7-3.0 m in length for road transport. Generally, 5.5 -
6.5 m, sometimes 8.0 m long pieces are transported through waterways/ streamlets
running through the hills to main rivers like Khowai, Gumati, Muhuri, and Manu in
Tripura; Barak in Assam; Tlawng in Mizoram, Sangu, Halda, Karnafuli, Matamuhuri,
Karnafuli in CHTs; and Juri, Surma and Kushiara in Sylhet.
Subsequently, bamboos are tied in bundles of five to ten pieces each, so that each of
the bundles can be carried on the shoulder. For waterways transportation, the bamboos
are commonly bundled in 12, 16 or 24 poles (multiples of 96) of 12, 14, 15, or 18 ft.
length. The practice of bundling 96 culms has its roots in the days of the kings. The four
culms from 100 used to be paid as royalty to the king and left uncut in the forest, a
remarkable ethnic way of conserving the bamboo resource.
Step II - After felling, the culms are pulled out of the clump, limbed and trimmed for
handling and finally cut into pieces of 1.7 - 3.0 m length for road transport. Sizing of
bamboo to poles is done at cutting spots. Generally, 5.5 - 6.5 m, sometimes 8.0 m long
pieces are transported through cherras (waterways/ streamlets) running through the
hills to main rivers. When the smaller bundles of bamboo poles reach the river they are
retied into challis (a challi is usually made of 300 bamboo poles) and usually about 10
15 challis together form a raft. This is done by tribes who are skilled only in rafting
bamboos in the streams. Thus, a raft usually has 3,000 to 5,000 poles (Fig. 3.4.2.1.1.).
Step III - The bamboos are rafted up to a local depot (market) on the bank of the river
from various places of collection. Usually it takes three to ten days depending on water
level and water current in the river, and distance. Generally one person can raft 1,000
poles through such hilly river having high water current to bamboo stockyard market
point. Among such various collection points, the place Chakmaghat accounts for more
than 80 per cent of the bamboo in Tripura state. It is estimated that around 16.1 million
man-days per annum of employment is generated on account of management and
extraction of bamboos in Tripura only (State Bamboo Policy, 2001, FD, and
Government of Tripura).
Step IV - After arrival of bamboo rafts at a major bamboo market on the river bank, the
bamboo challis are untied in the river and each bundle is carried to the roadside
(Fig. 3.4.2.1.2.); and then transported in trucks to the major secondary and retail
market. The extracted bamboos are often sold to the bamboo traders at the major river
transportation points near to major roads.
Step V - The bundles are untied and rebundled with a right mix of bamboos again in
bundles of 12 for loading in trucks by the labourers at the river bank market.
Step VI - The bamboos are loaded in truck for transporting to the destination.
The bamboo-based economy of this hilly region is linked to the intensity of the
bamboo extraction, which forms a major livelihood option of the tribal people of the
hills. As per rule bona fide householders and cultivators (e.g., in Tripura) who are the
inhabitants of villages entirely surrounded by reserved forest are allowed free
permits for harvesting bamboo to the extent of 250 numbers per family between the
month of January and March.
In Assam, the bamboo forests are sold for one to three years at a time with some
safeguards (Tewari, 1992). In lower Assam (Barak valley - Cachar, Karimganj, and
Hailakandi bamboo forest area), bamboo (major and common species is M. baccifera)
72 Ratan Lal Banik
is harvested from the hills and brought down by leaseholder who sells lengths of six to
seven metres of bamboo in bundles of 1,000 culms to a contractor. A number of bundles
of bamboo are tied together in a raft on the River Barak, and a couple of men live on the
raft and look after the bamboo till it reaches the destination (Badarpur Ghat). The
bamboo is brought out of the river and each culm is split in half along the length after
the external nodal rings are cut off. The half culm part is then flattened by hitting it
along the length, particularly at the nodes so that it lies flat. These are used as
prefabricated walls and roofs, particularly in the bamboo frame Assam-type house,
common in the state. Small labour-intensive cottage industries make this type of
matting and two or three such industries are located at Badarpur on the banks of the
Barak River. At the cottage industry, a number of people employed by the contractor
convert the culms in to flattened board. The single largest user of bamboo resources in
Assam is the Cachar Paper Mills, a unit of M/S Hindustan Paper Corporation Ltd.
(HPC), Govt. of India undertaking. The unit is located at Panchgram in the Hailakandi
district, and its raw material capacity is 250,000 Mt annually.
In Mizoram, most of the extraction of the bamboo resources, of which
M. baccifera is maximum (90-98%) and others are D. hamiltonii and B. tulda, take
place along the national highway to be transported by trucks and in River Tlawng up to
the gate of Pachgram Cachar Papermill which is located on the banks of the River
Barak. The state has dual modes of leasing the bamboo resources for extraction by
bamboo traders by Mohal and Permit System. The Mohal system is the main system of
selling forest department bamboos. Harvesting rights are sold annually to Mohaldars
(bamboo contractors) from Cachar part of Assam and they have rights to remove any
quantity of bamboo (above one-year-old) from the forest. Under mohal system the
bamboo resources are identified by the forest division and demarcated on areas basis.
There are about 20 Mohals in seven forest divisions (Kolasib, Darlawn, Mamit, Aizawl,
Champhai, and Tlabungi) covering an area of 1,772 km2. Although culms mature after
three years, regulations exist to limit cutting to four-year-old culms to provide some
safeguards for future culm availability. The steep terrain makes the harvesting very
difficult. River Tlawng is used to transport the bamboo poles under mohal system.
Local people have no rights to harvest bamboo in a Mohaldar's forest and must pay
the Mohaldar if they wish to take any culms. Most of the bamboos harvested by the
Mohalders is supplied to HPC (Hindustan Paper Corporation Ltd) at Panchgram in
Karimganj district of Assam transporting through Barak River. Major roads and
national highway (NH-54, NH-150, and NH-40) are also used for transporting
bamboos within and outside the state. Under the permit system, in Mizoram a permit
fee is charged at the rate of Rs. 8 per 100 poles. Mostly road sides are allotted along the
NH-54, Bairabi-Kolasib highway are leased under this system. Extraction from the
village forest land or private land is based on the permission from the village council or
the individual owner.
In Nagaland, bamboos have been over cut in more accessible localities along the
roads while, in other areas, they have been left untouched for many years.
In Manipur (Tamenglong), harvested bamboo culms mainly (D. hamiltonii and
M. baccifera) are hardly transported through the rivers due to very high water current;
however on a few occasions these transported through the River Irang. It is transported
to local markets in Imphal, Giribam, Tamenglong by truck through temporary road
inside the deep bamboo jungle. Sometimes villagers themselves cut bamboo from the
forest and carry bamboo as head load to nearer local markets. Five big size (30 cm girth)
or ten medium size (23 cm girth) bamboo poles are carried as one head load. Sizing of
bamboo into poles is done at cutting spots.
The CHT, Chittagong and Cox's Bazar are forest areas of Bangladesh mostly
occurring on the hills of Arakan Range. Sylhet is another prominent area for forest
bamboos under Bangladesh, bordering Tripura and Assam states of India. The
important bamboo species of these forests are M. baccifera (constitutes 70-90 per cent
of the total bamboo forest), B. tulda, D. longispathus, G. andamanica, S. dullooa, etc.
(Banik, 2000).
The harvesting of bamboos is done on three-year rotation using selection felling in
all these areas. Bamboo harvesting is generally carried out in two phases - roadside
cutting and ropeway cutting (Banik, 2000). In roadside cutting, cutters cut bamboo
along the road extending to an average lead of 90-150m. Shoulder load transportation
up to the river bank, extends 3.5 km in some cases, are done by the labourers due to the
absence of extraction forest roads. In ropeway cutting, cutters cut bamboo extending to
an average lead of 90 m on each side of the ropeway. A rope way system consists of
endless moving cables which are suspended at about 2.5-3.0 m above the ground at an
interval of 18-25 m on trees or other supports. The cable is operated at a slow speed of
1.0 m /sec by a 20-25 hp petrol/diesel engine. Maximum load given is 30-35 kg bamboo
pole (green) at an interval of 12-15 metre. Tractors with trailers are used for the
transportation of bamboo extracted by ropeways as well as those cut along walking
paths. This experience of ropeway harvesting would be useful for efficient way of
extracting bamboo in the hilly terrain of north-eastern part of India.
After felling, the culms are pulled out of the clump, then limbed and trimmed for
handling and cut into pieces of 1.7-3.0 m length for road or rail transport. Generally,
5.5- 6.5 m, sometimes 8.0 m long pieces are transported through waterways. After that,
bamboos are tied with strings made out of very young bamboo in to bundles of 5-10
74 Ratan Lal Banik
pieces each, so that each of the bundle can be carried on the shoulder. In case of small
size, 10 bamboos are tied to make a bundle. But in big size bamboos usually 5 stems are
used for a bundle. Felling is purely manual using a sharp tool (bill hook or dao) for
cutting bamboo stems three years old at or above 15-35 cm from the ground level. After
the completion of harvest, rafts are checked by the forest officer and royalty realized.
The entire system is a manual operation and is mostly located along the bank of river or
stream bank for ease of extraction. Under this system bamboo is rarely cut beyond 1.6-
3.2 km of the floating stream banks. Such bamboos are rafted or taken by boat by the
permit holder to important selling centres. On an average 11 per cent of total harvested
bamboos decay in one year in the forests stacks and 7-19 per cent get lost in the
monsoon floods in narrow streams or rain. In wider watercourses the bamboo rafts may
be torn apart by storms and high waves (Banik, 2000). Thus, bamboos are being
transported from Kassalong and Rankhiang to Chandraghona KPM site.
In Sylhet, forests harvesting of bamboos (of which 70-90 per cent is muli) have
also been practised by mohal and permit system respectively (Banik, 2000). The Sylhet
Pulp and Paper Mills Limited (SPPM) conducts major harvesting operation in the
Sylhet forest. Both pure and mixed bamboo vegetation are found throughout the
southern part of the Sylhet Forest Division in Rajkandi, Patharia, Hararganj
Reserve Forests (RF) and Prithimpasha Acquired Forests (AF). The forest reserves are
divided into bamboo mohals that represent the area units under bamboo extraction
every four years.
Cutting procedures are also similar to those practised in the CHTs and
Chittagong.. These are then transported by hilly waterways and rivers to paper mills
and also finally through mighty Rivers Meghna and Padma in big rafts to different
places of the country. A long distance of over 300 km is to be covered to the mill site at
Chattak. In some part of this distance, bamboo has to be transported against the river
current. Shoulder load transportation up to the river bank, extending to 3.5 km in some
cases, is done by the labourers due to the absence of extraction forest roads. In general,
bamboo is transported from the forest to collection sites on foot by collection teams
usually comprising three to five members. Bamboo extracted by purchasers in the
Sylhet forest division is often sold to the bamboo traders at the major transportation
points, mostly located near the railway stations. Long distance transportation even up
to Dhaka, Barisal, Patuakhali and Khulna is carried out mostly through rivers and taken
to these areas in big rafts.
However, nowadays rail and truck also transport a substantial amount of bamboos.
Sometimes bamboos are converted into bamboo flats and transported by making
bundles in trucks or on railway wagons.
Bamboos from the non-licensed area of Sylhet, Chittagong and Cox's Bazar are
sold in auctions to the auction purchasers with a cutting cycle of three-four years, and
the yield is regulated by area. The extraction of bamboos by the auction purchasers is a
manual process.
Permit holders: Bamboos are mostly sold through a permit system. Permits are
issued by the local officers, specifying the quantity, area and the time limit.
In Myanmar, a bordering Manipur, Mizoram of India and CHT, Cox's Bazar of
Bangladesh, the bamboo areas are usually divided into sections and felling is rotated
among them, i.e., a section is cut and is left for two, three or four years, depending on
the felling cycle. Among many different bamboo species, M. baccifera is one of the
major forest bamboo resources in Myanmar and is harvested at three to five years cycle
and transported mainly through river ways (Htun, 1999). The overall system of
extraction is more or less similar to the practices followed in CHTs.
3.4.3. Harvesting from forests of eastern, central, northwest, and south part of
the sub-continent: Two major bamboo species, D. strictus and B. bambos occur in
the natural forests and also widely cultivated throughout villages of eastern,
northwest, south and central India. A three-or four-year felling cycle appears to be
the most suitable for these bamboos (Tewari, 1992). In Punjab, two-year cycle is
followed. In Odisha, a ten to twelve years felling cycle is adopted with clear felling
of B. bambos clumps, but sometimes three-or four-year cycles are prasticed for
selection felling. However, when clumps have been partly felled the regeneration
obtained is of better quality. The usual felling cycle for bamboos in the forests of
Bihar is four years. However, in some area three-year cycle is adopted to remove
congestion in the bamboo forests. According to rules, no culms of the last rain are
cut. In each clump the number of older culms to be retained is equal to the number of
new culms, but in no case these shall be less than six. Extraction of rhizomes is
prohibited.
In northern and central India a four-year cycle of selection felling has been
practised for bamboo, D. strictus (Tewari, 1992). Here three to six culms are retained
per clump. The working season normally is in November to July. The culms are to be
cut low, about 15-30 cm from the ground level and just above the septum of a node.
Young culms of less than one-year are not felled. The practice is to retain a minimum of
six to eight or 55 per cent of older culms in each clump. The clumps containing less
than eight matured culms are not harvested. Felling is made on the site containing the
least number of new culms. In Rajasthan, cutting of bamboos is prohibited between
May and October. The major bamboo of the forests is D. strictus. At least four mature
culms are left in each clump, and one- to two-year old culms are not felled. In Madhya
76 Ratan Lal Banik
Pradesh, a clump having less than ten green culms is not exploited except for the
removal of dead and dried culms.
In south India, bamboos (B. bambos) are generally worked on a three year cycle
except in some forest division of Andra Pradesh where a four-year cycle is adopted.
Lakshmana (1994) suggested that for optimum production of bamboo in B. bambos
natural forests of Karnataka, culm has to be extracted at four-year felling cycle. Here
cutting of bamboo is forbidden from June to October. In Maharashtra, harvesting is
prohibited between the 15 June and 30 September (Tewari, 1992). A mature clump with
more than eight culms is considered as developed and fit for harvesting. No culms
below the age of two years are felled and the cutting height is between 15 and 45 cm.
The number of culms to be retained in each clump is equal to the number of current year
culms or eight, whichever is more. However, according to Tewari (1992) in
Tamil Nadu the bamboo area is worked under the culm selection system on a three-year
felling cycle.
Bamboos and reed bamboos (O. travancorica) are worked on a three-year felling
cycle in Kerala. The felling rules prescribe that i) bamboos and reeds adjacent to the
stream banks and located on slopes above 300 gradients are not worked; ii) culms of age
more than two-years are only felled; iii) the felling of culms is done on a horse-shoe
pattern; iv) no felling is done during the regeneration (rainy season) period of June to
August; and v) all dead, malformed culms are removed irrespective of age (Manoharan
and Trivedi, 2008).
In Gujarat, the bamboo areas are divided into convenient groups worked on a
felling cycle of four years. Cutting is prohibited from June to October so as to prevent
damage to the newly emerged culms (Rashid, 1963).
3.4.4. Harvesting of homestead and farm bamboo and its management
3.4.4.1. Clear felling- Nowadays farmers usually prefer to fell the culms which grow at
the periphery of the clumps as these are easy and quick to cut. These culms are young,
nine-to eighteen-month-old, not mature enough for utilization works; also they possess
underground viable buds on the rhizome system from where new culms are produced.
Regular felling/ injury to the periphery of the clump develops a dense mass of dead
rhizomes that prevents the growth of rhizomes from spreading outwards and the new
culms production gets reduced (Fig. 3.4.4.1.). Thus, at the clump centre, culms are
packed tightly together with many coppice shoots and often twisted in congested
condition, this is frequently seen especially in village bamboo groves. Additionally
when culms are not harvested for several years it also creates congestion and clumps
gradually become susceptible to diseases. In such a case to maintain the proper clump
growth and shape, clearfelling of culms has been found good for clump health.
Occasionally farmers do practice clearfelling in congested clumps of B. bambos,
B. balcooa, D. strictus in Uttarakhand (Kalinagar, Dineshpur and Gadarpur, etc.), in
some parts of lower Assam, Bihar and Chhattisgarh, West Bengal (Bakura); and also
B. balcooa, B. tulda, B. polymorpha, B. vulgaris in a few villages in Tripura, and
elsewhere. All bamboos from the clumps are clear-felled and sold to bamboo
purchasers for earning several thousands of rupees at a time. The clear-felling
harvesting results in slow recovery and low above-ground biomass production, and the
clumps take 10-15 years to produce culms of normal size.
3.4.4.2. After care of clear felled clump: The steps are highlighted below:
1) Too old rhizomes with stumps, usually from the centre, should be dug out
from the clump.
2) Add and mound loose soil mixed with FYM at the clump base.
3) Mulch and, if possible, do watering in dry climate, and also up to three years
of clearfelling.
4) Buds on the stumps nodes activate and produce many thin tender shoots (branches)
resulting in vigorous leafy and bushy growth in the clump; little or no emergence of
new shoots in the first year. So tender shoots need protection from browsing and
trampling by cattle. Small weak shoots should be trimmed otherwise the clump
would be congested.
5) In the second year, lightly thin out the poor shoots, make space for new shoot
emergence.
6) Protect and manage these shoots from browsing, weed and vine suppression, and fire.
3.4.4.3. Selection felling: For maintaining the sustainable growth, young bamboos are
not harvested from the clump. There should not be any felling at least for three years so
that culms in the clump attain maturity. Therefore, in a homestead at least four clumps
need to be planted from where harvesting may be started sequentially in all these
clumps to obtain bamboos every year. Thus, culms will be harvested from each clump
at three-year intervals. Once extracted, the culms are trimmed to full length. Cutting
length of the felled bamboo depends on the types of use. Usually the bamboos are cut
into suitable lengths for ease of transportation depending on the mode of transportation.
In road and rail transportation, the lengths are cut to accommodate the space. In water
raft transportation, full lengths of bamboos are usually transported. If, however, boats
are used, culm length is cut accordingly. On the basis of above principles the following
steps of bamboo harvesting, horse-shoe and tunnel methods, have been prescribed
(Banik, 1992; Fig. 3.4.4.2.):
78 Ratan Lal Banik
a) A 60-100 cm wide path has to be made inside the clump so that one can enter into
the central part to start felling and dragging out the mature culms. As the path will
be made from periphery towards the centre it is likely that a few numbers of young
culms may have to be cut. So one must make path from that side of a clump where
minimum number of young culms is sacrificed.
b) Most of the mature culms from the central part of the clump have to be cut. The
unharvested mature culms should be left scattered throughout the clump to
provide mechanical support to the young immature culms of the clump against
the strong wind and storm. This felling procedure involves opening from one
side of a clump and the central mature culms are cut and dragged out. This type
of felling is horse-shoe method of felling of culms (Fig. 3.4.4.2.). In the tunnel
method two openings are made, one opposite to other, forming a tunnel in the
clump (Banik, 1992; 2000) through which harvested older culms from the
clump centre dragged out.
c) The following refers should be taken when culms are cut and dragged from the
clump:
i) The number of harvested culms should not exceed the number emerged last
year. For example, a clump has 15 culms, out of which four and six culms
emerged in 1993 and 1994 respectively. Thus the clump has six one-year,
four two-year and five three-year and older culms in the felling year 1995. To
keep the clump productive and healthy, older culms are felled.
ii) Before entering into the clump, branches, if any, on the lower nodes need
trimming thoroughly to facilitate harvesting operation.
iii) Cut culms in a slanting manner just above the lower most nodes to minimize
the wastage. Rainwater will not stagnate at the remaining stump portion of
the felled culms and will not harbour pests and fungi. When the felling is
done far above the ground, buds on the nodes of the stumps of the felled
culms become activated and produce twigs and branches. Thus, congested
and bushy conditions are created in the clump and interfere in cultural
operation.
iv) The branches and twigs from the harvested culms have to be cleared and
trimmed out.
v) The dead and rotten stumps of felled culms usually found at clump centre
should be dug out as sanitary cleaning, and used as fuel. After that soil, sand
and organic manure (cowdung/rice husk/rotten water hyacinth, etc. at 3:1:1
ratio) is added to the clump.
Fig. 2.2.2. In the elongating segmented axis Fig. 2.3.1. Leaves at the seedling stage of M.
of an emerging shoot of M. baccifera the locus baccifera are bigger in size than those
of each zone of intercalary growth is just produced in the branch of adult clumps.
above the locus of insertion of a sheath. Culm Source: Banik, 2010.
elongation is mainly due to the intercalary
meristem present at the node.
Source: Banik, 2010a.
Fig. 2.7.1. A portion of short-necked Fig. 2.7.2. A portion of long-necked

pachymorph rhizome system of adult pachymorph rhizome system of adult non-
clump forming espitose type bamboo clump forming bamboo M. baccifera.
B. tulda. Source: Banik, 2010a.
80 Ratan Lal Banik
Fig. 3.3.2.1.1. The culms of D. hamiltonii Fig. 3.3.2.1.2.1. New soil (mounding)
have been tended and bent in the form of a added to the clumps base of D. hamiltonii
gate in a park on Baijnath-Palampur road, at experimental station, GBPAgric Univ,
Himachal. Pantnagar, Uttarakhand.
Fig. 3.3.2.1.6.1. Pruning of thorny branches Fig. 3.3.2.4.1.1. A 10 km long plantation of

in the clumps of B. bambos. B. vulgaris along the bank of river Gamati
in Udaypur, Tripura.
Fig. 3.4.2.1.1. M. baccifera: A raft usually Fig. 3.4.2.1.2. In the River Khowai bamboo
has 3000 to 5000 bamboo poles transported challis are untied and each bundle is carried
through the river Khowai to Chakmaghat from the river bank to road side for loading
depot, Tripura. on the truck, Tripura.
Fig. 3.4.4.1. B. balcooa: A congested and Fig. 3.4.4.2. Diagrams showing the
malformed clump developed due to technique and pattern of felling of
repeated felling of culms from the bamboos from a clump.
peripheral part of clump. Source: Banik, 1992, 2000.
vi) No felling operation should is done during the culm emergence period.
Harvest culms from September/October to March/April. Sharp cutting tools
or portable chain saw may be used to avoid splitting of cut end.
vii) Felling during the year of flowering is not desirable to enable
the regenerating seedling to establish on the ground. Culms should be
harvested only after seed collection. However, B. vulgaris, B. balcooa and P.
stocksii, the three major cultivated bamboo species in the villages, do not flower
frequently and if at all flower, they do not produce any seeds. Therefore,
harvesting of culms in these species should not be stopped when the culms
are flowering.
Both over- and under-exploitation of bamboos cause degeneration of clumps. Forest
and agriculture extension workers should demonstrate the proper cutting system to the
villagers. Audio-visual aids may be utilized to train and motivate the farmers.
3.5. Calendar of Management Operations

Details of management activities vary since bamboos require regular attention
throughout the year. Monthly activities for managing the bamboo groves have been
suggested as follows (Banik, 1992, 2000).
82 Ratan Lal Banik
January-March: Irrigate the bamboo clumps with a bucket of water at least once a
week in this dry and cold season. Frequent irrigation has to be done in the farmland and
commercial plantation. Harvesting of culms is generally done during this period. The
blight disease causes a serious die-back of culms in well-established older clumps of
B. balcooa, B. tulda and B. vulgaris in village bamboos as has been recorded in
Bangladesh, West Bengal and Bihar. The causative pathogen is Sarocladium
oryzae. Sanitary felling, cleaning, mild controlled firing on the ground followed by
soil work and mulching in the clump base at the end of winter kill insects and soil
borne fungi and prevents the attack and improve the productivity in next growing
season (Banik, 2000).
March-May: There are the best months for offset collection, if needed, for raising any
new plantation. The offsets are to be collected from 12-18 months old culms. Add soil
and fertilizers (FYM, urea) to the clump base, especially in the homestead groves.
Storms may damage clumps. Remove broken stems and replant uprooted clumps by
adding new soil to the base.
May-August: The branch cuttings, culm-cuttings and seedlings (if seeds are
available) may be raised in the nursery. One can earn money by selling these in the
market, and can also raise plantation. Clumps often die due to heavy rain in July to
August, villages are usually flooded and floodwater stagnates at the clump bases for
45-60 days. Drain out the water as quick as possible. Add new soil if the soil from the
clump bases is washed off due to heavy showers.
September-November: Usually during these months cyclonic storms in the Bay of
Bengal hit northeast and southern states of India and Bangladesh. As a result, many
clumps are damaged or uprooted. One may need refixing the uprooted clumps into the
ground properly. Also clean out broken twigs and culms.
November-January: The cool and long-lasting dry climate adversely affect the
growth of bamboo. Irrigation at the clump bases once a fort-night helps. Mulch the
ground with paddy straw/leaves or water hyacinth.
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88 Ratan Lal Banik

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4 Bamboo: Flowering, Seed
Germination and Storage
Manisha Thapliyal, Geeta Joshi and
Falguni Behera
1. Introduction
Bamboos are distinct and fascinating plants (tree-grasses) with a wide range of values and
uses. They are indicators of high biodiversity, play a significant role in soil conservation
and extensively used for soil and water management. They are important for biomass
production and play an increasing role in local and world economies. About 2.5 B people
in the world depend economically on bamboos (INBAR, 1999) and international trade
in bamboos amounts to about US$2.5 M (INBAR, 2005). It has been traditionally used
as fuel, food, rural housing, shelter, fencing and various other purposes. It is being used
as industrial raw material for pulp and paper, construction and engineering materials,
panel products, etc. However, the valuable bamboo resources are dwindling in their
natural habitat due to gregarious flowering, forest fire and over exploitation for
various end uses, which may have resulted in loss of their genetic resources without
sufficient documentation (Bystriakova et al., 2003). To have sustainable availability,
large scale cultivation of bamboos is required. For cultivation, information regarding
its flowering, seeding, seed viability and propagation is primary.
Bamboo grows for many years vegetatively by putting up of a fresh set of new
shoots every year. At the end of the flowering cycle all the bamboos flower
simultaneously. The vulnerability of some species is increased by the simultaneous
flowering and, subsequent death of entire populations in cycles of 20-120 years. Thus,
from economic point of view, bamboo flowering and fruiting is a calamity.
2. Bamboo Flowering
Bamboos flower only once and die afterwards (Dhar, 2003), the reasons for it are
still not clearly understood. The flowering of a bamboo is usually quite an
extraordinary event - for the simple reason that it very rarely happens. In a
90 Manisha Thapliyal, Geeta Joshi and Falguni Behera
population, flowering initially may be sporadic but gradually becomes gregarious.

The flowering continues in a specific direction like a wave with a period of 12-14
years or more, spreading over the whole forest area as reported in Melocanna
baccifera by Banik (2000). A bamboo can have one of the three flowering patterns
dependent of genera and species.
There are some bamboo species that have continuous flowering annually or
nearly so, as happens in most herbaceous bamboos and in some cases in woody
bamboos like Schizostachyum. Such species keep flowering year after year without
any effect on the plant itself, although the seeds produced are rarely viable
(www.guaduabamboo.com). There are some bamboo species which flower at the
same time over an entire continent, some even say all over the globe. This is called
gregarious flowering, i.e., simultaneous flowering of all the bamboos of a single clone
spread over a large geographical area. Gregarious flowering generally progresses in
waves for a period of two to three years from one end of a forest to the other. This is a
strategy of nature to prevent the entire bamboo forest area from dying after the
bamboos have flowered. Many of the big timber bamboos flower in this way. Each
species has an inbuilt genetic time clock keeping track of its life cycle which may vary
from anywhere between 20 to 120 years. Once a particular species reaches its life
expectancy, it will start flowering which is then followed by the development of seeds.
Bamboo flowering in this way spends an enormous amount of energy producing the
flowers and seeds which usually stresses the plant to such an extent that it will die. A
particular species can flower and die all over the world at the same time which happens
because all plants originating from a particular source are clones of the mother plant
(since bamboos are usually multiplied via cuttings or clump divisions) though it also
happens in naturally regenerated clumps through seed.
Another type of flowering pattern that some bamboo species undergo is sporadic
flowering. As the name suggests, there is very little pattern to this type of flowering and it
seems that it is brought on by environmental factors (such as drought or cold) rather than
genetics. Flowering is usually not wide-spread but can happen to either singular plants or
all of the same species within a localized area. Sporadic flowering rarely results in the
production of viable seeds but on the upside, the plants very rarely die after the event.
Flowering cycle of some bamboo species have been reported as- Bambusa
balcooa: 35-45 years, B. bambos: 45 years, B. tulda: 30-60 years, Dendrocalamus
giganteus: 40 years, D. hamiltonii: 30-40 years, D. longispathus: 30-32 years, D.
strictus: 25-45 years, M. baccifera: 40-45 years, Ochlandra ebracteata: 7 years,
Phyllostachys bambusoides: 120 years, Sinarundinaria wightiana: 01 year and
Thyrsostachys oliveri: 48-50 years. Flowering reports of 35 bamboo species in India,
from early nineteenth century to recent ones, have been given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1. Flowering of some bamboo species in India Bamboo: Flowering, Seed Germination and Storage
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Bamboo: Flowering, Seed Germination and Storage 95
3. Seed Morphology
Seeds of bamboos cannot be obtained every year and after seeding the bamboos die.
Seeds can be used for seedling production only for short duration of maximum six
months. There are bamboos which have not produced seeds yet. So, production of
planting stock in bamboo is difficult due to absence of regular seeding and short
viability of seeds. Bamboos produce one-seeded fruit with thin pericarp adnate to the
seed coat, is known as caryopsis covered with a number of persistent glumes (Gamble,
1896; Gould, 1968). The seeds (caryopsis) of Bambusa are oblong, smooth, fusiform,
grooved on one side, ending in a short beak, pale brown and always surrounded by
persistent glumes and palea (Fig. 3.1a.). While, that of Dendrocalamus are brown,
ovoid to sub-globose and fusiform with obtuse or aristate rostrum at the apex covered
with white pubescence, pericarp crustaceous (Fig. 3.1b, c) (Seethalakshmi and
Muktesh Kumar, 1998).
Fig. 3.1 Seeds of a. B. nutans, b. D. asper and c. D. strictus.
There are about 110 genera and more than 1,500 species of bamboos in the world.
Luckily there are only three types of bamboo seeds, which are recognized by the
external appearance (morphologically). The first type is known as caryopsis in which,
the pericarp is membranous, thin, soft and adhered to the seed coat. It is thin like a
membrane and stuck to the seed coat which is the next structure below. The fruit has an
apparent ventral suture- a depression which is nearly as long as the whole fruit. The
second type of seed is known as Glans, it has hard, smooth, crustaceous pericarp
separated from seed coat and no ventral suture. The third type is known as Bacca in
which the pericarp is fleshy and thick and separated from seed coat. Seeds of bacca
type are large. Largest bamboo seed, seed of Muli bamboo (M. baccifera) is of this
category. Seeds of B. polymorpha are very small and about 125,000 seeds weigh a
kilogram, whereas some are so big that only 15-20 seeds weigh a kilogram. like those
of M. baccifera. Table 3.1. provides the approximate number of seeds per kg for some
bamboo species.
Table 3.1. Seed count (no. kg-1) in some bamboo species

-1
Species Seed count no. seeds kg (Approx.)
Bambusa bambos 60,000 – 75,000
B. nutans 65,000
B. polymorpha 125,000
B. tulda 20,000 – 25,000
Dendrocalamus asper 75,000 – 80,000
D. brandisii 20,000
D. giganteus 40,000
D. hamiltonii 26,000
D. strictus 35,000 – 50,000
Melocanna baccifera 10 – 20
Ochlandra travancorica 45 – 50
Thyrsostachys oliveri 15,000 – 18,000
4. Seed Germination
In the year following the flowering of the bamboo or years in the case of gregarious
flowering, blooms tend to be concentrated in the months between November and
April. Seeds are generally available from March to April onwards. However, seeds in
the period May to July tend to have better viability and reproductive ability.
Germination, in majority of the bamboo species, is epigeal with some exceptions
like Ochlandra with hypogeal germination (Seethalakshmi and Muktesh Kumar,
1998). High percentage of germination (80-100) is obtained, if seeds are sown soon
after collection under shade. Germination period is four to twenty days in orthodox
seeds, while for recalcitrant seeds of Melocanna and Ochlandra it may be less.
Germination in fresh seeds of bamboo is high like 90-95 per cent in B. bambos, 75-80
per cent in D. asper, upto 75 per cent in D. strictus, 55- 90 per cent in Ochlandra spp.
Use of growth regulators like IBA and GA3 had significant influence on germination
and vigour of seeds of D. hamiltonii (Singh and Nayyar, 2000) while IAA, IBA and
NAA on D. strictus (Gopi Chand and Sood, 2008).
5. Seed Storage
Seed longevity in bamboos varies with species from one to eight months. Caryopsis
and glans types can be stored by controlling moisture content and temperature, for
about four to five using scientific methods of seed storage (White, 1947; Gupta and
Sood, 1978; Somen and Seethalakshmi, 1987; Sur et al., 1989; Thapliyal et al., 1991)
but for bacca type no storage methods were found successful.
Bamboo seeds need to be collected immediately before rains set in as seeds lose
viability rapidly on exposure to excess moisture. Most bamboo seeds lose viability within
short period of time. The deterioration of seed quality depends on two environmental
factors – relative humidity that regulates seed moisture content and temperature and both
influence by affecting the metabolic rate of seeds (Bhumibhamon, 1980). Banik (1994)
opined that bamboo seeds lose their viability within short period of time and the viability
of bamboo seeds depend on the storage condition and time. Kassahun et al. (2003)
reported that bamboo seeds are sensitive to moisture. The lifespan of the seeds vary
among species. In B. tulda seeds are viable for 30-35 days, in D. longispathus for 55
days and in B. arundinacea var. spinosa for 65 days (Sur et al., 1989). The recalcitrant
seeds of O. ebracteata and O. scriptoria have viability for about a month, while O.
setigera is viable for one to two weeks, O. travancorica and O. wightii have 10 to 30
days viability (Seethalakshmi and Muktesh Kumar, 1998).
Traditionally, the Kani tribes of southern Western Ghats of Kanyakumari district
collect seeds of B. arundinacea and sundry the seeds before storage. For long-term
storage huge earthen bins commonly called Kulukkai are used and its mouth is sealed
by mud and cow dung to protect against rodent attack. As a prophylactic measure,
leaves of Azadirachta indica and Pongamia pinnata are used. For storage of lesser
quantity of grain for shorter period, small size earthen bins called Manpanai are
hanged in the kitchen premise (Kiruba et al., 2007). It has been reported that the
indigenous people of Meghalaya use mud and cow dung for plastering the storage
bin and plant materials as insect pest repellents (Jeeva et al., 2006). The viability of
B. arundinacea seeds was prolonged by storing the seeds over hydrated lime or over
charcoal under refrigeration. Drying of seeds to 12 per cent moisture content also
prolonged viability (White, 1947). Somen and Seethalakshmi (1989) reported rapid
loss in viability of seeds stored under ambient conditions, while for the seeds stored
at low temperature (-3º to 0ºC) and over anhydrous calcium chloride, deterioration
was gradual and were viable till 413 days. Seeds stored in sealed polythene bags and
at -70ºC had 65 per cent germination after one year (Midya, 1994). Drying the seed
using desiccators was better than sun drying; at 10 per cent moisture content seeds,
could be stored for longer time and at low temperature of 8º-12ºC over a period of
one year (Mahadaven et al., 2003). Moisture content of B. arundinacea seeds could be
reduced to as low as 1.9 per cent for effective storage. At 9.6 per cent moisture content
at ambient temperature, seeds lost viability in six months, and at low temperature
seeds could be stored upto 18 months with 6 per cent germination (Warrier
et al., 2004).
B. tulda seeds show orthodox behaviour. The seeds stored in a desiccator had 11
per cent germination by third month and dropped to 2 per cent germination after 18
months (Banik, 1987). Thapliyal et al. (1991) reported that seeds, when stored in
perforated polythene bags, lost viability by 12 months but could be stored for longer
time at reduced moisture content of 10.2 per cent and 6.6 per cent at 5° and 15°C. After
240 days of storage, 20 per cent germination was recorded by Thirtha et al. (2013).
D. strictus flowers gregariously at intervals of 20-40 years. The seeds loose their
viability after about a year, if stored in ambient conditions. In seeds of D. strictus
stored under 11 different conditions, it was found that at the end of 34 months,
germination was best for the seeds stored in desiccators over silica gel or calcium
chloride (54%) or in a bottle at 3º-5ºC after reducing the seed moisture content to 8 per
cent (Gupta and Sood, 1978). The seeds collected in West Bengal were subjected to
hydration and dehydration treatments and it was found that treated seeds retained
viability for six months as compared to four months in untreated seeds. Storage of
seeds at -10ºC was also very effective in maintaining seed viability (Lahiri and Basu,
1989). Under ambient conditions (25º-34ºC) viability of seeds was lost within five
months. Under vacuum [(CaCl2 in a desiccator at 25º-34ºC) or cold storage (10ºC)]
conditions the deterioration was gradual. Reduction in moisture content prolonged
viability and highest viability was recorded for seeds with 8.4 per cent moisture content
stored between 0º to 5ºC after 9 months (Ravikumar et al., 1998a, b). Seeds stored at
moisture content ranging from 2.8 to 8.9 per cent and 5º and -5ºC temperatures in airtight
containers, can be stored for three years without loss in viability. Endogenous rhythm in
mean germination time has been reported in stored seeds of D. strictus and the
germination capacity of seeds became vigorous during months of hot rainy season and
declined during winter (Rawat and Thapliyal, 2003a). Richa et al. (2008) reported that
the viability of seeds was enhanced by storage under controlled conditions and by
exogenous application of plant growth regulators. At 10º and 20ºC ~ 20 per cent
germination was recorded after 24 months (Wadhera and Koshre, 2005).
D. brandisii has long flowering cycle of 40-45 years. Its seeds can be stored for 18
months under cold room temperature (2°-4°C) without any reduction in the
germination percentage. The seeds with lower moisture content retained their viability
longer than those with a higher moisture content (Boonarutee and Somboon, 1990).
Lakshmi et al. (2014 a) reported that seeds of D. brandisii can be stored up to 30
months without any reduction in viability at 4°C, 45 per cent relative humidity and 8
per cent moisture content in sealed double polythene bags, placed in airtight plastic
containers. Seed samples stored in ambient temperature and 16ºC were able to retain
viability only for five and ten months, respectively.
The orthodox seeds of D. membranaceus, under uncontrolled condition, lost
viability within few months but at reduced moisture and low temperature their
viability could be maintained upto 45 years, as predicted by viability equation (Rawat
and Thapliyal, 2003b). Richa et al. (2011) observed that with ageing, germination
percentage and vigour index declined more vigorously in D. membranaceus seeds
while deterioration was not much in Cephalostachyum pergracile Munro seeds.

C. pergacile seeds had very good vigour even after 15 months of ageing and
application of exogenous plant growth regulators was inhibitory whereas, in case of
D. membranaceus, all concentrations of plant growth regulators (PGRs) promoted
germination, after 15 months of ageing. GA3 (5 ppm) proved to be the best treatment
followed by all concentrations of BAP, indicating that ageing is mainly caused by the
depletion of endogenous PGRs in these bamboo seeds during storage.
Seed viability can be extended by reducing the moisture content before storing.
Thyrsostachys siamensis seeds stored at room temperature lost their viability within
21 months. When stored at low temperatures (-5° and 2°-4°C) and low moisture
content (6-10%) seeds maintained high percentage of viability up to 27 months
(Ramyarangsi, 1988). Recalcitrant seeds of M. baccifera could be stored upto 60 days
by storing in dry sand (Banik, 1994). However, Beniwal et al. (1996) reported that
fruits stored at room temperature lost viability after four months. Thyrsostachyus
oliveri seeds can be stored at -4ºC without losing viability upto 18 months
(Seethalakshmi and Muktesh Kumar, 1998).
Low temperature and moderate drying were significant factors and effective
methods for keeping seed vitality of P. edulis (Moso bamboo). The optimum seed
moisture content were 7.45 and 6.46 per cent, at 4º and 25ºC, respectively. At 4ºC the
seed is viable for one year and loses viability by 30 months (Chun-ju et al., 2009,
2010). Nan et al. (2009) studied the effect of temperature on physiological and
biochemical characteristics of P. heterocycla cv. pubescens seeds during almost one
year storage period and reported that seeds of this species went into the secondary
dormancy during the storage. Relative electrical conductivity was negatively
correlated to seed vigor and germination percentage and seed vigor positively
correlated to germination percentage. The correlations were more significant under
freezing condition. However, for seeds stored at different temperatures after one year
there was little influence on seed vigor and germination percentage.
In a study conducted on Oxytenathera abyssinica seeds from Ethiopia, it was
reported that the seeds can retain viability for about two years under controlled storage
conditions. Among different storage containers highest germination was maintained
by seeds stored in glass bottles followed by plastic bottle, tin boxes, polythene tube
and minimum was for seeds stored in sisal sacks (Ayana et al., 2012).
The seeds of D. asper, D. sinicus, D. membranaceus, Schizostachyum sp. and
Qiongzhuea tumidinoda lost viability by 90 days even though stored with 10-15 per
cent humidity at 4º, 20º and 25ºC (Yang et al., 2013). Thapliyal and Kainthola (2013)
reported that seeds of D. asper at 4.34 per cent mc and stored at -20ºC resulted in
higher germination (69.33%) while seeds stored at +5ºC had 57.33 per cent viability,
after one year in storage. Lifespan of Chimonocalamus pallens, seeds can be enhanced
when stored in soil at 4ºC (Yang et al., 2013). Sun-dried seeds of Thamnocalamus
spathiflorus with 8-9 per cent moisture content stored at room temperature (20º-25ºC)
retained viability of 90-93 per cent for four years (Bag and Palni, 2013).
During seed deterioration, degradation of food reserves results in the loss of
viability. Studies in the seeds of B. bambos and D. strictus reported that with
accelerated ageing the total content of food reserves such as sugars, proteins and
lipids, activity of peroxidase, acid phosphatase and alkaline phosphatase were
reduced. Increase in total free amino acids and the activity of amylases confirmed the
degradation of seed reserves (Ravikumar et al., 1998a, b; 2002). Similarly, in
D. brandisii with accelerated ageing germination declined and total soluble proteins,
sugars, starch content, activity of acid and alkaline phosphatase and peroxidase
decreased, while the activity of ά-amylase and β-amylase increased during accelerated
ageing (Lakshmi et al., 2014b). The biochemical analysis of the B. bambos seeds
stored in different storage conditions showed qualitative and quantitative changes in
food reserves specially sugars and proteins (Appasamy, 1993). Endogenous levels of
auxins and ABA were examined in freshly harvested and one-year-old seeds of five
bamboo species- B. bambos, D. membranaceus, D. strictus, Gigantochloa albociliata
and T. siamensis. Free IAA levels were higher in freshly harvested seeds compared
with one-year-old seeds in all bamboo species. In D. strictus, after one year, the
amount of free ABA increased by approximately 58 per cent, while the bound ABA
decreased by 78 per cent (Sharma and Bala, 2006). In P. edulis seeds stored at 4ºC,
MDA content was lower and activities of three kinds of antioxidant enzymes POD,
SOD and CAT were remarkably higher than that of seeds stored at 25ºC (Chun-ju et al.,
2009). A negative correlation was found between the relative electrical conductivity
and MDA content of P. edulis seeds and the seeds vitality, while a positive correlation
was found between the SOD, POD, CAT and the seed vitality (Chun-ju et al., 2010). In
the seeds of same species Chun-ju et al. (2013) reported that the vigour index
decreased by 70 per cent after six days of artificially accelerated aging, and was
completely lost after 12 days. The relative electric conductivity of the seed leachate,
soluble sugar content and MDA content of the seed extract increased, while the soluble
protein, GA3 and IAA, and GA3/ABA content and the activity of antioxidant enzymes
SOD, CAT and POD declined. They suggested that during artificial ageing, the injury
to the membrane integrity caused by peroxidation of membrane lipids was one of the
main reasons to accelerate seed deterioration.
6. Conclusion
Bamboo is an interesting group of tree-grasses due to their peculiar flowering and
seeding behaviour and their tremendous utilization in rural scenario as well as in
industrial finished products. Large quantity of seed is required for bamboo

improvement programmes and large-scale afforestation but lack of observation on
flowering, seeding patterns and germplasm and cohort collection in many species,
renders this work difficult. Also scientific knowledge through research programmes
on the lifecycle, seed morphology, seed handling, germination and longevity of
bamboo seeds for germplasm conservation is important for their proper utilization at
the time of their availability after gregarious flowering.
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5 Anatomy of Indian
Bamboos
P.K. Pande
1. Introduction
India has a rich diversity of bamboos. They belong to family Poaceae; subfamily:
Bambusoideae which comprises both lignified and herbaceous bamboos or bamboo
allies. Different authors reported different numbers of bamboo species from around
the world. Varmah and Bahadur (1980) reported nearly 1,000 species; Ohrnberger and
Goerrings (1985) estimated 130-160 species under 25 genera for herbaceous
bamboos, whereas woody bamboos are 880-980 species under 85 genera; Biswas
(1988) reported 1,200 species under 70 genera and Clyton and Reinvoize (1986)
reported 840 species under 49 genera. In India, 115 species were from Indian
subcontinent whereas 63 species under 13 genera from present day India (Gamble
(1896). Other reports are: Tiwari (1992) reported 125 species under 23 genera; 128
species under 18 genera (Seethalaksmi and Kumar, 1998); 145 species under 23
genera and 115 species under 20 genera were reported by Naithani (2008). The North-
Eastern region of India has more or less 50 per cent of total bamboo species occurring
in India (Chauhan and Pal, 2002).
Bamboos have been recognized as a special group since the beginning of human
civilization because of their diverse uses which include construction, handicrafts,
edible shoots, furniture and pulp and paper. Now a days, they are also used as
substitute of canes, plywood and particle board and as soil stabilizer. Despite the
diverse uses of bamboos, often specific bamboos are used for specific purposes for
which their exact identity must be ensured. Identification of bamboos is difficult based
on floral morphology because bamboos flower sporadically, annually, periodically
with intervals of 20-120 years or mostly just once in lifetime.
Therefore, information on both anatomical and morphological features are
important for their identification. Structure of epidermis of bamboos is important
110 P.K. Pande
among the anatomical features. It is considered conservative feature which is least

influenced by environment making it an important feature for identification.
Other important features in this connection are long cells, short cells, cork cells
and silica cells. Silica cells are characterised by silica bodies, which regardless of
shape of the cells containing them, assume characteristic shape in different species,
and walls of cork cells also contain silica. Besides, stomata and their exodermal
appendages are also significant in this direction. Collectively all these features exhibit
characteristic patterns for specific species. The information on bamboo leaf was
accounted (Metcalfe, 1960; Bisen, 1987) while on culm epidermis reported by many
workers (Ghosh and Negi, 1960; Pattanath and Ramesh Rao, 1969; Bisen, 1987; Bisen
et al., 1989, 1991; Agrawal and Chauhan, 1990, 1991, 1993; Chauhan et al., 1992,
1993, 1996; Chauhan and Agrawal, 1995; Chauhan and Rao, 1998; Chauhan and Pal,
2002). Besides, anatomy of culm and leaf epidermis is important for structure related
studies and identification while fibre and vessel dimensions are important for
commercial utilization of bamboos.
2. Anatomy of Bamboo Culm
2.1.Gross Anatomy
The internodes and nodes are parts of bamboo culm. The cells are axially oriented at
internodes and they have the transverse interconnections at nodes. Intensive
branching of vessels occurs within the nodes. Two epidermal cell layers form outer
part of culm, of which the inner layer is thicker and highly lignified.
Culm internode of bamboo is determined by the shape, size, arrangement
and number of the vascular bundles. The vascular bundles are large in size at
central portion with low frequency, and smaller with higher frequency in peripheral
zone. In general, the bamboo culm is composed of about 50 per cent parenchyma, 40
per cent fibre, and 10 per cent conducting tissues with some variation from species
to species.
2.2.Vascular Bundles
The vascular bundle in culm of bamboos consists of xylem with one or two smaller
protoxylem elements and two large metaxylem vessels accumulating wall material,
which are connected with each other by membranes in the early stages of
development. During extension growth of the cell, they are disrupted.
The walls of metaxylem vessels of bamboo are characterized by a middle
lamella and a primary wall with a well developed zonation of the secondary wall into
S1 and S2.
Anatomy of Indian Bamboos 111
Both the metaxylem vessels and the phloem tissue are surrounded by
sclerenchyma sheaths. They differ considerably in size, shape and location according
to their position in the culm and the bamboo species (Grosser and Liese, 1971, 1973;
Wu and Wang, 1976; Jiang and Li, 1982).
There are following five major types of vascular bundles (Liese, 1985):
Type I: Consisting of one central vascular strand, supporting tissue only as
sclerenchyma sheaths;
Type II: Consisting of one central vascular strand, supporting tissue only as
sclerenchyma sheaths, sheath at the intercellular space (protoxylem) strikingly larger
than the other three;
Type III: Consisting of two parts, the central vascular strand with sclerenchyma
sheaths and one isolated fibre bundles;
Type IV: Consisting of three parts, the central vascular strand with small
sclerenchyma sheaths and two isolated fibre bundles outside and inside the central
strand;
Type V: A semi-open type representing a further link in the evolution tendency.
The vascular bundle types and their distribution within the culm correlate
with the taxonomic classification system of Holttum (1956) based on the ovary
structure.
Type I alone: Arundinaria, Phyllostachys, Fargeria, Sinarundinaria
Type II alone: Cephalostachyum, Pleioblastus
Type II and III: Oxytenanthera, Melocanna
Type III alone: Schizostachyum
Type III and IV: Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Gigantochloa, Sinoclamus
Leptomorph genera have only the vascular bundle type I, whereas Pachymorph
genera possess types II, III and IV. Size and shape of the vascular bundles vary across
an internode but also with the height of a culm (Liese, 1985).
3. Variation in fibre Dimensions, Specific Gravity and Anatomical

Pulping Properties
The fibre morphology of 10 economically important bamboo species, viz.,
Dendrocalamus giganteus, D. hamiltonii, D. longispathus, D. strictus, Melocanna
baccifera, Bambusa bambos, B. polymorpha, B. tulda, Ochlandra travancorica and
Arundinaria racemosa has been described by Pande (2009). Variations among the
species were significant for the fibre dimensions. It showed that material from one
bamboo species of the same site carry similar fibre properties while they are different
for different bamboo species.
112 P.K. Pande
Range and mean±SD for fibre dimensions and length/diameter ratio are given in
Table 3.1. The order of importance as per the mean fibre length (µm) was
O. travancorica (4,320) followed by D. hamiltonii (3,200), B. polymorpha (3,150),
D. strictus (3,190), B. tulda (3,020), M. baccifera (2,750), B. bambos (2,720),
D. giganteus (2,650) and A. racemosa (1,003). The average fibre diameter ranged
from 12 to 16 µm. The range for other grasses and reeds for average fibre length and
diameter was 780 to 4,580 µm and 12 to 31 µm, respectively. The average fibre length
for agriculture residue was 700 to 1,700 µm and for fibre diameter was 13 to 55 µm.
Comparison of fibre dimensions with other pulp making raw material is given in
Table 3.2. Bamboo material showed higher fibre length than that of the other material.
The length is comparable with agriculture residue. However, fibre diameter was
higher in hard and soft woods.
Further, variations in stem anatomical characters, specific gravity and anatomical
pulping properties of five bamboo species, viz., B. balcooa, B. nutans B. pallida,
B. tulda and D. hamiltonii were studied by Naithani and Pande (2010).
Table 3.1. Fibre length, fibre diameter and length/diameter (L/D) ratio of different bamboo species
Species Fibre length (µm) Fibre diameter (µm) L/D±SD

Range Mean±SD Range Mean±SD
Arundinaria
racemosa 330-2,500 1,003±200 8-40 15±1.5 66.15±17.21
Bambusa bambos 700-4,200 2,720±203 6-18 12.5±0.5 218.26±24.78
B. polymorpha 1,000-5,600 3,150±50 7-29 14±0.6 220.08±11.75
B. tulda 1,010-5,020 3,020±189 6-32 14±0.1 215.68±9.17
Dendrocalamus
giganteus 1,450-4,700 2,650±150 6-30 13±0.6 210.34±20.96
D. hamiltonii 1,550-6,900 3,200±92 7-22 13±1.5 241.95±26.12
D. longispathus 1,000-5,500 3,510±101 6-28 14±1.2 246.31±26.87
D. strictus 1,100-5,600 3,190±543 7-33 14±0.6 223.08±41.91
Melocanna
baccifera 1,150-4,800 2,750±150 8-38 15±1.6 185.27±11.39
Ochlandra
travancorica 1,200-9,000 4,320±257 7-43 16±0.6 264.58±20.09
Source: Pande, 2009.
Table 3.2. Comparison of fibre dimensions of different raw material

Character Hard wood Soft wood Grasses Agriculture residue Bamboo
Fibre length 710-1,400 390-3,640 780-4,580 700-1,700 1,003-4,320
Fibre diameter 9.6-62 27-52 12 -31 13-55 12-16
Source: Singh et al., 1991.
4. Inter-Species Variation
Table 4.1. shows the minimum, maximum and average values of fibre length, wall
thickness and specific gravity of different species of bamboos. The highest average
value of fibre length and wall thickness was in D. hamiltonii followed by B. balcooa,
B. nutans, B. pallida, B. tulda and M. baccifera. Clone C1 (B. balcooa), C6
(D. hamiltonii), C8 (B. nutans) and C7 (B. tulda) showed invariably higher fibre
dimensions and specific gravity. Though some of these clones showed higher values
of RR which are not in the permissible range, other properties are within the
permissible range for the pulping.
Table 4.1. Average, maximum and minimum fibre length, wall thickness and specific gravity
Species Clone Fiber length (µm) Wall thickness (µm) Specific gravity
Bambusa tulda S1 Avr 1,668.06 5.70 0.64
C7 Max 2,034.80 7.40 0.82
C9 Min 1,181.20 4.75 0.21
B. balcooa S2 Avr 2,114.44 3.86 0.61
C1 Max 3,176.16 5.83 0.89
C11 Min 1,496.56 2.92 0.33
B. nutans S3 Avr 1,922.81 5.25 0.69
C8 Max 2,689.86 7.34 0.97
C12 Min 1,210.04 3.81 0.26
B. pallida S5 Avr 1,850.90 5.63 0.69
C5 Max 2,129.60 6.95 0.86
C10 Min 1,495.20 4.85 0.31
Dendrocalamus S4 Avr 2,243.33 5.38 0.62
hamiltonii
C6 Max 3,088.80 7.63 0.96
C9 Min 1,725.73 3.83 0.39
Melocanna S6 Avr 1,635.50 5.02 0.41
baccifera
P2 Max 1,866.40 6.45 0.56
P5 Min 1,169.20 3.80 0.20
Note: Max. = Maximum, Min. = Minimum, Avr. = Average.
Source: Naithani and Pande, 2010.
Table 4.2. showed minimum-maximum, mean and their standard deviation of

wood traits, and pulp and paper making ratios of different species of bamboos. The
height fibre length was reported 3,176.16, 3,088.80 µm for B. balcooa and
D. hamiltonii, respectively while lower value was 1,169.20 µm for M. baccifera; fibre
wall thickness was over 7 µm for B. nutans, B. tulda and D. hamiltonii while lower
value was 2.92 µm for B. balcooa, whereas higher value for specific gravity was
Table 4.2. Culm anatomical properties (µm), specific gravity and pulp and paper making ratios of different bamboo species
114
Species Value FL FD LD WT VL VD SG RR SF FC L/D 2W/D 100 W/D

B. tulda S1 Average 1635.50 17.03 6.98 5.02 575.92 85.78 0.41 1.53 0.86 40.64 97.17 59.36 0.76
SD 160.68 1.91 1.73 0.61 84.80 25.62 0.07 0.41 0.07 7.03 13.75 7.03 0.20
Max 1866.40 22.10 10.30 6.45 753.33 160.00 0.56 2.11 0.857 53.89 126.97 67.86 1.06
Min 1169.20 13.70 4.50 3.80 416.00 16.50 0.20 0.86 0.863 32.14 52.90 46.11 0.43
B. balcooa S2 Average 2114.44 14.10 6.38 3.86 541.50 93.86 0.61 1.34 0.67 44.30 154.18 55.70 0.67
SD 353.99 2.65 2.29 0.60 91.22 19.63 0.10 0.44 0.11 8.51 33.17 8.51 0.22
Max 3176.16 22.75 14.11 5.83 733.70 149.40 0.89 2.27 0.83 63.23 235.12 69.44 1.14
Min 1496.56 9.90 3.63 2.92 336.15 60.00 0.33 0.58 0.43 30.56 77.68 36.77 0.29
B. nutans S3 Average 1926.74 20.87 9.00 5.15 507.87 78.23 0.69 1.18 0.64 46.12 99.70 53.01 0.60
SD 233.47 15.90 1.74 0.75 93.89 15.61 0.11 0.34 0.10 7.95 17.08 8.26 0.16
Max 2689.86 181.14 13.40 7.34 896.40 136.12 0.97 1.97 0.80 63.32 139.63 66.35 0.99
Min 1210.04 15.55 5.62 3.36 371.80 54.60 0.26 0.05 0.05 3.91 10.02 5.00 0.29
B. pallida S5 Average 1850.90 15.49 4.24 5.63 532.07 73.26 0.69 2.68 0.86 27.42 120.21 72.58 1.34
SD 174.00 1.17 0.46 0.55 80.89 17.23 0.14 0.37 0.03 2.92 14.63 2.92 0.19
Max 2129.60 18.80 5.40 6.95 700.00 120.00 0.86 3.26 0.863 35.06 145.61 76.54 1.63
Min 1495.20 13.50 3.50 4.85 354.00 48.00 0.31 1.85 0.856 23.46 86.77 64.94 0.93
D. hamiltonii S 4 Average 2243.33 18.93 8.17 5.38 561.51 102.08 0.62 1.38 0.69 43.01 119.66 56.99 0.69
SD 281.47 2.17 1.74 0.83 114.04 33.87 0.12 0.36 0.08 6.74 17.63 6.74 0.18
Max 3088.80 23.47 13.39 7.63 903.04 282.20 0.96 2.16 0.82 60.78 169.62 68.38 1.08
Min 1725.73 14.36 5.90 3.83 370.73 57.20 0.39 0.65 0.46 31.62 82.83 39.22 0.32
M. baccifera S6 Average 1668.06 15.63 4.30 5.70 402.00 60.38 0.64 3.02 0.72 27.18 107.44 73.38 1.51
SD 232.16 1.20 1.33 0.60 97.34 17.48 0.13 1.37 0.08 7.01 17.46 9.92 0.68
Max 2034.80 19.30 7.30 7.40 562.00 108.00 0.82 6.95 0.748 37.82 134.06 102.07 3.47
Min 1181.20 13.80 1.90 4.75 44.00 44.00 0.21 1.64 0.671 12.58 70.73 54.91 0.82
FL = fibre length, FD = Fibre diameter, LD = Lumen diameter, WT = Wall thickness, VD = Vessel diameter, SG = Specific gravity, RR = Runkel ratio, SF = Shape factor
FC = Flexibility coefficient, L/D = Length/diameter, 2W/D = Wall thickness/fibre diameter, W/D = Wall thickness/diameter.
P.K. Pande
Source: Naithani and Pande, 2010.

reported over 9 for D. hamiltonii and B. nutans. The higher fibre diameter was good
for paper because it showed higher collapsibility.
The approximate limit of Runkel ratio appears to be from 0.25-1.5, which
produces pulp of reasonable quality (Singh et al., 1991). All the above bamboo species
showed Runkel ratio in permissible range near to upper limit except B. tulda which
showed values slightly at higher side of the upper limit. The other pulping ratios of
these species are also in permissible range for pulping (Table 4.2.).
5. General Anatomical Survey of Epidermal Features

The general anatomical survey of epidermal features are compiled from Chauhan
and Pal (2002) and Ghosh and Negi (1960) (Table 5.1. and Fig. 5.1.) are discussed
below:
5.1. Stomata
The stomata are more or less evenly distributed on the culm surface. They are usually
large and distinct in Arundinaria, Bambusa, Chimonobambusa, Dendrocalamus,
Gigantochloa, Neomicrocalamus, and Thamnocalamus. In B. polymorpha,
D. brandisii, D. giganteus, D. hamiltonii, Dinochola scandens var. andamanica,
Indocalamus wightiana, Melocalamus, Melocanna, Ochlandra, Schizostacyum
polymorphum, Sinarundinaria and Thyrsostachys the stomata are not distinct due to
large globose or overarching/surrounding papillae. The frequency of stomata also
varies among the species. A high frequency (per mm2) has been observed in
Gigantochloa andamanica while very low frequency exist in Arundinaria, B.
multiplex, D. sikkimensis, D. strictus, Neomicrocalamus, Ochlandra,
Sinarundinaria and Thamnocalamus, while other occupy intermediate positions.
The papillae surrounding the stomata are absent in Arundinaria, Chimnobambusa,
Neomicrocalamus, Phyllostachys, Sinarundinaria and Thamnocalamus (except
T. falconeri). Subsidary cells are generally parallel to low domes but high domed in
Bambusa vulgaris and Dinochloa scandens var. andamanica.
5.2. Long Cells

The long cells or epidermal cells are elongated short or long with sinous to straight
walls. Generally, the cells are rectangular in shape but in B. polymorpha, Ochlandra,
S. polymorphum and S. wightiana the cells are rhomboidal. Thin septa like partitions
have been observed in D. calostachys. D. membranaceus and D. strictus, The papillae
on long cells are generally small, scattered and conspicuous in Bambusa,
Dendrocalamus, Gigantochloa, Ochlandra, Pseudoxytenanthera and
S. polymorphum but are larger and fewer in Sinnarundinaria wightiana. The papillae
116 P.K. Pande
are scattered and inconspicuous in Arundinaria and Chimonobambusa, large

compound in Melocanna and both large and small in B. burmanica, B. tulda,
D. giganteus, Melocalamus and Thrysostachys while they are absent in
Neomicrocalamus and Thamnocalamus.
5.3. Short Cells

Short cells are always solitary or in pairs, present alternating with long cells. Short cell
contains one cork cell filled with suberin, etc. and the other silica cells filled with silica
bodies. Cork and silica cells may be equal in size or cork cell slightly larger than the
silica cell. In Nemicrocalamus, Thamnocalamus (except T. flconeri) and
Sinarundinaria falcata the two cells, i.e., cork and silica cells are not differentiated
due to the absence of silica bodies.
5.4. Silica Bodies

The shape of silica bodies varies from round, oblong to rectangular or crescent shaped
in species of Bambusa and Dendrocalamus. In Gigantochloa they are rod shaped to
rectangular to oval or round, and in Melocalamus, Chimonobambusa and
Thrysostachys rectangular only.
5.5. Prickles
Prickles are not of common occurrence as they are observed only in B. polymorpha,
D. giganteus, D. hamiltonii, D. longispathus, Melocanna, Melocalamus,
Schizostachyum pergracile, Sinarundinaria hirsute and S. anceps (Table 5.1.).
5.6. Microhairs
These are bicelled hairs and are not commonly present. They are of infrequent
occurrence in Melocalamus, Melocanna and Thrysostachys while they are commonly
observed in B. burmanica, B. tulda, B. polymorpha, D. hamiltonii, Giganochloa
pseudoarundinacea, Sinarundinaria hirsute and S. wightiana.
5.7. Macrohairs
Macrohairs are unicellular long hairs present only in B. balcooa, D. hamiltonii,
D. longispathus, B. polymorpha and Melocalamus. In Melocalamus the hair base is
encircled by a ring of papillae.
The different epidermal features vary in shape and size and accordingly they are
classified as given below and illustrated in Fig. 5.1. (a-w) for the purpose of specific
identification.
Table 5.1. Epidermal features of bamboo species
y
Anatomy of Indian Bamboos
117

Contd. from previous page... 118
Schrad.
P.K. Pande

(munro)
119

120

P.K. Pande

121
Contd. from previous page... 122
P.K. Pande


123
124

P.K. Pande

125
126
elliptical papillae.
P.K. Pande
Fig. 5.1. Anatomical types of epidermal features.

Source: Chauhan and Pal, 2002.
Diagnostic features of individual cell types as shown in Fig. 5.1.

Long cells
1. Rectangular in shape, walls sinuous (1 a, b)
2. Rectangular in shape, walls almost straight (1 c, d)
3. Rhomboidal in shape, walls slightly sinuous (1 e)
4. Rhomboidal in shape, walls almost straight, thick (1 g)
5. Cells occasionally septate (1 d)
6. Cells very long narrow (1 f)
7. Cells medium long and narrow (1 a)
8. Cells short and wide (1 b)
128 P.K. Pande
9. Papillae present, small and scattered (1 a, b, f)

10. Papillae present, small and large (1 h)
11. Papillae absent (1 c)
Short cells
1. Cork and silica cells differentiated (1 a, b, d, e)
2. Cork and silica cells not differentiated (1 c)
3. Silica bodies present
i) Oval to round or oblong (1 a, b, d)
ii) Rectangular (1 e, g)
iii) Rod like or crescent shaped (1 h)
4. Silica bodies absent (1 c)
Stomata
1. Subsidiary cells parallel sided (1 i)
2. Subsidiary cells low dome shaped (1 j)
3. Subsidiary cells high dome shaped (1 k)
4. Stomata clear, not overarched by surrounding papillae (1 i, j, k)
5. Stomata obscured, overarched by surrounding papillae (1 l, m, n)
6. Frequency of stomata frequent, common, very common.
Microhairs
1. Bicellular, basal and apical cells equal in length, distal cell tapered (1 p)
2. Bicellular, basal and apical cells almost equal, apical cell rounded to dome
shaped (1 o)
3. Diverging hair-on both sides of short cells (1 r).
Prickles
1. Small with pointed apex (1 t)
2. Small with slightly rounded apex (1 u)
3. Fan shaped or paired prickles (1 s)
Macrohairs
1. Long, thin walled (1 v)
2. Small, thin walled (1 w)
3. Hair base surrounded by papillae (1 v)
4. Hair base not surrounded by papillae (1 w)
On the basis of work done by different workers on different species, it is
concluded that anatomical structure of different species showed variations in
both culm and culm epidermis. These differences are helpful in identification of
bamboos. Moreover, quantitative variations in the dimensions of fibres and
specific gravity of different species may affect its pulping properties and yield of pulp.
References
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Melocanna baccrifera (Roxb.) Kurz. Indian Forester, 116 (10): 815-818.
Agrawal, S.P.; Chauhan, L. 1991. Culm and leaf epidermis of Indian bamboos. Pt. IV:
Oxytenanthera Munro. Indian Forester, 117(12): 1073-1076.
Agrawal, S.P.; Chauhan, L. 1993. Culm and leaf epidermis of Indian bamboos Pt. VI:
Thyrsostacchys Gamble. Indian Forester, 119 (9): 753-756.
Bisen, S.S. 1987. Scanning electron microscopic studies of epidermis of culm and
leaves of some important bamboos of Indian sub continent in relation to their
classification. Ph.D. thesis. Sagar University.
Bisen, S.S.; Chauhan L.; Rao, R.V.; Sharma, B.L. 1989. Epidermal features of culm of
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Biswas, S.1988. Studies on bamboo of North-Eastern region of India. Indian Forester,
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bamboos X- Chimonobambusa Makino. Indian Forester, 122 (11): 1045-1048.
Chauhan, L.; Mohinder Pal. 2002. Anatomy of Indian bamboos: Culm epidermis –
morphology and identification. Dehradun, Forest Research Institute. 72p.
Chauhan, L.; Rao, R.V. 1998. Identification of Indian bamboos using culm
epidermis features – An overview. In: National Seminar on Processing and
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Ghosh, S.S.; Negi, B.S. 1960. Anatomy of bamboo. Part I. Indian Forester, 86(12):
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6 Genetic Diversity in
Bamboos: Conservation
and Improvement for
Productivity
Ajay Thakur, Santan Barthwal and
H.S. Ginwal
1. Introduction
Bamboos are interesting plants in their growth, morphogenesis, taxonomy,
distribution, ecology, reproduction as well as diversity. Bamboos belong to the
subfamily Bambusoideae of grass family, Poaceae. Woody bamboos mostly belong to
Bambuseae tribe which is further divided into nine subtribes and 67 genera
(Ramanayake et al., 2007). An estimated 1,400 bamboo species are distributed
across the globe from 51oN latitude in Island of Sakhalin (Japan) to 47oS latitude in
South Argentina. The bamboos can grow in an altitudinal range which extends from
just above the sea level up to 4,000 m (Behari, 2006). The major species richness is
found in Asia-Pacific region followed by South America, whereas the least number of
species are found in Africa (Bystriakova et al., 2003). Bamboos can thrive in hot,
humid rainforests to cold resilient forests. They can tolerate as well as grow in extreme
low temperature of about - 20oC and precipitation ranging from 800 mm to 1,300 mm
annual rainfall (Goyal et al., 2012). Asia alone is estimated to have more than 6.3
Mkm2 of bamboo forests, with most densities indicated from southern China to
northeastern India and through Sumatra to Borneo. The maximum species richness
(144 spp km-2) was estimated in forests of south China, including Hainan Island
(Bystriakova et al., 2003). It is the fastest growing perennial and its morphogenesis
includes functioning of intercalary meristem which supports rapid growth of
internodes and their elongation to form the erect stem axis supported by considerable
amount of lignin. Such magnificent growth habit shows its potential to suffice the
demand of wood biomass despite that bamboos are still considered as poor man's
timber.
Traditionally, most commercially used bamboos are 38 species belonging to nine
genera that comprise only a small portion of bamboo resources and those were
132 Ajay Thakur, Santan Barthwal and H.S. Ginwal
explicitly narrowed down for genetic improvement studies (Williams and Rao, 1994;
Rao et al., 1998). Genetic improvement of bamboos were discussed during late
nineties and it was advocated to promote work on genetic analysis and conservation
(Rao et al., 1998). Studies on genetic variation started in early twentieth century but
halted for some time and again restarted during later part of that century. DNA based
techniques made understanding of evolutionary trends in bamboos along with inter-
and intra-specific relationships easy and now being used in population and
conservation genetics. There is a need to understand genetic variation of woody
bamboos on morphological, cytological and molecular basis vis-à-vis relationship
between them. This chapter reviews the genetic diversity and improvement of bamboo
species using classical as well as molecular genetics approach.
2. Bamboos: Genetic Variation and Evolution of Species
2.1. Phenotypic Variation

Genetic diversity is the main building block for evolution and speciation. Bamboos are
such a diverse group and provide many good examples to analyze and discuss the
morphological and genetic concepts of species. A wide spectrum of variability is
noticed within species of bamboos in natural distribution. Phenotypic variability
exists with respect to flowering of bamboos, morphological traits like internodal
length, culm wall thickness, sheath size and their cytology, variation in
chromosome number, pollen grain size, fertility and germination. Variation also
exists with respect to morphological and anatomical features. Kochhar et al. (1990)
studies on populations of Bambusa pallida, B. tulda and Dendrocalamus hamiltonii
and at West Siang (Arunachal Pradesh) and North Lakhimpur showed little
interspecific and more intraspecific variation for seven clump management and five
clump morphological traits in the base population. These characterization of traits
paved way for improvement through selection of plus bamboo clumps from
polymorphic populations based on individual traits. Spontaneous mutants with
morphological variations were detected in colour, shape and structure in B. bambos, B.
vulgaris, Guadua angustifolia, Oxytenanthera abyssinica and Phyllostachys edulis
(Venkatesh, 1984). Genetic variations are recorded in certain species of bamboo
most likely due to putative outcrossing, segregation and recombination. Inter-
and intra- species variability in end-use linked chemical composition of five
commercially important bamboo species, namely, B. balcooa, B. nutans, B. pallida,
B. tulda and D. hamiltonii was analysed. High range of lignin content in B. nutans
(25.64-29.46%) and that of holocelulose content in B. tulda (70.7-75.0 %) (Thakur
et al., 2014).
Genetic Diversity in Bamboos: Conservation and Improvement for Productivity 133
2.2. Genetic Variation

DNA based molecular markers paved way for fast and reliable estimates of genetic
diversity and distance. Considering complexities in taxonomic status of bamboo;
mostly due to long flowering interval, initial studies have been focused on molecular
phylogeny and taxonomy and a few were on intra specific diversity of bamboo.
Molecular markers like random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), amplified
fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR), simple
sequence repeat (SSR), expression sequence tag (EST), chloroplast (cp) genome,
single nucleotide polymorphic (SNP) markers, etc. are being used for phylogeny, inter-
and intra-specific studies. Universally marker based techniques like AFLP, ISSR and
cp genome are effective for phylogenetic studies, whereas RAPD and SSRs are co-
dominant markers and have high rate of mutation, hence effective in studies related to
genetic diversity.
AFLP marker technique has been widely used to assess genetic diversity within
and among the population of different bamboo species (Ghosh et al., 2011). Four
genera of tropical bamboos: Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Gigantochloa and
Thyrsostachys are being reported to be differentiated by AFLP markers and with
unique AFLPs for 13 out of 15 species (Loh et al., 2000). Bambusa (six species) is
separated into two clusters, Gigantochloa (six species) has formed a discrete cluster
diverging Bambusa clusters, while Thyrsostachys is less similar to the Bambusa
clusters. Among Dendrocalamus, two species were reported to be different than D.
brandisii, clustering within one of the Bambusa clusters. Interspecific diversity studies
between nine species of tropical bamboos: Arundinaria hindsii, Bambusa atra, B.
bambos, B. ventricosa, B. vulgaris 'Striata', D. asper, D. giganteus, D. longispathus
and Gigantochloa atroviolacea using RAPD reveals that contrary to distinguished
morphological dissimilarity between B. ventricosa and B. vulgaris, their genetic
distance was only 0.143 (Ramanayake et al., 2007). Genetic distance between B. atra
from B. vulgaris, B. ventricosa and B. bambos are greater as compared to G.
atroviolacea. A. hindsii is most genetically distant from all other species and not related
to any of them. A high level of genetic diversity was recorded in molecular analysis of
random collections of industrially important reed bamboos (Ochlandra travancorica)
using RAPD and AFLP marker technique.
Microsatellite or SSR markers are valuable tool for genetic diversity analysis. SSR
developed for cereal crops has been cross amplified for other bamboo species and
successfully used for genetic diversity studies (Barkley et al., 2005; Dong et al., 2011;
Zhang et al., 2011). Polymorphic EST-SSR markers derived from major cereal crops
were used to assess the genetic diversity of the USDA temperate bamboo collection
consisting of 92 accessions classified into 11 separate genera and 44 species
(Barkley et al., 2005). The resulting dendrograms have two distinct clusters of main
clades, which correspond to accessions into either clumping (sympodial) or running

(monopodial) bamboos. Similarly, cross amplification of SSR markers of rice and
sugarcane were successfully used for analysis of genetic diversity of 23 bamboo
species (Sharma et al., 2008). In 20 accessions of D. hamiltonii, genetic diversity
was 0.25. SSR markers were identified and characterized from B. bambos and tested
for cross amplification in other 18 bamboo species (Nayak et al., 2003). Many novel
microsatellite markers have also been developed in some bamboo species using
method based on microsatellite enriched genomic library. Availability of draft genome
sequence of P. heterocycla var. pubescens (Peng et al., 2013), opens another
possibility to use its SSR markers in other bamboo species for assessment of genetic
diversity and population genetics.
2.3. Molecular Phylogenomics

Understanding of evolution of species is of prime importance for genetic studies and
can be applied for improvement and conservation practices. Molecular
phylogenomics based on whole cp genome can be used to resolve major relationships
within and between subfamilies. Divergence of Bambusoideae from Poaceae is
important to study because former is the only subfamily of Poaceae that contains
woody members. Three subfamilies of Poaceae, i.e., Bambusoideae, Ehrhartoideae
and Pooideae, formed the BEP clade, yet the internal relationships of this clade are
controversial. Phylogeny construction of Poaceae from 24 complete chloroplast (cp)
genomes including 21 grass species shows difficulty in resolving the diversification
among three BEP clade, though it appears that there is a sister relationship between
Bambusoideae and Pooideae. It suggests that these lineages may have diverged very
rapidly and complete nucleotide sequences of six woody bamboo cp genomes are
similar to those of other grasses and rather conservative in evolution (Zhang et al.,
2011). The repeats in the cp genome could provide phylogenetic information and
caution is needed while using indels based on few selected genes. In North American
temperate bamboo species, A. gigantea species complex: A. appalachiana,
A. gigantean and A. tecta studies using AFLPs and cpDNA sequences support the
recognition of three species and also demonstrate that A. appalachiana and A. tecta are
sister species, forming a clade that is significantly divergent from A. gigantea (Triplett
et al., 2010). The first major divergence in Arundinaria occurred around 2.3 to 3.2 M
yr ago and that A. appalachiana and A. tecta diverged from their common ancestor
around 0.57 to 0.82 M yr back (Burke et al., 2014). Paleoclimatic events, including an
early Pliocene warming, subsequent cooling, and North American glaciations appear
to play an important role in divergence. Though phylogenomic and divergence
analyses between A. gigantea and Crytpochloa strictiflora, suggested that former
diverged from within Arundinarieae between 1.94 to 3.92 M yr and that later diverged
as the sister to tropical woody species between 24.83 and 40.22 M yr. These two New
World bamboos show unique plastome features accumulated and maintained in
biogeographic isolation from Old World taxa.
3. Bamboo Genetic Improvement

Bamboos are established as one of the fastest biomass producers that are being used as
an alternative to wood, which leads to increase in their consumption and subsequently
exerts pressure on their genetic resource. The number of species, their geographic
range of distribution, species and ecosystem diversity are important to determine in
situ conservation programme and selection of appropriate species from good
populations for ex situ conservation. International funding is being focused on a
relatively small set of commercially important and widely distributed 38 priority
species of bamboo (Williams and Rao, 1994; Rao et al., 1998). The focus on such a
narrow range of species is paving way for genetic improvement for productivity
enhancement which can be achieved by comprehensive intraspecific studies on
flowering and breeding behavior of bamboos, hybridization, cytogenetics, selection of
desirable population and individuals, etc. and their application for productivity
enhancement (Williams, 1998). Lately, traits specific molecular and genetic
information is also being used for genetic improvement.
3.1. Flowering and Breeding Behaviour

Floral biology and breeding behaviour of bamboos have perplexed researchers for
long time. Bamboos are primarily a cross pollinated species though adelphogamy (sib
pollination) cannot be ruled out (Venkatesh, 1984; Nadgauda et al., 1993a, b; Banik,
1995). Flowering in bamboos is a strange reproduction behaviour among plants;
they flowers gregariously like annuals but only after completing a lifecycle of
several years. Gregarious flowering in bamboo species is termed for a phenomenon
when a particular species flowers simultaneously at one location followed by death
of flowering clumps and is thought to be under genetic control (John and
Nadagauda, 1999; Bhattacharya et al., 2009). Two AP1/SQUA-like MADS-box
genes; PpMADS1 and PpMADS2 from P. praecox characterized during floral
transition showed involvement in floral transition. PpMADS2 might play more
important roles than PpMADS1 in floral development of P. praecox (Lin et al.,
2010). RNA sequencing analysis flowering tissues in bamboos suggests a potential
connection between drought-responsive and flowering genes (Peng et al., 2013). In
vitro conversion of vegetative meristem to floral meristem is achieved in D.
hamiltonii and subsequent protein profiling of floral meristem suggests that
metabolism related proteins affect this conversion through nutrient resources
though interactive effect of other proteins in profile cannot be ruled out (Kaur et al.,
2014). Sudden death of B. bambos after flowering is explained in the perspective of
programmed cell death (PCD) where two mRNA-transcripts for selected bamboo
PCD-specific ESTs, namely V2Ba48 (aldehyde dehydrogenase 2) and V2Ba19
(glycogen phosphorylase) were detected. Differential expression kinetics of the
aforementioned genes was confirmed during the progress of PCD after setting of seeds
(Rai and Dey, 2012).
Intraspecific variations of flowering are reported but to a limited extent. Bamboo
species flower gregariously at one location but may not flower at adjacent location
showing distinct flowering populations which subsequently die (Banik, 1995).
Populations flowered during one year may not be likely to mate with populations
flowered another year and this temporal reproductive isolation may likely to have
direct genetic consequences such as increase of genetic distance between
populations and subsequently sub-populations may develop. One possible long
term impact may be small effective population size and low genetic diversity of
population which, subsequently, increases inbreeding depression. Also these
populations struggle to survive in adaptive stress and impact of random genetic drift
is likely to be severe. One of the solutions may be sampling and collection of
adequate representative germplasm from all possible location which flowered in the
different years and grown randomly in either in situ or ex situ future gene bank for
genetic diverse population.
3.2. Hybridization
Depending on the evolutionary tendencies, hybridization is possible between closely
or widely related species or even among different genera. Earliest report of
intergeneric hybrid is between Sacharrum and Bambusa. Sacharrum officinarum
(mother) and the two seedlings derived through pollination with B. bambos, one of the
seedlings was much thicker than the mother, more vigorous and taller and had a
somatic chromosome number of 116. The other was much thinner with a somatic
chromosome number of 86. Thick seedling had probably come into being through
the fusion of an unreduced egg of S. officinarum (2n=80) with a normal sperm of B.
bambos (2n=72). The thin seedling had presumably been formed by the union of an
S. officinarum egg having neither the haploid nor the diploid number, with the
sperm of bamboo (Raghvan, 1952). In bamboos, there is likelihood of natural inter
specific hybridization if two species are flowering simultaneously. Interspecific
hybrids were obtained between Bambusa and Dendrocalamus spp., Phyllostachys
and Dendrocalamus and others. Superior bamboo hybrids with good vitality,
reproductive potential and adaptability are being cultivated in China covering more
than 600 ha.
In vitro induction of flowering is considered as an opportunity to increase

hybridization which can be achieved by a shift in auxin-cytokinin equilibrium or by a
cytokinin only. In vitro and in vivo flowering of B. bambos has shown in vitro-induced
florets fairly comparable to normal florets. Though reduced pollen fertility and some
impairment in pollen wall development are hindrance to achieve good in vitro
flowering. Biochemical studies suggest minimal peroxidase activity before
rhizogenesis and induction of in vitro flowering during somatic embryogenesis (John
and Nadagauda, 1999).
3.3. Ploidy Level and Genetic Variation

Apart from hybridization, polyploidy and somatic mutation are an important tools to
achieve genetic improvement quickly. Just in one generation, the polyploids become
separate and distinct from the diploid species. In polyploids, sexual reproduction
system is modified by inclusion of strong asexual reproduction system; the common
examples are bamboos and grasses. Most of the woody bamboos so far studied are
polyploids, and diploids are rarely found in any of them. P. heterocycla var. pubescens
which is a tetra-ploid and is considered to have undergone whole-genome duplication
7-12 M yr ago (Peng et al., 2013). Chromosome number in bamboo varies sometimes
according to genera as well as climatic conditions of its distribution range. Four
chromosome, numbers: 48, 54, 64 and 72 were mostly reported for bamboos. Among
temperate bamboo species of genera Arundinaria, Chinomobambusa,
Himalayacalamus, Phyllostachis, Pleioblastus, Sinobambusa, chromosome number
is 48 (2n). Most species of tropical bamboo genera like Bambusa, Cephalostychum,
Dendrocalamus, Gigantochloa, Melocanna, are reported to have chromosome
number 72 (2n). Chromosome number of bamboo species appear to vary with
variation in native climatic zones, from temperate, sub-tropical to tropical zones. The
number ranges between 72 and 48, which decreases gradually from the tropical zone to
the temperate zone (72- 64 - 48).
In earlier studies, basic chromosome number of Bambuseae was 6, as most
chromosome numbers reported were 48, 54 and 72 which were multiples of 6
(Uchikawa, 1935). Later studies suggested that basic chromosome number of most
woody bamboos is 12 (x = 12) which is also a multiple of 6 (Clark et al., 1995). It is
now hypothesized that two different polyploidy groups are present in woody
bamboos: tropical woody bamboos mostly hexaploid (2n = 6x = 72) and temperate
woody bamboos mostly tetraploid (2n = 4x = 48). This seems to be consolidated by the
reports of large genomic DNA content of tropical woody bamboos as compare to
temperate woody bamboos (Gielis et al., 1997). Molecular markers studies in
bamboos reported 9.62 alleles per locus in Asian bamboo species and 8.44 alleles per
locus in American bamboo species, indicating a high level of polyploidy (Barkley et
al., 2005; Sharma et al., 2008). Though there are some exceptions in chromosome
numbers for some species of Bambusa and Dendrocalamus (Ruiyang, 2003). Also,
New World bamboos (bamboos of American continents) show exceptions, such as
Gaudua has chromosome number 46. Chromosome number of some bamboos is given
in Table 3.3.1.
Table 3.3.1. Chromosome number of important bamboo species
Bamboo species Chromosome Bamboo species Chromosome

number number
Arundinaria fortunez 48 Cephalostchyum
pachystachis 48
A. fargesii C. pergracii 72
syn Bashania fargesii 48
A. pygmaea 54 Chinomobambusa falcata 48
A. falconeri
syn Himalayacalamus
falconeri 48 Dendrocalamus asper 72
A. iwatekensis D. giganteus 72
syn Sasa hidaensis 48
D. hamiltonii 72
A. gigantea 48
D. latiflorus 48, 64, 72
A. racemosa 48
D. longispathus 72
A. simonii 48
D. minor 72
Bambusa balcooa 72
D. strictus 72
B. bamboos 72
D. brandisii 72
B. bicicatricata 64, 72
B. emeiensis Gigantochloa macrostachya 72
syn. Sinocalamus affinis 70
Guadua capitaya 46
B. floribunda 72
G. chacoensis 46
B. multiplex 72
G. paraguayana 46
B. nana 72
B. nutans 72 Indocalamus wightianus 48
B. pervariabilis 56, 64 Melocanna baccifera 72
B. changii
syn. Lingnania changii 52, 64 Phyllostachis aurea 48
B. desemulate 64 P. bambusoides 48
B. guabgxi 64 P. flexuosa 48
B. lepida 72 P. iexuosa 54
B. rutila 64 P. pubescens 48
B. sinospinosa 64 P. marliacia 48, 72
B. textilis 72 P. straita 48
B. tulda 72 Pleioblastus 24, 48
B. vario-striates 84, 96 Pseudosasa japonica 48
B. polymorpha 72
Sasa spp. 24, 48
B. tuldoides Munro
syn A.angulata Munro 48, 64, 72 Sinobambusa spp. 48
Cephalostchyum Yushania pantlingii syn
mormorea 48 Arundinaria pantlingii 48
Knowledge of ploidy level and chromosome segregation during mitosis or meiosis

of bamboos is vital for genetic improvement via polyploidy. Autopolyploids and
allopolyploids are identified by studying and matching chromosomes at metaphase in
mitosis and these details are wanting for bamboos. Seeds of B. bambos and D. strictus
responded well when treated with colchicine showing increase in plant size and greater
vigour (Tewari, 1992). However, limited studies are available in application of
polyploidy for genetic improvement.
3.4. Genetic Improvement

Classical genetic improvement programme reported on bamboos is very limited
because of their unique habit and long flowering cycles. They are a perennial monocot,
hence strategies and breeding techniques employed on trees or even cereal crops may
not be applicable, like, since they have long gestation period similar to tree species
but habit of cereals to die immediate after flowering. Hence, it is difficult to create
breeding programme or even develop breeding populations for long term genetic
gain. Most of the reported work on genetic improvement is for short term genetic
gain, viz., natural intraspecific variation in desirable morphological traits is studied,
individual clumps with desirable traits are selected and conserved ex situ. This is
complemented with a fairly fast propagation method to multiply individuals with
desirable traits.
Selection methods presently being used include enumeration of phenotypic traits
of clumps then each trait is assigned some weightage and clumps having high scores are
selected. These clumps are called as plus clumps and their selection is based mostly on
quantitative traits like, height, girth or diameter at midpoint of 5th internode, 5th
internodal length, number of culms/clump, culm wall thickness, lumen size, etc.
(Subramaniam, 1995). The concept behind such selection is to collect a pool of
germplasm having most of the desirable characters. Genetic studies in bamboos
improvement were started for the first time in India during 1980 in Arunachal
Pradesh under the aegis of All-India Coordinated Research Programme on
underutilized and under-exploited plants. Plus clumps of B. balcooa, B. nutans,
B. pallida, B. tulda, Bambusa spp. (nal and nangal), D. giganteus, D. hamiltonii and
D. strictus were selected (Beniwal and Singh, 1990). Similar study was conducted at
Rain Forest Research Institute, Jorhat during late nineties where desirable
germplasms of B. balcooa, B. nutans, B. pallida, B. tulda, D. hamiltonii and
M. baccifera were selected, assessed at multilocation sites and some of them tested for
anatomical properties and pulp. Further, these selected individual are being multiplied
(Tripathi et al., 2011).
Though selection on scoring based on weighted phenotypic traits is a good
approach to select individuals with average desirable morphological characters.
Perhaps it may be likely to ignore those individuals having one or two extremely good
phenotypic traits. In fact, various bamboo utilization have specific requirements and
hence require raw material accordingly, e.g., kite and agarbatti industry requires
bamboos with long internodes; bamboos in structural uses requires solid and for
architectural purpose requires a specific ratio between wall thickness and collar
diameter; energy sector require bamboos with high calorific values and low ash
content. KONBAC industry manufactures designer bamboo furniture and they
require bamboos with at least 7.5 cm culm diameter and 1.2 cm minimum wall
thickness and ratio between wall thicknesses to diameter in a range of 1:3 to 1:8.
According to industry, there are bamboos but there is a dearth of suitable raw
material. Preference and choice of the user group is an important aspect for
selection of bamboo species, e.g., the Javanese like to use culms of Gigantochloa
apus for handicrafts which grow on the slopes rather than in the valley or the river
banks. In Bali, people do not like to eat betung biasa but prefer betung manis,
because betung manis is sweeter than betung biasa (Widjaja, 1998). A traits specific
genetic improvement approach is being suggested which comprises, first
characterization and intraspecific diversity study of each trait, followed by linkages
studies between traits. Selection of clumps should be based on desirable industry
specific traits and ex situ conservation of best individuals possessing those traits
would have been suggested as slightly better tools for germplasm collection and
creation of base population. Kochhar et al. (1990) studied populations of B. pallida,
B. tulda, and D. hamiltonii at West Siang (Arunachal Pradesh) and North Lakhimpur
showed little inter- and more intra-specific variation for seven clump management and
five clump morphological traits in the base population. These traits paved way for
improvement through selection for individual traits vis-à-vis single plus bamboo
clumps from polymorphic populations.
Estimation of genetic variation on geographical scale through provenance trial is
also a quick, easy and cheaper way for genetic improvement of bamboos though not
many reported. Genetic improvement through plus clump selection from provenance
trial of D. strictus at Forest Research Institute, Dehradun is going on. Selected plus
clumps are being cloned through vegetative propagation and tissue culture.
Heritability studies of important traits give a fair idea of genetic control of that trait
though it is difficult to estimate in bamboo because of long flowering cycle. It is
pertinent to start seed based progeny trial and genetic improvement programme
whenever flowering happens. Seed based selection of desirable germplasm in
D. hamiltonii was reported, where early good performing seedlings were tested in field
for growth traits (Sood et al., 2002). Selection of superior provenances and even
individuals within provenances is needed. These selections should include local
knowledge and choice of desirable character of bamboos.
3.5. Biotechnological Approaches for Genetic Improvement

Major research focused also on the clonal propagation of elite genotypes, either
juvenile or adult. The literature on this subject, however, is very limited, and this is
solely due to lack of success. Technically, the propagation of adult plants via axillary
branching is much more difficult than with seedlings in tropical bamboos. When using
adult bamboos main problems are: (1) endogenous contamination, (2) hyperhydricity
and instability of multiplication rates, and (3) problems with rooting also, though
bamboos root readily in nature.
Tissue culture can be a good tool for improvement in bamboos. Sodium chloride-
tolerant plantlets of D. strictus were regenerated successfully from NaCl-tolerant
embryogenic callus via somatic embryogenesis (Singh et al., 2003). About 39 per cent
of mature somatic embryos tolerant to 100 m M NaCl germinated and converted into
plantlets in a medium [half-strength MS+2 per cent sucrose+0.02 mg l−1 (0.1 μM) α-
naphthaleneacetic acid +0.1 mg l−1 (0.49 μM) indole-3-butyric acid] containing 100
mM NaCl which further give 31 per cent success on transferring into a garden soil and
sand (1:1) mixture containing 0.2 per cent (w/w) NaCl.
Genetic markers and quantitative trait studies for identifying genetic variation
patterns is suggested to use to improve conservation of plant genetic resources. The
genomic DNA content of tropical woody bamboos is larger than that of the temperate
woody bamboos as estimated by flow cytometric analysis (Gielis et al., 1997).
Genome size is assessed in moso bamboo (P. pubescens) which is just more than 2
Gb and similar to maize genome but significantly larger than that of rice genome
(Gui et al., 2007; Peng et al., 2013). Moso bamboo genome contains 43.9 per cent
GC and 59.0 per cent transposable elements and 31,987 protein coding genes and the
average length of protein coding gene is 3,350 bp (Peng et al., 2013). World-wide
effort for sequencing of genome and transcriptome of bamboos resulted in deposition
of partial genome sequences and expressed sequence tags (ESTs) in database.
Characterization of genes, which control economically important characters:
lignin and cellulose content, growth, disease resistance, etc., is most sought after for
genetic improvement. Gene regulating these characters in plants can be used in genetic
transformation. Regulation of Lignin components has impact on pulp-making
efficiency and on reduction of pollution in the environment. A comparative analysis of
the lignin biosynthesis pathway between P. heterocycla cv. pubescens and rice suggests
that genes encoding caffeoyl-CoA O-methyltransferase may serve as targets for genetic
manipulation of lignin content (Peng et al., 2010). The catalytic subunit of cellulose
synthaze complex (BoCesA) in B. oldhamii participates in cellulose synthesis in the
primary cell walls of growing bamboo and number of these genes have two or more
copies in the bamboo genome, implicates role in rapid growth and also wood forming
capacity (Chen et al., 2010). In B. balcooa fibre specific cDNAs among different
internodes during bamboo development were studied and for few selected bamboo
fibre ESTs namely, V1Bb147 (protein kinase-like protein) and V1Bb88 (myb domain-
containing protein) were detected which were accountable for bamboo fibre
development (Rai et al., 2011). Further a gene BbKst (Gene bank ID JQ432560) is
reported in B. balcooa, which encodes serine-threonine protein kinase and apparently
induces higher cellular deposition and enhance fibre qualities like; flexibility
coefficient, slenderness ratio and lower runkel ratio (Ghosh et al., 2013). Bamboo
flowering can be manipulated and early seed production is possible in P. praecox;
where two genes PpMADS1and PpMADS2 reported to be involved in floral transition
(Lin et al., 2010). BohLOL1; an LSD1- like gene in B. oldhamii is a nuclear binding
protein which plays a role not only in response against pathogen but also in the
regulation of growth. The up-regulation of BohLOL1expression occurs in growing
bamboos (Yeh et al., 2011).
4. Conclusion
Bamboos are widely distributed, fastest biomass producing woody grass which are
still important part of livelihood of rural people. Despite this, genetic improvement
have been carried out on a very few bamboo species. Molecular diversity of bamboos
are fairly better studied than phenotypic diversity. New molecular markers now made
studies on evolution more obvious than ever. Gregarious flowering of bamboos is still
a mystery, though information generated on flowering cycle is valuable for biologists
as well as managers. Flowering is being considered as an opportunity by both. Lately,
some genes and proteins responsible for flowering are identified and these studies
needs to be validated further. Death of clumps after flowering is being established to
have some relation with programmed cell death and studies have revealed that two
genes have some significant role. Flowering can be used as an opportunity for genetic
improvement work on bamboos to create a broader base population, estimate of
genetic variation and genetic control of traits. Hybridization studies are possible if
flowering is controlled either in situ or in vitro. Bamboos have become natural
polyploid few millions years ago which is substantiated by molecular studies.
Temperate bamboos are mostly tetraploid and tropical bamboos are mostly hexaploid,
though bamboo of the New World. There is a need to create artificial polypoidy for
improvement of quality and quantity of bamboos. Genetic improvement programme is
started in some bamboo species mostly based on index selection which is needed to be
refined by study on genetic variation of desirable traits and trait specific selection
keeping end use into consideration. Genetic improvement programme would have
yielded much in short time period if provenance/population studies of specific
bamboo had been conducted. Genetic variation in vegetative propagation and
multilocation trials of selected clumps of bamboos is key to launch desirable bamboos
in field. Complete genome studies of bamboos and data mining facilitated

determination of gene or protein controlling a desirable character. This may be useful
for trait specific genetic modification programme of bamboos.
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7 Biotechnology of
Bamboos
Pooja Thapa, Devinder Kaur,
Priyanka Sood, Rupali Mehta,
Jasmine Brar, Harleen Naddha,
R.K. Ogra, Om Prakash,
Amita Bhattacharya and Anil Sood
1. Introduction
Bamboos are perennial, evergreen woody monocots that belong to the family Poaceae,
subfamily Bambusoideae and tribe Bambuseae. The plant is distributed at latitudes
from 46°N to 47°S and at altitudes up to 4,000 m amsl in the subtropical and temperate
zones of all continents except Europe (Banik, 1995; McNeely, 1995; Kharlyngdoh and
Barik, 2008). There are over 75 genera and 1250-1500 species distributed across the
globe (Sharma, 1980; FAO, 2001; Qing et al., 2008). Asian countries such as Nepal,
Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, China, India, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar account for
about 1000 species, covering an area of over 180,000 km2. Among these, India and
China together contribute more than half of the total bamboo resources of the world.
Bamboo is aptly called as the 'Green Gold' of the 21st century in several countries of Asia.
The plant is an important structural component of many types of vegetation and
plays a major role in ecosystem dynamics (Keeley and Bond, 1999). It has gained
importance in social forestry programmes due to its short rotation cycle, fast growth
and ease of progressive harvesting on a sustainable basis (Godbole et al., 2002).
Bamboo housing is especially popular in earthquake prone areas. Being a good source
of fibre, proteins, and minerals with anti-oxidant, anti-ageing, anti-bacterial and anti-
viral functions, bamboo shoots constitute an important food crop in the international
as well as national markets. The shoots can also be processed into beverages,
medicines, pesticides, and other household items like toothpaste, soap, etc. Bamboo is
the main food source of the giant pandas in China. Bamboo foliage is reportedly
nutritious forage for grazing cattle. It is a low-calorie source of potassium and is used
for healing and treating infections. The silicious concretion called Banslochan or
Tabashir or Tawashir obtained from the culms of the bamboo stem is used as a tonic for
respiratory diseases. Bamboo leaf (Herba Lophatheri) has been widely used in a
variety of foods and drugs. This has led to approximately 1,500 commercial
148 Pooja Thapa et al.
applications of bamboos including construction and reinforcing fibres, paper, textiles,

board, food, combustion, carbon sequestering activity, environment management and
other bioenergy applications. The plant is indeed a major player in the economies of
many Asian countries (Qiu, 1992; SCBD, 2001; Ghosh et al., 2011). An estimated 2.5
billion people of the world depend on or use bamboos. In India, the present bamboo-
dependent economy is worth Rs. 2,043 crore and is expected to reach Rs. 26,000 crore
by 2015 (Mahapatra and Shrivastava, 2013).
In view of the future uses of bamboos and their increasing role in different
economies, it is anticipated that there will be a huge shortage of bamboo planting
material in the coming years (Subramanian, 1995). However, there has been rampant
dwindling of natural stands due to extensive anthropogenic pressures and over-
exploitation of this immensely versatile, natural resource. Thus, there is an increasing
need to enhance the productivity and quality of bamboos worldwide.
2. Micro-Propagation
In nature, bamboos propagate both vegetatively through rhizomes and sexually
through seeds. New sprouts emerge from rhizomes during the rainy season and rapidly
grow into tall culms within a year. Plants are also propagated by culm cuttings, branch
cuttings, offsets, rhizomes and seedlings. However, these methods suffer from various
limitations such as high cost, labour intensiveness, low quality planting material,
difficulty in transportation for establishing large scale plantation and low seed viability
(Banik, 1987). Vegetative propagation has proved useful for only small scale production
of clonal planting material and is of limited value. In contrast, micro-propagation is one
of the most effective supplementation to conventional methods of vegetative
propagation. This method is one of the fastest ways of getting healthy, disease-free and
genetically uniform planting material en masse. It is the only reliable method for mass
scale propagation of plants where >500,000 plants yr-1 are involved (Gielis et al., 2002).
However, tissue culture of bamboos had received rather scant attention until the last
two decades (Huang and Murashige, 1983). Initial reports on regeneration of bamboo
plantlets through embryo culture appeared only in the late 1960's (Alexander and Rao,
1968). But major strides in bamboo tissue culture were made in the 1980s.
The complete protocol on micro-propagation of Bambusa arundinacea syn.
B. bambos from seeds (Mehta et al., 1982) laid the foundation of bamboo micro-
propagation for replenishment of natural stands and conservation. Thereafter, micro-
propagation of bamboos gained considerable impetus (Yeh and Chang, 1986a;
Paranjothy et al., 1990; Rao and Rao, 1990; Saxena, 1990; Sood et al., 1994a, b; Saxena
and Dhawan, 1999; Bag et al., 2000; Arya et al., 2002, Godbole et al., 2002;
Ramanayake and Wanniarachchi, 2003; Yeh and Lin et al., 2004; Agnihotri et al.,
2009). Several efficient protocols have been successfully developed for many
genera/species where various explants were employed (Table 2.1.). However, factors
Biotechnology of Bamboos 149
Table 2.1. Summary of micropropagation work done on different bamboos





such as season and stage of explant collection, cultivars/genotypes/ecotypes, process

of surface sterilization, culture media and process of hardening and acclimatization
had to be extensively standardized for each of these bamboos.
At CSIR-IHBT, highly efficient micro-propagation protocols were developed
from nodal segments of important bamboos such as B. balcooa, B. bambos, B. tulda,
B. nutans, D. asper, D. hamiltonii, D. membranaceus, D. giganteus, Guadua
angustifolia and Phyllostachys pubescens (Table 2.2.).
Besides, shoot cultures, somatic embryogenesis was also attempted by various
workers; and successful protocols were established (Table 2.1.). At CSIR-IHBT,
somatic embryogenesis was induced in nodal segments of D. hamiltonii and basal MS
medium containing 2 per cent sucrose, 4.52 μM 2, 4-D and 4.44 μM BAP was used.
When 2, 4-D was removed from this medium, high frequency of both recurrent somatic
embryogenesis and germination were recorded (Godblole et al., 2002). In B. nutans
also, callus induced from nodal segments led to somatic embryogenesis on MS
medium supplemented with 3 per cent sucrose, 4.52 μM 2, 4-D and 4.44 μM BAP.
While the use of 20 mg l-1 ascorbic acid was important for the proliferation of the
somatic embryos, they germinated when 0.499 μM TDZ and 10.74 μM NAA were
used (Mehta et al., 2010).
Indirect regeneration from nodal segments was also successfully established in
important bamboos such as B. bambos, B. nutans, B. tulda, D. asper and D. membranaceus.
MS medium supplemented with 2,4-D invariably induced callusing in the nodal
Table 2.2. Summary of work done on micro-propagation of different bamboos at CSIR-IHBT
Genus/species Explant used Medium
Bambusa Nodal explants MS with 4.4 μM BAP, 0.53 μM NAA and 1

balcooa MS with 16.11 µM NAA and 1% sucrose
B. bambos Nodal explants MS with 4.4 µM BAP, 1.16 µM Kn with 2% sucrose
B. nutans Nodal explants MS with 4.52 μM 2,4-D , 4.44 μM BAP and 3% sucrose, ,
Biotechnology of Bamboos
germination 0.499 μM TDZ and 10.74 μM NAA

MS with 16.11 μM NAA and 2% sucrose
B. tulda Nodal explants Liquid MS with 8.8 µM BAP, 4.46 µM Kn with 2% sucrose
Dendrocalamus Nodal explants MS with 8.86 μM BAP with 13.5 μM ad sulphate and 3%
asper sucrose, MS with14.76 μM IBA, 3.67 μM NAA and 3%
sucrose
D. giganteus Nodal explants MS with BA MS with BAP and Kn 1.0 mg/l each
In vitro raised Liquid MS with 4.44 μM BAP, 4.52 μM 2,4
sucrose, ½ liquid MS with 2.46 or 4.92 μM IB
155

156
Pooja Thapa et al.
segments of these bamboos. However, their concentrations differed from genus to

genus and species to species. In D. asper, 14.61 μM 2,4-D induced callusing followed
by rhizogenesis and caulogenesis, whereas, 22.29 μM 2,4-D along with 10 per cent
coconut milk induced callusing followed by plant regeneration in B. tulda (Nadha,
2012). In case of D. membranaceus, however, callusing occurred when 4.53 µM 2,4-D
was combined with 5.37 µM NAA. Indirect shoot bud developed on these calli upon
transfer to light but elongated only when 4.4 µM BAP and 1.15 µM Kn were used. In B.
bambos, callus was initiated in dark when 4.53 µM 2, 4-D and 5.37 µM NAA were
used along with 3 per cent sucrose. Only rhizogenesis but no plant regeneration
occurred in these calli when they were shifted to 2.26 μM 2,4-D and 1.14 μM NAA
(Brar, 2014) (Fig. 2.1.-2.2.).
At CSIR-IHBT, the major bottlenecks of rooting, acclimatization and survival
under field conditions were also overcome in important bamboos (Table 2.2., Fig.
2.3.). Rooting was more effectively induced when clusters of three to four shoots
were used as compared to individual shoots. However, the strength of the MS
medium and the concentration of different auxins governed high percentage of
rooting. Among the different genera/species that were studied, maximum rooting
(92.5%) was recorded in B. balcooa, whereas, a minimum of 80 per cent rooting was
recorded in D. asper. In all the species that were studied, rooted plantlets were first
acclimatized in plastic pots containing river bed sand and covered with plastic sheet
Fig. 2.1. Somatic embryogenesis in different species of Bambusa. (a-b) Induction and
maturation in B. tulda, (c-d) induction and rhizogenesis (arrows) in B. bambos and (e-f)
induction and germination in B. nutans.
Fig. 2.2. Somatic embryogenesis in different species of Dendrocalamus. (a-b) Induction

along with rhizogenesis in D. asper, (c-f) induction and germination in D. membranaceus (c-
d) and D. hamiltonii (e-f).
Fig. 2.3. Shoot multiplication, rooting, hardening and survival under field conditions
during micropropagation of different bamboo species. (a-e) B. bambos, (f-i) P. pubescens
and (j-m) D. asper.
for maintenance at 25-30°C and 80-85 per cent RH under green house condition.
After an average of 21 days, well rooted plantlets were successfully transferred to
sand : soil : farmyard manure (1:1:1) for further growth and acclimatization. After
55-60 days, the plants were finally shifted to outdoor conditions in pits (2 ft × 2 ft × 2 ft)
at a plant to plant and row to row distance of 6 m. In general, the plants showed up to
95 per cent survival under field conditions. The plants had to be protected from the
rodents/ monkeys by either putting thorny branches or using waste pieces of agro net
around the young plants.
3. In vitro Conservation by Slow Growth and Cryopreservation

In commercial tissue culture units, efficient stockpiling is often required to avoid the
wastage of costly propagules during periods of low production schedule (Cervelli and
Seneranta, 1995). Slow growth is often induced in in vitro cultures for medium term
storage of propagules. This ensures an additional back-up collection while allowing
steady availability of planting propagules during active production schedules (Withers,
1991; Sutton and Polonenko, 1999). The method is also used for germplasm
conservation (Chaturvedi et al., 2004; Hassan et al., 2007). In this regard, rapidly
multiplying somatic embryos of D. hamiltonii were successfully stored for >365 days
under slow growth conditions imposed by liquid paraffin overlay (Kaur et al., 2012).
Importantly, the stored somatic embryos showed high frequency of germination upon
retrieval (Fig. 3.1.).
Fig. 3.1. Slow growth and storage of D. hamiltonii (a) somatic embryos under LPO, (b)
germination of somatic embryos retrieved after 365 days under LPO, (c) cryopreserved
somatic embryos encapsulated in sodium alginate film and (d) cracking of alginate film
and growth of somatic embryos after retrieval from cryo-preservation.
3.1. Cryopreservation
Besides production of juvenile planting materials for replenishment of dwindling
stands, attempts have been made to cryopreserve different bamboos. Workers such as
Krishnapillay et al. (1993) reported that cryopreservation of seedlings of B. bambos,
D. membranaceus, D. brandisii and Thyrsostachys siamensis was better when they
were dried for five hours at 25+2°C with 55 per cent relative humidity in a laminar
flow cabinet. At CSIR-IHBT, however, the somatic embryos of D. hamiltonii were
cryopreserved by the vitrification as well as encapsulation-vitrification methods. The
ones subjected to the vitrification method failed to survive, irrespective of vitrification
temperature or the duration of cryopreservation. However, the somatic embryos
subjected to the encapsulation-vitrification method cracked after 15 days on MS basal
media supplemented with 4.44 μM BAP and 8 per cent sucrose. These proliferated 30
days onwards (Fig. 3.1.). The somatic embryos were influenced by vitrification-
temperature and showed 50 and 29 per cent survival at 0 and 25°C, respectively after 1
hr of cryopreservation. However, their survival percentage decreased with further
increase in the duration of cryopreservation (Kaur et al., 2014).
4. In vitro Flowering and Its Implication in Germplasm Conservation

Flowering has been a major deterrent to the conservation and propagation of bamboos.
Most genera/species have a long intermast period of juvenile stage that varies from
40-120 years. At the end of this period, bamboos flower gregariously, irrespective of
geographical locations and the entire culms of all clonal individuals (from a single
mother) flower simultaneously and die en masse (Jackson, 1987). Gregarious
flowering results in the production of a large number of viable seeds that cannot be
stored for long. Moreover, the seeds are rich in nutrients and attract rodents that
increase in population and cause mass devastation to the plants (Jackson, 1987). This
results in huge loss of valuable germplasm (Janzen, 1976; John and Nadgauda, 2002;
Ramanayake, 2006; Austin and Marchesini, 2012; Shukla et al., 2012), and is a
continuous but unpredictable threat to all standing populations of bamboos (John and
Nadgauda, 2002). In addition to gregarious flowering, some culms of bamboos also
flower sporadically and set a few seeds annually, and die (Jackson, 1987). However,
the seeds are mostly non-viable. Although the process of flowering in bamboos
demands attention, it is poorly understood and is considered to be an enigmatic process
(Ramanayake, 2006). The age of the plants growing in wild is not known and their
flowering age cannot be predicted in advance. Thus, no measures can be taken to check
the loss of valuable germplasm. Moreover, the plants are very tall and slender, often
reaching to a height of 15-18 m. This renders routine and extensive studies extremely
difficult. Therefore, a reproducible system of in vitro flowering was established in
D. hamiltonii. MS medium supplemented with 2.22 µM BAP, 1.23 µM IBA and 2 per
cent sucrose invariably supported 80 per cent flowering. The system proved effective
for tagging, sampling and tracking the process of flowering under controlled
environmental conditions (Kaur et al., 2014). Using this system, six distinct stages of
development were identified, and the flowers were comparable with in planta
sporadic flowers (Fig. 4.1.). Since the pollen viability of the in vitro flowers was also
higher than those of in planta ones, it had the potential to serve as propagules
for medium- or long-term storage and manipulation of in vitro fertilization (Kaur
et al., 2014).
In vitro flowering has been also reported by Rao and Rao (1990), Nadgauda et al.
(1990, 1997), Chambers et al. (1991), Rout and Das (1994), Gielis (1995), Ansari et al.
(1996), Gielis et al. (1996), Joshi and Nadgauda (1997), Lin and Chang (1998), John
and Nadgauda (1999), Ramanayake et al. (2001) and Lin et al. (2003; 2004a, b; 2007a,
b) for different bamboos such as B. arundinacea, B. bambos, B. edulis, B. ventricosa,
B. vulgaris, D. brandisii, D. giganteus and D. strictus, etc. A low frequency of seed set
has also been reported in B. arundinacea, B. vulgaris, D. brandisii, D. giganteus and
D. strictus (Nadgauda et al., 1990; Rout and Das, 1994).
Fig. 4.1. In vitro flowering in D. hamiltonii. (a) Shoots, (b) bunch of mature flowers and
(c-d) distinct stages of flower development (c) in vitro and (d) in plant.
5. Genetic Modification through Transgenics

Despite the multiple utilities of bamboos, various factors hamper their extensive and
complete utilization in emerging industries. Its wood is available only in two colours
and is resistant to colouring. The presence of high amounts of lignin incurs expensive
processing by paper industry. Moreover, the plants are prone to various kinds of insect
attacks (termite and post powder beetle) and fungal pathogens such as white rot and
brown rot. Besides these serious problems, the plant is sensitive to frost and cannot be
successfully grown at high altitudes. As a result, improvement of bamboos is required
for harnessing its full potential. In this regard, transgenic technology has proved to be
an effective and useful approach for genetic improvement/modification of different
plants (Dale et al., 1993; Christou, 1994). However, till now, there are only three
reports on genetic transformation of bamboos. For the first time, Douglas et al. (1985)
showed attachment of A. tumefaciens to bamboo cell walls. However, it was only after
14 years that Wu and Feng (1999) reported the use of electroporation method of
transformation for transient expression of gus gene in intact root-callus cells of
Bambusa beecheyana Munro var. beecheyana. It took about 12 years thereafter for
Ogita et al. (2011) to obtain transformed Phyllostachys nigra suspension cells by the
particle bombardment-mediated transformation. However, they failed to develop
transgenic plants from these cells. It was only at CSIR-IHBT that extensive
optimization was carried out using somatic embryos of D. hamiltonii. Parameters that
prevented Agrobacterium mediated transformation of these woody monocots were
finally identified. Necrosis due to polyphenol oxidation, lack of differentiation due to
cell wall thickening at wound sites and most importantly, waxy surfaces of the somatic
embryos were found to prevent Agrobacterium attachment and infection. Therefore, a
simple and effective method was devised for transforming the somatic embryos with
fresh overnight grown bacterial cultures containing 500 mg/l polyvinyl pyrrolidone
(PVP). Use of 0.01 per cent Tween-20 as surfactant during infection was extremely
important along with co-cultivation of the infected somatic embryos on MS medium in
the presence of both 100 μM acetosyringone and 4.44 μM BAP for 2 days. Histo-
chemical GUS assay, PCR, slot blot and Southern hybridization confirmed successful
genetic transformation of the somatic embryos, thereby, confirming the production of
first transgenic D. hamiltonii plants in the world (Sood, 2013). The method paved the
way for genetic transformation of other important bamboos.
6. Nutritional Profiling for Use as Fodder and Food
6.1. Fodder
Bamboos are traditionally used as fodder for livestock during lean winter months. Thus
bamboos growing in Palampur, Himachal Pradesh such as B. bambos, B. nutans, B.
tulda, B. ventricosa, B. vulgaris, D. asper, D. hamiltonii, D. hookerii, D. strictus, M.
baccifera, P. aurea and Sasa auricoma were evaluated for their leaf nutritive
composition, in-vitro digestibility, in vitro gas production, short chain fatty acid
(SCFA) profile, efficiency of microbial protein synthesis and partitioning factor (PF)
(Sahoo et al., 2010). The results revealed M. baccifera as the most superior fodder
followed by D. hamiltonii > D. hookerii > D. asper > B. bambos > B. nutans > P. aurea
> B. vulgaris >B. ventricosa > D. strictus > B. tulda. However, on the basis of in vitro
digestibility, gas production, DM degradation, in vitro ruminal fermentative attributes
and nutritive profiles, M. baccifera, D. hookerii, D. hamiltonii and D. asper were
considered as promising fodder bioresource.
6.2. Food
Young shoots of bamboos are rich in nutrients and are either eaten raw as salad, cooked
or fermented. Since they take the flavour of the ingredients in which they are cooked,
they are used in soups, snacks, curries, stir fries, pickles, canned vegetable and also as
extenders. The shoots have high contents of water (about 90%), proteins (1.49-4.04 g),
carbohydrates, minerals such as potassium, calcium, manganese, zinc, chromium,
copper, iron, phosphorus and selenium. They also contain tyrosine (57-67%), edible
fibres (6-8%), vitamins like thiamine, niacin, vitamin A, vitamin B6, and vitamin E
(Xia, 1989; Shi and Yang, 1992) and phytosterol (Qiu, 1992; Ferreira et al., 1995;
Kozukue et al., 1999). Besides being very low in fats (0.26-0.94%), sugars (2.5%) and
calories, they are naturally organic (Nirmala et al., 2007; 2011). Thus, bamboo shoots
with their cholesterol lowering activity surely qualify as nutraceuticals (Brufau et al.,
2008). Thus, bamboos rank among the five most popular health care foods in the
world. Eleven Indian species (B. balcooa, B. nutans, B. tulda, D. giganteus, D.
hamiltonii, D. hookerii, D. longispathus, D. sikkimensis, Melocanna baccifera,
Phyllostachys bambusoides and Teinostachyum wightii were found to have the
potential for commercialization as food products (Bhat et al., 2005). Out of these, D.
giganteus and D. hamiltonii are nutritionally the best ones (Nirmala et al., 2007). At
CSIR-IHBT, nutritional profiling of P. pubesense, D. asper, D. hamiltonii and B.
bambos shoots revealed significant variations in fat (0.29-0.39%), fibre (1.20 to
1.50%) and protein contents (3.43 to 3.70%). Furthermore, the shoots were processed
into edible products such as preserve, candy, chutney, nuggets, cracker (papad) and
chukh. These were also analyzed for nutritional and organoleptic qualities. The results
revealed nutritional richness and sensory acceptability of the products.
7. Conclusion
The future goal of bamboo biotechnology is to provide high quality plants in very short
time while overcoming the problems of hybridization and developing bamboos with
added-values and improved nutritional and health characteristics. In this regard, the
cryopreservation and slow growth methods developed at CSIR-IHBT can be used for
preservation of endangered and other bamboo germplasm. Similarly, the efficient
micropropagation protocols are being utilized to replenish denuded sites and to
reclaim degraded lands. While the in vitro system of flowering has opened the way for
understanding the enigmatic process of flowering and reproductive biology in
bamboos, the efficient genetic transformation methods is a step towards time effective
improvement of bamboos. The achievements in nutritional profiling and development
of food products open the possibilities of providing livelihood opportunities to the
local population while ensuring food security in traditional areas.
Tissue Culture Protocol for Dendrocalamus membranaceus

I.D. Arya, Sushma Sharma, Sudhir Sharma, Sudhir Chouhan and Sarita Arya
1. Introduction per cent mercuric chloride solution for 10-15

Dendrocalamus membranaceus is a minutes and rinsed 3-4 times with sterile
moderate sized, strong bamboo forming distilled water. The surface sterilized axillary
loose clumps. Culms developed are straight buds were cultured on semisolid and liquid
and around 20-24 meter in height, 6-10 cm in Murashige and Skoog's (MS) medium
diameter and are covered with white supplemented with a cytokinin like 6-
powdery substance, deciduous when benzyladenine (BA) and kinetin (Kn). The pH
young, green in colour and the nodes are of medium was adjusted to 5.8 prior to
strongly ringed. Internodal length is around autoclaving the medium at 121°C for 15
20-40 cm. Culm sheath is glabrous outside minutes. Cultures were maintained at
and with dark brown hairs. Leaves are hairy 25±2°C with 14 hours illumination with a
on the mid rib base, ligule is very short and photon flux density of 2500 lux, from
hairy. It is a native of Myanmar, and in India it fluorescent tubes.
is cultivated in Calcutta, Dehradun and also
been introduced in Kerala. It is reported to 3. Multiplication of Shoot Cultures
have flowered gregariously in Dehradun in
Axillary buds cultured on liquid and
1973 (Lohani, 1973; Naithani and Biswas,
semisolid MS medium supplemented with
1992). D. membranaceus is mainly used for
cytokinin, proliferated number of axillary
building purpose (construction and poles). It
shoots. These axillary shoots were excised
is said to be one of the most promising
and subcultured on fresh liquid as well as
species for pulp. Kennard and Freyre, in
semisolid medium for further in vitro shoot
1957 considered this bamboo to be an
multiplication. In 3-4 weeks these shoots
excellent from the processing point of view
were again subcultured on liquid and
because young shoots are almost smooth
semisolid medium supplemented with BA
and easy to handle. In China, it is used for
(2.0-5.0 mg l-1). Different sets of experiment
making bamboo chopsticks, shreds and
conducted to obtain the maximum in vitro
paper (Bennet and Gaur, 1990).
shoot multiplication rate. For each
experiment a minimum of 30 replicates were
2. Explant Source taken. Observation was recorded after an
Young and juvenile shoots were collected interval of 4 weeks. Once the optimum of
from nursery raised 2 years and 3 years old shoots were multiplication medium was
plants (Fig. 2.1a-e). The nodal segments established, the in vitro shoots produced
with single axillary buds were used as were excised in propagules of three shoots
explant for micropropagation. The axillary and were subcultured every 3-4 weeks. This
buds were first washed with 5 per cent shoot multiplication was regularly conducted
cetrimide (ICI Ltd. India) solution for 5 and maintained under 20-30 µ EM-2 S-1
minutes and then surface sterilized with 0.1 photon flux density for 16 hours photoperiod
at 25 ± 2°C. The number of propagules solution (without organics) twice a week for
cultured to the number of the propagules three weeks. After three weeks, these
derived at the end of subculture was bottles were shifted to mist chamber having
regarded as the rate of multiplication or fold relative humidity of 80-90 per cent with a
multiplication. temperature at 30±2°C, the mouth caps of
the bottle were opened and plantlets were
4. In vitro Rooting allowed to remain in the bottles for 3-4 days
before they were transferred into polybags
The in vitro regenerated shoots (measuring
containing a mixture of sand, soil and
2.5-3.5cm) were cultured on full, half, and
farmyard manure (FYM) in a ratio of 1:1:1. In
quarter strength of MS medium containing
mist chamber the plants were kept for three
various concentration of auxins
weeks and were irrigated with tap water.
naphthylacetic acid (NAA), indole acetic acid
Later these polybags were shifted to shade
(IAA), indole butyric acid (IBA) (1.0-10.0 mg
house for two months. After one month
l-1) for root induction. The shoots cultures (2-
plants were shifted to bigger polybags (14”)
4 shoots) were placed on both liquid and
containing same putting media composition.
semisolid supplemented with different
Hardened and acclimatized plants were
concentration of auxins. Three propagules
directly planted in the field preferably during
(shoot clusters of different size) were
monsoon or after monsoon season (July-
cultured per conical flask (100-150 ml). After
December). Simple silviculture practices
four weeks, plantlets were taken out and
were followed during plantation with 5m x 5m
rooting percentage, numbers of roots per
meter spacing. The field plants were
propagule were counted.
irrigated every 15 days for first three months.
5. Hardening and Acclimatization

6. Results
Procedures
Rooted shoots from four weeks old cultures 6.1. Initiation of Shoot Culture
were transferred to soil under shade house Axillary buds cultured on cytokinin (BA and
either directly or after in vitro hardening the Kn) supplemented MS medium showed
plantlets were taken out from the flask, axillary bud break in two weeks. The number
agar/medium was washed and were of shoots proliferated and the shoots
transferred to 250 ml screw cap bottles elongated were more in BA supplemented
containing ¼ volume of soilrite. These medium as compared to Kn supplemented
plantlets were supplied with half strength MS medium (Table 6.1.1.) BA concentration
Table 6.1.1. Effect of cytokinin (BA and Kn) concentration on shoot bud proliferation from axillary
bud in D. membranaceus . Data recorded after three weeks from 20 replicate each
Cytokinin Concentration No. of shoots Average shoot Average
(mg l -1) proliferated length shoot
(Min-Max) (cm) number
6-Benzyladanine (BA) 1.0 3-5 3.5 3.8
2.5 4-5 3.0 4.2
5.0 6-8 2.5 7.1
7.5 6-8 2.0 7.0
10.0 6-10 1.0 7.4
Kinetin (Kn) 1.0 3-4 1.5 3.2
2.5 3-4 1.8 3.4
5.0 4-6 1.5 4.9
7.5 4-6 1.5 5.3
10.0 4-8 1.5 5.2
(1-10 mg l-1) in MS medium had a marked subculture the shoots were carefully
effect towards axillary shoot proliferation. At multiplied and were subculture on MS +2.0
high concentration of BA (5-10.0 mg l-1), mg l-1 BA. In three weeks, these in vitro
maximum number of axillary shoot shoots were further multiplied and were
proliferation was achieved (6-10 used for different experiment carried out for
shoots/axillary bud) in three weeks (Fig. 2.1a) obtaining maximum shoot multiplication
with the increased concentration of BA in the rate. It was observed that cytokinin BA had a
medium, length of proliferated axillary significant effect on shoot multiplication rate.
shoots decreased. However, the thickness With the increased concentration of BA (1.0-
of axillary shoots remained independent of 4.0 mg l-1) the shoot multiplication rate
BA and was closely related to the thickness increased from 6.91 to 15.55 fold (Table
of culture nodal segment. 6.2.1.). A further increase in BA
concentration (5.0-10.0 mg l-1) reduced the
6.2. In vitro Shoot Multiplication shoot multiplication rate in term of
In vitro shoots after their initial proliferation propagules derived. Generally, the shoots
from axillary buds on medium containing produced in these experiments were
different concentrations of BA and Kn were observed to be thin with small leaves. The
excised and subcultured on MS medium effect of Kn on in vitro shoot multiplication
supplemented with 3.0 mg l-1 BA. BA showed similar results for in vitro shoot
concentration of 2.0 mg l-1 gave a greater multiplication but at higher concentration in
gain in the number of shoots than either 1.0 MS medium (Table 6.2.2.). Thus, the optimal
or 5.0 mg l-1 supplemented MS medium shoot multiplication in terms of number of
(Table 6.2.1.). After three weeks of the first shoots obtained was MS+2 mg l-1 BA
Table 6.2.1. Effect of BA concentration in MS medium and size of propagule on shoot multiplication
rate. Data recorded after 4 weeks.
BA conc. Propagule size Average no. of shoots Average multiplication rate
-1
(mg l ) (no. of shoot) produced (no. of times)
1.0 3 20.10 6.91
4 24.50 6.12
2.0 3 45.00 15.01
4 30.86 7.72
3.0 3 36.75 12.25
4 32.41 8.10
4.0 3 30.30 10.10
4 29.32 7.33
5.0 3 27.00 9.00
4 34.84 8.71
Table 6.2.2. Effect of Kn concentration on shoot multiplication in MS medium (Propagules of three shoots
were cultured. Data recorded after four weeks)
Kn (mg l-1) Average no. of shoots produced Average multiplication rate
(no. of times)
1.0 15.35 5.10
2.0 40.01 13.31
3.0 42.30 14.01
4.0 45.09 15.02
5.0 30.45 10.14
supplemented medium. On this medium However, due to a number of problems the

sizable and distinct shoots were proliferated culture were maintained and multiplied on
in four weeks (Table 6.2.1.). Thus, all shoot semisolid MS medium.
multiplication was carried out on MS The auxin, NAA when used in
medium+2.0 mg l-1 BA. On this medium the combination with cytokinin BA (2.0 mg l-1)
shoot multiplication rate reached to a showed a reduced multiplication rate. The
maximum of 15.55 fold in 3-4 weeks (Fig. 2.1b). multiplication rate constantly decreased with
Effect of subculture period on shoot the increase in NAA concentration in MS
multiplication rate was studied. It was found medium from 1-2 mg l-1 in the MS medium
that three to four week incubation time was supplemented with BA.
necessary for complete in vitro shoots Effect of pH of the medium on in vitro
multiplication and shoot development. A shoots multiplication was studied in liquid
subculture of one to two weeks only resulted MS (2.0 mg l-1 BA) medium. It was observed
in incomplete multiplication and shoot that good shoot multiplication occurred even
development. in acidic medium. However, the shoot
The in vitro shoots cultures when kept for multiplication rate declined on basic medium
longer duration (five weeks and above) on and died on 7.5 pH of the medium (Table 6.2.3.).
medium started dying. The shoot propagules Effects of different strength of MS salt
of such cultures showed reduced potential were also studied on in vitro shoot
for in vitro shoots multiplication. No shoot multiplication and it was observed that
multiplication was obtained on cytokinin free maximum in vitro shoots were produced on
MS medium only. A slight increase in shoot full strength of MS salts. As the strength of
multiplication rate (17.50 fold) was observed MS salts reduced (75-25%) in the medium a
in the liquid MS medium (Table 6.2.1.) as sharp decline in the shoot multiplication rate
compared to the semisolid medium (15.55). was observed (Table 6.2.4.).
Table 6.2.3. Effect of pH of the medium (liquid) MS+ 2.0 mg l-1 BA on shoot multiplication (Data
recorded after four weeks)
pH of medium Size of No. of shoots Multiplication rate
propagules obtained (no. of times)
(shoot)
3.5 3 43.5 14.5
4.0 3 46.5 15.5
4.5 3 47.0 15.66
5.0 3 45.0 15.0
5.5 3 50.0 16.66
5.8 3 5 52. 17.50
6.0 3 40.72 13.57
6.5 3 30.10 10.17
7.0 3 24.35 8.10
7.5 3 4 1.33
Table 6.2.4. Effect of strength of MS medium on in vitro shoot multiplication (Propagules cultured
on 2 mg l-1 BA. Multiplication recorded after four weeks)
MS medium Size of propagules Average no. of Multiplication
strength (shoot ) shoots obtained (no. of times)
Full 3 46.20 15.40
Three fourth (¾) 3 30.1 10.03
Half (½) 3 21.34 7.11
One Fourth (¼) 3 16.20
7. In vitro Rooting 70 per cent, in MS medium supplemented

The in vitro raised shoots failed to root on with 70 mg l-1 IBA.
hormone free basal MS medium. Various Shoots cultured on MS medium
auxin in the medium were attempted for supplemental with different concentration of
rooting trials. Both liquid and semisolid MS IAA did not produce roots, in all the
medium were used. In vitro shoots when experiments carried out (Table 7.1.).
transferred on NAA supplemented medium
produced 70-98 per cent roots from the 8. Hardening and Acclimatization
cultured shoots. MS medium supplemented
Four-week-old cultures on rooting medium
with 2 mg l-1 NAA produced 98 per cent roots
develop healthy root and shoot system,
from the shoots in three weeks in liquid
hardening of these plantlets was done in two
medium and it takes 4-5 weeks in semisolid
different methods. In the first methods, the
medium. To complete in vitro rooting in NAA
rooted plantlets were kept in the culture
concentration (3-5 mg l-1) in the MS medium
vessels until the nutrients of the medium
reduced the rooting percentage (Table 7.1.).
were completely exhausted. This was done
Usually propagules of 3-4 shoots were used
to strengthen the plants under physiological
for rooting experiments.
stress conditions. These in vitro rooted
Generally, 8-14 roots per propagule plantlets were washed with tap water to
developed (Fig. 2.1c) when the length of remove adhered agar-agar and then directly
shoots cultured in a propagules, ranged from transferred into polybags containing sand:
1.5- 3.5 cm. Root initiation starts from 8-12 soil: FYM in 1:1:1 ratio and kept in shade
days of shoot cultured on rooting medium house. These plants were supplied with half
and completes in 5 weeks. In vitro rooting strength MS solution (twice a week) for three
was also obtained on IBA (5-10 mg l-1) weeks. Later, these plants were irrigated
supplemented MS medium. However, with tap water and kept in shade house for
rooting percentage varied from 30-70 per another one month before they were filed
cent with a maximum rooting percentage of transferred. In the second method, the in
Table 7.1. Effect of different concentration of NAA on in vitro rooting of D. membranaceus shoots
(propagules of three shoots cultured for rooting)
Treatment Average no. Rooting percentage Plantlet survival
of roots ( after 5 weeks) ( after 5 weeks)
NAA (mg l-1)
1.0 8.72 73.33 70.36
2.0 14.02 98.26 96.42
3.0 13.41 97.08 95.35
4.0 13.45 91.66 96.31
5.0 12.72 73.33 96.03
IBA (mg l-1)
1.0 - - -
3.0 - - -
5.0 4.32 30.02 50.35
7.0 6.41 56.26 86.32
10.0 6.36 70.14 85.01
IAA (mg l-1)
1.0 - - -
3.0 - - -
5.0 - - -
'-' indicates no rooting response.
vitro rooted plantlets were washed with tap with water. In the next two months these
water so as to remove adhered agar- plants developed rhizome in polybags
agar/medium and then transferred to conditions in the shade house. At this stage
autoclaved soilrite in the culture bottles. the plants were field planted. The
These plants were supplied strength MS micropropagated field plants showed a high
medium (without organics) twice a week. field survivability. The field plants were
The culture bottles were kept in the culture irrigated every 15 days for three months.
rooms for three weeks and later transferred Those plants which were not irrigated
to mist chamber with relative humidity of 80- showed casualties due to overgrowth of
90 per cent and 30ºC temperature. The caps weeds and grasses. Up to now nearly two
of the culture bottles were open and the thousand plants of D. membranaceus have
bottles were kept (open mouth) for 3-4 days been micropropagated and field planted
later the plants were transferred into successfully. The field plants develop
polybags containing sand : soil : FYM in rhizome and later sprouted new culms.
equal volume (Fig. 2.1d and 2.1e).
These plants were kept in mist chamber 9. Summary and Conclusion
for three weeks. After mist chamber stage, The present investigation was undertaken to
the hardened plants were shifted to open develop the methods of propagation by
shade house conditions for acclimatization developing an efficient, reproducible,
to outer environmental conditions. In shade reliable and routinely available technology
house the plants were further transferred for mass propagation of D. membranaceus.
into bigger polybags (14") and were irrigated The study was considered necessary since
2.1a. Axillary shoot proliferation 2.1b. In vitro shoot multiplication 2.1c. In vitro rooting from
a propagule
2.1d. Tissue culture plantlets 2.1e. Hardening of tissue culture plants in soilrite
Fig. 2.1(a-e). Micropropagation of Dendrocalamus membranaceus.
bamboo is very useful to the Indian people Cytokinin (BA). A high rate of shoot
and has been a source of economically multiplication was obtained due to BA in the
important valuable to the people. The normal medium. This stimulated the growth of
vegetative propagation through cutting in multiple shoots during shoot multiplication.
rooting is not possible for commercial Similar results reported in D. strictus (Nadgir
venture. The present study deals with the et al., 1984), B. ventricosa (Dekkers, 1989),
application of plant tissue culture technology D. giganteus and D. strictus (Das and Rout,
for mass propagation from selected mature 1991), Madhuca longifolia (Das and Rout,
clumps and 2-4 years old fast growing 1993), D. asper (Arya and Arya, 1996a, b),
seedlings of D. membranaceus. An efficient Syzygium cumini (Yadav et al., 1990)
and reproducible protocol has been Eucalyptus (Gupta et al., 1983) and
developed for micropropagation of this Anogeissus pendulla (Joshi et al., 1991).
bamboo. Nodal segments containing axillary The results showed that in case of D.
bud was found to be the best explant for membranaceus, shoot multiplication also
micropropagation. occurred in acidic medium but multiplication
The suitability of the nodal segments has rate sharply declined in basic medium.
already has been established in Similar results were obtained in case of B.
micropropagation of D. strictus and betula (Saxena, 1990). In the present study,
D. giganteus (Das and Rout, 1991), D. 3 per cent sucrose was found to be essential
strictus (Nadgir et al., 1984), Bambusa for shoot multiplication. On sucrose free
vulgaris (Tikiya, 1984), D. asper (Arya and medium or at 1-2 per cent sucrose in MS
Arya, 1996a, b). The uses of dormant axillary medium, instances of albinism with death
bud or nodes ensure allocation of reserved and decay of shoot and leaves are observed.
food materials. The technique offers the However, (Saxena, 1990) found 2 per cent
potential to raise thousands of plantlets from sucrose was ideal for shoot multiplication of
the nodal region in existing clumps. In the B. tulda.
past also, nodal segment containing axillary In the present investigation, high shoot
buds were largely used to micropropagate multiplication rate was obtained when the
numerous tree species, like Wrightia size of propagules carrying 3-4 shoots were
tomentosa (Purohit et al., 1994), Betula used in shoot multiplication cycle. Das and
pendula (Arya and Arya, 1995), Syzygium Rout (1991) also reported maximum shoot
cumini (Yadav et al., 1990) Eucalyptus multiplication rate in propagules of D.
(Gupta et al., 1983), Azadirachta indica strictus containing at least 6-10 shoots. Our
(Arya et al., 1995) Anogeissus acuminata observation that single isolated shoot did not
and Capparis decidua (Deora, 1993). multiply is in complete agreement with the
The frequency of bud break on control earlier reports.
(MS medium without growth regulators) was In the present study, multiplication rate of
very low. Incorporation of BAP (1-10 mg l-1) 15 fold in D. membranaceus in 3-4 weeks
into the medium improved the incidence of has been achieved. There are only few other
bud break and promoted the multiple shoot reports mentioning the rate of multiplication
formation. The frequency of bud break, in Bamboo. In seedling material,
number of shoot developed on Explant and multiplication rates of 8.4 fold in 30 days in
shoot multiplication rate were higher on MS bamboo was achieved. Das and Rout (1991)
medium than WPM medium. Similar effect of also claimed that multiplication rate of 45 fold
BA on axillary shoot proliferation was was achieved in three weeks by axillary
observed in D. strictus (Nadgir et al., 1984), branching in B. tulda.
B. ventricosa ( Dekkers, 1989), D. giganteus In the present study, the in vitro shoots
and D. stritcus (Das and Rout, 1991), obtained from axillary bud and multiple
Tecomella undulata (Rathore et al., 1991), shoots were successfully rooted. The ability
D. asper (Arya and Arya, 1996a, b). of plant tissue culture to form adventitious
Multiple shoot produced from single roots depends on interaction of many
axillary buds were harvested and rapidly endogenous and exogenous factors. The
subculture on MS medium containing role of auxin in root development is well
established which has been reviewed by References

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Arya, I.D.; Arya, S. 1996b. Introduction,
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Rattan, 7(3-4): 201-210.
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and mass production of quality propagules of Bambusa nutans and
Dendrocalamus membranaceus. Indian Forester, 123(4): 303-306.
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mature embryo-derived callus culture of Sinocalamus latiflora (Munro)
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186 Pooja Thapa et al.,
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8 Macro-Propagation Methods
for Vegetative Multiplication
of Sympodial Bamboos
K.K. Seethalakshmi
1. Introduction
Bamboos are moncarpia in nature, therefore, their seeds are always in short supply. In
the absence of seeds, vegetative propagation methods are used for the production of
planting stock. Two major types, viz., macro- and micropropagation methods are
used in vegetative propagation of bamboos. In macro-propagation, conventional
methods of offset planting, rhizome planting, rooting of cuttings and layering are used
while in micro-propagation various tissue culture techniques are being employed.
Details of the macro-propagation techniques are given below.
2. Methods of Macro-Propagation
2.1. Macro-Proliferation
Young seedlings are allowed to grow for six months to one year before carrying at
macro-proliferation. To promote growth, two doses of NPK fertilizer are given at an
interval of one month from the day of planting. In this method, rhizomes are separated
from the seedlings using a secateur. The separated rhizomes are planted in fresh
polybags of 24 cm x 18 cm size repeating the same fertilizer treatment. By around three
months, tillers develop, out of which some are retained in the nursery for future
multiplication and remaining saplings are used for field planting (Fig. 2.1.1.). This
cycle can be repeated every year for the production of planting stocks for raising large
scale plantations (Adarsh Kumar, 1991).
The advantages of this method are that a large number of planting stock can be
produced from limited quantity of seeds and the planting stock can be maintained in
the nursery, so that, every year it can be used without going for repeated nursery
establishment.
188 K.K. Seethalakshmi
a b
c d
Fig. 2.1.1. Macro-proliferation of bamboos. a. Seedlings ready for proliferation,
b. uprooted seedlings showing basal region with tillers, c. separation of tillers
alongwith roots, and d. separated tillers ready for polypotting.
2.2. Offset Planting

An offset is the basal portion of a single culm with the rhizome axis and roots attached
to it. For offset planting, preferably one- to two-year-old culms from the peripheral
portion of a clump are selected. The identified culms are cut in a slanting manner in
such a way that two to three nodes are left at the base. Cutting can also be done right
above the node without damaging the basal portion of the branches. The rhizome to
which the culm is attached is dug and cut at about 30 to 45 cm from the ground. While
collecting the offsets, the rhizome and attached roots should not be damaged and the
buds should remain intact. If transportation to the planting site is required, the
underground parts of the offset should be wrapped with moist substratum like banana
stem, coir or gunny bag to avoid drying (Fig. 2.2.1.). These offsets can either be
planted in the field in 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm pits or potted in a medium sized gunny
bag. Offsets can be planted along with the pre-monsoon showers or just before the
Macro-Propagation Methods for Vegetative Multiplication of Sympodial Bamboos 189
a b
Fig. 2.2.1. a. An offset extracted for planting, and b. lose-up of
offset with intact buds.
beginning of the rainy season. Watering has to be done during the dry period as and
when needed. Offsets can be collected during the summer season, just two or three
months before planting. If collected later, the buds are liable to be damaged, as new
sprouts are produced during this season. The major limitation of this method is that the
offsets are bulky and extraction and transportation is labour intensive. Also, the
number of offsets available per clump is limited to one or two and hence the method is
not feasible for raising large-scale plantations. However, initial mother plant
collections of suitable species can be established using this method (Banik, 1995).
2.3. Rhizome Cuttings

Rhizome cuttings are sections of fresh living rhizomes with at least a bud of the
preceding year along with a portion of the culm (about 15-30 cm long). This technique
is mainly suitable for monopodial bamboos with runner type of rhizome. Rhizome
with roots, rhizome with culm and roots or rhizome with culm-stock and roots are
being used for propagation in this method. Rhizomes should not be more than two-to
three-year-old, not physically damaged and have roots attached to them for successful
rooting and sprouting. If transportation is involved, the rhizomes should be protected
from drying as in offsets (Fig. 2.3.1.). Most of the plantations of monopodial bamboos
like Phyllostachys pubescens are established by this method.
2.4. Rooting of Cuttings

This method is suitable for clump forming species. Of the different macro-propagation
techniques, it was found to be the best. Rooting can be induced in culm, branch and
Fig. 2.3.1. a. Rhizome cuttings and b. sprouted rhizome.
nodal cuttings. In addition to the effect of growth regulating substances (GRS),

method of treatment, time of collection of cuttings and part of the culm (like base,
middle and top) from where the cutting is taken have got critical roles in root
formation. The methods for root induction in cuttings are given below in detail:
2.4.1. Culm cuttings

Extract two- or three-year old healthy culms from a clump by cutting just above the
first node. Trim the leaves and side branches without damaging the axillary buds. After
shifting the culms to the nursery site, two-noded culm cuttings are prepared using a
sharp knife or saw. While preparing the cuttings of thin walled bamboo species like
Ochlandra travancorica, splitting of the culm at the cut surface should be avoided. It is
necessary to leave about 5 cm part of culm on either side of the nodes to protect the
axillary buds from drying (Fig. 2.4.1.1.).
Treatment with GRS like naphthyl acetic acid (NAA) and indole butyric acid
(IBA) enhances rooting response in bamboos. Since NAA is cheaper than IBA,
generally, NAA is preferred. For bamboos with hollow internode (e.g. Bambusa
bambos), GRS solution is poured into the cavity and for solid bamboos (e.g.
Dendrocalamus strictus), dip method of treatment (the basal part is dipped in GRS
solution overnight) is given. For cavity method of treatment in two-noded culm
cutting, an opening (2 cm long and 1 cm wide) is made on the internode using a small
sharp chisel or two holes of 0.2-0.3 cm is made using a drill. For most of the bamboo
species, 100 ppm solution of GRS is used. Volume of the solution required will depend
on the size of the cavity. Generally, 50-100 ml is used for bamboos like B. balcooa, B.
bambos, D. brandisii, etc. For large diameter bamboos like D. giganteus, about 250 to
500 ml of the solution will be required (Fig. 2.4.1.1.). The solution is poured into the
internodal cavity and the hole is closed by wrapping and tying with a polythene strip; if
it is a drill hole it can be easily sealed with plaster adhesive tape.
a b c
d e
Fig. 2.4.1.1. Rooting of culm cutting. a. Two noded culm cuttings, b. treatment with
GRS for root induction, c. sprouted cutting two weeks after planting d. nursery one
month after planting and e. rooted cutting after three months.
For dip method of treatment, the basal part (covering the lower node) is immersed
in the GRS solution in containers and left for about 12-15 hr. and then taken out for
planting. The details of preparation of the solution are given in the box.
Preparation of solution of growth regulating substances

The GRS solution is prepared by dissolving 10 g naphthyl acetic acid (NAA) powder
in 100 ml of 90 per cent ethyl alcohol very slowly so as to avoid any coagulation. The
solution is then made up to 100 l while adding the concentrated solution to water. The
solution should be stirred while adding to water to avoid precipitation.
2.4.1.1. Planting of culm cuttings in nursery

The treated cuttings can be planted horizontally in nursery beds. One week prior to
planting, the nursery beds are drenched with insecticides and fungicides to prevent the
attack of termites and fungi. Culm cuttings are placed horizontally (the opening facing
upwards) in nursery bed, 15-30 cm apart. About 50-60 cuttings can be planted in a
nursery bed of size 10 m x 1 m. Sprouting from the nodes takes place within a week.
Initially, a cluster of sprouts develops and completes its growth within one month.
Natural thinning occurs retaining two to five dominant sprouts. Slender roots
develop within one month and rhizome development takes place within three to six
months. At this stage, the rooted cuttings can be transferred to polybags for macro-
proliferation or planted in the field directly. If rooting occurs in two nodes they can
be separated into two plants by cutting in the middle. The method was very
successful with thick walled species (60-95% rooting) but not much encouraging in
thin walled species (0-40%).
2.4.2. Branch cuttings

It is simple and easy method of propagation but the success of rooting is not as high as
in culm cuttings. Considering the availability in large number and ease in handling,
even 50 per cent rooting is good if this method of propagation is successful. It is
promising for bamboo species having prominent primary branches arising from the
base of the culm like B. balcooa, B. vulgaris, but very difficult in species like
D. giganteus and Thyrsostachys oliveri. Propagation through branch cuttings is one of
the easiest methods due to the ease in handling (Fig. 2.4.2.1.).
Treatment with GRS enhances rooting response in branch cuttings and dip
method of treatment can be used. The time taken for rooting is about four to eight
a b
Fig. 2.4.2.1. Root of branch cuttings. a. Branch cuttings ready for treatment and
b. rooted branch cuttings.
months and rhizome formation takes still longer periods of about a year. Preparing pre-
rooted and pre-rhizomed branch cuttings can reduce the time taken for rooting and
rhizome development in branch cuttings. In some species natural aerial rooting and
rhizome formation is seen and planting material can be collected from this region.
Chopping off the top part of the culm and covering the nodal buds with moist medium
like moss or coir can also induce pre-rooting. For preparation of branch cuttings the
branches are excised using sharp knife or saw. The cuttings are made by trimming the
leaves and small branches. Cuttings with four to eight nodes are made and the basal
part is dipped in GRS solution for 24 hr. Planting and aftercare is similar to culm
cuttings. Sprouting and rooting time depends on the season and varies from 30 to 70
days. When rooting occurs the cuttings should be removed from nursery beds and
poly-potted.
2.4.3. Layering
Layering is done by bringing a culm or branch in contact with a moist rooting medium
while attached to the mother plant. There are four types of layering: ground or simple
layering, stump layering, air layering or marcotting and seedling layering.
For ground layering, young culms less than two years are selected and the top part
is cut off to stimulate bud growth. Side branches are trimmed four to five nodes. Either
a whole culm or a branch bearing part of the culm is bent down into a shallow trench,
pegged down and covered with soil. The size of the trench depends of the size of the
culm. If it is difficult to bend the culm, a partial cut can be made at the base. The
rooting medium is used to cover five to nine cm deep. It will be good to mulch with
moist straw or coir mat. Water logging should be avoided. Rooting and sprouting
occurs in the nodes and when the rhizome formation is observed separate the nodes by
cutting in the internodal regions using a sharp knife or saw.
Stump layering is not common. In this method, the culm is cut leaving two to three
basal nodes and the stump is covered with rooting medium. Use of GRS like IBA (200
ppm) is found to enhance sprouting and rooting. Marcotting, which is a form of air
layering, is by bending the culm to a slanting position, supported by a prop. The nodes
are covered with suitable rooting medium after pruning off the branches. It is held in
position by tying. The medium should always be kept moist; hence rainy season is best
for marcotting. Seedling layering helps to produce more planting stock from limited
number of seedlings. For this, polybag with seedlings is placed in horizontal positions,
so that, the nodes of seedlings touch the ground. Nodes are covered with rooting media
leaving the branches to stand above. Rooted nodes are separated by cutting in between
and transplanted to poly bags. The process can be used repeatedly to produce more
number of seedlings.
3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Various Vegetative

Propagation Methods
The advantages and disadvantages of various vegetative propagation methods are
given in the Table 3.1.
Table 3.1. Advantages and disadvantages of different vegetative propagation methods
Method Advantage Disadvantage
Offset planting, Good survival percentage, Limited in number, labour intensive for
rhizome cutting traditionally well known extraction, heavy and difficult to transport,
method and suitable for both synchronous flowering of vegetatively
thin walled and thick walled propagated plant with that of parent clumps
bamboo species
Culm cutting Comparatively better than Low rooting percentage for thin walled species,
offset planting, culm cutting requires larger nursery, area than seedling,
are available in more numbers, rooting is season bound synchronous
method of rooting is simple flowering of vegetatively propagated plant with
that of parent clumps
Branch cutting Branches are available in Rooting percentage is low, technique has not
larger numbers than culm been standardized for many species,
cuttings availability of branches is limited in species
which branch only from top one-third of the
culm, synchronous flowering
Layering Good for propagating isolated Rooting response is poor and season bound,
methods clumps and seedlings labour intensive, synchronous flowering
Macro- Requires mother stock produced by other
proliferation Cost effective and simple methods
References
Adarsh Kumar. 1991. Mass production of field planting stock of Dendrocalamus
strictus through macro-proliferation - A technology. Indian Forester, 117(12):
1046-1052.
Banik R.L. 1995. A manual for vegetative propagation of bamboos. New Delhi
International Network for Bamboo and Rattan. 66p.
9 Diseases of Bamboos and
Their Management
C. Mohanan
1. Introduction
Bamboos are vulnerable to various diseases and disorders, which affect them in
nurseries, plantations as well as in natural stands. About 170 species of bamboos
belonging to 26 genera are reported to be affected by various diseases and disorders
(Mohanan, 1997). A total of 440 fungi, three bacteria, two viruses, one phytoplasma
(mycoplasma-like organism) and one bacteria-like organism have been reported to be
associated with these diseases and disorders (Mohanan and Liese, 1990; Mohanan,
1994abc; 1997, 2004). However, in India, only a few diseases are identified as serious
ones, affecting the culm production as well as stand productivity. Limited experience
in raising bamboo planting stock together with lack of information on diseases
affecting them and their management measures have often resulted in partial to
complete failure of bamboo nurseries. Also, diseases affecting emerging and growing
culms in plantations, homesteads and in natural stands have adversely affected the
bamboo industry, both in rural and urban sectors. Bamboo forms a significant
component of the natural vegetation in many states and occurs in tropical evergreen,
semi-evergreen, and moist-deciduous forests, sub-tropical hills, and also as southern-
moist-bamboo brakes (Mohanan, 1994a). Bamboos have also been raised in pure or
mixed with plantations as well as in homesteads and farmlands. Bamboos play a major
role in the economy of the states and are used in traditional cottage industries and as
raw material for bamboo ply, rayon and paper industries.
2. Diseases in Bamboo Stands and Their Management

Bamboos in natural stands, plantations, homesteads, village groves, etc. are
vulnerable to various diseases at their different stages of growth. Newly emerging and
growing supple culms are generally susceptible to diseases. Among large number of
diseases recorded on bamboos, potential diseases affecting the stand productivity
196 C. Mohanan
include rot of emerging and growing culms, bamboo blight, thread blight, witches'
broom, little leaf disease and culm basal rot.
2.1. Rot of Emerging Culms

Bambusa balcooa, B. bambos, B. polymorpha, B. vulgaris, D. longispathus,
D. strictus, Thyrsostachys oliveri are the most severely affected bamboos species.
Severe infection and culm mortality were recorded in bamboo stands in high rainfall
areas in the Kerala and Karnataka states. The disease manifests as dark brown lesions
on the outermost culm sheath of the emerging culm (15-20 cm height), near the soil
level (Fig. 2.1.1a.). These lesions spread rapidly and cover the entire outer culm
sheaths. The infection causes rot of the tender, succulent emerging shoot which
becomes discoloured and gives off a strong smell of molasses. The disease affects
further development of the culm and causes total decay (Fig. 2.1.1b). Fusarium
moniliforme var. intermedium Neish and Legget is the fungal pathogen associated
with the disease. Heavy rainfall during and after the emergence of culm, water logging
around the clump, mining, insect activity and poor stand management are the factors
favouring the infection. The disease has also been reported in various bamboo species
in Bangladesh and Pakistan (Mohanan, 1997).
Cultural control measures, such as removal debris around the clumps before the
onset of monsoon, light burning of the debris over the ground, loosening the soil
around the clump before the culm emergence, pruning and removal of branches
from the basal part of the older culms during the dry period (March-April) are
suggested to minimize the disease incidence. To avoid mechanical damage to the
emerging culms caused by cattle and other animals, clump tending and cleaning
operations are recommended only in well-protected stands. Application of
carbendazim (@0.2% a.i.) or mancozeb (@ 0.3% a.i.) is also recommended for
managing the disease.
2.2. Rot of Growing Culms

Among several species of bamboos, B. balcooa, B. bambos, B. polymorpha and
D. strictus are the severely affected ones in India. The disease appears as water-soaked
brown lesions at the base of culm sheaths where they are attached to the nodes. Injury
on culm sheaths and culms at nodal region, made by the sap sucking insect Purohita
cervina Distant, predisposes the culm to fungal infection. Sap oozes out from the pin-
prick wounds made by the insect, and infection develops in and around these wounds
and forms large necrotic lesions. The infection often spreads to the entire culm sheath
and to the tissues beneath the culm sheath. Severely affected culms cease to grow,
become shrivelled, and fall off even before they complete their elongation phase.
Diseases of Bamboos and Their Management 197
Twisting and bending of culms due to severe necrosis on one side of the culm, partial
development of branches, breaking of culms at the point of infection, etc. were also
noticed. Fusarium equiseti Corda (Sacc.) and Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon are the
fungi associated with the disease. The causal fungi sporulate profusely on the necrotic
tissues of the culm internode and culm sheath. Build up of insect (P. cervina) population
at the culm elongation phase was found responsible for the spread of disease within the
individual culm or among the culms and clumps by way of dispersal of fungal spores
mechanically. Disease can be managed by taking chemical control measure (spraying
insecticide, monocrotophos 0.05% a.i.) against the buildup of the insect (Purohita
cervina) population in the bamboo stands during the culm elongation phase and by
application of fungicides carbendazim (Bavistin) or mancozeb (Dithane M 45) at
0.2 per cent a.i. on the infected culms.
2.3. Bamboo Blight

Bamboo blight has been reported in Bangladesh and India. The disease has been
recorded as affecting the village groves of B. balcooa, B. bambos, B. tulda and B.
vulgaris (Gibson, 1975; Rahman, 1978). The disease was first recorded in 1970 by
Rahman and Zethner (1971) as a potentially serious problem of village bamboos in
Bangladesh. Recently, bamboo blight has also been recorded in B. nutans in the coastal
belts of Odisha (Gupta et al., 1990; Jamaluddin et al., 1992; Mohanan, 1995b). An
average of 94 per cent infection has been recorded in B. nutans clumps in Puri, Cuttack,
Baleshwar and Ganjam districts in Odisha state. Bamboo blight occurs in well
established older clumps, aged more than 8-10 years. Culms which survive the first
growing season remain healthy and the spread of the disease between clumps of
bamboos is slow. The disease results in a sequential die-back of culms in their first
season of growth. Symptoms appear when culms are nearing full growth or shortly
after this. The initial symptoms of blight are premature death of culms sheaths and
partial collapse of the fragile apical regions. Later, wet rotten patches develop on the
internodes, often associated with insect damage. The necrotic patches spread rapidly
in the succulent internodes and eventually become confluent. At the same time,
symptoms begin to develop in the lower, more fibrous internodes, and spread slowly
downwards, resulting in die-back. Epicormic branches from the nodes of the
infected culms develop occasionally which also become affected by the disease in
due course.
Sarocladium oryzae (Sawada) W. Gams and D. Hawks has been reported as the
principal fungus associated with the bamboo blight in Bangladesh (Boa and Brady,
1987; Rahman, 1988) and in India (Gupta et al., 1990). Coniothyrium fuckelii Sacc.,
Fusarium spp., Acremonium strictum W. Gams, Pteroconium sp., Arthrinium sp. were
the other fungi recorded as associated with bamboo blight (Boa and Rahman, 1983).
198 C. Mohanan
Etiology of the disease is still poorly understood. As mentioned, various fungal

organisms have been found associated with the blighted culms. However,
pathogenic connection between a fungus, or a group of fungi, and the blight disease
has not been adequately demonstrated. However, S. oryzae is considered to be the
principal fungus associated with bamboo blight. The fungus perennates in the
affected culms, bamboo debris or paddy which act as the source of inoculum. The
fungus gets inside the rhizome system before blight is established (Boa and
Rahman, 1987). The spores of S. oryzae germinate easily in water within a few
hours and infect new culms or culm sheaths. Water accumulation in debris, weeds or
shrubs around the culms enhances the susceptibility of the culms to infection. High
humidity owing to canal irrigation and high temperatures during monsoon favour
infection. Poor stand management, conducive climatic and soil factors, and insect
attack are responsible for the development of the infection. Mining insects are
suspected to help in spreading the disease.
Silvicultural measures recommended to manage the disease include cutting and
removing blighted bamboo culms, burning the debris of clumps in situ and addition of
new soil to clumps. Light surface fire (controlled burning) before the onset of
monsoon is suggested for reducing the inoculum potential of the pathogen in the debris
or in the top few centimetres of soil. Weeds and bushes around the clumps should be
removed as these act as retainers of moisture which helps in initiation of the infection.
Offsets for outplanting should not be taken from the blighted clumps. Soil or debris
from the infected clumps or nearby areas should not be transferred to healthy clumps.
Application of carbendazim combined with mancozeb (carbendazim 0.25% a.i. +
mancozeb 0.3% a.i.) or with Fytolan (0.3% a.i.) is recommended. Drenching the soil
around the bamboo clumps with copper oxychloride and mancozeb is also desirable to
check the disease.
2.4. Branch Die-Back

The disease occurs in B. bambos, B. vulgaris and D. strictus stands. Though, the
disease severity was low in all the plots surveyed, per cent disease incidence was found
high in plantations than natural stands. Culms in young developing clumps were found
severely affected by the disease. The disease occurred during September-October and
became severe during December-January causing die-back of branches. The
infection occurs on branches and on three to five internodes at top of young culm in
the form of small greyish magenta coloured linear lesions which later develop into
necrotic streaks. Infection occurs on foliage as pale yellowish lesions, later
spreading to the entire lamina, resulting in leaf necrosis, withering and subsequent
premature defoliation. Infection spreads from the branches to the culm node and
internodes downwards (Fig. 2.4.1.). Under high humidity. causal fungus sporulates
on the infected necrotic areas of the culm internodes and branches. Severe infection
causes die-back of the branches and culm tip. Fusarium pallidoroseum (Cooke) Sacco
was the causal agent.
2.5. Witches' Broom

The disease is wide-spread in reed bamboo stands in Kerala (Mohanan, 2004). It affects
commercially important reed bamboos, viz., Ochlandra travancorica. O. scriptoria
and O. ebracteata (Fig. 2.5.1.). The disease incidence varies depending upon the
microclimatic conditions in the locality. Very high incidence (24%) was recorded in O.
scriptoria stands in Periya, where the annual rainfall ranged from 4,000 to 6,500 mm
and a high relative humidity (60-90%). The disease was also recorded on grass
Pennisetum polystachion (L.) Schutles growing in the vicinity of diseased reed bamboo
clumps. The disease manifests as development of numerous highly shortened shoots at
the nodes of mature culms. These abnormal shoots develop into highly reduced shoots
successively from their nodes. The culm sheaths which cover the internodes also
become shortened in size and become boat shaped, often with a prominent ligule.
Successive development of a large number of thin wiry shoots in tuft from the nodes of
the infected culms gives rise to the characteristic appearance of witches' broom. New
shoots emerging from the infected rhizome also show pronounced brooming
symptoms. Shining black fructifications of the causal fungus develop on the affected
shoots after 5-6 months of infection. The fungus associated with the witches' broom
disease is Balansia liniaris (Rehm.) Diel. The disease has been recorded on different
species of bamboo in China, Indonesia, Japan, Taiwan-China and Vietnam (Chen,
1971; Zhu, 1989; Mohanan, 1997, 2004). In China, among different bamboo species
affected with the disease, Phyllostachys viridis, P. glauca McCl. P. praecox Chu et Chu,
P. nuda McCI. Bambusa multplex (Lour.) Raeusch. are important ones. In Indonesia,
the disease has been reported on Gigantochloa apus Kurz, Gatter (Hassk.) and G.
robusta Kurz. In Japan, the disease has been recorded on P. bambusoides Sieb. Et
Zucc., P. nigra var. henonis Stapf.ex Rendle, Sasa borealis var. pupurascens and Sasa
spp. (Shinohara, 1965; Mohanan, 1997). Silvicultural measures to manage the disease
include surveying and identifying the diseased clumps in the stands, physically
removing and burning the infected culms and witches' brooms. As the disease is
systemic, rhizome or culms from diseased clumps should not be used for vegetative
propagation.
2.6. Little Leaf

This disease affects D. strictus in natural as well as cultivated stands in drier tracts, viz.,
Agaly, Attapady, Goolikadavu, Thakarapady, in Mannarkad Forest Division and
Chinnar in Idukki Wildlife Division in the Kerala state (Fig. 2.6.1a.). The disease is
200 C. Mohanan
characterized by the development of numerous, highly reduced, abnormal bushy

shoots from the nodes of newly emerged culms and culm branches. Foliage develop
from these shoots show prominent reduction in size and needle-like appearance.
Profuse development of such abnormal shoots from each node of the developing culm
and their subsequent growth gives rise to a massive bushy structure around each node.
The disease also affects culm elongation; infected culm shows stunted growth.
Association of Phytoplasma with the disease was proved by Diene's staining,
fluorescence and transmission electron mycroscopic studies (Fig. 2.6.1b.) and
tetracycline therapy (Mohanan, 1994b.). Clump to clump infection was found to be
slow and an increase of 6 per cent was recorded at Agaly and 12 per cent at
Thakarapady in Kerala over a period of four years. Since, in most bamboos, the
process of culm production, elongation and development is completed within six
months, and after that only a biological consolidation takes place, it is not worthwhile
to control the disease in emerged culms by chemicals or antibiotics. Silvicultural
measures to manage the disease include cutting and burning the severely infected
culms/clumps and planting disease resistant bamboo species.
2.7. Thread Blight

Thread blight disease affects most bamboo species and the disease appears during
monsoon season, subsides and almost disappears during the dry period. B. bambos,
B. vulgaris and D. strictus are the severely affected species. Large water-soaked
greyish lesions occur on leaves which advance towards the leaf tip (Fig. 2.7.1a. and
b.). Fine silvery white mycelial strands of the causal fungus appear on the lower
surface corresponding to the lesions on the foliage. Spread of the disease is mainly
through physical contact of the advancing fungal hyphae on the diseased foliage
with healthy neighbouring foliage. Diseased foliage stuck closely together by the
mycelial weft of the fungus at the leaf margins, tips and bases. Infection causes
browning and necrosis, leading to blight of the culm branches, especially foliage.
Botryobasidium salmonicolor (Berk. and Br.) Venkat. is the fungus associated with the
disease. Pruning the diseased branches from the affected clumps and cleaning and
burning the debris from the ground around the clumps can minimize the disease
incidence.
2.8. Foliage Diseases

2.8.1. Leaf rust
Leaf rust of bamboo is widespread and affects almost all the bamboo species in
bamboo growing states. B. bambos. B. vulgaris. B. velltricosa, D. strictus,
Oxytenanthera monostigma, Ochlandra travancorica are the important bamboos
affected with the rust disease (Mohanan, 1997 and 2010). The disease severity rating
(DSR) ranged from low (L) to medium (M) and disease severity index (DSI) 0.33-2.00.
The rust infection appears as minute pin-head, water-soaked flecks on the adaxial
surface of the foliage, where yellowish orange to rust brown linearly arranged
urediniosori develop. On the corresponding abaxial surface of the flecks, grayish
brown to dark brown lesions with yellowish orange halo forms. Often numerous such
lesions develop on a single lamina which later coalesce and spread to entire leaf lamina.
Severe infection leads to necrosis of the leaf tissues between the spots. Rust uredinia
develop during August-September and continue to produce bright yellowish orange
coloured urediniospores till April-May. Rust teliosori develop linearly on the adaxial
surface of the leaf either in the degenerating urediniosori or separately during
December-January. Severe rust uredinial infection causes abnormal leaf fall even
before the development of the teliosori. Dusturella divina (Syd.) Munk. and Khes. is
the rust fungus. D. divina has earlier been recorded as having 0-IV stages and of these,
0-I stages on Randia sp. and other two stages on bamboos (Bakshi et al., 1972). Among
the rust fungi, D. divina, D. bambusina, Puccinia spp., and Tunicospora bagchi,
recorded from bamboos in India. D. divina is the most wide-spread rust fungus in the
country (Sujan Singh and Bakshi, 1964; Nema and Mishra, 1965; Bakshi et al., 1972;
Mohanan, 1994).
2.8.2. Foliage blight

Most of the bamboo species growing in different states were found affected with the
foliage blight B. bambos and D. longispathius and were the severely affected species.
Disease severity was low in all bamboo growing areas. Severe foliage blight was also
recorded on B. brandisii in several locations. Infection occurs as small water-soaked
grayish brown spindle-shaped lesions with pale yellow halo on both young and mature
leaves during August-September. The lesions coalesce and form large spreading
grayish brown to yellowish brown irregular lesions with dark brown border, often
covering the entire leaf lamina (Fig. 2.8.2.1a.). Severe infection causes withering of
leaves and defoliation. Bipolaris maydis (Nishikado and Miyake) Shoem. anamorph of
Cochliobolus heterostrophus (Dresch.) Dresch. and Bipolaris sp. were identified as the
causal agents (Fig. 2.8.2.1b.).
2.8.3. Leaf tip blight

The disease occurs on B. bambusa in natural stands and in plantations. The
infection appears as greyish brown linear to spindle-shaped lesions near margin,
base and tip of both young and mature leaves. Usually, the leaf tips were found
severely affected which led to leaf tip blight. Alternaria alternate (FR.) Keissler
was the causal fungus.
202 C. Mohanan
2.8.4. Exserohilum leaf spot

This leaf spot disease occurs in most of the bamboo growing areas and affects B.
polymorpha, D. longispathius and D. strictus. The leaf spots occur on mature
leaves during August-September. Infection manifests as small water-soaked
greyish black linear to irregular lesions which later coalesced and spread to the
entire leaf lamina; infection causes necrosis, withering and premature defoliation.
Exserohilum rostratum (Desch.) Leonard and Suggs anamorph of Setosphaeria
rostrata Leonard and E. holmii (Luttr.) V. Arx. anamorph of Setosphaeria holmii
(Luttr.) Leonard and Suggs are the causal organisms (Fig. 2.8.4.1.). Generally, no
marked difference in symptoms was observed in different bamboo species, except
in juvenile leaves of D. longispsthus, where the lesions were olive yellow,
spindle-shaped and water-soaked which later spread to entire leaf lamina and
became necrotic. Exserohilum halodes also causes leaf blight on bamboo species
in Karnataka (Bhat et al., 1989).
2.8.5. Zonate leaf spot

The disease affects B. bambos, B. polymorpha, D. strictus, O. travancorica, O. ebracteata,
Oxytenanthera monostigma and T. siamensis foliage. Infection occurs usually on
foliage in the lower branches as minute greyish-brown spots of 2-3 mm across. The
spots enlarge to 5-8 mm in dia and become yellowish brown with dark brown margin.
The spots spread further and formed reniform, semi-circular to circular greyish brown
areas of 5-10 mm in width with dark brown wavy margin around the pale coloured
central spot; later, these develop into a large zonate spot of 3-12 mm in dia. depending
on the host species affected and climate conditions. Dactylaria sp. is the causal agent.
2.8.6. Colletotrichum leaf spot

The disease occurs in almost all the bamboo species raised in different states. The
disease manifests as small water-soaked grayish brown lesions on the juvenile and
mature leaves. These spots spread and coalesce to form large purple linear to irregular
areas which often cover the entire leaf lamina, as in O. travancorica or O. ebracteata.
Infected leaves become pale yellowish and leathery. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides
(Penz.) Penz. & Sacc., anamorph of Glomerella cingulata (Stonem.) Spauld. &
Schrenk. is the causal agent. C. gloeosporioides is a common foliar pathogen
affecting large number of forestry and agricultural species. The fungus has earlier been
recorded on bamboos from Meghalaya (Deka et al., 1990) and Malaysia (Azmy and
Maziah, 1990).
2.8.7. Phoma leaf spot

This disease occurs on B. bambos and D. strictus. Infection occurs as small pin-head
sized brown lesions on the adaxial surface of the leaves. Both the juvenile and mature
a. Bambusa balcooa culms showing typical b. Rot of B. bambos culms showing browning
symptoms and rot of culm sheaths
Fig. 2.1.1. Rot of emerging culms.
Fig. 2.4.1. Branch dieback in B. bambos. Fig. 2.5.1. Witches' broom in O. travancorica.
a. Disease of D. strictus b. Transmission electron micrograph of diseases

tissues showing Phytoplasma.
Fig. 2.6.1. Little leaf disease.
Fig. 2.8.4.1. Spores

Fig. 2.7.1.a. Thread blight in Fig. 2.8.2.1. a. Foliage blight of of E. holmii causing
O. tavancorica and b. on leaves B. bambos and b. conidiophores foliage blight in
of B. polymorpha. and conidia of B. maydis. D. strictus.
204 C. Mohanan
leaves were found affected with the disease. The spots become spindle-shaped and
later coalesce to form large irregular spot with greyish white centre and dark brown
margin. The spots develop in November-December and the pycnidia of the fungus
formed in the necrotic lesions as erumpent structures. Under high humidity, pale pink
coloured gelatinous fungal spore mass produced in cirii from the pycnidia. Phoma
sorghina (Sacc.) Boerma., Dorenbosch and Van Kestteran, Phoma herbarum
Westend., Phoma sp. are the causal fungi.
2.8.8. Phomopsis leaf spot

This leaf spot disease was recorded in B. bambos, D. strictus and Thyrsostachys sp.
The infection manifests as minute greyish brown water-soaked lesions on the mature
leaves which later spread to form circular to irregular spots with dark brown wavy
margin. Pycnidia developed in the necrotic tissues during November- December and
conidial mass oozed out in yellowish cirii. Phomopsis sp. is the causal agent. So far, no
Phomopsis sp. has been recorded on bamboos from India and pathogen appears to be
an undescribed species.
2.8.9. Stagonospora leaf spot

The leaf spot was recorded on B. bambos and D. strictus in natural stands. The disease
affects mature leaves during December-January. The infection appears as dark brown
irregular lesions of 3-5 mm diameter which later enlarge and become brownish black
necrotic spots. The spots usually develop along the leaf margins. Stagonospora sp.
was identified as the causal agent.
2.8.10. Septoria leaf spot

The leaf spot was recorded on mature leaves of Thyrsostachys sp. during December-
January. Infection appears as greyish brown lesions of 2-4 mm dia on the upper side of
the mature leaves. Pale to dark brown pycnidia develop in the centre of the lesion.
Septoria sp. is the causal agent.
2.8.11. Chaetospermum leaf spot

The leaf spot was observed on B. bambos during August-September, usually on
mature leaves of the lower branches. The disease manifests as numerous minute
pale yellow lesions arranged linearly on the upper surface of the mature leaves.
High humidity and presence of water drops on the leaf surface possibly help in rapid
spread of the lesions. Usually, development of large number of such lesions on the
leaf imparted yellowish colour to the affected foliage. Yellowish brown minute
pycnidia developed in the necrotic areas during October-November. Chaetospermum
carneum Tassi is the causal agent.
2.8.12. Curvularia leaf spot

The leaf spot was recorded on Arundinaria sp., Ochlandra travancorica, O. ebracteata
O. scriptoria and Thyrsostachys sp. The disease affects only the juvenile foliage of new
culms. The leaf spots appear as greyish black irregular lesions on the juvenile
expanding foliage, especially those in the lower branches of new culm. The lesions enlarge
and cover the entire leaf lamina and become necrotic. Curvularia lunata (Wakker)
Boedijn, anamorph of Cochliobolus lunatus Nelson and Haasis is the causal agent.
2.8.13. Ascochyta leaf spot

The disease was recorded in bamboo plantations and natural stands during November-
December. B. bambos, D. strictus and Thyrsostachys sp. were the most affected
bamboos. Infection occurs as minute spindle-shaped yellowish brown to brown water-
soaked spots on the upper surface of the leaves. Both juvenile and mature leaves were
found affected by the disease. Dark brown to black pycnidia develop over the necrotic
area from which under high humidity pinkish white spore mass oozed out. Severe
infection caused premature defoliation. Ascochyta sp. is the causal agent.
2.8.14. Petrakomyces leaf spot

The leaf spot was recorded during July- September on Arundinaria sp., B. bambos,
D. strictus, O. scriptoria, O. ebracteata and Thyrsostachys sp. The disease manifests as
pin-head sized brown water-soaked lesions on the foliage, especially those on the lower
branches of the culms. The lesions enlarged to form 3-5 mm dia. oval to elliptical dark
violet coloured spot with pale yellow halo. Later, the spots appeared as raised black
structures bearing pycnidia of the causal fungus. Petrakomyces indicus Subram. &
Ramakr. is the causal fungus. Earlier, the fungus was recorded on Bambusa sp. from
Tamil Nadu and Karnataka (Rangaswami et al., 1970).
2.8.15. Rosenscheldiella leaf spot

The leaf spot was recorded on O. travancorica in natural stands during September-
October. The infection appears as minute yellowish brown linear lesions on the mature
leaves which in due course enlarged to form 3-5 mm dia. necrotic spots with yellow
halo. The fungal fructifications produced in linear rows over the necrotic area on the
upper surface of the leaves. Rosenscheldiella sp. is the causal fungus.
2.8.16. Cerodothis leaf spot

The leaf spot was recorded on B. bambos and D. strictus natural stands and
Thyrsostachys sp. plantation during December-January. The infection affects both
juvenile and mature leaves and manifests as tiny, pale yellow spots on the upper surface
of the leaves. No visible necrotic areas were formed as the disease progressed. The
206 C. Mohanan
ascocarps of the fungus become erumpent through the ruptured epidermis. At maturity,
the ascocarps appeared as tiny golden yellow streaks arranged in linear rows. Hyaline to
pale yellow microconidia of the fungus were also produced in the microconidiallocules
which developed close to the margin of the developing ascostroma or produced
separately. The microconidia extruded as pale to golden yellow masses through a pore
formed in the locules. Under warm-humid condition, the entire leaf surface becomes
covered with the spore masses. Cerodothis aurea Muthappa is the causal fungus.
Severe infection leads to yellowing and drying up of the foliage.
2.8.17. Coccodiella leaf spot

The leaf spot was recorded on mature leaves of O. travancorica during September-
October. The infection appears as yellowish brown minute lesions which enlarged to
form dark brown linear necrotic spot. Fructifications of the causal fungus developed
in the necrotic spot on the lower surface of the leaves. Coccodiella sp. is the causal
fungus. The present isolate differs in morphological and cultural characteristics
from all the currently known species of Coccodiella recorded from the monocots.
2.8.18. Tar spot

Tar spot was recorded on B. bambos, B. vulgaris, D. strictus, Oxytenanthera.
monostigma, O. scriptoria, O. travancorica and Thyrsostachys sp. Infection appeared
as pin-head sized pale to dark yellowish brown lesions on the abaxial surface of the
leaf. The lesions spread and developed into oval to circular spots with dark brown
centre and pale yellow margin. Usually, four to six small spots (3-6 mm dia.)
appeared on the leaf lamina, as well as on leaf sheath. Ascocarps developed as
dark brown to black raised structures in the necrotic spots. Three species of
Phyllachora, viz., P. ischaemi Sydow, P. longinaviculata Parbery and
P. shiraiana Sydow. were the casual fungi. Among these fungal pathogens,
P. ischaemi infects only B. bambos.
2.9. Rhizome, Root and Culm Basal Rot

In bamboos, diseases also affect the rhizome and roots and cause considerable damage
in natural stands and plantations. Diseases affecting the rhizome include rhizome bud
rot, root rot, decay of rhizome and rot of basal culm. Rhizome bud rot and root rot
were recorded in young one year-old B. bambos plantations in Kerala. Pythium
middletonii Sparrow is the causal agent and it causes rot of fleshy rhizome buds,
roots and tender tissues at the growing points. The disease was recorded in
plantations situated in water-logged areas. Culm basal rot caused by Amylosporus
campbellii (Berk.) Ryv., was also recorded from different bamboo growing areas.
A. campbellii produces its sporocarps at the base of the affected culms. B. bambos,
D. longispathus and D. strictus, are the most susceptible species to A. campbellii.
The disease causes white spongy or fibrous rot of the rhizome and basal culm. Since the
disease affects the stand establishment, management measures have to be adopted to
minimize the fungal infection.
Rhizome bud rot can be managed by using healthy planting stock, as well as by
improving the cultural and management practices in the plantations. During the
dismantling of seedbeds and pulling out the bare root seedlings for planting, care
should be taken to avoid causing injuries to seedling rhizome. Storage and
transportation of planting stocks should be done under hygienic conditions.
Planting in water-logged areas should be avoided. To manage the culm basal rot
caused by A. campbellii, removal of the sporocarps of the decay fungus from the
affected bamboo clumps, burning of dead rhizome and roots of diseased culms are
suggested to manage and minimize the further spread of the rhizome and basal rot.
Silvicultural measure like isolation trenches may prove effective in containing the
disease in between the trenches, thus, preventing its spread. However, trenching
and isolation of the diseased clumps will be difficult under flood irrigation.
Fungicidal treatments (Copper oxychloride @ 3% a.i., 3 to 4 application at weekly
interval) and soil working around the clumps will help in checking the development of
the rhizomorphs of the fungus and, thereby, disease incidence and severity. Severely
affected clumps should be cut, and rhizome dug out and burnt on the spot as a sanitary
measure.
2.10. Culm Staining and Die-Back

The disease was recorded in seven to ten years old clumps of B. vulgaris and
D. longispathus. In B. vulgaris, disease incidence ranges from 10 to 98 per cent, while
in D. longispathus disease severity was low and per cent infection ranges from 7 to 8.
Infection was found to be predisposed by injury caused by hispine beetle Estigmena
chinensis Hope on the new culms. Beetle bore holes were observed on almost all the
nodes of the affected culms as well as branches. Pale purple to dark brown linear lesions
developed around each bore hole which later spread to the entire culm internode and
became necrotic. Raised black fructifications of the causal fungus developed on the
affected internodes during September-October. Infection also spreads to the branches.
The discolouration of the culm internodes, necrosis and die-back of culms started from
the distal end towards the base of the culms. Apiospora bambusae is the causal fungus.
The affected culms and branches were found completely covered with black
fructifications of the fungus.
208 C. Mohanan
2.11. Infection of Inflorescence and Seed

Fungi and bacteria invade the bamboo seeds during their different developmental
stages on the plant as well as after the seed fall. Microorganisms affect the developing
fruits, invade the seeds and, thus, reduce the amount of healthy seeds. A total of 42
fungi belonging to 23 genera and two bacteria have been recorded on seeds of bamboo
from India (Mohanan, 1997). Among these Bipolaris sp., Exserohilum sp., Fusarium
pallidoroseum, Drechslera sp., Phomopsis sp., etc. are the important seed-borne fungi
that cause seedling infection in bamboo nursery. Earlier, a large number of fungi have
been reported on bamboo seeds from Thailand (Pongpanich and Chalermpongse,
1986). Bamboo seeds are usually collected from the forest floor, where they are open
to attack by fungi and bacteria. Under such circumstances, the seed quality
deteriorates before and after the seed collection. The period during which seeds are
liable to infection by microorganisms can be greatly reduced if seed collection is done
immediately after the seed fall. The cleaned seeds should be stored in air-tight
containers under reduced temperature and moisture content. Fungicidal seed
treatment (Mancozeb, Ceresan D, Hexathir WP, Vitavax WP @ 4 g/kg seeds) is
suggested for maintaining the quality of the seeds under short-term storage.
3. Bamboo Nursery Diseases and Their Management

Planting stock raised in conventional seedbed nurseries, in root trainers as well as
through vegetative propagation methods are equally susceptible to various
pathogens. Diseases affect the nursery stock right from the time of emergence of
radicle to the time of planting out, causing considerable damage depending upon the
prevailing microclimatic conditions in the nursery, bamboo species and the
virulence of the pathogens.
3.1. Damping-Off
The diseases is common in seedbed nurseries which affects the emerging seedlings
during germination (pre-emergence damping-off) or after germination (post-
emergence damping-off), while the seedling tissues are still succulent. The disease
occurs in patches in the seedbeds 7 to 12 days after sowing. The disease is
characterized by the rotting of seeds and also the radicle. Post-emergence damping-off
is characterized by development of water-soaked brown lesions on the emerging
plumule near the soil level and collapse of the affected plumule in due course.
Fusarium moniliforme Sheld, F. oxysporum Schlecht, Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn are the
fungal pathogens associated with the disease. The disease can be managed by adopting
proper nursery cultural practices; excessive watering and shade over the nursery beds
should be avoided. Seed dressing with fungicides such as Thiram 75 WP or Captan and
50 per cent WP (@ 2 g/kg of seeds) is effective in controlling the disease. Application
of fungicide like carboxin (Vitavax) @ 0.1 per cent a.i. in the affected nursery beds can
also control the disease. Low sowing rate, i.e., 500 g seeds (B. bambos and D. strictus)
per standard seedbed (12 x 1 x 0.3 m) is preferable to prevent the build up of conditions
conducive to the spread of the disease.
3.2. Web Blight

The disease occurs in high humid areas and affects 20-to 30-day-old bamboo seedlings.
B. bambos, D. strictus and D. brandisii are the most susceptible species; severe
infection affects the availability of transplanting stocks (Mohanan, 1993a, b; 2000).
Infection occurs as water-soaked lesions on seedlings stem near the soil level and later
spreads rapidly affecting the entire shoot, except one or two juvenile leaves. The
infected seedling stem and foliage become discoloured and necrotic. Under high
humidity, mycelia of the causal fungus (R. solani), arise from the soil and grow
epiphytically over the affected seedlings. Yellowish brown sclerotia and basidial stage
of the fungus (Thanatephorus cucumeris (Frank) Donk) also develop on the decayed
basal foliage and stem. The disease occurs in patches and the affected seedlings are
killed outright within 10-20 days of infection, leaving large circular to irregular patches
of dried-up seedlings in the seedbed. R. solani Kuhn belonging to different anastomosis
groups (Mohanan, 1994a) is the causal fungus. The disease can be controlled lowering the
sowing rate (500 g seeds per standard seed beds) and also by lowering the watering regime
(120 l per standard beds) in the nursery. Fungicidal application (Carboxin 0.2% a.i.) after
seven and 21 days of seedling emergence is recommended for managing the disease.
3.3. Leaf Rust

The disease affects most bamboo species viz., B. bambos, D. strictus, D. brandisii,
Oxytenanthera monostigma, Ochlandra travancorica, Thyrsostachys siamensis, etc.
of these, B. bambos and D. strictus are the most susceptible species. Severe infection
causes necrosis and withering of affected foliage and die-back of seedlings. Dusturella
divina is the rust fungus which also affects the bamboos in stands. Application of
fungicide like Plantavax (0.01% a.i.) or dusting with sulphur-based fungicides can
control the disease. The disease can also be controlled by avoiding shade over the
nursery beds, lowering the sowing rate (500 g seeds per standard seed beds) and also by
lowering the watering regime (120 l per standard beds) in the nursery. Fungicidal
application (Carboxin 0.2% a.i.) after seven and 21 days of seedling emergence is
recommended for managing the disease.
3.4. Seedling Leaf Blight and Leaf Spots

Incidence and severity of the diseases depend on the bamboo species, causal agent and
nursery practices. Different fungi, viz., Exserohilum rostratm, E. holmii, Bipolaris
maydis (Nishikado and Miyake) Shoem., B. urochloae (Putterilll) Shoem., Bipolaris
210 C. Mohanan
sp., Dactylaria sp., Alternaria alternata (Fr.) Keissler, Curvularia pallescens

anamorph state of Cochliobolus pallescens (Tsuda and Veyama) Sivan., and
Colletotrichum gloeosporioides are responsible for causing foliage infections in
nursery seedlings. Most bamboo species are susceptible to these diseases. In general,
application of fungicides like Dithane M 45 (mancozeb) @ 0.2 per cent a.i. or Bavistin
(carbendazim) @ 0.1 per cent a.i. can control the diseases in nurseries.
3.5. Seedling Leaf Striping and Stunting

The disease caused by a virus (possibly BMoV) occurred in one-year-old B. bambos
seedlings. Pale yellowish to greenish white stripes occur on both young and mature
leaves. Often the individual stripes merge together and the leaves become greenish
white and leathery. Affected seedlings show stunted growth, and their stem becomes
thin, fragile, pendulous and easily breakable. New shoots developed from the rhizome
also show similar disease symptoms. Usually, the viruses that cause leaf striping,
seedling stunting and mosaic diseases are transmitted mechanically, through seeds or
vegetative propagules. In bamboo nurseries, disease may be transmitted through
seeds; planting stock from the diseased nurseries should be subjected to thorough
screening and seedlings exhibiting mild disease symptoms should be discarded.
Earlier, viral disease caused by BMoV affecting foliage and developing culms of D.
latiflorus Munro and B. oldhamii Munro has been reported in Taiwan-China (Chen,
1985; Lin et al., 1993; Mohanan, 1997). Strict quarantine measures against the
movement of infected planting materials from the diseased areas should be followed to
safeguard against incidence and spread of the disease.
4. Conclusion
In bamboo stands, rot of emerging and growing culms, bamboo blight, thread blight,
witches' broom, little leaf, culm basal rot are the potential diseases affecting the stand
productivity. The disease incidence, spread and severity depend on prevailing
microclimatic conditions as well as stand management practices. A close monitoring
of the stands, especially during the culm emergence and elongation period is
warranted to adopt appropriate control measures and, thereby, reducing the impact of
the diseases. Most of the diseases can be controlled by adopting appropriate cultural
measures before the onset of monsoon or by prophylactic fungicidal treatments. The
nursery diseases can be managed by following good nursery management practices
like regulation of shade, water regime as well as reducing sowing density in the case of
bamboos raised in conventional nursery. Application of appropriate fungicides at
appropriate dosage is also required to combat the disease outbreak. More importance
should be given for selection of bamboo species suitable for the locality and also
selection of planting materials prepared from disease free clumps/areas.
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10 Viral Diseases
of Bamboos
P. Awasthi, A. Sood and
V. Hallan
1. Introduction
Bamboo plants are frequently infected by a wide range of pathogens (bacteria, fungi,
viruses, etc.) that cause diseases of the rhizomes, roots, culms, foliage, flowers or
seeds and are responsible for losses in yield and quality all over the world. Out of
various pathogens infecting bamboos, those which affect the culms are recognized as
most significant ones as they cause extensive damage to the bamboo plants (Mohanan,
2002). Some of the potentially serious diseases of bamboos include fungal diseases
like culm blight, culm rot, culm rust and witches broom, small leaf disease and culm
mosaic (Mohanan, 2002). While there is an array of fungal and bacterial diseases
known to infect bamboos and their etiology is also well documented, very little is
known about the viral diseases infecting bamboos.
Plant viruses are infectious, intracellular, obligate parasites comprising RNA or
DNA genomes surrounded by a virus-encoded protein coat, assembled in rod shaped
or isometric spherical particles that infect plant cells, altering their chemistry and
causing a wide range of disease symptoms. Currently, there are around 1,016 known
plant viruses and based upon the properties of their virions, antigenic and biological
properties, genome organization and replication, these viruses have been placed into
three orders, 21 families and 92 genera (10 are unassigned) by the International
Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) (Hull, 2013). Apart from the viral
diseases, plants have been known to be infected with various economically significant
virus-like diseases which are caused by pathogenic RNAs known as viroids. They are
small, single stranded, circular molecules (200-400 nucleotides) having high degree
of self complementarily, that do not code for any protein and replicate independently
of the associated virus. Based on the sequence and predicted secondary structure of
their RNAs, viroids are classified into two families Pospiviroideae and Asunviroideae
(Hull, 2009).
214 P. Awasthi, A. Sood and V. Hallan
Plant viruses need a living host for their perpetuation and gain entry into the host
plant through wounds, mechanical injury, insect vectors, methods employed in
pruning and vegetative propagation, etc. whereas some viruses are seed- or pollen-
borne. In order to complete their life-cycle within the host plant, viruses evade host
defence system and take over the functions of different host factors altering the cellular
processes and normal functioning of the host cell, thereby, causing disease symptoms.
Depending upon the type of virus, host plant and environmental conditions, viruses
may or may not induce noticeable disease. While latent infection by a virus remains
mostly unnoticed, problem arises when such hosts act as reservoir of the pathogen and
by transmitting the virus to other plants, lead to severe symptoms and even death of the
susceptible host plants (Mathews, 2010).
Virtually, all plants are infected by viruses but those from cultivated food crops
are the most studied because of the economic impact of the losses associated with
them. However, it is important to acknowledge that all plants that are grown for fodder,
fibre or wood are also hosts to many viruses which may not have immediate effect but a
significant indirect effect due to the damage caused to the plants, thus, leading to
economic, agronomic and social impact (Hull, 2009).
Various newly emerging virus problems in crops are being driven mainly due to
changes in agricultural practices, global trade and the climate. Viral diseases are
usually less pronounced and generally last for a lifetime (Hull, 2013). This is
particularly true for perennial crops and those that are propagated by vegetative
means. The methods used for the vegetative propagation of plants like grafting,
cutting, budding, etc. have been recognized as the most important ways for
perpetuation of virus and virus-like diseases. Bamboos are routinely multiplied by
vegetative propagation and hence act as source of infection for the progeny
(Mohanan, 2002).
There is a preliminary evidence that at least one of the diseases caused by Cherry
necrotic rusty mottle virus (CNRMV) in bamboos, may also be spread by insect
vectors such as aphids or delphacids.
2. Viral Diseases
2.1. Bamboo Mosaic Virus (BaMV)

It was the first virus to be identified infecting bamboo plants. The virus was first
isolated from Bambusa multiplex (Lour) Raeusch. and B. vulgaris Schrad. and
reported from Brazil in 1975 (Kitajima et al., 1975; Lin et al., 1977). It has also been
reported from Taiwan (with a disease incidence of about 70-80%), California and
Florida (USA), Australia and Hawaii (Lin et al., 1979; Lin and Chen, 1991; Lin et al.,
Viral Diseases of Bamboos 215
1993; Lin et al., 1995; Elliot and Zettler, 1996; Dodman and Thomas, 1999; Nelson and
Borth, 2011).
2.1.1. Causal organism

Bamboo mosaic virus belongs to the genus Potexvirus in the family Alphaflexivirideae
(Hull, 2013). BaMV particles are flexuous, filamentous rods, 480-500 nm in length and
15 nm in diameter (Lin et al., 1977). The virus is thermally inactivated between 75° to
80°C and loses infectivity when diluted to 10-6. The virus is infectious when stored at
24°C for one month or at -15°C for four months (Chen, 1985).
Under the electron microscope, the virions of BaMV can be seen in epidermis,
mesophyll and vascular bundles of the infected tissues (Lin and Chen, 1991). Within
the infected cells, the virus appears in the form of electron dense crystalline
bodies (EDCBs) with varying shapes and sizes (0.1 to 2.7 µm) and aggregates of
virions in the chloroplast, cytoplasm, vacuoles and the nucleus. Within these
organelles, the virions are arranged in loose parallel or helical fashion and can also
be seen irregularly distributed in the cytoplasm. The precise location of virions
and the EDCBs within the infected cells can indicate the stage of infection (Lin
and Chen, 1991; Chang et al., 1997). Virions can be purified by extraction in 0.5 M
borate buffer (added with 1mM EDTA) at pH 9 with Triton x 100 and PEG 6000,
followed by differential centrifugation and CsCl density gradient separation (Lin and
Chen, 1991).
The genome of BaMV is monopartite, comprising of ~6.4 kb positive sense RNA
with 28kDa capsid protein subunits (Lin et al., 1992). In some variants, the genomic
RNA of BaMV is also known to be associated with two subgenomic RNAs (2.0 and 1.0
Kb in size) which are encapsidated within the coat protein of the virus and probably
responsible for expression of the ORF2 protein and capsid protein, respectively
(Lin et al., 1992).
Some isolates of the virus, also contain a satellite RNA (sat BaMV) which is a
single stranded RNA sub-viral agent whose replication is supported by Bamboo mosaic
virus, encapsidated by BaMV capsid protein to form rod shaped particles of length 60
nm (Lin and Hsu, 1994). SatBaMV was first identified to be associated with BaMV
isolated from B. vulgaris McClure and reported from Taiwan in 1994 (Lin and Hsu,
1994). SatBaMV particles can co-purify with BaMV virions by centrifugation in a
CsCl gradient which can be separated from BaMV particles by centrifugation in a 10-
40 per cent sucrose density gradient (Lin and Hsu, 1994).
2.1.2. Genome organization

The genome of BaMV is comprised of a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA, 6,366
nucleotides, with a 5' cap structure and 3' poly (A) tail and six conserved open reading
frames (ORFs 1 to 6) (Fig. 2.1.2.1.) (Lin and Hsu, 1994). ORF1 encodes a 155kDa
protein which is responsible for RNA replication and has domains with
methyltransferase, helicase and polymerase activity. The overlapping ORFs 2, 3 and 4,
constitute the triple gene block, and code for viral movement proteins of 28, 13 and 6
kDa, respectively. ORF5 codes for 25 kDa capsid protein of the virus. The ORF 6
which lies completely within ORF1 distinguishes the genome organization of BaMV
from that of other potexviruses sequenced so far. The putative product of ORF6 (14
kDa) shows no significant similarity to the products encoded by the ORFs of the other
known potexvirus (Lin and Hsu, 1994).
SatBaMv is a linear RNA molecule of 836 nucleotides, having cap structure at
its 5' end and a poly (A) tail at its 3' end. It consists of an ORF which codes for a
20kDa protein (183 amino acids) flanked by 5' and 3' non-coding regions of 159nt
and 129nt, respectively. The protein p20 is a RNA binding protein which helps in
the systemic movement of the SatBaMV in the co-infected plants but is not essential
for its replication (Lin and Hsu, 1994; Lin et al., 1996; Palani et al., 2012).The
nucleotide sequence of this protein (p20) is also highly conserved among all
variants of SatBaMV.
Fig. 2.1.2.1. Diagrammatic representation of the genome organization of BaMV.
2.1.3. Symptoms
Characteristic symptoms caused by this virus include foliar mosaic and stripe, brown
internal streaking of the shoots and culms, and culm abortion (Fig. 2.1.3.1.) (Lin and
Chen, 1991; Elliot and Zettler, 1996). Culms are poorly developed with shortened
internodes and the newly emerging shoots are hard in texture, thereby, depleting their
quality for eating and canning (Lin and Chen, 1991). For these reasons, Bamboo
mosaic virus is being considered as a limiting factor in the production of edible
bamboos in Taiwan (Lin and Chen, 1991; Hsu et al., 2000).
Some variants of SatBaMV (BSL6 isolated from D. latiflorus Munro) strongly
interfere with BaMV replication and attenuate the symptom caused by BaMV
infection (Hsu et al., 2006; Chen et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2012). Some isolates like
BSF4, first isolated from B. vulgaris, do not have any significant effect on BaMV
(Lin and Hsu, 1994; Lin et al., 1996; Hsu et al., 1998). Genetic studies have shown
that various mutations at the 5′ apical hairpin stem loop (AHSL) region affect the
ability of SatBaMV to interfere with the replication of its helper virus (Chen et al.,
2007; Chen et al., 2012).
2.1.4. Host range

So far BaMV is known to infect bamboos exclusively with no other known natural host.
This virus has been known to infect 13 species of bamboos (mainly those with
pachymorph rhizomes) namely: B. mutabilis, B. beecheyana, B. dolichoclada,
B. edulis, B. multiplex, B. oldhamii, B. pachinensis, B. utilis, B. ventricosa, B. vulgaris,
D. giganteous, D. latiflorus and Melocanna baccifera (Kitajima et al., 1975; Kitajima
et al., 1977; Lin et al., 1977; Chen, 1985; Lin and Chen, 1991; Lin et al., 1992; Lin
et al., 1993; Elliot and Zettler, 1996; Chang et al., 1997; Lee et al., 1998; Dodman and
Thomas, 1999).
Experimentally BaMV can be transmitted mechanically (0.02M sodium
phosphate buffer pH 7.2) to B. vulgaris 'vittatu', Nicotiana benthamiana, Chenopodium
amaranticolor, C. ficifolium, C. murale, C. quinoa, C. occidentalis, Gomphrena
globosa and Hordeum vulgare (Chen, 1985; Lin and Hsu, 1994; Elliot and Zettler,
1996; Chang et al., 1997; Lee et al., 1998).
SatBaMV can be transmitted mechanically, along with the helper BaMV to,
Chenopodium, Hordeum, and N. benthamiana Domin but is known not to be
transmitted to other Nicotiana sp., Phaseolus or Triticum (Lin and Hsu, 1994).
2.1.5. Transmission
BaMV has no known insect vectors. Bamboos are normally vegetatively propagated
and the virus is probably transmitted through vegetative propagation of infected, non-
indexed planting material and mechanically by the unclean practices employed in the
routine cutting of bamboo shoots (Lin and Chen, 1991).
2.1.6. Diagnosis and identification

BaMV and its satellite RNA (SatBaMV) can be detected by serological tests like
ELISA, nucleic acid hybridization using radiolabelled or non-radiolabelled probes or
RT-PCR (Lin and Hsu, 1994; Hsu et al., 2000). Alternatively, virus can be inoculated on
assay host like G. globosa and C. amaranticolor (necrotic local lesions); B. vulgaris cv.
Vittatu (W) and D. latiflorus cv. Mei-nung (W) (systemic mosaic) for symptom
development (Dallwitz, 1980; Dallwitz et al., 1993; Bruntt et al., 1996; Nelson and
Borth, 2011).
2.1.7. Control measures

Once established, the disease caused by Bamboo mosaic virus cannot be eradicated
without destroying the infected plants. Therefore, the use of disease-management
practices is the only means to prevent further spread of the infection. The infected
stock should be isolated and only virus free planting material be used for further
propagation of the nursery trees. Meristem tip culture technique is being used for the
production of virus free bamboos, but for such plants also, it is necessary to know
whether the material in virus free or not for further culturing. Pruning of diseased
plants should be done carefully and blades must be sterilized between each use to
minimize dissemination of the disease from infected to the healthy plants (Hsu et al.,
2000; Nelson and Borth, 2011).
2.2. Cherry Necrotic Rusty Mottle Virus (CNRMV)

Cherry necrotic rusty mottle virus has mainly been associated with a disease of sweet
cherries. The first incidence of the disease was described in 1945 in Utah (Rhoads,
1945) and since then the virus has been reported from many cherry growing regions of
the world like Chile, China, Japan, Europe, Germany, India, Korea, New Zealand and
North America (Wadley and Nyland, 1976; Rott and Jelkmann, 2001a; Gentit et al.,
2002; Isogai et al., 2004; Mandic et al., 2007; Fiore and Zamorano, 2013; Noorani et
al., 2013; Zhou et al., 2013; Cho et al., 2014).
2.2.1. Causal organism
Cherry necrotic rusty mottle virus (CNRMV) is an unassigned member of the family
Betaflexiviridae, flexuous filamentous plant viruses (Adams et al., 2012). Not much is
known about their physical or chemical properties.
2.2.2. Genome organization

The genome of CNRMV comprises of a single-stranded, positive sense RNA ~8.4
kb in size (excluding the 3'poly (A) tail) which consists of seven open reading
frames (ORFs) (Fig. 2.2.2.1.) (Rott and Jelkmann, 2001a.). Five of these ORFs (1 to
5) are conserved among all fovea-, allexi-, potex- and carlaviruses and code for the
replicase (ORF1), the triple gene block (TGB) movement proteins (ORF 2, 3 and 4)
and the coat protein (ORF 5). Two other ORFs, of unknown function, ORFs 2a and
5a, are nested completely within ORFs 2 and 5, respectively and the nucleotide
sequence of these two ORFs is also not conserved among other related viruses (Rott
and Jelkmann, 2001a).
Fig. 2.2.2.1. Diagrammatic representation of the genome organization of CNRMV.

2.2.3. Symptoms
The brown, angular, necrotic spots, abnormal colours and pattern, abnormal leaf fall,
yellowing, rusty chlorotic areas, shot holes of the leaves (Wadley and Nyland, 1976);
blisters, gummosis, resinosis, canker on woody stem; dieback and general necrosis of
the bark; dieback of growing points and early senescence of the whole plant constitute
the most important diagnostic symptoms of the disease (Richards and Reeves, 1951;
Wadley, 1966). Disease symptoms are most severe in cultivars like Lambert, Seneca,
Sam, Hudson and Bing, and moderate in Napoleon, Black Republican, Van, Windsor,
Lyons, Macmar, Chinook and Rainier (Richards and Reeves, 1951; Wadley, 1959,
1966), while the symptoms may be very mild or masked in Black Tartarian, Burbank,
Orb, Schmidt, Napa Long Stem Bing, Deacon, Cardofer Frühe and Dicke Braune
Blankenburger cultivars (Posnette and Cropley, 1964).
The symptoms of CNRMV on bamboo plants constitute mosaic, chlorosis,
yellow streaks, necrotic spots and curling on the foliage of infected plants
(Fig. 2.2.3.1.) (Awasthi et al., 2014), while the effects of this virus on the growth and
production of stem, pulp, shoot and rhizome of bamboos are yet to be determined.
2.2.4. Host range

CNRMV naturally infects Prunus avium (sweet cherry), P. armeniaca (apricot),
P. cerasus (sour cherry), P. domestica (plum), P. mahaleb rootstock, P. persica
(peach), flowering cherry accessions (P. serrulata and hybrids) (Li and Mock, 2008;
Zhou et al., 2013) and 21 species of bamboos: A. falconerii, B. balcooa, B. bambos,
B. multiplex, B. nutans, B. pallida, B. tulda, B. ventricosa, D. asper, D. asper
(Chinese), D. bambusoides, D. bannaenensis, D. barbatus, D. dianxiensis,
D. giganteus, D. hamiltonii (local maggar), D. hamiltonii (north east variety),
D. sinicus, D. yunnanensis, F. somnigensis and M. baccifera (Awasthi et al., 2014).
2.2.5. Transmission
The disease caused by CNRMV is easily transmitted by grafting and budding but not
mechanically by sap inoculation. There is no evidence of seed or pollen transmission
of CNRMV (Rott and Jelkmann, 2012). In addition to graft transmission, natural
spread of the disease has been observed in sweet cherry orchards in Oregon (Cameron
and Moore, 1985), Utah (Wadley and Nyland, 1976), Montana (Afanasiev and Mills,
1957) and amongst bamboo clumps in India (Awasthi et al., 2014). CNRMV has been
detected in two aphid species and in a delphacid (Unpublished data of Awasthi et al.)
which might be acting as virus vectors.
Fig. 2.1.3.1. Symptoms caused by Bamboo mosaic virus.

(a) Bamboo clump infected with Bamboo mosaic virus and (b
and c) infected Bambusa vulgaris displaying distinctive
interveinal chlorotic mosaic patterns and striping on the leaf
surfaces (adapted with permission from Scott Nelson,
University of Hawaii, USA).
Fig. 2.2.3.1. Virus like symptoms as seen on CNRMV infected

bamboos. (a) Mosaic, chlorosis and yellow streaks on a leaf of
D. hamiltonii (Local maggar) and (b) mosaic, chlorosis and
yellow streaks on a leaf of D. hamiltonii (North East variety)
(Awasthi et al., 2014).
2.2.6. Diagnosis and identification

Earlier methods used for the detection of CNRMV were mainly based upon graft
indexing on the sweet cherry woody indicator 'Sam' (P. avium L.) (Diekmann and
Putter 1996; Li and Mock, 2005). The recent methods developed for the detection of
this virus include serological tests like DAS-ELISA and PAS-ELISA (Noorani et al.,
2013; Zhou et al., 2013), nucleic acid hybridization using radiolabelled or non-
radiolabelled probes (Awasthi et al., 2014) or RT-PCR based methods like degenerate
oligonucleotide primed-PCR (DOP-PCR) (Rott and Jelkmann, 2001b); the polyvalent
degenerated oligonucleotide nested RT-PCR (PDO nested RT-PCR) (Foissac et al.,
2002); plate trapping (PT)-RT-PCR (Li and Mock, 2005) and high resolution melt
(HRM) analysis (Komorowska, 2012).
2.2.7. Management
The disease caused by CNRMV can be managed by using certified virus-tested
propagation material for raising new clumps and removing diseased culms/clumps as
soon as diagnosed. When a large number of clumps are affected, new plantation
should be set up.
3. Conclusion
Bamboos form the backbone of rural economy of many Asian countries and are now
increasingly grown as plantation crops. However, the production potential of bamboos
is greatly hampered by various biotic and abiotic factors which include pests and
diseases. In addition to the fungal and bacterial diseases, newly discovered virus and
virus-like diseases may emerge as serious threat to bamboo plantations. Unlike the
bacterial or fungal diseases, the viral diseases cannot be eliminated from the infected
plant and remain for a lifetime. There are even more serious consequences when the
infected planting material is used for further propagation of nursery plants. Increasing
knowledge of virus and virus-like diseases of bamboos necessitates the adoption of
preventive measures. The most important preventive method seems to be production and
use of virus free propagating material. A few viruses which are implicated in the diseases
of commercial pome and stone fruit trees, have found alternate host amongst the bamboo
plants. Though the information on these emerging viral diseases of bamboos is very
preliminary and lacks details with regard to their impact on bamboo production, the
findings indicate that these bamboo plants, besides themselves developing disease
symptoms, may also be acting as source of infection for the stone and pome fruit trees.
It would be important to understand the influence of insect vector populations on the
distribution and spread of these viruses among other plant species.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to the Director, CSIR - Institute of Himalayan Bioresource
Technology, Palampur, H.P. (India) for providing the necessary facilities. Prachi
Awasthi is thankful to CSIR SRF grant to PA (Award letter no. 31/54(86)/2011-EMR I)
and the Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR). This is the
CSIR-IHBT publication number 3776.
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11 Insect Pests of Bamboos
in India
R.V. Varma and T.V. Sajeev
1. Introduction
Bamboos are one of the important and precious non-woody bioresources, which are
used for a variety of purposes. They are liable to be attacked by various kinds of insects
(Beeson, 1941; Mathew and Nair, 1988; Mathew and Varma, 1988; Singh and
Bhandari, 1988; Tewari, 1988; Paduvil, 2008). These insects can be broadly divided
into two categories one which attack live bamboos, and other attacking post-harvested
bamboos. In the first category, the major ones include insects which attack seeds,
foliage and culms. They belong to insect orders including Orthoptera, Hemiptera,
Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera and Coleoptera (Singh and Bhandari, 1988; Haojie et al.,
1998; Koshy et al., 2001). The nature of damage includes foliage feeding, sucking the
sap and making bore holes on culms and shoots.
The shoot and culm borers cause more damage to bamboo clumps as compared to
other groups of insects. Most defoliating insects remain low in population and hence,
are generally considered pests of minor importance. But some of them show
periodic fluctuations in population which may cause epidemics, and can cause even
total defoliation of bamboo stands. Damage caused by leaf feeders reduces the
surface area available for photosynthesis, affecting vigour, growth and survival
of plants.
A large number of insects, which have highly modified piercing-sucking
mouthparts, feed on the sap of leaves, branches, culms, shoots, roots and rhizomes.
These insects can damage bamboos in four ways: (1) removing the plant fluid,
(2) causing mechanical injury, (3) injecting toxic compounds into the plant, and
(4) transmitting diseases, resulting into defoliation, wilting of young shoots and
branches, and even death of the culm. Compared to defoliators and sap suckers, culm
and shoot borers have less impact on the plant physiology.
228 R.V. Varma and T.V. Sajeev
The finished products made out of bamboos are also prone to attack by insect
borers (Mathew and Nair, 1988). The post-harvest pests are from the order Coleoptera,
especially families Bostrychidae, Lyctidae and Anobidae. of these, Bostrychidae are
the most prevalent. Nearly 16 species of Bostrychids are reported to attack post-
harvest and finished bamboo products. The bamboo industry in many places consider
insect pests as a threat in their storage yards and even without any economic
assessment, the severity of the problem is well projected. Thakur and Bhandari (1997)
reported from a study carried out by Forest Research Institute (FRI), Dehradun in
Jaffrabad Forest Depot, that nearly 40 per cent of stored bamboo was damaged
severely by borer attack which resulted to almost a loss of 40 million rupees to the
forest department. Similar reports from the storage yards and on finished products
made out of bamboos have also been reported from Kerala (Paduvil, 2008).
More than 800 insect species have been recorded on bamboos in Asian countries,
but their impact on bamboo industry has been recognised only in a few countries.
Although, nearly 180 insect species are reported to be associated with bamboos in
India, the pest status of many species is not known.
2. Seed Pests
2.1. Udonga montana Distant (Hemiptera: Penatomidae)

Udonga montana is a major seed pest with distribution in India, Bangladesh and
Myanmar (Fig. 2.1.1.). The bugs feed on the developing seeds on the flowered culm
as well as the seeds which have fallen on the ground, thereby, affecting the regeneration
process in nature. Eggs are laid in groups on flower heads. The newly hatched
nymphs are black in colour and about 2 mm in length. The adults are ochreous
yellow. Attack normally occurs during flowering season. Due to gregarious
flowering of bamboo which provides an abundant food, the bugs multiply rapidly in
enormous number and result in an outbreak situation. They assemble in large
number on all kinds of trees to droop and, sometimes, break off. Damage is caused
by sucking the juice from the seeds.
2.2. Sitotroga cereallela (Grain moth) (Lepidoptera : Gelechiidae)

It is a cosmopolitan pest of stored grains and seeds (Fig. 2.2.1.). It has been recorded
from seeds of bamboos, more particularly in Bambusa burmanica. There is only one
larva in each seed and the insect passes its entire lifecycle feeding inside the seed. The
eggs of this species are frequently parasitised by Trichogramma evanescens and
consequently are, sometimes, employed for mass breeding of the parasitoides in
biological control.
Insect Pests of Bamboos in India 229
3. Nursery Pests
No major pest problems are reported from bamboo nurseries. Damages due to
termites, white grubs and grasshoppers are known from several locations in India.
3.1. Odontotermes sp. (Isoptera: Macrotermitidae)

Odontotermes microdentatus and O. obesus are the two major mound building termites
in India. These termites have been observed causing direct injury to the roots of germinating
seedlings and rhizomes of Bambusa tulda in New Forest, Dehradun nursery. The
damage occurs below the ground level. The termites eat away the fibrous roots,
leading to drying up of the young seedlings. The damage caused is only of minor
nature.
3.2. Holotrichia consanguinea Blanchard (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)

Heavy attack of chafer grub H. consanguinea has been recorded in one year old nursery
stock of Dendrocalamus strictus in Chhindwara, Madhya Pradesh and from Kerala. The
intensity of attack was heavy and nearby 50 per cent seedlings were found killed due to
chafer grub attack. The grubs had eaten away the developing rhizomes resulting in the
death of the seedlings.
3.3. Hieroglyphus banian Fab. (Orthoptera: Acrididae)

The nymphs and adult of this green and light brown polyphagous grasshopper species
defoliate the leaves of D. strictus from July to September in India and Pakistan. The
mature grasshopper lays eggs in soil in September-October which remain unhatched
till June. It has one generation in a year. It is minor pest in bamboo nurseries (Fig.
3.3.1.).
3.4. Poecilocerus pictus Fab. (The painted grasshopper) (Orthoptera:

Pyrgomorphidae)
The nymphs and adults of this conspicuous grasshopper with ornamental lines and
stripes of bright bluish green and yellow colour, feed on the foliage of numerous plants
including bamboos in drier zones of India and Pakistan (Fig. 3.4.1.). It is a minor pest in
bamboo.
4. Defoliators
Bamboos have quite a rich complex of defoliators (48 species) belonging to the order
Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Orthoptera. Of these 80 per cent species cause defoliation
in bamboos, more particularly in D. strictus and in most cases these are minor pests.
However a few species such as Pyrausta bambucivora, P. coclesalis and Poecilocerus
pictus have been reported to cause serious damage to bamboos in many localities in the
Indian sub-continent. Defoliators and leaf rollers cause the major damage during rainy
season leading to foliage loss.
4.1. Algedonia (Pyrausta) coclesalis Walker (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Algedonia coclesalis, also known as greater bamboo leaf roller is the most destructive
pest of bamboos (Arundinaria sp., B. vulgaris, Dendrocalamus latiflorus,
Phyllostachys pubescens, P. viridis and Schistostachyumper gracile) which has
cosmopolitan distribution. In addition to India, they are also found in Bangladesh,
Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Laos, Korea, Malaysia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Sri Lanka
and Vietnam. This defoliator occurs practically at all elevations up to 1,200 m. The
affected leaves are found webbed in bunches and gradually wither, turn pale or straw
coloured and eventually drop off. Small scale outbreaks occur and cause defoliation in
bamboo plantations in northern India, during the rainy season.
The larva rolls the leaf and feeds within, moving on to a new leaf when the old leaf
is half eaten. The young larvae feed on the upper leaf tissue and skeletonise numerous
small irregular areas in the leaf blades or make small punctures on the leaves. Older
caterpillars web together or roll several adjoining leaves with silk and excretal
particles. The larvae feed on the inner whorl of the leaves and the space inside is filled
with large quantities of yellowish white excreta mixed with silk spun by the larvae. It
has three to four generations per year and larval stage included seven to eight instars.
Normally the attack of this insect is kept under check by tachinid and ichneumonid
parasitoids and carabid and mantid predators.
4.2. Algedonia (Pyrausta) bambucivora Moore (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

This moth occurs throughout the Indian sub-continent and many other localities
of Southeast Asia. The larvae are injurious leaf rollers of Bambusa nutans, B.
vulgaris, Dendrocalamus strictus, D. giganteus, S. gracile and other bamboos in
plantations, particularly during July-October. It is commonly referred to as lesser
leaf roller. This species is injurious to bamboos in north-west Himalayan region,
particularly in nallahs during July October. The smooth, naked, pinkish larvae
feed inside the rolled leaves of the host and eventually they pupate in cocoon.
The species has four generations in a year. The species is reported to be a serious pest
in Punjab.
4.3. Hieroglyphus banian Fab. (Orthoptera: Acrididae)

Hieroglyphus banian is a green or brownish grasshopper and is a pest of rice, maize
and wild grasses in the Indian sub-continent, especially in swampy lands in sub-
montane areas. It is also frequently injurious to D. strictus. A serious epidemic of this

species was recorded in Punjab in 1933-45. The adult lay eggs in masses (7-30) either in
soil or litter late in the year which do not hatch until monsoon of the following year.
Eggs are parasitised by Scelio hieroglyphii Timb. (Hymenoptera).
4.4. Poecilocerus pictus Fab. (Orthoptera: Acrididae)

Poecilocerus pictus is a conspicuous strikingly coloured grasshopper with
ornamented lines and stripes of bright bluish green and yellow colour with its
distribution in India and Pakistan. It is a polyphagous species and is chiefly a pest of
Calotropis gigantea and C. procera, but is also known to cause occasionally severe
defoliation in bamboo forests in dry regions of India. The main bamboo host recorded is
D. strictus. The species has an annual life-cycle. The adult female lays eggs in
masses in soil, overwintering in the egg stage or occasionally in nymphal stage. It is a
minor defoliator but the species is reported to be a serious pest in forest nurseries
in Pakistan.
4.5. Pioneaflavo fimbriata Moore (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Pioneaflavo fimbriata is a minor defoliator of D. strictus. The moths are brown with
fuscous wings and actively fly about at dusk and night. The larvae gnaw through the
upper tissue of the leaf causing a skeletonised effect on the leaf or eat the leaves from
the edges in a ragged manner. The larvae hibernate inside the thick cocoons formed on
the leaves from November onwards and the emergence of moth takes place during the
end of March of the following year and continues until May. The defoliator is
parasitised by Microgaster kuchingensis. P. fimbriata is not a serious pest, though
sporadic epidemic do occur.
4.6. Calmochrous pentasaris Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Cosmopterigidae)

The attack by this moth is reported from India (Uttar Pradesh and Punjab) and
Bangladesh on D. strictus. It is a rare species. The caterpillar binds several leaves
together and spins a firm cocoon inside for pupation. While the pre pupal period is
about a day, the pupal period occupies seven to eight days in August. The moth is
very small with narrow conspicuously fringed wings. The larvae mines the leaves of
bamboos, eating away patches of internal tissues, leaving the outer layers of cell
intact, turning into yellowish-white on drying. The larvae form large blotch mines on
either sides of midrib of the leaves of D. strictus and other bamboos. The fully grown
larvae may severe the margins of the wide part of the blotch, roll one layer
longitudinally inwards, pupating within the rolled tissue. The species is heavily
parasitised.
4.7. Crocidophora ptyophora Hampson (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Crocidophora ptyophora is a minor defoliator of bamboo species, reported from India
(Bihar, Sikkim and Tamil Nadu) and Myanmar (Tenasserim). The larvae roll up green
leaves with silk thread and feed on the inner leaves of the shelter so formed. When
about to pupate it constructs a thick cocoon of silk mixed with chewed up leaf fibre
inside the roll. In Bihar (Pusa) the larvae are found in January and moths appear from
March to May. The caterpillars appear to hibernate for about a couple of months inside
the cocoon before pupation. The pupal period is of about 10 days in July at Nilambur
(Kerala) and 9-13 days in October in Tittimathi (Karnataka). The moth with bright
yellow wings have broad purplish marginal band.
4.8. Bertona funeralis Bulter (Lepidoptera: Zygaenidae)

Bertona funeralis, distributed in India, China, Japan and Korea is a major defoliator of
bamboos (Arundinaria sp., Bambusa sp., Phyllostachys sp. and Pseudosasa sp.). The
pest prefers dry, hot conditions, and occurs mostly on the edge of stands and on the
plants growing with lower culm density on dry and hot slopes. Adult moths are 9-11
mm long and bright dark green in colour. The centre of the hind wings is transparent.
Fully grown larvae are 16-19 mm long, brick-red in colour, and have four verrucae
arranged transversely on the back of each segment. There are three to five overlapping
generations per year with six larval instars, varying with locality, overwintering as
fully fed larvae in cocoons. Eggs are laid in single-layer masses on the back surface of
leaves in the lower crown. Very young larvae feed in groups on the leaf surface, leaving
characteristic white spots, and older ones consume leaves fully.
4.9. Pantana pluto Leech (Lepidoptera: Lymantridae)

Pantana pluto is widely distributed in India, China, Indonesia, Myanmar and Vietnam
(Fig. 4.9.1.). It is a recorded pest of P. pubescens. The moth is 11-16 mm long and light
yellow (female) or dark brown (male) in colour. There are five larval instars, and larvae
vary in colour from dark brown to yellowish-brown. Adult moths are active at night, with
strong phototaxis. Eggs are laid in single rows on leaves, sheaths and culms. Larvae feed
on leaves from March to November. The larvae of the second generation occurring in
May-July cause most damage. There are three to four generations per year.
4.10. Parasa bicolor Walker (Lepidoptera: Eucleidae)

P. bicolor is a minor defoliator of bamboos (Arundinaria sp., Bambusa sp.,
Phyllostachys sp., Pleioblastus sp. and Sinobambusa sp.) and is distributed in India,
China, Myanmar, Sikkim and Sri Lanka (Fig. 4.10.1.). As the name suggests, the 13-19
mm long adult has green coloured head, thorax and forewings, and brown-coloured
abdomen and hind wings. Fully developed larvae are 26-32 mm long and yellowish
green in colour. Adults are active at night, with phototaxis. Eggs are laid in single or
double rows on the back surface of leaves and take six to ten days to hatch. There are
eight larval instars. Young larvae feed in groups on leaf surface, leaving brownish-
white leaf epithelium, but older ones consume all leaf tissue. The fully developed larvae
drop to the ground, burrow into the soil and pupate in cocoons at 2-5 cm depth. Larvae
occur from April to June, July to August and September to November. The pest
overwinters as fully fed larvae in cocoons in the soil. This pest can be managed at a low
population by light-trapping during adult stage and soil-turning in winter to kill over
wintering larvae on the soil surface.
4.11. Stenadontaradialis gaede (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae)

This is a puss moth distributed in India and China. It hosts on the Phyllostachys sp.
and D. latiflorus. There are three to four generations per year. Adults are active at
night and show phototaxis. They lay eggs individually on leaves. Larvae feed on
leaves during summer and autumn months. These species rarely cause an outbreak
but are capable to cause considerable defoliation in isolated areas. Protecting natural
enemies, especially the egg parasites, soil-turning in early winter and light-trapping
during adult stage are important methods for the suppression of population of these
puss moths.
Other puss moths seen in bamboo species are Noraccaretrofusca De Joannis,
Noraccadecurrens Moore and Niganda strigifascia Moore. All these species belonging
to the family Notodontidae have similar life histories and symptoms of damage.
4.12. Sylepta derogata Fabricious (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

S. derogata is mainly distributed in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. The pest is
polyphagous and attacks agricultural crops and forest plants apart from various
bamboo species. The moth which hosts on the bamboo species is pale yellow in colour.
Eggs are laid in rolled leaf cases. The larvae, on hatching, feed gregariously on the
rolled leaf. Pupation is in the soil or litter. The life cycle varies from 23 to 45 days, at
times prolonged by larval aestivation and hibernation.
4.13. Massepha absolutalis Waker (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

M. absolutalis is a regular defoliator of D. strictus, but not considered a pest of
significance (Fig. 4.13.1.). It is distributed in India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. The pest
is fairly abundant in the monsoon and passes the winter in the larval stage inside a boat-
shaped case made of leaves. Moths emerge only in the following spring. The larvae are
parasitised by species of Chelomus sp., Brachymeria sp. and Tetrastichus sp.
4.14. Satyr Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Satyridae)

In India, six Lethe species are associated with bamboos and are causing moderate
damages. L. drypetistodara Moore defoliates Bambusa spp., and L. incana Kollar,
L. verma Kollar, L. yama Moore, etc. defoliate Drepanostachyum falcatum. They are
mostly active from May to July. Most of the satyr butterflies are primarily pests on rice
and are generally less abundant in bamboo stands, although some can cause significant
defoliation. The larvae tie leaves to form cases and feed from within.
4.15. Calaenorrhinus ambareesa Moore (Lepidoptera: Hespeciidae)

C. ambareesa Moore is recorded as a new pest, feeding on leaves of B. bambos from
Kerala. The larvae cut and fold small flaps on the bamboo leaves and feed from within.
Widespread occurrence of the pest is not observed.
4.16. Schistocera gregaria Forskal (Orthoptera: Acrididae)

S. gregaria is a minor defoliator of D. strictus in India (Fig. 4.16.1.). An important
defoliating pest of agricultural crops in many countries, it is also injurious to young
regenerations and sowings in forest plantations in Punjab, Rajasthan and Haryana in
India. In the gregarious phase, it feeds on all bamboo species besides other vegetation,
while in the solitary phase it feeds on D. strictus. Various vertebrates and invertebrates
prey upon adults and nymphs. Birds especially kites, crows and starlings are predators
of the locust. Larvae of Troxprocerus sp. (Coleoptera) has been found to cause 100 per
cent destruction of locust eggs sometimes.
5. Sap Sucking Insects

Bamboos seem to be the natural hosts for sap suckers. Large number of insect species
belonging chiefly to families Aleyrodidae, Aphididae, Coccidae and Membracidae
has been recorded from various species of bamboos. Of about 90 species which have
been found associated with bamboos, species of genera Asterolecanium (18 species),
Chionaspis (four species), Odonaspis (nine species) and Oregma bambusae have been
found erupting occasionally to epidemics.
5.1. The White Flies, Aleurocanthus spp. (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae)

Though many species of white flies have been reported to complete life cycle on
bamboos, however, none of them occurs as serious pests. The nymphs and adults of the
whitefly species Aleurocanthus bambusae Peal, A. longispinus Quaint and Baker,
A. niger, A. nigricollis and A. obovalis suck the sap from different species of bamboos.
The grubs occur on the leaves of some bamboos, B. nana and D. gigantea. Another
white fly, Aleurotulus arundinacea Lamb feeds on the foliage of B. bambos in India.
5.2. Bamboo Pit Scale, Asterolecanium bambusae Boisduval (Homoptera:

Asterolecaniidae)
The nymphs of this scale insect feed on the sap under leaf sheath of B. vulgaris and
other bamboos in India, East Africa, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, Somoa and Ellica
islands, Philippines and USA. Quite frequently, they form clusters on the stems.
Several species of the genus infest various parts of bamboos, but they are of little
economic significance. They include Asterolecanium delicatum Green, A. coronatum
Green, A. flavoaliatum Green, A. lanceolatum Green, A. logum Green, A. pudibundum
Green, A. rubronumatum Green, A. udugamme Green, and A. soleonophoides Green.
5.3. Pseudococcid Scale Insects (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)

The sap-sucking scale insects are tiny, with their bodies covered in a waxy covering
(theca). The wingless female adults and nymphs feed by inserting minute suckers into
plant tissues and suck the sap. Eggs are laid in large clusters beneath the female's waxy
layer, and the nymphs crawl out after hatching. Male adults, which are winged, survive
only for a few days. These scale insects usually secrete a great deal of honeydew, and the
damaged bamboo (leaves, branches and culms) shows blackened appearance because of
the sooty mould fungus that grows on this secretion. About 40 species of pseudococcid
scale species have been reported from Asia as sap suckers on foliage, branches or culms of
various bamboos. Some of these species are quite abundant in bamboo stands and cause a
general reduction in growing vigour and even the death of bamboo plants.
Some common species in this family with distribution in India are Antonina indica,
A. pretiosa, A. zonata. For all these species both female adults and nymphs suck sap from
leaf sheaths throughout the year. Two generations occur in a year. The female adult,
including its white, outer waxy covering, is about 2.7 mm long and 1.9 mm wide.
5.4. The Bamboo Aphid, Oregma bambusae Buckton (Hemiptera; Aphidae)

O. bambusae is a major sap sucker and is widely distributed in Indian sub-continent and
Sri Lanka and is recorded as a major pest of bamboos (Bambusa sp. and
Dendrocalamus sp.). They are small crawling insects, either green or black in colour
colonizing the young shoots and stem. Occasional, small scale outbreaks occur. During
outbreaks, the aphids cover the shoots in large numbers. Heavy infestation by these
aphids results in withering of young shoots which ultimately die. Older shoots may,
however, survive if the leading shoot is not attacked heavily. Usually these aphids cover
the shoots entirely from bottom to top. Excessive drainage of sap results in low vitality
and stunted growth. A large population of aphids smothers the plant with black fungus
on the honey dew secreted by them. Dispersal and migration of the wingless sap
suckers to other bamboo culms occur by mechanical means such as breeze or
oscillations of bamboos.
5.5. Oligonychus sachari (Acariformes: Tetranychidae)

It causes damage by sucking sap from leaves. The damaged leaves show discoloured
stripes or spots and subsequently, dry up and fall, resulting in reduced growth and
vigour of bamboo plants.
5.6. Thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

Thrips are minute insects of about 0.5-3 mm in length. They are yellowish brown,
bright red or black in colour, and are frequently associated with buds, flowers, leaves
or bark. Their mouth parts are asymmetrical. They feed extensively on the foliage sap
and make the leaves distorted or spindle shaped. Important species reported as minor
pest on foliage (B. bambos) are Androthrips coimbatorensis, Bamboosiella
bicoloripes, Verabahuthrips bambusae and Podothrips bicolor.
5.7. Notobitus meleagris Fabricious (Coreid bugs) (Hemiptera: Coriedae)

N. meleagris is a sap sucker found in India, China, Myanmar, Singapore and Vietnam
(Fig. 5.7.1.). It is found only on sympodial bamboos and prefers Dendrocalamus species.
There are five generations in a year. Adults of the fifth generation overwinter when the
daily mean temperature is below 25oC and again feed from early spring. Eggs are
deposited on shoot sheath or the back surface of leaves and are arranged in two rows
containing about 30 eggs in total. Egg stage lasts three to twenty days depending on
temperature. Adults and nymphs feed mostly on shoots at 1-2 m height and emit a strong,
unpleasant odour when disturbed. Some birds, spiders and wasps are found preying on
nymphs of the pest. N. sexguttatus often occurs together with N. meleagris. Other coreid
bugs reported from India on both sympodial and monopodial bamboos are
Acanthocoris scaber Linn., Riptortus linearis Fab. and R. pedestris Fab.
5.8. Stink Bugs (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)

Megarrhamphus hastatus Fab. and M. truncatus Westwood, occurring in India, China,
Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Myanmar and Vietnam are common pests on rice, sugarcane
and other agricultural crops. These species have also been recorded on the foliage of
various bamboos, but are of no serious concern.
6. Shoot and Culm Borers

Bamboos are attacked consistently by some important groups of shoot and culm borers
belonging chiefly to orders Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Diptera. They mostly damage
the tender culm shoots. During the rainy season when young shoots sprout, the weevils
and beetles become more active and make holes in the tender culms to obtain the sap.
They lay eggs below the culm-sheath and the larvae coming out from the eggs, make
tunnels through several internodes perforating each node and ending in a hollowed and
dead terminal shoot. The larvae completely devour the soft tissues of the young shoots,
leaving only the culm sheaths. Due to the damage of the terminal buds, the juvenile
culms may die completely or the basal portion may develop multiple branches which
adversely affect the commercial value of the crop.
6.1. Estigmena chinensis Hope (Coleoptera; Chrysomelidae)

E. chinensis is a major shoot and culm borer with distribution in India, Bangladesh,
Myanmar and Sri Lanka (Fig. 6.1.1.). It is commonly known as hispino bamboo beetle
and attack B. bambos, B. burmanica, B. nutans, D. strictus, Gigantochloascor techinii
and Schizostachyumper gracile during the initial stage of culm growth. The female
beetles lay batches of two to four eggs on the surface of the internode under the free
part of the culm sheath and cover the eggs with chewed up fragments of leaf. The
larva feed gregariously between the outer sheath and the surface of the culm and later
bore into the wall of the internode. Each internode may harbour up to five larvae. The
larva excavates a small tunnel in the culm wall, which is enlarged into an irregular
chamber in course of time. Pupation takes place inside the tunnel. Life-cycle is annual
and the beetle emerges during the next rainfall. The tunnelling of the larvae degrades the
culm which is sometimes bent at the point of damage. Sometimes, all the culms in a
clump are attacked.
6.2. Bamboo Weevils: Cyrtotrachelus longimanus Fabricius, C. buqueti

and C. dux Boheman (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
These curculionid weevils are important borers of young sprouting culms of
D. hamiltoni, D. stictus and other bamboos in northern India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka
and Myanmar. (Fig. 6.2.1. and 6.2.2.) The reddish brown weevils of C. dux feed on the
tender young culm shoots of bamboos. Mating occurs during monsoons, when the
beetles bite small pit on young culms of about one metre height and ultimately
oviposit white elliptical eggs singly. Generally, a single culm bears three to four eggs
at various places. The eggs hatch after one to two weeks of oviposition. The young
grubs bore the internodal wall of the bamboos and make irregular long tunnels from
egg pit onwards, passing through the nodes and internodes to the apex of a shoot.
These tunnels remain filled with wooden dust and excreta of the borer on soft upper
portion of the culm, which readily breaks away from the remaining internodes. The
fully grown grub, after a period of four weeks, escapes from the fallen clump in
August-September and burrows in loose moist soil for pupation. The pupal period
lasts for nearly three weeks. The immature weevil develops inside earthen cell or
cocoon by the end of September, but emerges out only when the earthen cell wall
softens during monsoon.
The grubs of C. longimanus (Fig. 6.2.3.) bore D. strictus, Meloccana baccifera

and other species of bamboos in India, Bangladesh and China. They feed in young
bamboo shoots downward from the place of entrance of the base of shoot and then
retreat by enlarging the upper portion of the culm which later falls down to the
ground bearing the fully grown grub. The grub later burrows into the soft rain-
loosened soil and undergoes pupation within the fallen buried rotten shoot. The
pupal period is very long and lasts for nearly 10 months. The damage is
characterised by a long larval tunnel, starting beneath or near the culm sheath,
passing internally through several internodes by perforating each node and ending in
a hollowed and dead terminal shoot.
6.3. Myocalandra exarata Boheman (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

M. exarata is a minor shoot and culm borer reported from India (Fig. 6.3.1.). The
larvae of this oriental curculionid beetles are the secondary borers of green living
bamboos; D. strictus and Bambusa spp. that have been damaged by Estigmena
chinensis and other pests. The weevils emerge between February to June and oviposits
in the wounds and tunnels of the primary borers. On hatching, small grubs emerge out,
which later form small grub galleries running longitudinally in the internodal wall.
The weevil is only a secondary pest and no epidemic has so far been reported.
6.4. Olethreutes paragramma Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

O. paragramma is a major shoot and culm borer with its occurrence in India,
Bangladesh and Pakistan. This moth is a common pest in standing green bamboos
(D. strictus) in the Indian sub-continent. The moth oviposits on the culm sheath. The
young larvae at first feed at the face of the free sheathing bracts, but subsequently
tunnels down the soft stem below the bracts and the nodes of growing culms of
bamboo D. strictus during the rainy season. The fully grown larvae are about 17 mm
long, with numerous black tubercles. Pupation occurs in silken cocoons formed
between the bract and the node. Heavy infestation by this pest causes death of the
young culms.
6.5. Chelyophora ceratitina Bezzi (Diptera: Tephritidae)

The infestation by this fly is probably secondary to the O. paragramma. The species
breeds in shoots of D. strictus and has been reported both from India and
Bangladesh. The pinkish grey larvae eat out the soft tissues of young shoots, leaving
only the culm sheaths of the bamboo. The larvae mature by the end of December. Its
allied species C. striata Froggatt destroys the shoots of D. giganteus in southern
India and Sri Lanka.
6.6. Oligia vulgaris Bulter (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

O. vulgaris is a shoot and culm borer with its distribution in India, China and Japan.
Adults are mid-sized moths ranging from 11-21 mm in length, and varying in colour
from light to dark brown. Larvae are light purple in colour. There is one generation per
year, over wintering as eggs. Larvae of O. vulgaris hatch from January to March,
depending on the locality. Young larvae feed on wild grass, so called intermediate
hosts, mainly Carex spp., Poa spp., Triseumbitidum and Roegneriakamoji. The
damaged grass shows wilting. When bamboo shoots are available the larvae mine into
the shoots and feed inside and make tunnels in a zigzag manner. There are six larval
instars and the fully developed larvae drop to the ground and pupate in cocoons formed
with soil and leaf litter just below the ground surface. The pupal stage lasts for about
three to four weeks. Adult moths are active at night, with strong phototaxis. Females lay
eggs on one side of the leaves of certain grass and stick the other side of the leaves to
cover the egg mass containing 30 eggs in a single row.
7. Gall Forming Insects
7.1. Ceraphron sp. (Hymenoptera:Ceraphronidae)

These minute wasps lay the eggs on the growing tip of the main culms or side shoots. The
insects develop inside culms resulting in swelling of the shoot and subsequent retardation
of growth. Wasps escape through a small slit in the middle of the woollen part of the
shoot. The apical ends of the shoot that develop into galls, subsequently, dry up.
7.2. Rhizome and Root Feeders

7.2.1. Dorysthenes walkeri Waterhouse (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
D. walkeri is a rhizome and root feeder of minor importance, distributed in India,
Myanmar and China (Fig. 7.2.1.1.). Though it is a primary pest of sugarcane, it also
attacks bamboos. Larvae bore into roots and bore inside.
7.2.2. White grubs

Holotrichia spp. have been reported as a minor pest attacking young rhizomes of
B. bambusae, B. nutans and D. strictus in India. The beetles lay eggs in sandy soil after
the first monsoon rains. The freshly hatched grub is creamy white, C-shaped and about
4-5 mm in length. The grubs that hatch out feeds on the roots and rhizomes both in
plantations and nurseries. The damage caused is not serious.
7.2.3. Termites
Several species of termites (Coptotermes heimi, Ceylonitermes indicola,
Microcerotermes fletcheri, Microcerotermes heimi, Odentotermes distans,
Odentotermes feae (Fig. 7.2.3.1.), Odentoteres microdentatus, Odentotermes obesus,

Odentoterme swallonensis, Pseudocapriter mesgoanicus and Microtermes obesi
(Fig. 7.2.3.2.) have been reported to feed on bamboo roots, but the damage caused is
negligible. A few years of damage of this type results in congestions in culms. While
M. fletcheri and M. heimi have been recorded attacking green clump of bamboos in
peninsular India, Ceylonitermes indicola were found damaging roots of bamboo
culms in Kerala.
8. Post-Harvest Pests of Bamboo

About 45 species of insects have been found associated with harvested and stored
bamboos, causing colossal damage and rendering them useless for all practical purposes.
Most of the serious pests are all borers, and the important species are from the families of
Bostrychidae, Lyctidae, Anobidae and Cerambycidae. The most important are the
Bostrychids, comprising 80 genera and 650 species. About 90 species of Bostrychids
occur in India Myanmar and Sri Lanka which are polyphagous. In Asia, 16 Bostrychids
are reported to attack stored bamboos. These boring beetles are of economic concern and
popularly known as 'powder-post beetles', because they turn the bamboos into fine
powder by feeding. They are also called as 'ghoon' or shot-hole borers. From the
economic point of view, the genus Dinoderus, of the family Bostrychidae comprises the
most destructive pest of stored bamboos. It may be noted that the starch content of the
bamboos at the time of harvest would be responsible for the severity of borer attack
(Bhat et al., 2005). A few termites are also known to attack bamboos under storage.
8.1. Shot Hole Borers (Bostrychidae and Lyctidae)

The shot hole borers are the most serious pests of felled bamboos. They are closely
related and have similar habitats. They cause immense damage to bamboos as well as
to other timbers in India.
8.1.1. Dinoderus spp. (Coleoptera: Bostrychidae)

There are three species of Dinoderus responsible for causing major damage to
bamboos during storage, viz., Dinoderus brevis (Fig. 8.1.1.1.), D. minutes
(Fig. 8.1.1.2.) and D. ocellaris (Fig. 8.1.1.3.). They are collectively known as ghoon
borers or shot hole borers. They cause immense damage when the bamboos are in the
process of drying. Presence of starch, soluble carbohydrates and proteins in the
bamboo increases its susceptibility to borer attack. These ghoon borers have three to
four generations in a year. The most active period of borer attack is from March
onwards. The beetles bore into the cut bamboo through spots where external rind has
been damaged. Adults gain entry in to the culm through the cut end. They also bore into
the exposed transverse sections of the cut ends and into internal walls of the bamboos.
They construct tunnels either vertically or horizontally and reduce the bamboo to mere
dust. The beetles make horizontal tunnels in which the eggs are deposited. The larvae
tunnel longitudinally. Adults and larvae feed inside the felled culms. Larvae cause
major damage to the felled culms. Life cycle takes about two months for completion.
Generation are overlapping under favourable conditions. Infestation is dependent on
the technical properties of the culm. The ghoon borers also attack the bamboo even
after it has been made into furniture, mats and other finished products.
8.1.2. Lyctus africanus Lesne (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae)

It is a flattened, light brown to almost black coloured beetle (Fig. 8.1.2.1.). It attacks
B. bambos and D. strictus throughout the year and the attack is rarely very severe. The
female beetle inserts 30-50 eggs in the open pores or cut end of bamboos. Incubation
period is one to two weeks. The grubs after hatching starts feeding the wooden tissues,
converting it to a very fine powder which remains closely packed in the tunnel. Higher
moisture content of the wood is more favourable for the development of the grub.
Moisture less than 10 per cent is unsuitable. After about one month of pupal period,
small beetle emerges by cutting more or less circular holes. The life cycle of this insect,
depending upon the availability of food and moisture within the wood, varies from one
to three years. Other species of bostrychid beetles found associated with bamboos are
Bostrychopsis spp., Minthea rugicollis Wlk and Sinoxylon spp.
8.1.3. Heterobostrychus aequalis Waterhouse (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae)

It is a polyphagous species with a very wide spectrum of food plants and commonest of
the larger bostrichid borers of packing cases, boxes, plywood chests, panels, etc.
(Fig. 8.1.3.1.). It is also a regular pest of saw mills and other wood based industrial
products. The beetle is black cylindrical with a rough hooded prothorax, usually with
curved hooks or projections at the distal ends of the elytra, 6-15 mm long. The female
lays eggs singly on rough surfaces of the dry bamboos or other host plants from which
the bark has been removed. The larvae after emergence bore into the soft portion and
make gradually a wide tunnel of about 37 cm length and 6 mm width. The convoluted
and intersected tunnels are tightly packed with fine dust. The host bamboo is reduced
into a powdery mass. The life cycle of the beetle is annual.
8.1.4. Stromatium barbatum Farb (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Stromatium barbatum is the last of the borer groups which attack the dried bamboos
(Fig. 8.1.4.1.). The galleries of this borer are cylindrical, but during heavy infestation
get intermingle. In cross section, these look like circular holes. S. barbatum is
primarily a pest of packing cases and converted seasoned timbers. It is also common
pest of furniture, plywood and wood works in buildings. Like other borers, this beetle
also deposit eggs in small holes in rough surface of the host wood, crevices or tissues.
Smooth surfaces are usually avoided. The larval tunnels are tightly packed with a fine
flour dust which is normally ejected out at intervals. The larvae produce distinctly
audible sound of scraping of wood with mandibles.
8.1.5. Chlorophorus annularis Fabricius (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

This species occurs widely in India, China and New Guinea and is primarily a borer
of dry bamboos (Fig. 8.1.5.1.). The beetle is 8-15 mm long, ochreous yellow with a
dark brown or black pattern of curved and rounded spots on the elytra and pronotum.
The emergence of this beetle takes place during May-September, but it may be
delayed according to the dryness of the bamboos. Even the finished products are
being attacked by this beetle. It has normally one generation in a year and is
frequently carried to other countries through infested materials. The other
cerambicid borers that attack D. strictus and other bamboos are Diboma postica
Gahan, Merionoeda nigriceps White, Purpuricenus sanguinolentus Oliver and
Ropica signata Pic.
8.1.6. Cryptotermes dudleyi Banks (Isoptera: Kalotermitidae)

This is commonly known as American powder post termite (Fig. 8.1.6.1.). It is an
introduced species and is restricted in distribution to the coastal regions in Odisha, West
Bengal and Daman as well as in some parts of Bangladesh, where it has been found
damaging and destroying all bamboo structures in houses. All types of bamboo
constructions, including split bamboos used as rafters or matted walls in houses
are seriously attacked by this species. The attack is usually serious and the
infested materials get completely riddled with excavations to be ruined within a
short period. This necessitates frequent replacement of the material. The attack by
this species resembles a typical bostrychid attack with small holes appearing on the
outer hard rind portion.
8.1.7. Coptotermes heimi Wasm (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae)

This termite is widely distributed throughout India and in some parts of Pakistan. It is a
highly polyphagous species. It has as many as 35 species of plants as its host in addition to
bamboos. It eats away the inner soft portion along the fibre leaving behind the outer
rind surface intact. In seriously infested bamboos, the inner portion is honey combed.
9. Pest Management
Generally, no serious attention is being given to manage the pests of standing bamboos.
Also, reliable data are not available on the losses caused so as to warrant control

Figures showing different types of bamboo insects:

a. Udonga montana (Fig. 2.1.1.), b. Sitotroga cereallela (Fig. 2.2.1.), c. Hieroglyphus banian
(Fig. 3.3.1.), d. Poecilocerus pictus Fab. (Fig. 3.4.1.), e. Pantana pluto (Fig. 4.9.1.), f. Parasa
bicolour (Fig. 4.10.1.), g. Massepha absolutalis (Fig. 4.13.1.), h. Schistocera gregaria (Fig.
4.16.1.), i. Notobitus meleagris (Fig. 5.7.1.), j. Estigmena chinensis (Fig. 6.1.1.),
k. Cyrtotrachelus buqueti (Fig. 6.2.1.), l. C. dux (Fig. 6.2.2.), m. C. longimanus (Fig. 6.2.3.),
n. Myocalandra exarata (Fig. 6.3.1.), o. Dorysthenes walker (Fig. 7.2.1.1.), p. Odentotermes
feae (Fig. 7.2.3.1.), q. Microtermes obesi (Fig. 7.2.3.2.), r. D. brevis (Fig. 8.1.1.1.), s. D. minutes
(Fig. 8.1.1.2.), t. D. ocellaris (Fig. 8.1.1.3.), u. Lyctus africanus (Fig. 8.1.2.1.),
v. Heterobostrychus aequalis (Fig. 8.1.3.1.), w. Stromatium barbatum (Fig. 8.1.4.1.),
x. Chlorophorus annularis (Fig. 8.1.5.1.) and y. Cryptotermes dudleyi (Fig. 8.1.6.1.).
measures. Though in the past, many broad-spectrum pesticides would have been
recommended wherever some outbreak of defoliators or sap-suckers occurred, these
have not been practised as a routine. In modern times, we have to avoid use of
insecticides and resort to pest management strategies in bamboo stands involving
cultural and biological methods.
In natural stands of bamboos, the pest populations are regulated due to the
predator-prey interactions and presence of other useful components of biodiversity.
However, when intensive cultivation practices are adopted outside the natural stands,
the biodiversity and the natural habitat are lost which can result in pest outbreaks.
Most damage to post-harvest bamboos, including finished products, is caused by
the Coleopteran beetles. Varma et al. (1988) tested several insecticides and two
pyrethroids – cypermethrin and permithrin to be found effective in reducing borer
attack. Treating the green bamboo with preservative chemicals can also increase the
service life (Kumar and Dobriyal, 1990). However, some of the field trials in the open
storage yards have shown that proper stacking methods alone can reduce borer attack
and some prophylactic treatments can further offer better protection.
Some of the traditional practices which are eco-friendly and easy to replicate like
water soaking, baking over open fire, clump curing, biological preservative, etc. are
promising, but need to be taken up on a large-scale and methods of treatment to be
standardised to suit the local conditions.
The occurrence of starch during the felling season is another factor to be

considered. The starch content will vary based on the season, phases of moon, status of
flowering, etc. The logic behind the traditional knowledge is to cut the bamboos at a
time when the starch content would be low. Paduvil (2008) observed that bamboos
harvested during dry season and before flowering are highly susceptible to borer
attack, while those harvested during wet season are comparatively resistant, and those
harvested after flowering were completely resistant to borer attack. Regarding moon
phases, no empirical relationship exists between the waxing and waning phases to
borer attack.
10. Conclusion
In general, standing bamboos, especially natural stands in India are free from major
pest problems, although some defoliators, sap-suckers and culm and shoot borers can
become potential threats. When bamboos are grown as plantations under intensive
management practices, there can be pest outbreaks which require monitoring. The
seed pest, Udonga montana can affect seed production and thus can have impact on
establishment of new plantations.
Bamboos during storage and as finished products are susceptible to serious
damage by borers, mainly the Dinoderus spp. This is a serious problem in bamboo
industry and preventive or remedial measures of control will have to be adopted
depending on the severity of borer infestation. The traditional knowledge available
with the forest dwellers on bamboo preservation is to be collected and the same needs
to be scientifically tested and evaluated.
References
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Distribution of starch within the culms of Bambusa bamboos (L).Voss and its
influence on borer damage. Bamboo Science and Culture, 19(1): 1-4.
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12 Bamboos for Social
Forestry
P. Shanmughavel
1. Introduction
Bamboos are giant, woody, tree-like grasses with a long history as an exceptionally
versatile and a widely used resource. Bamboo is a cultural feature of South and
Southeast Asia. No country in this region is without an indigenous bamboo species. Its
plethora of essential uses has led to the use of terms such as the 'poor man's timber', 'the
cradle to coffin plant', 'green gold', 'friend of the people', etc. Over-exploitation
associated with growing human population destruction of tropical forests and new
demands on the resources for industrial uses, especially by the pulp and paper industry,
has resulted in large scale decimation of bamboo stocks. Compared with the vast
forests of bamboo found in South and Southeast Asia at the beginning of this century,
we are left with the current situation of acute scarcity. Research is underway into
cultural and agronomic techniques to boost bamboo production (Shanmughavel,
1995a, b, c). Bamboo is an important species in social forestry programmes of the
forest department.
2. Social Forestry Programmes

Social forestry programmes in India have grown in importance and scale and now
constitute a major element in India's overall programme of rural development. From
modest beginning about three decades ago, there has been an almost exponential
growth in the human and financial resources allocated to social forestry.
The term social forestry is difficult to define precisely, but is generally understood
to mean tree-growing (including associated products, e.g., bamboo, grasses, legumes)
for the purpose of rural development. As social forestry has a rural development focus
and is heavily dependent on the active participation of people, it is also known as
'forestry for local community development' or 'participatory forestry' (FAO, 1985,
248 P. Shanmughavel
1986). Although, wide ranges of activities are included in social forestry, five main
components can be distinguished in India. With variation, these are:
1. Farm forestry (tree growing on private land)
2. Farmer leasehold or tree patta
3. Village woodlots or community forestry
4. Strip plantations alongside roads, canals, railways, etc.
5. Reforestation or rehabilitation of degraded forest areas
Social forestry programmes usually include one or more of these components.
There are also distinctions between and within these components depending on who
owns the land on which the trees are being planted (e.g., farmers, private industries,
municipalities, forest departments, revenue departments, etc.) or who is responsible
for the planting (e.g., farmers, villages, cooperative, voluntary agencies, rural
development departments, schools, etc.). These distinctions are sometimes blurred,
and there is an increasing involvement of the rural population in decision-making,
management and as beneficiaries.
Farm forestry is tree planting undertaken by individual households on their own
land or land they have rented from others. Tree seedlings may be planted in blocks
(small plantations), on field boundaries, or around homesteads. They may be
intermixed with agricultural crops in several forms, or they may be planted alone on
either agricultural land or uncultivable wastelands. Farmer leasehold (or) tree patta
denotes a kind of farm forestry in which poor farmers or landless labourers are given
leases to tracts of public land on which, with varying degrees of public support, they
are constrained to grow trees. Village woodlots are small plantations on community or
governments land, operated by or on behalf of the village, for the benefit of the village
as a whole, although there may be special arrangements, which provide preferential
treatment to the under-privileged. Strip plantations are relatively narrow areas along
the sides of roads, canals, railways and rivers, established by the government (usually
the forestry department) with the intention of providing the benefits of forest products
to local people and to serve as demonstration areas. The reforestation or rehabilitation
of degraded forest refers to large plantations on public lands, which have been
degraded, and which are often in environmentally critical areas. Such plantations may,
or may not, be considered a form of social forestry depending on whether or not there is
significant involvement of local communities (FAO, 1985).
The objectives of social forestry necessarily differ with components. While all
social forestry aims to increase tree production and reduce environmental degradation,
the nature of the product, the type of management, and the distribution of benefits
depend on the type of social forestry involved. Farm forestry is designed to help rural
households better meet their own needs, whether through the direct production of fuel
wood, fodder, and poles for their own use or though the production of a commercially
Bamboos for Social Forestry 249
marketable crop of poles or pulpwood. Tree patta forestry is similarly designed to

increase the incomes of poor households through the sale of forest products and at the
same time to help satisfy their need for fuel wood and fodder (NWDB, 1989). Village
woodlots are intended to provide tree products, particularly fuelwood and fodder, for
the community as well as (in many cases) income to the local village panchayat. Strip
plantations and reforestation are designed to provide local communities with some of
their fuel wood and fodder needs and to conserve and improve the environment. To a
varying degree, each of these components has features, which deliberately target
benefits towards the poorest and most under-privileged sections of society, including
rural women who are frequently among those hardest hit be the growing scarcity to tree
products. However, these poverty-alleviation objectives and those related to
production are often confused and this contributes to the widespread controversy
surrounding the social, economic and environmental effects of social forestry
(FAO, 1986).
The massive social forestry programmes being carried out in India are, at present,
spearheaded by the National Wasteland. Development Board in the Ministry of
Environment Forests and Climate Change, Government of India. While the
principle implementing agencies for these programmes in each state are the forest
departments, other government departments and private and voluntary agencies are
increasingly being mobilized to meet national objectives. State forest departments have
typically introduced new organizational structures to plan and implement social
forestry activities and have appointed separate staff in the field and at headquarters for
forest departments as much as for other departments and agencies. Social forestry
represents a departure from traditional forestry activities and styles of working
(FAO, 1986).
3. Guidelines to Raise Bamboo Plantations

By far the single-most important item of forest produce used by rural communities of
the tropics, is the bamboo. Cultivation of bamboo can provide a cost effective return
within short term (three years). To increase the pace of greening the country and
alleviate poverty, it is expedient to evolve an appropriate technology for raising
economically viable bamboo plantations, through community forestry.
The methods of successful raising of bamboo plantations at Bharathiar University,
Coimbatore are as follows:
3.1. Preparation of Nursery

Nursery beds of 10 m x 5 m are prepared in the field and filled with a mixture of soil and
sand (3:1). The tissue cultured seedlings of B. bambos, when about 7 cm in height, are
250 P. Shanmughavel
picked out from the polythene bags. About 15-25 plants are planted in 1 m2 of raised
nursery beds (one week prior planting, the nursery beds are drenched with 0.01%
Aldrex and 0.05% Bavistin to prevent termite and fungal attack, respectively).
Watering is done 2-3 times a day. Care is taken to avoid over watering. Nursery beds
are provided with a thatch to protect the plants from direct sunlight.
3.2. Transplanting
The plants in the nursery are uprooted carefully and transplanted to 45 cm × 45 cm × 45
cm pit in the fields, before the onset of monsoon. The seedlings are planted at 6 m x 6 m
spacing with 250 seedlings/ha. To provide better initial growing environment to the
seedlings, the upper halves of the pits are filled up with a mixture of 25 g fertilizer
(17:17:17 N:P:K) per pit, while lower halves were filled up with the original soil. The
transplanted seedlings are watered two hours regularly in the morning and evening.
Weeding is done as and when required. After one year, the plantation is irrigated at 15
days interval. Protection against damage by rodents, grazing and browsing animals is
provided by brushwood fence.
3.3. Growth and Production of Culms

Generally, all the transplanted seedlings produce rhizomes. The culm buds emerge
with the onset of early rains and grow rapidly. The total number of culms in 1-,
2-, 3-, 4-, 5- and 6-year-old clump ha-1 has been found to be 1250, 2250, 3000, 3500,
4000 and 4250, respectively. The culm height in 1st yr has been 1.4 m, 3.2 m in 2nd yr, 9.6
m in 3rd yr, 21.8 m in 4th yr, 27.2 m in 5th yr and 28.5 m in 6th yr. Their corresponding
diameters at different ages were 2.3, 3.3, 4.3, 4.8, 6.3, and 8.3 cm, respectively. An
unusual rain during winter months may induce the emergence of new culms but they
do not grow successfully, like those produced in the rainy season. The productivity of
new culms mostly depends on the degree of congestion, clump age and rainfall of the
previous year. It has been noticed that annual recruitment of culms increases
proportionately with age (Table 3.3.1. and 3.3.2.).
3.4. Process of Growing

The culms are very slender and the growth of sprout is slow in the beginning. They
gradually begin to grow faster till the culm reaches maximum size. The average height
growth of the culm is found to be approximately 30 cm by 32nd day, at that stage the
internodes were wrapped with sheaths and, thereafter, in the following month the
culms shed their sheaths. After 50 days, branch buds begin to develop. These branch
buds increase to 2-3 in number in a circle and are clearly visible after 60 days. The
length begins to increase upto 30 days (i.e., 90 days after their emergence), after which
Table 3.3.1. Growth and biomass production (t ha-1)

Age Culm Culm Basal No. No. Biomass (t ha-1)*
(yr) height diameter area of of Leaf Branch Culm Total above Rhizome Grand
(m) (cm) (cm) culms nodes ground total
1 1.4 2.3 3.1 1,250 7 0.17 0.49 0.70 1.36 0.94 2.29
2 3.2 3.3 4.0 2,250 16 0.67 1.90 6.80 9.36 3.15 12.51
3 9.6 4.3 5.0 3,000 37 1.12 17.12 29.25 47.49 4.98 52.47
4 21.8 4.8 6.1 3,500 86 1.86 27.16 92.75 121.77 6.06 127.83
5 27.2 6.3 8.3 4,000 98 3.54 33.94 187.22 224.71 9.60 234.31
6 28.5 8.3 10.1 4,250 103 4.02 39.89 242.73 286.64 11.22 297.86
*The culm, branches, leaves and rhizome were collected individually and after determining their fresh weight in the field,
they were oven dried in the laboratory. Their moisture free dry weight was determined. The values expressed are average
of three independent experiments.
Table 3.3.2. Average growth data

Place Year of Area No. of Survival Height growth Annual recruitment of
planting (ha) seedlings (%) (m)
during 1994 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
Kummitta- 1990 72.2 16,140 85 4.5 2+ 4+ 5+ 7+ 9+
puram
Chickally 1991 49.3 10,914 80 4.0
* The observations are averages of 25 clumps.
leaf buds begin to appear on their nodes alternately. These leaves begin to mature about
30 days of their visual appearance. They vary in length from 15 cm to 20 cm and are
simple long leaves. The leaves attain full development around 135th day. Thereafter, the
culms begin to change their hardness and colour. The new culms are produced
peripherally from the outer edge of the clump and tend to grow inwards and get
entangled among the older culms.
3.5. Strip Plantation

The strip plantation along road, canal and agricultural fields combine, three recognized
social forestry aspects, viz., protection, community and subsistence forestry. They
offer physical protection to the land resource, in that they not only conserve soil, water,
air and fertility, but also provide shade and ameliorate the surrounding environment.
They also meet the immediate requirement of the agricultural population for small
timber, fuel and fodder. The common practice of strip plantation is to prepare deep pits
usually 0.6 x 0.6 x 0.6 m3 at a spacing of 4 metres, and 6-8 months old plants are planted
in these pits. Observations on growth of the species planted along road and canal in
Tamil Nadu indicates that bamboo is one of the most suitable species for road and canal
side plantation.
252 P. Shanmughavel
3.6. Community Forestry Programme

Community forestry programmes comprise growing bamboo on public or community
land contrary to private farms. Bamboo for community forestry programme was
suggested by Shanmughavel (1995a, b). The most common type of community
forestry programmes is the one in which the forest department takes the responsibility
for carrying out planting. The engagement of the local community in the
implementation of schemes of this type is largely passive and is normally restricted to
the provision of hired workers.
4. Degree of Local Participation

As discussed earlier, the aim of social forestry programmes is to regenerate the
degraded forests and barren lands.
4.1. Local Institutions

Community tree growing programmes are crucially dependent upon the active
collaboration of village councils, community groups and local institutions.
Programme planning must therefore, be based upon a clear appreciation of role of such
organizations in local affairs, their potential for realizing (or) thwarting the aims of the
programme. The village community groups should be trained about the growing of
bamboo in the barren land by the specialists in the field. While selecting the village
community groups, preference should be given to the educated unemployed youths.
4.2. Land Allocation

Maximum 25 ha area of degraded/barren forest land is allocated at a time to each
participating village group. In future, more land can be allocated if the work of the
participating village committee is found encouraging.
4.3. Procedure of Working

After collaborative micro-planning, a need-based management plan is drawn up. The
forest department assists the village committee to establish joint protection and
management systems.
4.4. Requirements/Rule of Working

The programme requires participating village committees to protect the allocated land
against non-forestry use, encroachments, grazing, illicit-felling and wildlife. Land, in
no case, is allocated to individuals and ownership of the land remains with the
government. It is also required to execute an agreement bond between forest officials
and the participating village committee.
4.5. Resource Sharing

Entire bamboos obtained from community forestry programmes goes to the members
of the participating village committee. At the time of harvest prescribed in the
management plan, after deducting the government expenditure, 60 per cent share of net
income goes to the members of the participating village committee and 40 per cent
share to the state exchequer. Participating village committee again invests at least 50
per cent of this income in plantation activities.
4.6. Monitoring of Works

A supervisory committee is constituted to monitor the development, protection and
management works of the community forestry. Members of the committee include
respective district forest officer, a range officer and a representative of village
committee members.
5. Limitations
5.1. The problem of land-use conflicts

Obtaining the necessary land for tree growing is undoubtedly one of the major
stumbling blocks in programmes of this type. Community land is scarce, as it is being
used for a variety of other purposes. Agreement to dedicate it to tree growing can be
very difficult to achieve.
5.2. Lack of identity of interests

Few communities have a genuine identity of interests among all their members.
Practical experience has shown that this can cause a number of severe problems in
community programmes, where communities are rigidly stratified along social, economic
or religious lines. The barriers to community action can be difficult to overcome.
6. Advantages in Raising Bamboo Plantations

The details of simple economic analysis of cost and benefit of B. bambos plantations
are presented in Table 6.1. It can be observed that the establishment of bamboo
plantation is not profitable at the end of three years. However, after this period, it is
noticed that cost-benefit (B/C) ratio exceed 1.0 showing very good financial results
(Shanmughavel and Francis, 1993).
7. Scope for Community Forestry

The interest complexity of community forestry programmes, with their needs for
compromise and reconciliation of opposing interests, means that they will always
254 P. Shanmughavel
Table 6.1. Cost-benefit analysis for six-yr-old B. bambos plantation

Year Cost (Rs.) Benefit Present value under different discount rate (%)
12 14 16 12 14 16
Cost Benefit Cost Benefit Cost Benefit
(Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.)
1 11,400 -- 10,032 -- 9,804 -- 9,596 --
2 6,750 -- 5,940 -- 5,805 -- 5,670 --
3 5,145 -- 4,527 -- 4,340 -- 4,321 --
4 36,415 56,250 32,047 49,500 31,319 48,375 30,591 47,250
5 34,445 60,500 30,311 53,240 29,622 52,030 28,933 50,820
6 58,110 1,47,750 51,172 1,00,980 50,009 98,685 48,846 96,390
Total 1,52,265 2,64,500 1,34,029 2,03,720 1,30,899 1,99,090 1,27,957 1,94,460
Discount rates: 12% B/C ratio = 1: 51, 14% B/C ratio = 1: 52 and 16% B/C ratio = 52.
Current Exchange rate 1 US $ = RS. 43.00.
require a great deal of careful preparation and negotiation. This demands a high level
of trust and cooperation between the community and the promoting agency which can
take a long time to create.
8. Rehabilitation of Degraded Forest

The total forest area of the country is about 69.79 M ha. According to recent satellite
imagery, dense forest occupies an area of only 40.22 M ha (FAO, 1989). The
remaining area consists of degraded forest where density of the trees is less than 40
per cent. The area neither provides timber and firewood nor the ecological security.
Bamboo has been planted on a large scale in several states under rehabilitation of
degraded forest programme with an aim to restock these areas and improve their
productivity.
9. Afforestation
Bamboo is a favoured species in the national afforestation programmes as it is a
marvellous substitute for timber towards meeting the industrial and rural
requirements, checking erosion and conserving soil and moisture. Shanmughavel
(1995b, 1996) studied the performance of B. bambos seedlings planted in the
afforestation programmes at Kummitlapuram (62.2 ha) and Chickally (49.3 ha) in
Sathayamangalam Forest Division, Tamil Nadu. It revealed that the survival
percent ranged from 70 to 80 per cent in both areas. The height growth of plants
showed 2.20 to 4.80 m. In general, the survival percent and growth is good at
Chickally and Kummitlapuram. The annual recruitment of culms at Chickally forest
area in Table 9.1. shows the performances of bamboo raised under afforestation
programme.
Table 9.1. Average recruitment of culms at Chickally forest area, Sathayamangalam Forest Division,
Tamil Nadu
Annual recruitment of culms
1992 1993 1994 1995
Annual Height Annual Height Annual Height Annual Height
culm culm culm culm
recruit- recruit- recruit recruit-
ment ment ment ment
Beat I - 1.15 3 1.65 7 1.95 5 2.20
Beat II 2 1.85 5 2.40 10 3.10 8 4.80
Beat III - 1.40 2 1.90 5 2.25 3 3.10
10. Reclamation of Wastelands

Wastelands may be defined as lands, where the production of biomass is less than the
optimum productivity (NWDB, 1989). Such lands are ecologically most unstable and
suffer due to various problems such as soil erosion, ravine, acidity, alkalinity, gully,
landslide, water logging, aridity, rockiness, etc. Government of India has launched a
programme for development of wastelands in order to revegetate these lands and
improve their productivity. Selection of proper tree species for afforestation and re
vegetation of these lands is the key to success in these programmes. Bamboo, being a
versatile arborescent grass, has largely been planted on these lands. This plant being
tolerant to water logging, salinity, alkalinity, soil erosion, etc. is a natural choice in
afforestation of several categories of wastelands. Chauhan et al. (1992) conducted a
study in Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh on socio-economic aspects and extent of
wastelands. Rehabilitation with bamboo plantation is suggested to bring these lands
back to health in terms of fodder produce, fuelwood and timber, besides restoring
environmental protection, so that, a net profit of Rs. 37,776 per ha with benefit-cost
ratio of 13.75 can be attained.
Shanmughavel and Francis (1995) suggested that marginal lands and areas that are
not used for agricultural crops can be brought under bamboo plantation. They observed
that an average culm emergence of two per clump, one year after planting. The average
culm recruitment increased in the subsequent years and numbered at 4-13 per clump. It
was observed that an income of up to Rs. 1,000 could be got in three years from just one
clump of bamboo.
11. Monitoring and Evaluation

Despite the magnitude of the social forestry programmes in India, there is little reliable
information available to policy makers and programme managers regarding the
progress and effects of the programme (NWDB, 1989). This is perhaps, because of the
novelty of the approach and the rapid and recent expansion. The widespread lack of
256 P. Shanmughavel
effective information systems has hampered management and policy makers in

improving the design and implementation of their programmes. The scarcity of
reliable information has also led to controversies and debates fuelled more by
impressions, isolated field visits and pre-determined opinions than by objective
empirical information.
For these reasons, the government of India and most of the state governments and
other agencies involved in promoting social forestry have placed a high priority on
developing an effective monitoring and evaluation (M&E) system to serve both the
state government departments and agencies and the central government. To meet this
need, most social forestry projects have made specific provision for the establishment
of monitoring and evaluation units, which are expected to collect and interpret
information on all social forestry activities. In a number of states, such units have been
set up and have commenced operations. In other states such units are planned
(FAO, 1986).
The primary role of monitoring and evaluation is to improve programme or
project implementation, so that, the program's ultimate objectives can be met and or
periodically measure progress towards these objectives (Shanmughavel, 1996).
Monitoring can be regarded as an assessment of the efficiency with which the
programme is implemented including measurement of the quantity and timing of input
delivery and out produced. Monitoring is usually understood to include the tracking of
both financial and physical activity through regular quantified reports. While detailed
financial reporting and accounting systems are usually already in place for auditing
purposes, systematic physical reporting and monitoring of the implementation process
(both problems and progress) is not well developed. The relationships between
financial expenditures and physical output are not usually studied and, hence, little is
known about the unit costs of achievements or whether lower costs would have
produced equivalent results (FAO, 1986).
In contrast, evaluation can be construed as the assessment of the results of
implementing the programmme. On-going evaluation is a means of examining the
most important direct effects of the programs concurrently with this implementation.
This form of evaluation, sometimes called beneficiary monitoring, is meant to serve as
a extension of the monitoring system in the sense that is primary purpose is still or
provide managers and policy makers with information about the individuals and
communities affected which will allow program implementation to be improved
(NCA, 1976).
Ex-post evaluation is differentiated from on-going evaluation by being conducted
when a project or programme is completed as a means of assessing its overall impact
and achievements, This type of evaluation, while not inherently undesirable, is
complex, has a rude appetite for data, and usually requires sophisticated analytical
methodologies and considerable financial and computing resources (FAO,

1985,1986).
Since monitoring and on-going evaluation are closely related they can often profit
from being functionally integrated. Hence, while monitoring lays stress on the reporting
of project progress and constraints as a time bound aid to programme management, it
should be closely linked to evaluation when the latter is used as a means of determining
whether implementation is meeting its original objectives or producing unanticipated
results which may affect (positively or negatively) the outcome of the program.
As widely recognized in India, a separate and specialized monitoring and
evaluation unit (MEU) is necessary to implement an effective M&E system. In order to
maximize the MEU's direct usefulness to management and to the daily implementation
of a social forestry programme, it is recommended that, as is generally the practice, the
unit be located within the implementing department or agency and report directly to top
management. The duties and responsibilities of the MEU can be summarized as follows
(FAO, 1985, 1986):
(a) To establish, in cooperation with programme management, clearly defined
objectives and regrets for program implementation against which progress can be
monitored;
(b) to implement and operate a monitoring system, including the development and
application of methodologies and procedures for the collection and analysis of
information;
(c) to collect information to enable the periodic evaluation of progress and effects
through existing administrative and accounting records, surveys and studies and to
analyze, interpret and report the findings to management and, through them, policy
makers and other interested bodies;
(d) to undertake on ad hoc basis, enquiries and studies in order to solve urgent
problems for management; and
(e) to follow-up on the recommendations and results of monitoring and evaluation and
assist in integrating them into future plans.
However, MEUs should not generally undertake investigations that are more
properly classified as research studies, even though they may be relevant to programme
performance. For example, studies of the impact of different silvicultural regimes on
water tables, of the agronomic and economic interactions of trees and crops, or of the
impact of increasing fuel wood supplies on health and nutrition should all be
considered as long term research studies outside the purview of an MEU. Not only are
such studies long-term in that they have to be carried out over many years for the results
to have some validity, but they are costly and technically complex and are, therefore,
best carried out by research institutions.
258 P. Shanmughavel
To aid understanding of the system as a whole, Fig. 11.1. provides an overview of

the sources, flows, and destinations of M&E information. The top most part of this
figure shows the main activities of a social forestry programme. The categories of
plantations which deal with progress reporting. Downward opining triangles denote
monitoring information, derived from nursery registers and plantation journals, which
is reported for all activities by social forestry field staff. Upward pointing triangles
indicate data collected by the MEU through sample surveys and special studies which
comprise a different, but important part of monitoring and evaluation. This part of the
data collection system is primarily required for 'People's Plantation' where
departmental staffs are not directly responsible for planting activities and thus cannot
be expected to report on them as part of their normal work.
Fig. 11.1. Information flow in the M&E System.

PF = Production forestry, RDF Rehabilitation of degraded forests Oth = Other, VW = Village woodlots,
FF = Farm forestry, TP = Tree patta, VA = Voluntary agencies, Spec = Special,
SF = Social forestry MEU = Monitoring and evaluation unit.
The lower part of Fig. 11.1. shows how the data obtained by the MEU after being
transformed into usable information and summarized in reports, the most concrete
output from monitoring and evaluation units, is disseminated to managers, policy-
makers, and the field personnel responsible for implementation in order to provide
feedback to improve performance.
In order to be truly useful, monitoring and evaluation must be undertaken in a
thoroughly professional manner by specialists provided with adequate resources. This
is only possible if the M&E unit is integrated with, used and directed by programme
management. Hence, it cannot be over-emphasized that management must fully
understand the purpose of monitoring and evaluation and resist any temptation to
regard M&E staff as an inspectorate or internal police force whose sole purpose is to
criticize or report wrongdoing. The first step by management in making this
commitment is to ensure that the requisite funds and manpower are made available to
the unit. Thereafter the M&E system will flourish in direct proportion to the extent to
which management needs its products and gives focus to its enquiries. Monitoring and
evaluation is an adjunct to improved management. Its primary justification is that,
when done well, it can help social forestry programs attain the objective of helping
rural people through tree husbandry.
Acknowledgement
The author is thankful to DBT Bioinformatics Centre, Bharathiar University,
Coimbatore for financial assistance.
References
Chauhan, S.K.; Sharma, P.K.; Moorthi, T.V. 1992. Studies on wooing wastelands for
environment protection and economical biomass productivity with - bamboos
Dendrocalmus hamiltonii in Western Himalayas - some projections. Indian
Journal of Forestry, 15(2): 121-130.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 1985. Tree growing
by rural people. Forestry Paper No. 64. Rome, FAO.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 1986. Monitoring
and evaluation of social forestry in India: An operational guide. Forestry Paper
No. 75. Rome, FAO.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 1989. Case studies of
farm forestry and wastelands development in Gujarat, India. Rome, FAO.
NCA (National Commission on Agriculture). 1976. Report on forestry. Vol. 8 and 9.
New Delhi, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Govt. of India.
260 P. Shanmughavel
NWDB (National Wasteland Development Board). 1989. Developing

India's wastelands. New Delhi, Ministry of Environment and Forests,
GOI. 82p.
Shanmughavel, P. 1995a. Bambusa bambos – An ideal species for commercial
plantation. International Tree Crops Journal, 8(4): 203-212.
Shanmughavel, P. 1995b. Studies on the growth of transplanted seedlings of Bambusa
bambos at Chickally, Sathayamangalam Forest Division, Tamil Nadu. Van
Vigyan, 35(1): 14-16.
Shanmughavel, P. 1995c. Studies on organic productivity nutrient distribution,
nutrient cycling, pulp and paper characteristics of plantation bamboo (Bambusa
bambos (L) Voss). Ph.D. thesis. Bharathiar University, Coimbatore.
Shanmughavel, P. 1996. Performance of Bambusa bambos plantations
at Kummittapuram, Sathayamangalam Forests, Tamil Nadu. Van Vigyan,
34(3): 128-130.
Shanmughavel, P.; Francis, K. 1993. Studies on the growth of Bambusa bambos at
Kallipatty, Tamil Nadu. BIC-India Bulletin, 3(2): 46-48.
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Bambusa bambos at Chickally, Sathyamangalam Forest Division, Tamil Nadu.
Van Vigyan, 33(4): 150-154.
13 Bamboo Based Agroforestry
Systems
S. Tewari, Ratan Lal Banik, R. Kaushal,
D.R. Bhardwaj, O.P. Chaturvedi
and Anand Gupta
1. Introduction
Bamboo is one of the fastest growing plants which have ability to survive in a wide
variety of climatic and edaphic conditions. It generally forms the under-storey in the
natural forests. There are 124 indigenous and exotics species, under 23 genera, found
naturally and/or under cultivation (Naithani, 1993). The bamboos occur as either an
under storey or in pure form in all other parts, except the Kashmir Valley. The bamboos
are widely distributed in India. It is found to grow practically all over the country,
particularly in the tropical, sub-tropical and temperate regions where the annual
rainfall ranges between 1,200 to 4,000 mm and the temperature varies between 16o and
38oC. The most suitable conditions for occurrence of bamboo are found in between
770-1,080 m amsl. It can be also grown on marginal and degraded lands, elevated
grounds, along field bunds and river banks. Two-thirds of the growing stock of
bamboos in the country is available in the North-Eastern states. They abundantly occur
in Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura, Orissa, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh states. A few
species are also found scattered in other parts of the country both in the hills and the
plains. The main genera in India are: Arundinaria, Bambusa, Cephalostachyum,
Chimonobambusa, Dendrocalamus, Dinochloa, Gigantochloa, lndocalamus,
Melocanna, Naohouseaua, Ochlandia, Oxytenanthera, Plaioblastus, Phyllostachys,
Pseudostachyum, Schizostachyum, Semiarundinaria, Sinobambusa, Teinostachyum,
and Thamnocalamus. The exotic genera Guadua, Pseudosasa and Thyrsostachys are
also in cultivation. Clump forming bamboos constitute over 67 per cent of the total
growing stock in the country, out of which Dendrocalamus strictus has major share of
45 per cent followed by Bambusa bambos (13%), D. hamiltonii (7%), B. tulda (5%),
B. pallida (4%) and rest other species (6%). Melocanna baccifera, a non-clump
forming bamboo, accounts for 20 per cent of the growing stock and is found in the
262 S. Tewari, R.L. Banik, R. Kaushal, D.R. Bhardwaj, O.P. Chaturvedi and Anand Gupta
North-Eastern states. India has the largest forest area of bamboos (13.96 M ha) in the
world. Also, the country is rich in diversity of bamboos.
Bamboos have thousands of economic applications, hence people call them
'green gold', 'poor man's timber', 'bamboo, friend of the people' and 'cradle to coffin
timber'. Bamboos play a major role in the livelihood of rural people and rural industry.
This green gold is sufficiently cheap and plentiful to meet the vast needs of human
populace from the 'child's cradle to the dead man's bier'. It is an excellent alternative to
wood and has the potential of being effective in carbon sequestration, thus, helping in
countering the emission of greenhouse gases, global warming and climate change.
Bamboos are now being used for wall panelling, floor tiles, briquettes for fuel, raw
material for housing construction, rebar for reinforced concrete beams, etc. The major
user of bamboo in India is paper industry which consumes sizeable proportion of their
total annual production. Bamboo leaves are normally utilized as fodder during
scarcity. Bamboos are peerless erosion control agent, their net like root system create
an effective mechanism for watershed protection, stitching the soil together along
fragile riverbanks, deforested areas, and in places prone to earthquakes and mud
slides. The various uses of bamboos have been depicted in Fig. 1.1.
Bamboos had been subjected to depletion by poor management practices. As a
result, reproduction cannot keep pace with exploitation and there is an urgent need to
secure regeneration; cultivate, protect and manage bamboos for sustainable
production. There is a huge gap between the present and potential yield due to non-
Fig. 1.1. Various uses of bamboos.

Bamboo Based Agroforestry Systems 263
availability of sufficient quantity of quality planting material for plantation, hence,

there is an urgent need to raise large scale plantations of bamboos.
2. Agroforestry
Agroforestry is the integration of woody plant with other agricultural enterprises such
as crop or livestock production to derive both economic and ecological benefits.
Agroforestry systems are the practice of mixed farming systems developed over
centuries. Most of them are the long term land management practices having a life
cycle of more than one year. They are the complex form of land management
practices both in the form of ecologically and economically than other land
management unit. A number of such systems are prevalent in India, of these the
major one are as depicted in Fig. 2.1.
Fig. 2.1. Major agroforestry systems in India.
For lands that are unsuitable for crops, agroforestry provides a way to remove the
unsuitable land from crop production over an extended period as the trees mature. It
also provides social benefits by functioning as a protective system that ensures
resource conservation, though, some of these are not directly measurable
(Nath et al., 2009).
3. Bamboos Based Agroforestry Systems

Bamboos based agroforestry can play an important role in enhancing productivity,
sustainability and resource conservation. Many of the useful bamboo species can
occupy the same ecological niche as trees and are well suited for agroforestry.
Bamboos have many advantages over trees such as, relatively short time span from
planting to harvest versatility of use which outmatches most tree species the ability to
provide building materials and edible products for many years or even decades. Its
growth rate is three times that of eucalypts and mature in just three years hence, there
are large scale efforts to promote bamboos under agroforestry system.
Bamboos require four to five years to yield first harvest, if grown from offsets,
which is much earlier than any other woody species. If raised from seedlings, first
harvest is obtained after seven years. This initial period can be sustainably utilized
for raising intercrops and enhancing sustainability and income of the growers.
Under agroforestry system, bamboos are also benefited due to sharing of resources
like irrigation, fertilizers, weeding, etc. with intercrops, as a result the quantity and
quality of bamboos are expected to be much higher as compared with monoculture
and unmanaged plantations. The bamboos based agroforestry practices which
indicate that the safest choice of agroforestry species have come from the native
vegetation, having a history of adoption to local precipitation regimes. Balaji
(1991) reported that the scope of bamboo in agroforestry is very wide because of the
uncertain weather conditions and increasing cost of labour. Bamboos, if properly
managed, can be grown in agrisilviculture, silvipastoral, agrisilvipastoral and
agrisilvihorticultural system.
Agroforestry plantations can be raised for socio-economic and ecological
considerations. They can be suitably grown for intercropping for enhancing productivity
and conservation of natural resources using monoculture plantations, wind breaks,
riparian filter, permaculture, etc. Bamboos of different heights and growth characters
may be used for integrating them with agriculture crops. The species to be selected for
agroforestry models should have light crowns such as Dendrocalamus, Phyllostachys
and Thyrsostachys species (Banik, 2000). It has been emphasized that basic principles for
model establishment should have clear management objective, suitable management
strategy, positive relationship between the model and environment, and maintain
appropriate control of the compatibility and competition relationship among the
species and full use of resource (Fu Maoyi and Banik, 1996).
3.1. Bamboo Based Agroforestry for Productivity Enhancement

On the basis of experiences from South China, more or less similar to the environment
and bamboo types growing in South Asian countries, Fu Maoyi and Banik (1996)
described bamboo based agroforestry models. Some of the models being practiced in
India and worldwide have been categorized and discussed as under:
3.1.1. Bamboos in homegardens

In homesteads, they are either found mixed with a large number of other tree species or
pure in patches (Krishankutty, 1988). Bamboos in the village homesteads mostly
occupy the backyard and periphery of the holdings and are one of the most important
crop to the farmers. Most of the species in homegardens are usually clump forming,
congested in nature with large, tall branchy culms. Bamboos easily grow as inter- and
under- crop with many trees.
In moist humid zones of north-east India, West Bengal and Odisha, genus Bambusa is
most commonly cultivated. B. balcooa, B. bambos, B. nutans, B. tulda and B. vulgaris are
common bamboos species in the homestead in this part. Crops like siris, aonla, bakain,
banana, beetelnut, coconut, neem and semul are grown in combination with bamboos. It
has been estimated that 15-30 per cent of total plant crown present in homestead in Assam,
Tripura and West Bengal contains bamboos (Banik, 2000). Gangopadhyay (2003)
surveyed the home gardens in 13 sample villages in five districts of M.P. in India and
reported that about 15.13 per cent of families were having D. strictus on their fields. In less
moist to semi-drier parts of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, B.
bambos and D. strictus are commonly cultivated along with
B. balcooa, B. tulda and B. nutans. In cooler parts of north-east region like Tripura,
Meghalaya, Tamenglong (Manipur), some areas of Assam, Arunanchal and north
Bengal, D. hamiltonii is grown naturally in the moist sites. In Himachal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand, D. hamiltonii and B. nutans are grown by farmers in mid hills. Species
like bhimal (Grewia optiva), khirak (Celtis australis), shetoot (Morus alba), kachnar
(Bauhinia variegata) are also found growing with these bamboo species.In tarai region
of Uttarakahnad, Bengali migrants are cultivating B. balcooa, B. nutans, B. tulda and
D. hamiltonii with bael, citrus, kathal, moringa, neem and semul in their homesteads.
At higher altitudes of Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, temperate species like
Drepanostachyum falcatum (ghad ringal), Himalayacalmus falconeri (deo ringal),
Thamanocalamus spathiflorus (thaam ringal), Thamnocalamus jaunsarensis (jamura
ringal) are usually found. In drier parts like Punjab, western Maharastra, drought
tolerant species like B. bambos and D. strictus are cultivated. In Karnatka, Goa, Andhra
Pradesh and western Kerala, Pseudoxytenanthera stocksii is cultivated which is not
found in other parts of India.
3.1.2. Block plantation / agrisilviculture system

In this model, bamboos are planted at a spacing varying from 4 m x 4 m (for small sized
bamboos) to 9 m × 9 m (for large sized species). The interspace is utilized for raising
annual crops. It has been well documented that bamboos and tree species gradually
become more competitive with age and, thus, progressively the crop yield is reduced
(Behari, 2001; Shanmughavel and Francis, 2001; Ahlawat, 2014). Intercropping, with
crops employed in bamboos + trees model, should have a bamboo plant to have 1 m2 in
area to ensure adequate moisture and nutrition supply. Intercropping with bamboos,
however, can be done for a maximum of four years after bamboo planting, after which
there is huge competition for the resources. Bamboo species can be chosen depending
on climatic conditions and soil type of the area. In planting bamboos, full soil
preparation may be employed on plain land. On sloping land, strip preparation leaving
alternate unprepared strips to prevent water and soil erosion is recommended. It is
necessary to place adequate fertilizer in the pits before planting. Under agrisilviculture
system, soya bean, niger, mustard, wheat, urd and arhar and some of the important
intercrops of the initial stages. Raising of shade tolerant crops such as pineapple,
ginger, turmeric, shade tolerant variety of sweet potato, cinnamon, etc. within a stand
of adult bamboo clumps is technically feasible and economically viable (Banik, 1997).
By adopting wider spacing of bamboos and judicious manipulation of bamboos
canopy, the period of intercropping could be extended further. Intercrops can also be
taken by keeping large spacing between lines and less spacing between plants or
within lines of bamboos. In Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh seedlings of B. bambos,
B. nutans and D. strictus, were successfully intercropped with either maize or soya
bean. In Thailand, the bamboo species are also intercropped with maize and peanut. In
Sikkim, farmers grow D. hamiltonii and D. sikkimensis in agriculture fields all along
the irrigation channels and stream banks to meet the fodder needs of their livestock. B.
vulgaris and B. nutans have been grown on homesteads throughout Bangladesh
(Banik, 2000; Banik et al., 2008). B. arundinacea is planted by farmers in depressed
and water logged sites in Andhra Pradesh. Seshadri (1985) concluded that
cultivation of soya bean (Glycine max) along with D. strictus was technically
feasible and economically viable. The period of intercropping can be extended by
adopting wider spacing of the bamboo culms and judicious manipulation of the
bamboo canopy.
3.1.3. Bamboo + conifer + broadleaf timber trees

This model can be established by either converting semi-naturally mixed stands or
planting new ones. The ratio of bamboos to trees is important, and in semi-naturally
mixed stands this may be 7:3 or 8:2 for bamboos and broadleaf trees. The planting
time for bamboos and trees should be determined based on the growth rate of the
tree species involved. The tree species best adapted to bamboo crops are Albizzia
sp., Gmelina arborea, Tectona grandis, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Anogeissus
latifolia, Phyllanthus emblica, Zizyphus xylocarpa, Bombax ceiba,
Stereospermum suaveolans, Melia azedarach, Aegle marmelos, Lannea grandis,
Spondius pinnata, Erythrina indica, eucalypts, poplars, Dalbergia sissoo, etc.,
owing to their peculiar deciduous light crowns. Areca catechu with its narrow
crown is also found to grow satisfactorily together with bamboo clumps. All
species with deep umbrageous crowns like Adina cordifolia, Ficus spp., Mangifera
indica, Artocarpus heterophyllus, Litchi chinensis, etc. should be avoided (Banik,
2000; Banik et al., 2008).
3.1.4. Bamboos + tea model

In this model, bamboos are often planted at spacing of 6 m x 4 m and tea plants at 2 m x
0.5 m. Intercropping of seasonal agriculture crops such as soya bean and vegetables can
be done for one to three years after planting. However, care should be taken to leave
enough space for unhindered growth of bamboos and tea plants.
3.1.5. Bamboo as windbreak

Bamboos can be planted as windbreaks on the boundaries of agriculture field and
orchards for protecting them from high speed wind. The practice is very common
among the farmers in different part of the country. Mango orchards in tarai areas of
Nepal are intercropped with agriculture crops, and the boundaries of orchards are
planted with one or two rows of D. sissoo and D. strictus. In Cooch Behar, Dinajpur,
Haldibari, Mayanaguri and Jalpaiguri areas in India, the clumps of B. balcooa, B.
bambos and B. nutans have been cultivated in close spacing in one to two rows along
the north western sides of rice fields as windbreaks against the dry and cold wind
blowing from Nepal and Bihar (Banik et al., 2008).
3.1.6. Bamboo + Medicinal Plants

The model is suitable for hilly areas in the sub-tropical monsoon climatic zone that has
a mild climate and adequate rainfall. The medicinal plants are chosen to suit the
topography of the site. Shade loving plants of family Araceae and Zingiberaceae can be
selected for intercropping as per the choice of demand and market (Banik, 2000).
Species like Aloe vera, Catharanthus roseus, Cassia angustifolia, Curcuma domestica,
Plantago ovata, Withania somnifera, etc. can tolerate shade and are suitable to grow as
intercrop due to wide adaptability.
3.1.7. Bamboo + crops + fish ponds

This model is usually made on the plain and wetlands where fish ponds are built. One to
three rows of shoot-producing sympodial bamboos may be planted on the banks of
pond, and crops such as soya bean and rye intercropped between bamboo clumps to
form a complete food chain. Crops can be harvested as food of fish feed. Bottom mud
from the ponds may be dug out in winter and used as fertilizer for bamboo clumps. The
clumps of major cultivating bamboo species (B. balcooa, B. mabbosa, B. nutans,
B. vulgaris and D. strictus, etc.) of south Asian countries may be replanted at 20-25
years of age for improving the productivity.
3.1.8. Bamboo + edible fungi

There are a large number of edible fungi (Dictyophora tomentosa, Planrotus ostreatus
and Auricularia auricula-judoe) regarded as natural food rich in vegetable proteins
grown in south China. Inoculation of Dictyophora sp. is done in September for varieties
that grow in normal temperature and in May-June for those that require a higher
temperature. Harvest is after four to eight months, depending on the fungus variety.
P. ostreatus is inoculated in March and harvested two months later.
A. auricula-judoe needs to be cultured in bags filled with the growth medium and hung
on the bamboo (Fu Maoyi and Banik, 1996).
3.1.9. Bamboo + poultry/dairy farm

Bamboos can be used to ameliorate problems associated with the containment of
animal wastes, nitrate concentration and slurry storages during dairy, beef and
poultry operations. Bamboos can tolerate enormous N sources and turn it into
marketable biomass. Bamboos-chicken agroforestry system is a new and common
pattern in the hilly regions of Southern China and has high potential for extension
throughout China. Soil nutrients and earthworm dynamics under this system have
been evaluated and found that soil nutrients were improved but soil organism
indicators were more sensitive than chemical ones. Earthworm quantity and mass
between bamboos-chicken system and only bamboo forest were significant. While
exploring a number of forage crops that hold the potential of supplying forage during
lean period for dairy cattle and goats, bamboos have become a prime candidate as a
perennial forage species making dormant seasons harvest possible. Having high
protein content (12-19%), bamboos are comparable to alfalfa in nutritional value
yet, they do not require intensive cutting, drying and storage processes of an
annual crop.
3.1.10. Bamboo Based Agroforestry Models in India

3.1.10.1. North Zone
In a study conducted at G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,
Pantnagar, cowpea was intercropped for first two years with eight different bamboo
species planted at 5 m x 5 m spacing (GBPUAT, 2010). Results revealed that during
initial two years, maximum height of 12.5 m was attained by B. balcooa followed by
D. hamiltonii. Grain yield was highest in open plots. Yield of cowpea was lowest under
D. hamiltonii in both the years. Under different bamboo species, maximum yield of
cowpea was recorded under D. asper which was closely followed by B. tulda.
Reduction in yield of cowpea under D. hamiltonii can be attributed to fast growth of
this species as compared to others. In third year, the conditions were not favourable for
growing of cowpea due to heavy shade (Table 3.1.10.1.1.; Fig. 3.1.10.1.1.).
In another study conducted at Pantnagar, D. asper grown at 5 m x 5 m spacing was
intercropped with soybean (Fig. 3.1.10.1.2.). The results revealed that soya bean was
successfully taken as intercrop for first three years. The yield of soya bean was highest
(22.7 q ha-1) in first year. In second year, the yield was 17.3 q ha-1and in third year it
Table 3.1.10.1.1. Growth performance of bamboos and cowpea in agrisilviculture system

-1 -1
Species Culm ht (m) No. of culms Diameter (cm) Grain (q ha ) Straw (q ha )
I yr II yr I yr II yr I yr II yr I yr II yr I yr II yr
Bambusa balcooa 6.43 12.5 8.8 6.1 4.56 6.05 9 8.2 14 12.6
B. bambos 2.65 9.5 9.7 6.0 2.67 4.46 8.5 6.5 13.5 10.3
B. nutans 4.43 9.5 10.0 12.3 2.99 3.82 8.2 6.2 12.5 9.3
B. tulda 1.58 3.2 20.3 34.3 1.15 1.11 9.1 7.1 14 10.8
B. vulgaris 2.5 6.5 3.3 5.1 2.05 4.46 10.2 9.2 16 14.2
Dendrocalamus asper 1.37 3.5 21.7 42.1 0.78 1.27 10.8 8.8 16.5 13.4
D. hamiltonii 5.96 11 6.3 11.1 5.02 7.01 7.1 5.1 11 7.9
D. strictus 3.07 8 9.2 18.3 3.18 4.78 8.5 6.5 13.1 10.3
Control - - - - - - 12.8 12.0 20.0 18.1
reduced to 14.3 q ha-1. The succesful intercropping in this species is attributed to slow
growth of D. asper (GBPUAT, 2010).
In north India, cost-benefit analysis of D. strictus plantation at Gual Pahari,
Haryana revealed that this system yielded better economic returns (Rawat et al., 2002).
Studies on production of vermicompost was done at Garhmukteswar, Uttar Pradesh in
D. asper stand planted at 5 m x 5 m spacing. After sixth year, the net production was 370
t yr-1 and 45.9 t yr-1 for vermicompost and bamboo culm with a net revenue of Rs.
251,600 and Rs. 83,667, respectively from 1.6 ha of land. After deduction of total
plantation establishment and maintenance cost (Rs. 192,000), the net profit became Rs.
143,267 after sixth year. The consolidated profit for seventh year onwards was
expected to be Rs. 335,267; i.e., Rs. 83,817 per acre (NMBA, 2006).
In study conducted under mid hill temperate conditions of Himachal Pradesh, two
species, viz., D. hamiltonii and P. pubescens were evaluated for their growth
performance under agroforestry with different medicinal plants during initial stages.
Results revealed that D. hamiltonii exerted superiority in respect of most of traits, viz.,
height (m), diameter (cm), average crown spread, culm dry weight and development of
the clump biomass than P. pubescens. However, the number of tiller formation per
clump was about four times higher in P. pubescens than D. hamiltonii. The
accumulation of the biomass (2.68 t ha-1) was also higher in D. hamiltonii than
P. pubescens (Table 3.1.10.1.2.; Fig. 3.1.10.1.3. and 3.1.10.1.4.).
Yield of tulsi, soya bean, Aloe vera, wheat and pea as intercrop was reduced under different
bamboo species. Rhizome yield of turmeric and ginger, however, were enhanced when
grown in association with the D. hamiltonii and P. pubescens (Table 3.1.10.1.3).
In sub-montane and low hill subtropical conditions of Himachal Pradesh at
Dhaulakuan (Sirmour) and Kangra average yield of tulsi was found to be higher when it
Table 3.1.10.1.2. Survival, growth, development and returns from bamboo species under mid-hill
temperate conditions of Himachal Pradesh
Parameter D. hamiltonii P. pubescens
Survival (%) 100 100
Average height (cm) 1.85 1.60
Average diameter (cm) 2.50 1.20
Average no. of tillers per clump 5.6 20.70
Average crown spread (m2) 4.0 3.25
Average culm dry weight (kg) 2.16 0.85
Average clump weight (kg/clump) 12.09 10.55
Average dry biomass (t ha -1) 2.68 2.34
Average leaf biomass (t ha -1) 0.335 0.351
Average return (leafy fodder + vegetable shoot) 1,578 3,497
was grown in association with bamboo species than under monocropping after four
years of establishment of bamboos. Maximum herbage yield (210 q ha-1 at Jachh and
137 q ha-1at Kangra) of tulsi crop was recorded; when it was grown in association
with D. asper followed by D. hamiltonii and B. vulgaris. In mid hills sub-humid
condition at Solan in Himachal Pradesh, the herbage yield of tulsi was affected
when grown in association with D. asper, B. balcooa, D. strictus and D. hamiltonii,
and in comparison to monoculture.
At Dhaulakuan, maximum rhizome yield of turmeric and ginger was 138.2 q ha-1
and 320 q ha-1, respectively when grown in association with D. asper, closely followed
by D. hamiltonii, B. vulgaris and open plot, respectively. At Kangra, ginger, however,
performed better when intercropped with D. hamiltonii followed by D. strictus,
D. asper and open plot, respectively. In mid-hills sub-humid condition at Nauni,
rhizome yield of turmeric and ginger were better under D. asper. soya bean displayed
better yield performance when grown in association with bamboo species, viz.,
D. asper, D. hamiltonii at all the three locations. At Kangra, maximum soya bean yield
(11.37 q ha-1) was recorded in association with D. asper followed by D. strictus,
D. hamiltonii and open plot. Yield of wheat, pea and Aloe vera declined drastically
when grown as intercrop at all the three locations.
Table 3.1.10.1.3. Yield of intercrops under different bamboo species in mid hill temperate region
Intercrop yield (q ha- 1)
Bamboo Tulsi Turmeric Ginger Soybean Aloe vera Wheat Pea
species
Herbage Rhizome Rhizome Grain Fresh Grain Grain
D. hamiltonii 56.48 291.6 43.00 23.84 822 13.25 14.50
Phyllostachys 68.24 301.6 38.00 21.93 644 12.75 15.50
pubescens
Open plot 80.00 280.0 35.00 24.00 850 14.00 16.34
Fig. 3.1.10.1.1. B. balcooa intercropped with Fig. 3.1.10.1.2. D. asper intercropped with
nd nd
cowpea (2 year). soya bean (2 year).
Fig. 3.1.10.1.3. Bamboo+tulsi. Fig. 3.1.10.1.4. Bamboo+ turmeric.
3.1.10.2. South zone

In an investigation on systematic plantation of bamboos intercropped with mango,
cashew nut, jack fruit, kokum and rubber in the Konkan region of Karnataka, bamboos
were reported to be the most profitable among the crops studied and cashew nut and
mango ranked next to bamboos (Wagh and Rajput, 1991). In Kerala, Jayashankar et al.
(1997) reported B:C ratio >1 (indicating profitability) in B. bambos, Thyrostachys
oliveri and D. strictus when grown in intercropping in Kerala. The high B/C ratio of
bamboos was due to negligible inputs and high farm price. Among the three species, T.
oliveri showed better returns. In similar conditions, Krishnankutty (2004) also reported
B. bambos as profitable crop in mixed homegarden.
In Tamil Nadu, Shamunghavel and Francis (1999) recorded higher annual net
return (Rs. 13,300) when pigeon pea was intercropped with B. bambos in 1:1 rows at 3
m × 3 m spacing (250 plants ha-1) in comparison to 1:2 rows spaced at 2 m × 2 m (500
plants ha-1). In similar conditions, Shanmughavel and Francis (2001) studied
intercropping performance of four crops, viz., pigeon pea, soya bean, ginger and
turmeric with B. bambos and observed intecroping of pigeon pea and soya bean to be
more productive than ginger and turmeric. The LER was 1.2 in the bamboos/pigeonpea
and bamboos/soya bean models, but 1.1 in the bamboos/turmeric and bamboos/ginger
models. The average annual recruitment of bamboo culms was found greatest in pure
stands as compared to intercropped stands.
The feasibility of bamboo (D. brandisii) in abandoned paddy fields in Coorg,

Karnataka revealed that bamboo at 6 m x 6 m spacing when intercropped with ginger
had the highest NPV (net present value) and LEV (land expectation value) which was
attributed to low input costs associated with bamboo farming and higher market value
of the produce over a longer period (Viswanath et al., 2007).
In Dharwad, Karnataka, intercropping studies of D. strictus was done with cotton
at 10 m x10 m and 12 m x10 m spacing. After first year, yield of cotton crop was
reduced significantly under bamboos. It ranged from 8.5 (10 m x10 m spacing) to
11.15 q ha-1 (12 m x10 m spacing) as compared to 15.8 q ha-1 in sole cropping. Results
further revealed that growth parameters of bamboos, viz., height, diameter and
number of new culms were however, significantly reduced under intercropping
(NRCAF, 2014).
3.1.10.3. East Zone
Singh et al. (1992) studied the effect of B. nutans on the yield of some agriculture
crops at mid hills of eastern Himalaya and reported that crops like ginger,
turmeric, large cardamom, orchards grass and dinanath grass (Pennisetum
pedicellatum) can be effectively grown up to a distance of 11-15 m from the
bamboo rows. Rice, finger millet, soya bean, nandi setaria and fine stylo were
suitable crops beyond this distance.
In degraded jhum land of Mizoram, Jha et al. (2004) reported that intercropping of
soya bean with Melocanna baccifera and D. longispathus is feasible and gave better
results than pure bamboo stands. Jha and Lalnunmawia (2003) reported that
intercropping ginger under three fertilized edible clump forming bamboos was
beneficial for both the components under degraded soil condition of NE India. In
North-East India, Singh (2002) suggested cultivation of bamboo along water springs
as an agroforestry intervention for enhancing farmers' income.
Bamboos based agroforestry system for red and laterite zone of West Bengal
involving two bamboo species (B. balcooa and B. tulda) was studied by Banerjee et al.
(2009). Results revealed that agricultural crops like paddy (upland), groundnut,
cowpea, okra, bottle gourd, pigeon pea, turmeric, elephant foot yam and colocasia
were found to be successfully grown as intercrop at wide spacing of 12 m x 10 m and
10 m x 10 m. Growth attributes of bamboo plants, irrespective of species and spacing,
were significantly higher when grown with intercrops than sole plantation. No
significant difference was observed when planted at closer and wider spacing. Further,
they reported that the yield of all intercrops was higher in wider spacing (12 m × 10 m)
as compared to closer spacing (10 m × 10 m) which is attributed to the fact that wider
distance between two bamboo plants results into better utilization of sunlight, space,
moisture and nutrients by the intercrops with minimum competition among them and
between agricultural crops.
In Jharkhand, Sinha (2010) conducted intercropping study of five-year-old

D. asper plantation spaced at 5 m x 5 m with potato, tomato and pea during the rabi
season and with ginger during the kharif season. The monoculture of bamboos and
vegetables was also carried out to compare the yield data. Results revealed that in
general, the yield of all crops, with the exception of pea, decreased when cultivated in a
bamboo plantation as compared to the data from the monoculture plantation. The
reduction in yield was attributed to increased competition for growth resources like
sunlight, moisture and nutrients in bamboo plot. Growth of bamboos intercropped with
vegetables was better than the monoculture of bamboos and on the average, an
additional three culms per clump emerged from intercropping of bamboos and
vegetables. It was concluded that growing of vegetables with D. asper would increase
productivity of the plantation or farm and provide additional income to farmers. The
study also stressed on exploring the allelopathic effect of D. asper with the other crops
which results in reduced yield.
In rainfed upland conditions of Odisha, studies on bamboo (D. strictus) based
agroforestry systems were carried at two different spacings, viz., 10 m x 10 m and 12 m
x 10 m. Bamboo + blackgram was found best agroforestry system followed by bamboo
+ greengram, bamboo + sesame and bamboo + cowpea under 10 m x 10 m spacing. The
number of new culms ha-1 in agroforestry ranged from 872 - 894 at 10 m x 10 m while
746 - 776 at 12 m x 10 m spacing. In pure bamboo plantation, it was 700 and 588 ha-1 at
10 m x 10 m and 12 m x 10 m spacing, respectively. The root intensity of bamboos with
different crops was higher over the bamboo grown as pure. The root intensity of
bamboos was found to be 330 m-2 at 1m distance while, it was 20 m-2 at 4m distance from
the clump. It decreased with increase of distance from clump and increase of soil depth.
Maximum rooting intensity was observed at 10-15 cm depth of soil. It was also
concluded that intercrops should not be raised within 0.5m radius of the bamboo
clumps because it not only results in a negligible or no yield of intercrop, but also may
affect the root system of the clump (NRCAF, 2014).
In Sonitpur (Assam), different intercrops, viz., mustard, sesame, ginger, soya
bean, French bean, papaya, banana, pigeon pea, tea, citronella, vetiver and lemon grass
were evaluated under different bamboo species, viz., B. balcooa, B. nutans, B. tulda
and D. hamiltonii. Yield performance of the intercops revealed that there was
significant decrease in three years average yield of all intercrops over control. The
reduction was comparatively less in ginger, turmeric, tea and lemon grass. The first
year results indicated that all crops including field and horticulture crops can be
successfully grown without any significant difference from the control. C:B ratio was
highest in papaya (7.69) followed by banana (6.56). It was also reported that
ginger+bamboos system can provide annual income of Rs. 448,060 upto 4th year as
compared to Rs. 101,800 from sole bamboo crop (Sharma, 2012). Intercropping
studies were undertaken in Kahikuchi (Assam), with B. balcooa and B. tulda were
undertaken for intercropping studies. B. tulda was grown at 10 m x 10 m while B.
balcooa was grown at 12 m x10 m spacing. Three intercrops, viz., banana, pinapple and
turmeric were grown as intercrops. Results revealed that pineapple as intercrop with B.
tulda registered fruit yield of 63 q ha-1 while with B. balcooa, fruit yield was only 10.7 q
ha-1 because of less flowering. Fruit yield was maximum (60.2 q ha-1) in pineapple at 4.0 m
away from the base of B. tulda. Similar results were observed in B. balcooa. Banana as
intercrop in B. tulda and recorded fruit yield of 16.0 q ha-1 while in B. balcooa, fruit yield
was 15.4 q ha-1. Turmeric as intercrop yielded 77.0 q ha-1 and 222.8 q ha-1 with B. balcooa
and B. tulda, respectively. There was no significant difference among the treatment in respect
of soil nutrient builds up after three years of experimentation both in B. balcooa and B. tulda.
However, the lowest amount of organic carbon and available N were recorded in the soil
under sole bamboos (NRCAF, 2014).
3.1.10.4. Central and West Zone
Tiwari (2001) conducted a study to determine the financial feasibility of bamboos
based agroforestry system in Kheda district of Gujarat (India) using seven
management models. Results indicated that the profitability of bamboo was very high
and that the crop was financially feasible even at very high discount rate. In a study
conducted at JNKVV, Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh), B. arundinacea and D. strictus
were intercropped with green gram, soya bean, paddy and sesame. Different
intercrops showed no significant effect on morphological growth of bamboos upto 30
month age. Results further revealed that yield of intercrops were more in open
condition as compared to when grown with bamboos. The reduction was marginal
(3.68-7.73 %) during first year, moderate (14.9-19.5%) in second year and severe
(17.5-47.8%) in the third year which was mainly attributed to shade. The area
occupied by bamboo plants in first to third year increased from 5 to 60 per cent,
respectively (JNKVV, 2014). In another study in similar condition, B. arundinacea and
D. strictus were grown with grasses, viz., Pennisetum purpureum, Panicum maximum,
Cenchrus ciliaris and Dicanthum annulatum for three years. During the first year in the
first cutting P. maximum recorded significantly higher yield. In the second year, P.
purpureum recorded significantly higher green fodder (450.8 t ha-1) followed by P.
maximum (271.1 ha-1) and C. ciliaris (150.6 t ha-1). The lowest yield was recorded in D.
annulatum (110.3 t ha-1). In the third year, P. purpureum recorded significantly higher
yield in first cutting (32. 49 t ha-1) and second cutting (7.30 t ha-1) closely followed by P.
maximum and C. ciliaris. D. annulatum recorded significantly lower yield in both, first
cutting (5.9 t ha-1) and second cutting (2.36 t ha-1) (JNKVV, 2014).
In Dapoli, Maharastra, Pseudoxytenanthera stocksii was planted in two spacings
(10 m x 10 m and 12 m x 10 m) with two different agricultural systems. In first system,
finger millet was cultivated in kharif followed by cowpea in rabi. In second system,
only sweet potato was intercropped with bamboos in kharif. After two years, bamboo
showed luxuriant growth when intercropped with agricultural crops. After two years,
more number of new culms emerged from the bamboo intercropped with finger
millet/cow pea (7), followed by sweet potato (5) and without intercrop (3). Growth
parameters, viz., culm basal diameter, culm height, internode length, however, did not
vary among the various bamboos-agricultural crop combinations. Yield of finger millet
ranged from 7.4 - 10.0 q ha-1 when intercropped with bamboo whereas in sole cropping
the yield was 14.2 q ha-1. The yield of sweet potato under bamboo ranged from
5.8- 6.5q ha-1 where as in sole cropping the yield was 6.7 q ha-1 (NRCAF, 2014).
At Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh, intercropping of black gram and wheat was found
to have a favourable effect on the growth of D. strictus (6 m x 4 m spacing) and
B. nutans (6 m x 5 m spacing). Yield of wheat ranged from 14.9-17.3 q ha-1 under
bamboo in 4th year as compared to 22.5 q ha-1 in control plots. Further, it was observed
that pruning treatment yielded more number of harvestable bamboo culms and
enhanced yield of wheat (TFRI, 2014).
Intercropping studies were conducted in Raipur (Chhattisgarh) with B. bambos
and D. strictus (Naugraiya, 2014). In kharif, rice and soya bean while, in rabi wheat,
mustard and linseed crops were grown at 8 m x 3 m spacing in 2009-10 and at 8 m x 6 m
in 2010-11 and 2011-12 . Spice crop of turmeric was also taken on the bund between the
bamboo clumps. The results obtained are given in Table 3.1.10.4.1. which indicates the
feasibility of growing agriculture crops below bamboos during initial years.
Under similar condition, the production of pasture crop under bamboo based
silvipasture system (at 10 m x 5 m spacing) was recorded maximum with B. nutans
(134.6q ha-1) followed by B. vulgaris (126.1 q ha-1) and minimum under B. bambos
(93.7q ha-1) during third year (Naugraiya, 2014).
Ahlawat (2014) studied the economic viability of bamboo (D. strictus) based
agroforestry system during 2007-2010 in semi-arid region of central India. The growth
Table 3.1.10.4.1. Grain yield in different crops under bamboo based agroforestry
Crops 2009-10 (8 m x 3 m) 2010-11 (8 m x 6 m) 2011-12 (8 m x 6 m)
Open Under Bamboo Open Under Bamboo Open Under
Bamboo
Wheat 21.47 10.59 15.95 10.17 18.83 6.74
Mustard 9.93 2.42 3.66 2.37 3.46 1.79
Linseed 7.9 2.14 2.18 2.03 2.91 2.87
Rice - - 40.52 29.76 31.58 25.01
Soya bean - - 58.05 42.97 69.06 51.9
Turmeric 127.29 135.53 137.39 133.82
Source: Naugraiya, 2014.
and quality of D. strictus, planted at 10 m × 10 m and 12 m × 10 m spacing, did not vary

significantly either grown as sole or with intercrops. However, total culms were higher
in sole bamboo and growth of bamboo was better in 10 m × 10 m spacing. Reduction in
grain yield of sesame was 9.2, 20.2, 19.8 per cent and in chickpea was 4.5, 6.9, 8.2 per
cent over that of sole crop after one, two and three years of plantation, respectively.
Maximum reduction in intercrop yield was recorded nearby (0.5 m distance) of
bamboo clumps, while there was no reduction in crop yield at ≥3 m distance from
bamboo clump. The economics of the bamboo based system indicated that during
initial three years, benefit-cost ratio (B:C ratio) of chickpea intercrop varied from
2.05-2.86 as compared to B:C ratio (2.13-3.60) of sole crop. The B:C ratios of sesame
intercrop varied from 1.14-1.95 as compared to B:C ratio 1.43-2.43 of sole crop. Soil
pH, organic carbon and available phosphorus increased, while EC decreased in sole
bamboo and intercropped area. Maximum improvement in soil quality was under sole
bamboo.
Rahangdale et al. (2014) conducted intercropping study in three years old
plantation of B. arundinacea and D. strictus planted at a spacing of 5 m x 5 m during
rainy season. Four different intercrops, viz., green gram (TM-99-37), soya bean (JS-
335), paddy (JR-201) and sesame (TKG 21) were sown under bamboo and in open
plots. Result revealed nonsignificant differences among the bamboo species. Growth
and yield attributing characters of different intercrops were found highest in the open
condition as compared to bamboo based agrisilviculture system. Among the different
intercrops, soya bean showed highest yield reduction (67.9 and 49.2%) in the
magnitude for grain and straw followed by green gram (61.1 and 47.2%), sesame (50.6
and 39.7%) and paddy (36.5 and 19.8%). The economic analysis of the system further
revealed that the economic feasibility of bamboo based agrisilviculture system (Rs.
21,029 ha-1) as it gave higher monetary return as compared to sole crop (Rs. 9,801 ha-1).
Growing of green gram with bamboo species gave significantly higher net monetary
return (Rs. 27,736 ha-1) but at par with sesame (Rs. 23,365 ha-1) and was found
significantly superior to paddy (Rs. 19,693 ha-1) and soya bean (Rs. 13,322 ha-1) under
bamboo based agrisilviculture system.
3.2. Bamboo Based Agroforestry for Resource Conservation

3.2.1. Controlling erosion
Bamboos can reduce erosivity of rainfall/runoff and erodibility of soil through
dissipation of rainfall energy by canopy, surface litter, obstructing overland flow and
root binding. Bamboo protects riverbanks by arresting strong currents during flood
periods by their extensive fibrous root system. Bamboos have an interlocking rhizome
system and extensive fine fibrous root system which ramifies horizontally and
vertically binding the soil particles together (Sujatha et al., 2008).
On account of extensive shallow root system and accumulation of leaf mulch,

bamboo stands are effective for the control of soil erosion, stream bank protection,
reinforcement of embankments and drainage channels, etc. Bamboo grows well on
steep hillsides, road embankments, gullies and on the banks of ponds and streams.
Sharp curves in rivers can be protected with a revetment of bamboos culm cuttings and
further reinforced with clumps of bamboos planted behind the revetment (White and
Childers, 1945). A study estimated that a single bamboo plant can bind up to 6 m3 of soil
(HD, 1997) while in Jiulongjang and Dayingjang Rivers in China it was found that each
clump could protect 12 m of river embankment besides yielding shoots and bamboo
timber (Fu Maoyi and Banik, 1996). The root of B. tulda, were found to extend horizontally to
a distance of 5.2 m (White and Childers, 1945). For monopodial species, the total length of
living rhizome per hectare of P. heterocycla, P. viridis and P. nigra ranged from 50 to 170, 90
to 250 and 200 to 320 km, respectively (Xiao, 2002; Zhou, 2005).
Bamboo's efficacy as a soil binder was successfully used in Puerto Rico.
B. vulgaris planted at certain strategic points along the course of river was effective in
checking the erosion problem forever. In China, bamboos were found effective in
protecting riverbanks after soil-rock engineering efforts, while planting of other trees
failed to protect the river banks (Banik, 2010). Bamboos were also found effective in
controlling landslide in Puerto Rico.
In India, bamboos have been tested for protecting severely eroded gullies of ravine
class VI and VII lands with promising production potential (Dhruva Narayana, 1993).
Some species of Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, and Melocanna baccifera are usually
planted on the lands susceptible to floods and along riverbanks for embankment
protection near the villages in Eastern India. During 2003 to 2004, a demonstration
plantation had been raised from the seeds of M. baccifera on hill slopes for controlling
erosion (Banik, 2010). For checking soil erosion, bamboos should be grown at close
spacing (Banik, 2000). Biological live check dams can stabilize the eroded lands. On
slopes, bamboo rhizomes tend to develop uphill side thus, stabilizing them.
3.2.2. Rainwater retention and soil moisture conservation

Bamboos, due to evergreen nature, dense foliage and large culms, can intercept more
rainfall as compared to any tree species, thereby, checking the velocity of the rain drops
and soil erosion. The high stem flow and funnelling ratio of bamboo plants in
comparison to deciduous and coniferous plants make them better rainfall absorbent and
hydrologically best suited plantation. Rao et al. (2012) reported that in D. strictus,
throughfall varied from 43 to 72 per cent, stem flow varied from 7 to 22 per cent and
interception losses varied from 12 to 50 per cent of the rainfall.
Bamboos take care of both excess water due to high intensity rainfall and lack of
water due to extended drought periods through addition of soil organic matter by litter
decomposition which helps in absorbing higher amount of water without causing

surface run off and improving water absorption capacity during extended drought. The
litterfall amount varies with the composition of the mixed forest, the stand density and
human activity. Litter in bamboos in India varies from 4.2-11.2 t ha-1 yr-1 (Tripathi and
Singh, 1994; Shanmughavel and Francis, 1996). The litter of bamboo stand has the
capacity to absorb the moisture 2.7-2.9 times of its dry weight (Zhou et al., 2005). A
study in China proved that temperate bamboos and leaf litter can intercept 25 per
cent rainfall and the leaf litter up to 0.7 mm of rainfall, which is much higher than
other conifer and broadleaf tree species (Banik, 2010). Shading by bamboo canopy
reduces evapo-transpiration and helps in conserving soil moisture. Bamboo stands
also filter gravel and coarse sediment (Gupta, 1979) and the water infiltration is
enhanced because of their dense rooting system (Sujatha et al., 2008). Further,
larger quantity of culm stumps, dead rhizomes and roots remain in bamboo forests
after felling, leaving lots of non-capillary pore which can retain large amount of
moisture.
3.2.3. Maintenance of soil health

The ability of bamboos to grow in a wide variety of soils, from marginal to semi-arid,
makes them perfect for soil rehabilitation (Nath et al., 2009). Due to high biomass
accumulation and abundant litterfall, bamboos help in maintaining and improving the
soil physical, chemical and biological properties. Bamboos have high silica, rich litter
production of leaves and twigs which slowly decomposes returning substantial
amounts of N, K, Mg, Ca and P (Shanmughavel et al., 2000). The high fine root content
helps in recovering most of the nutrients leached deeper in the soil profile (Christanty
et al., 1996). Improvements are also reflected through lower bulk density, lower
surface resistance to penetration, increased porosity, higher rain water infiltration and
greater aggregate stability. Canopy shade also alters soil conditions to promote
microbial activity and the rate of soil mineralization (Arunachalam and Arunachalam,
2002). The changes/improvements in soils are, however, species-specific and
dependent on size and age of the clump and site conditions. Singh and Singh (1999)
reported that D. strictus plantation has an efficient restoration potential and positive
rehabilitation effect on mine spoil land in a dry tropical region in India. It is also seen
that bamboo based agroforestry models improve ecological parameters of a highly
degraded basaltic tract of Jabalpur. In addition, bamboo based agroforestry system
also increases the biodiversity under its habitat (Behari et al., 2000).
Singh et al. (1992) studied the impact of 25-30 years old B. nutans clump raised in
agrisilviculture system on chemical properties of soil. He found that available
phosphorus (P) increased whereas exchangeable K and Ca, Mg decreased with
increased distance from the bamboos row; soil pH and soil organic matter did not vary
with distance. Patil et al. (2004) analyzed the effect of bamboo based agroforestry on
soil profile and surface soil properties and reported that organic carbon content of
these soils ranged from 0.43 to 0.72 per cent. Soil profile investigation showed that all
of nutrients increased in bamboo based agroforestry site. The organic carbon content
of these soils increased from 0.37 to 0.58 per cent and 0.63 per cent to 0.99 per cent,
respectively.
3.2.4. Bamboos for microclimatic amelioration

Bamboos bring microclimate changes under their canopies by providing shade which
prevents the soil to become too dry and help in maintaining microclimate. Shade helps
in reducing soil and air temperature, solar radiation and wind speed which directly
influence the soil water evaporation and humidity. Study conducted by Arunachalam
and Arunachalam (2002) revealed that air and soil temperature were significantly
reduced and relative humidity was significantly higher under bamboos (Table 3.2.4.1.)
as compared to grasslands.
Nauguriya (2014) studied different microclimatic parameters under bamboos. At 8
m x 3 m spacing, the reduction in intensity of PAR under bamboo was minimum 7.47
per cent during end of September, but at the starting of rainy season (July to August) the
reduction ranged from 20.3 to 34.4 per cent, While during winter, reduction ranged
25.8 to 48.9 per cent (October to February). At 8 m x 6 m spacing, the reduction in
intensity of PAR under bamboo was minimum 11.7 per cent during end of 15th July, but
at the starting of rainy season (June to September) the reduction ranged from 27.8 to
33.4 per cent. While during winter, reduction ranged from 50.4 to 60.4 per cent
(October to February). Air temperature in open area up to 2 m height from the ground
was recorded in range of 24.9 to 43.03oC and it was recorded 18.2 to 40.9oC
under bamboo plantation (8 m x 3 m spacing). Variations in the relative humidity
between open field and bamboo plantation ranged from 3.34 to 9.5 per cent (September
to March). The highest variation was seen during the day hour's observations in
summer (21.29%).
Table 3.2.4.1. Microclimatic variability under different species

Species Air Relative Light Soil
temperature humidity (%) intensity (lx) temperature
(°C) (°C)
B. arundinacea 26 54 690.0 19
B. nutans 25 57 1,680.0 22
D. hamiltonii 25 55 2,620.0 20
Grassland 28 47 2,800.0 24
LSD at 0.05 level 1.2 3.7 841.4 1.9
Source: Arunachalam and Arunachalam (2002).
4. Constraints Related to Bamboo Based Agroforestry

Bamboo, being perennial grass, has higher root length densities than the dicots,
thereby, making them more competitive when grown in association with field crops in
agroforestry. Further, due to fast growth, bamboos close their canopy relatively in
less time as compared to other tree species and competes heavily with the intercrops
for light. Thus, before going for intercropping in bamboos, resource competition
needs to be given top priority. Resource competition in bamboos-based agroforestry
system can be checked by giving due consideration to the plant population and
geometry of planting. Root management practices like trenching can also be helpful
in reducing the below ground competition. In no case, bamboos should be grown at
close spacing, if intercropping need to be done. For agroforestry, bamboos should
be planted 8-9 m away. Trenching (30-40 cm wide and 50-60 cm deep) should be
done in case of boundary plantation, so that, new culm should not pass to the nearby
fields. Bamboo root competitiveness is usually a function of its rooting intensity with
crown radius. Larger clumps have wider foraging zones usually extending to about 8
to 9 m. Therefore, canopy reduction treatments such as pruning and culm thinning are
appropriate to surmount inter-specific competition. Pruning up to a height of 1.5 m
above the ground is recommended in plantations of 4 yr and above. Removal of dry
and dead culms from the centre of the clump to reduce congestion is also
recommended. For successful integration of bamboos in the cropping system, there is an
urgent need for screening the species of bamboo which are high yielding. The soil-
plant-water interaction in the bamboos based agroforestry also needs to be studied for
reducing competition. The SWOT analysis of bamboo based agroforestry is given in
Fig. 4.1.
Strength Weakness
 High diversity  Limited choice of species
 Ease to grow  Limited supply of raw material
 Large area under bamboo  Non-conventional in agroforestry
 High demand of bamboo products  Limited/poor market linkages
 Low production cost  High resource completion with intercrops
 Strong indigenous knowledge associated  Lack of genuine planting material
with growing bamboo
Opportunities Threats
 Diverse agroclimatic condition
 Diverse range of products and
markets
 Demand in local as well as
international market
 Sustainable land use systems
 Large chunk of degraded area/community
Forests
 Support from Ministry of Agriculture
Fig. 4.1. SWOT analysis of bamboo based agroforestry.
5. Conclusion
Bamboo based agroforestry systems have wide scope to be integrated on farm lands,
homesteads, degraded lands, riparian filter, etc. They can help in augmenting the income
of farmers besides conserving the resources efficiently. The systems, however, are not
popular due to huge above ground competition with the intercrops. The competition,
therefore, needs to be reduced by making suitable choice of species, adopting wider
spacing or using canopy management practices. Interactions in bamboo based
agroforestry also need to be studied to scale up bamboo cultivation in the country.
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14 Bamboo Fibres in Textile
Applications
Abhijit Majumdar and
Sanchi Arora
1. Introduction
Plant fibres have always been contributing explicitly to the economic prosperity and
sustainability in our lives as they have application in almost every item used in our
daily routine. Of late, there have been increasing demands for even more comfortable
and eco-friendly products, and to satisfy them, researchers in the arena of textiles have
been focussing on the renewable and biodegradable sources and environment-friendly
processes. Among the natural fibre plants, bamboo is by far the most popular, owing to
its versatile applications and for its significant contribution to the environment against
negligible intake for its propagation.
Bamboos are the member of a group of woody perennials evergreen to deciduous
plants of the true grass family Poaceae, which is a subfamily of Bambusoideae, from the
tribe Bambuseae. The total population of bamboos in the world is represented by 80-90
genera and about 1,000-1,500 species. India occupies the largest area and is the second
largest reserve of bamboos in the world. For textile applications, bamboo fibres are
mostly produced from the tallest bamboo species Phyllostachys edulis which is more
popularly known as 'Moso'. Also, bamboo being one of the high yielding sources of
cellulose, regenerated bamboo viscose fibres too have conquered the market. This has
happened mainly due to their claimed antibacterial nature, biodegradable properties,
high moisture absorption capacity, soft smooth feel and UV protective capability.
Currently, regenerated bamboo fibres are used in apparels (undergarments, sports
textiles, t-shirts and socks), hygienic products (sanitary napkins, absorbing pads, masks,
bandages and surgical gowns), ultraviolet protective clothing, home furnishing textiles,
food packaging bags, etc. Due to such unique combination of outstanding and diverse
functional properties, bamboo has been attracting much attention from the academia
and the industry. Although, the manufacturers and marketers emphasize on the
286 Abhijit Majumdar and Sanchi Arora
demonstration of exquisite properties by the bamboo products, these claims are

sometimes viewed with a bit of suspicion and require validation via research.
2. Extraction of Bamboo Fibre

The characteristics displayed by the bamboo products primarily rely on whether the
bamboo fibre is of natural origin or a regenerated variety. Broadly speaking, there are
two main modes of effective utilization of bamboos in the textile industry (Yueping et
al., 2010):
a) Producing natural (bast) fibre via physical and chemical treatment
b) Spinning regenerated (pulp) fibre via retting bamboo plant into pulp
The former method gives bundles of original or pure bamboo fibres of 2 mm staple
length, whereas the latter gives bamboo viscose filaments (also called regenerated
bamboo cellulose) which could be further converted to staple fibres, if required. For the
extraction of fibres from bamboo culm, both the processes commence with the splitting
of bamboo strips picked directly from the bamboo clump, so as to remove the
diaphragm and node. Further, the remaining hollow portions of the stalks are taken for
either mechanical processing or chemical processing, depending upon the end
applications (Phong et al., 2012).
2.1. Mechanical Route of Bamboo Fibre Production

The initially cut and crushed woody parts of the bamboo are treated with natural
enzymes that break the bamboo into a soft, mushy and spongy mass. Subsequently, the
natural fibres can be combed out mechanically to get individual fibres, followed by
spinning yarn out of them. The fabric manufactured via this process is often termed as
bamboo linen (Erdumlu and Ozipek, 2008; Kaur et al., 2013).
Mechanical extraction also involves procedures like steam explosion or heat
steaming, high pressure refinery, crushing and super grinding, etc. (Kim et al., 2013).
Zakikhani et al. (2014) have summarised the pros and cons associated with various
methods of extraction of bamboo fibres. Apart from the difference in the technique
adopted for extraction, the mechanical processes are classified on the basis of fibre
quality as well. Yao and Zhang (2011) have reported that fibres obtained are rough in
texture if the sequence of operations is cutting, separation, boiling and fermentation
with enzymes. On the other hand, to obtain fine fibres, one should opt for the sequence:
boiling, fermentation, washing and bleaching, oil-soaking and air-drying. In
contradiction to chemical methods, the mechanical methods of bamboo fibre extraction
are environment friendly and less time consuming as well (Khalil et al., 2012). On the
other hand, mechanical methods, being more labour intensive and expensive, are less
preferred by the clothing sector (Das, 2014).
Bamboo Fibres in Textile Applications 287
2.2. Chemical Route of Bamboo Fibre Production

When it is required to have a regenerated bamboo viscose fibre for the end-use
application, the moso bamboo stalks ought to be freed from lignin and hemicellulose.
Several techniques like acid or alkaline pre-treatment, wet oxidation, steam pre-
treatment, ammonia fibre explosion have been explored by various researchers (Hong
et al., 2013). The basic idea is to cook the leaves and woody shoots of the bamboo plant
in these strong chemical solvents and then perform alkaline hydrolysis combined with
multi-phase bleaching. The process is like conventional viscose manufacturing
process; and even the product obtained is similar to rayon or modal. This regenerated
cellulosic form of bamboo was first introduced by Hebei Jigao Chemical Fibre Co.
Ltd, China in 2002, though its origin dates back to 1864 when it was patented by
Lichtenstadt (Waite, 2009). The details of the most common process sequence are
depicted through a flow chart in Fig. 2.2.1.
To produce regenerated bamboo or bamboo viscose fibre, the leaves and inner
pith of hard bamboo tree trunk are extracted, crushed and soaked in sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) solution. The alkali cellulose which is generated in the process is pressed to
squeeze out the excess solution, followed by shredding it so as to create more surface
area for easy processing of cellulose. Thereafter, the shredded cellulose is kept in open
to let it dry in the presence of ambient oxygen. Subsequently, carbon disulphide is
added to the cellulose to cause gelling; and the excess of it is removed via evaporation.
Later, it is ripened, filtered, degassed and finally, the bamboo viscose is wet-spun, i.e.,
forced through spinneret nozzles into dilute sulphuric acid solution, wherein the
Fig. 2.2.1. Process sequence of alkaline hydrolysis-multiple phase bleaching mode of

bamboo fibre extraction.
cellulose sodium xanthate gets hardened and is reconverted to bamboo viscose

filaments. In other words, sulphuric acid (H2SO4) behaves like a quenching solution
allowing the strands to solidify into fibre and hence capable of being spun into a yarn
(Erdumlu and Ozipek, 2008).
Researchers have conducted a number of studies to determine the best mode of
retting, i.e., acid retting or alkali retting or chemical assisted natural (CAN) retting
(Kaur et al., 2013), where the CAN retting route has been found to be most efficient for
the pre-treatment of bamboo cellulose for its wet spinning. Studies on the optimisation
of process parameters, so as to yield a fibre of desired characteristics, have also been
documented (Hong et al., 2013; Zakikhani et al., 2014).
Often, concerns are raised on the eco-friendliness of the chemical route of bamboo
viscose fibre production. Carbon disulphide is known to be toxic, consequently posing
a threat to factory workers, as well as polluting the environment via air emissions and
wastewater. Its recovery in most industries is about 50 per cent only. Also, sodium
hydroxide and sulphuric acid too fall under the category of potentially hazardous
chemicals (Copeland, 2010). One remedy is to opt for a process similar to lyocell
process used for the manufacturing of Tencel. Here, N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide
(NMMO) is used as a solvent and the hardening bath is generally water-methanol
solution, both being non-toxic. Also, the process being closed-loop, 99.5 per cent of the
chemicals used are recycled for re-usage, emitting only fractional traces into the
environment (Das, 2014).
However, the outburst of bamboo fabric in the market has occurred on the basis of
false eco-claims of bamboo being environment-friendly alternative to cotton, silk
and polyester. Customers were wooed by spreading manipulated information about
bamboo viscose fabric. Moreover, the soft touch and silk-like drape lured the
customers who were unaware of the usage of toxic chemicals for processing of tough
cellulose bamboo plant into soft fibres. Considering these facts, the US Federal
Trade Commission (FTC) imposed stringent guidelines for the manufacturers: a
product cannot be labelled as bamboo unless it is made from mechanically
processed bamboo. It ought to be termed as 'bamboo viscose' or 'bamboo rayon' in
case it is made out of cellulose regenerated from bamboo stalks (Federal Trade
Commission, 2009).
2.3. Combination of Mechanical and Chemical Routes

This procedure is more common in paper and pulp industry in comparison to textile
industry. Chemical treatment of bamboo strips is followed by either compression
moulding or roller milling. The combination of both mechanical and chemical
treatments results in better separation of fibres (Zakikhani et al., 2014).
2.4. Biological Approach to Bamboo Fibre Extraction

Generally, chemical method is most common one for the production of bamboo fibres.
However, the processes involved are expensive and cause negative impacts on the
environment and human health which calls for an improvement through closed-loop
manufacturing strategies, better equipment, and usage of eco-friendly compounds to
extract fibres. Hence, alternative green technologies for fibre recovery from bamboo
have come into picture (Fu et al., 2011).
Various biological approaches for the production of macro-, micro- and nano-
sized fibres from raw bamboo have been reported (Liu et al., 2012). Indigenous
complex bacterial communities are used for the production of enzymes like
hemicellulases, pectinases, oxidoreductases, etc. in order to extract fibres from the
bast. They separate the cellulosic fibre bundles from the matrix (Fig. 2.4.1.) and affect
the quality and the yield of the fibre. Fu et al. (2012) have verified that bio-retting of
bamboo is a very gentle pre-treatment process and yet as effective as other
conventional techniques.
Fig. 2.4.1. Morphological changes of bamboo culms during the retting process. (a) Initial
stage - bamboo is intact, (b) bamboo fibre loosening and de-pilling and (c) fibres
separating from each other and falling into the lumen of the culm.
Source: Fu et al., 2011.
3. Properties of Bamboo Fibres and Their Products

The properties of the bamboo fibres are inconsistent with respect to time owing to the
decrease in their cellulose content with aging (Khalil et al., 2012). Moreover, the
method of extraction of fibre plays a significant role in defining the characteristics of
the end-product. Since the manufacturing of bamboo pulp fibre follows a technique
similar to that of viscose production, it is quite easy to predict the structure and
properties of the same. Also, the chemical techniques involve cheap equipment, low
energy consumption and an easy control over fibre properties when compared to steam
explosion and mechanical methods of processing (Phong et al., 2012). Further,
different methods have different potential to remove lignin which contributes to
stiffness and yellowing of bamboo fibres. Simultaneously, the non-cellulosic
components too affect fibre properties like strength, density, moisture absorbency,
flexibility, etc. (Li et al., 2010). The fabric woven out of mechanically extracted fibres
have a rough and stiff feel, whereas, the one woven out of viscose-type chemical
process possesses a very soft handle and good drape. Another difference is reflected in
terms of strength and durability which is higher in case of mechanically processed
fibres. These differences can be attributed to the alteration in physical form of the fibre
during chemical processing which leads to the modification of molecular orientation
within the fibre, and also its degree of polymerization. Hence, even though the bamboo
viscose fibre is essentially same in chemical nature as its raw form, the yarns and
fabrics manufactured out of both behave differently.
3.1. Studies Related to Pure/Virgin Bamboo Fibres

Natural bamboo fibres are similar to ramie fibres, but finer and shorter. The length of
individual natural bamboo fibre varies between 1 mm to 5 mm (average 2.8 mm) and
diameter 14 μm to 27 μm (average 20 μm); 10-20 individual fibres are packed into
bundles. As evident from the low magnitude of fibre length, several problems are
associated with their processing. Hence, these are mostly used as technical fibres for
manufacturing nonwovens. They have a rough surface and a round cross-section with a
small round lumen. The chemical structure of bamboo fibres comprises 57 to 63 per
cent cellulose (36 to 41% α-cellulose), 22 to 26 per cent lignins and 16 to 21 per cent
penthosans (Lipp-Symonowicz et al., 2011). Several researchers have tried to
investigate the properties of pure bamboo fibres and the fabrics made out of them. Tao
and Jiang (2011) analysed various features of bamboo fibres like fibre length and
distribution, linear density, cross-section, degree of crystallisation, orientation,
breaking strength, breaking elongation in dry and wet state, etc. Yang et al. (2006)
investigated the change in strength, elongation and initial modulus with respect to
temperature and time for natural bamboo fibres and bamboo pulp fibres.
Owing to its hollow cross section, bamboo fibre imparts breathability to the fabrics
made out of it, making them cool and comfortable to wear. Also, such fabrics possess
high hygroscopicity and are, hence, easy to dye and finish (Yao and Zhang, 2011). The
fibre form of bamboo retains many of the properties it possessed in the plant form.
One of the most important of such properties is hygroscopicity to the level of
absorbing three times its weight of water. This is due to presence of micro-gaps and
micro-holes in the fibre which, in turn, imparts excellent wicking ability to the fabric
such that moisture is instantly pulled away from the skin and soon evaporated, giving
a cooling sensation (Xu et al., 2007). Owing to the large amount of micro-cracks and
grooves on the fibre surface, the fabrics have high breathability and thermo
regulating properties, even higher than those made out of cotton and hemp. Also,
they are believed to exhibit lower shrinkage, higher sorption of dyes, better colour
clarity, more wrinkle resistance and better lustre without mercerization in comparison
to cotton fabrics (Sheikh, 2013).
Wang et al. (2009) evaluated the performance of a fabric manufactured out of a
mechanically extracted bamboo fibre and concluded that the fabric possessed
tremendous water and moisture absorbency, as well as better pilling and abrasion
resistances under both dry and wet conditions, in comparison to flax and jute.
However, the washing fastness was found to be unsatisfactory even under normal
washing conditions, leave aside harsh conditions.
The fibre is devoid of any sharp spurs that could potentially cause any irritation to
skin. Even, people who develop skin allergies to other natural fibres like wool and
hemp do not show any such reaction on wearing bamboo next to their skin. Moreover,
since the bamboo fibre is devoid of any free electrons, the fabric made out of it is
antistatic, thus, fitting very well next to the skin, flowing lightly over the body without
clinging to it (Das, 2014).
The most beneficial property that bamboo carries from its plant form to fibre form
is its anti-bacterial activity. Bamboo plant contains a bacteriostasis bio-agent,
'bamboo-kun', i.e., 2.6-bimethoxy-p-benzoquinone, which imparts the plant natural
resistance to microbes; and the protein dendrocin that has highly distinctive fungal
resistance (Lipp-Symonowicz et al., 2011). These substances are bound very firmly to
the bamboo cellulose molecule and are hence retained even after mechanical
processing. Consequently, bacteria or mildew get killed on a bamboo fabric unlike on
other cellulosic cousins of bamboo which facilitate their propagation leading to foul
odour and even fibre degradation in worse cases. In fact, bamboo was used in ancient
Chinese medicine owing to this property. A study conducted by the National Textile
Inspection Association, China (NTIA), Shanghai, Microorganism Research Institute
and Japan Textile Inspection Association showed that even after 50 washes, bamboo
fabric possessed considerable anti-bacterial property. Moreover, being natural, it
has no potential threat of causing skin allergy as in the case of chemical anti-
microbial finishes (Das, 2014). Another justification for the inherent bacterial-
resistance of bamboo is the presence of chlorophyll and sodium copper
chlorophyllin which perform the function of antibiotics and deodorisation. This too
has been verified by the Japan Textile Inspection Association. Also, some studies
suggest the reflectivity of bamboo fabric to be lower than that of flax and cotton,
implying that the bamboo fabric is a good absorbent of UV radiations. Moreover, the
sodium copper chlorophyllin present in bamboo fibre has twenty times higher capacity
to absorb UV radiations than cotton fibre (Yao and Zhang, 2011). The UPF of natural
bamboo fibre is 22 which is considerably greater than that of ramie, i.e., 12 (Pavko-
Čuden and Kupljenik, 2012).
Finally, the natural or 'virgin' bamboo fabric is completely biodegradable in soil

and does not decompose into pollutants like methane. Hence, clothing made of pure
bamboo has a negligible environmental footprint. So, it can be composted in an organic
manner, unlike the synthetic fibres which do not deplete in the landfills for decades.
3.2. Studies Related to Bamboo Viscose Fibres

Of late, there has been extensive amount of research conducted on bamboo viscose
fibres and their yarns and fabrics. Sarkar and Appidi (2009) reported that bamboo
viscose is nothing but cellulose II with a low degree of crystallinity and high water
retention and release ability. Consequently, the fibre exhibits desirable comfort,
aesthetic and processing properties like good moisture absorption, permeability, soft
handle, pleasing tactile sensation, excellent dye-ability, etc.
Fibres can possess a huge variety of cross-sectional shapes which determines yarn
packing density and, in turn, strongly influences the low stress mechanical behaviour of
corresponding fabrics. Also, the morphological parameters like free space inside the
fibre, presence of crystalline and amorphous regions, degree of crystallinity, etc., too
have affect on the mechanical behaviour of fibre and, hence, the fabric characteristics
as well (Mishra et al., 2012).
Xu et al. (2007) found the cross-section of bamboo viscose fibre to be irregular and
toothed (Fig. 3.2.1.), and confirmed that both longitudinal and cross sectional
morphology of bamboo viscose fibre are fairly similar to these of regular viscose rayon
fibre. They also spotted some striated cracks distributed over the length of bamboo
viscose fibres and many voids in their cross-section, both of them being suggestive of
good water retention capacity. The same was later validated by Erdumlu and Ozipek
(2008) and Hardin et al. (2009) as well.
Fig. 3.2.1. SEM micrographs of bamboo viscose fibre. (a) cross-sectional and
(b) longitudinal.
Source: Xu et al., 2007.
Xu et al. (2007) also compared the properties of bamboo viscose fibre with those
of viscose rayon, cotton and modal fibres. They noted that bamboo viscose and viscose
rayon are similar in terms of dry tenacity, elongation at break and moisture absorption.
However, the wet tenacity bamboo viscose was found to be slightly higher than that of
viscose rayon. In comparison with cotton and modal, bamboo viscose was seen to
possess lower tenacity, both in dry and wet states. Kaur et al. (2013) established that
bamboo fibre is capable of being blended with various other fibres like cotton, hemp,
modal, lyocell, etc. to achieve myriad combinations of properties.
Moving on from fibre level to yarn level, there is a scarcity of detailed analysis on
the properties of 100 per cent bamboo viscose and bamboo fibre blended yarns. In an
attempt to establish the usability of 100 per cent bamboo viscose fibre, Erdumlu and
Ozipek (2008) manufactured yarns of six different counts and compared them with
global level yarn quality of 100 per cent viscose rayon ring spun yarns, as well as, 100
per cent carded and combed cotton yarns of corresponding linear density as per Uster
Statistics 2007. They found out that the breaking tenacity, elongation at break and yarn
regularity decrease with increase in fineness of yarn which is the general trend
observed for all kinds of spun yarns. The breaking elongation of bamboo yarn samples
was observed to be within 5 per cent of the world level when compared with carded
and combed ring spun yarns, and between 5-25 per cent of the world level when
compared with 100 per cent viscose ring spun yarns. However, a threshold count is
mandatory to achieve the commercial properties, below which blending with other
fibres might be required to satisfy the requirements.
Majumdar et al. (2011) manufactured ring-spun yarns of different counts (20, 25
and 30 Ne) from 100 per cent bamboo viscose fibres, 100 per cent cotton fibres, and
cotton/bamboo viscose (50:50) blended yarns and, thereafter, tested them for
diameter, tensile, evenness and hairiness related properties. The study highlighted
various interesting phenomena, supported with the reasons behind the same. Bamboo
viscose blended yarns were found to exhibit lower diameter than the equivalent cotton
yarns implying better packing of bamboo fibres in the yarn cross-section as compared
to the cotton fibres. Besides, the bending rigidity of yarn was also found to reduce with
an increase in the percentage of bamboo fibres owing to the reduction in diameter of
the yarn and decrease in tensile modulus. The yarn tenacity was lowest for 50:50
cotton/bamboo viscose blended yarns as depicted in Fig. 3.2.2. It can be attributed to
lower load sharing by the bamboo fibres at the point of rupture of their neighbouring
cotton fibres which could have happened because of a wide difference in the breaking
extension of these individual components.
The breaking elongation was found to increase continuously with the increase in
the proportion of bamboo fibres, whereas the initial modulus was observed to follow
an opposite trend. The mean hair length was seen to reduce continuously with
Fig. 3.2.2. Stress-strain behaviour spun

Source: Majumdar and Pol, 2014.
increasing percentage of bamboo viscose fibres (Fig. 3.2.3.). However, it was found to
be independent of the yarn count for the same blend proportion. Scanning electron
microscopic images (Fig. 3.2.4.) show that the fibres are more uniformly and
compactly twisted in bamboo viscose yarn, whereas the packing is loose in cotton
Fig. 3.2.3. Effect of fibre proportion on mean hair length.

Source: Majumdar et al., 2010.
Fig. 3.2.4. SEM images (100 X) of cotton (a) and bamboo viscose
(b) yarns of 25 Ne.
yarn. This can be attributed to lower bending and torsional rigidities of bamboo
viscose fibres. Such a structure of bamboo viscose yarn is expected to show better
air permeability and moisture vapour permeability in the fabric manufactured
out of it.
Studies have also been performed for investigating the characteristics of fabrics
made out of bamboo viscose fibres and their blends. Mishra et al. (2012) prepared
plain woven fabrics from 100 per cent cotton, 100 per cent viscose rayon, 100 per
cent regenerated bamboo viscose fibre and cotton/bamboo viscose blend (60:40)
and then characterised them for hand values by analysing their tensile, bending,
shear and compressive deformation at low stress. Bamboo viscose fabric showed
better tensile extensibility than cotton and the cotton/bamboo viscose blend fabrics.
Shear rigidity was higher for cotton and cotton/bamboo viscose blended fabrics
than 100 per cent viscose rayon and 100 per cent bamboo viscose fabrics in both
warp and weft direction, which is strongly suggestive of lower comfort, as well as,
lower hand value in cotton and cotton blends. The overall bending rigidity was also
higher in the case of cotton fabric due to its higher stiffness, higher diameter of
constituent yarn than that of bamboo viscose and viscose rayon yarns. The total hand
value was calculated to be higher for viscose rayon and bamboo viscose fabrics than
cotton fabric.
Low stress mechanical properties of plain woven fabrics made from cotton,
bamboo viscose and cotton/bamboo viscose blended yarns were investigated by
Majumdar and Pol (2014). Three blends (100% cotton, 50:50 cotton/bamboo viscose
and 100% bamboo viscose) were used to produce three yarn counts (20, 25 and 30 Ne)
and each of these yarns was used to make fabrics with different pick densities. It was
observed that the bending rigidity, bending hysteresis, shear rigidity, shear hysteresis
and compressibility are lower for bamboo viscose fabrics as compared to those of 100
per cent cotton fabrics (Fig. 3.2.5.). On the contrary, extensibility, tensile energy and
compressional resilience increase with the increase in the proportion of bamboo
viscose fibres. The linearity of load-elongation curve was noted to decrease with the
increase in the proportion of bamboo viscose fibres and with a decrease in the pick
density. High proportion of bamboo viscose fibres, fine yarn count and low pick
density showed lower shear and bending resistance in the fabrics. Higher proportion of
bamboo viscose fibres and higher pick density yield higher compressional resilience.
Such values were suggestive of bamboo fabrics giving a softer handle than the virgin
cotton fabrics making the former suitable for apparel applications.
Fig. 3.2.5. Shear behaviour of bamboo viscose and cotton fabrics made from 20 Ne yarn
and 50 PPI.
Source: Majumdar and Pol, 2014.
Apart from low-stress mechanical parameters, thermal properties, air

permeability and water vapour permeability are also highly important in determining
the comfort characteristics of a fabric. Considering this fact, Majumdar et al. (2010)
carried out an extensive study, wherein they chose three blends of fibres (100% cotton,
50:50 cotton/bamboo viscose and 100% bamboo viscose) to produce three yarn counts
(20, 25 and 30 Ne) which were further knitted into three types of structures, viz., plain,
rib and interlock, as depicted in Fig. 3.2.6.
Fig. 3.2.6. Plain (a), rib (b) and interlock (c) knitted structures.
Thermal conductivity of all types of knitted fabrics was found to decrease with an
increase in the bamboo viscose component in the fabric owing to their lower inherent
thermal conductivity value than that of natural cotton. Further, for the same blend
composition, thermal conductivity was observed to decrease with increasing fineness
of yarn owing to corresponding increase in the porosity of fabrics knitted from them.
However, at constant blend proportion and yarn count, the thermal conductivity was
found to be maximum for interlock fabrics and minimum for plain knitted fabrics. It is
known that interlock structure is the tightest of all and, hence, has lowest porosity
which vividly explains its highest thermal conductivity. Moreover, being the thickest
of all the three structures, it also showed highest thermal resistance at same blend
composition and yarn fineness. Thermal resistance value of plain knitted structures
was seen to reduce with increase in the proportion of bamboo viscose fibres due to
reduction in fabric thickness.
Majumdar et al. (2010) also found that air permeability increased with an increase
in the proportion of bamboo viscose fibres in all knitted structures under investigation.
This can be explained on the basis of lower diameter of bamboo viscose yarns than
cotton yarns of equivalent count, causing tightness factor of viscose blended fabrics to
be lower than cotton ones, allowing better passage of air through the fabric. The
hairiness of bamboo viscose blended yarns was also seen to be lower than cotton ones
(as shown in Fig. 3.2.7.) which could be another contributing factor towards higher air
permeability.
Fig. 3.2.7. SEM image (100 X) of plain knitted fabric made from 24 tex yarn. (a) One
hundred per cent bamboo viscose, (b) one hundred per cent cotton and (c) 50:50
cotton/bamboo-viscose.
The diffusion induced water vapour transmission for the bamboo viscose fabrics
was found to be higher than that of cotton fabrics due to higher moisture regain of the
former fibre type. Among the three knitted fabrics, plain structure was found to have
maximum water vapour permeability followed by rib and interlock structures. The
reason could be attributed to the lower areal density and thickness of plain fabrics as
compared to those of the other two structures.
Even Mishra et al. (2012) had investigated the thermal comfort characteristics of
bamboo viscose fabrics while testing them for low stress mechanical properties. They
concluded that the average water vapour permeability of bamboo viscose fabric was
higher and water vapour resistance was lower than that of cotton fabric. This could
be a consequence of the micro-channels running along the length of the bamboo
viscose fibres, facilitating rapid absorption and transmission of moisture. In yet
another work, fabrics knitted from bamboo viscose and its blends with various other
fibres like organic cotton, elastane and polyester were analysed and reported to
possess high moisture absorption, air permeability, porosity and pleasant hand
(Pavko-Čuden and Kupljenik, 2012). Cimilli et al. (2009) studied comfort properties
of socks made from different fibres like modal, micromodal, bamboo, soya bean,
chitosan, etc. and further compared them with cotton and viscose. The socks from
bamboo and soya bean fibres exhibited maximum thermal resistance and good water
vapour permeability. Gun et al. (2008) analysed the dimensional and physical
properties of fabrics knitted out of blends of modal, bamboo viscose and conventional
viscose with cotton and reported the bamboo viscose-cotton blended fabric to be least
prone to pilling.
3.3. Controversial Properties of Bamboo Viscose Fibres

There are quite a few ambiguities related to bamboo fibres which are misleading for
users. In late 2006, a number of textile manufacturers, especially online retailers,
started advertising bamboo fabrics possessing very soft touch, exhibiting deeper
shades than cotton, having excellent UV protective and natural anti-microbial
properties and grown in a very eco-friendly manner. This was instigated by the
government authorities and the researchers across the globe to probe into such claims
and unleash the truth behind the actual nature of bamboo being used in these unique
garments (Lipp-Symonowicz et al., 2011). Hardin et al. (2009) bought such samples to
investigate their morphology for identification of the fibre and also to test their anti-
microbial activity. The fibres appeared very similar to conventional viscose rayon
fibres, implying they were not 'pure' bamboo of the bast kind, but spun from
regenerated cellulose of bamboo. Also, the samples did not show any anti-microbial
activity, proving the fibre to be simply rayon type and not 'virgin' bamboo. Following
this, the FTC charged fraud sellers of deceptive labelling and misleading advertising.
Even the Competition Bureau of the Canadian Government established precise
guidelines for the labelling of textile products directly or indirectly derived from
bamboo (Competition Bureau, 2009).
It is already known that mechanically processed bamboo fibres can resist pest and
fungi-infestation as they maintain the innate anti-microbial property of the bamboo
plants due to the presence of bamboo-kun and dendrocin. However, the fibres obtained
from regenerated cellulose of bamboo plant fail to retain them. Despite this fact,
several researchers still state bamboo viscose fibres to exhibit anti-bacterial, anti-
fungul and UV protection properties (Pavko-Čuden and Kupljenik, 2012). Chen and
Guo (2007) compared the anti-bacterial properties of a bamboo viscose jersey with
that of a common wood pulp jersey and declared the former to possess natural anti-
bacterial effects. However, they attributed this effect to the hollow structure of the
bamboo viscose fibres that facilitates absorption of humidity followed by its
evaporation. Mishra et al. (2012) also observed the anti-bacterial property of bamboo
viscose fabric to be superior to that of a cotton fabric. They had justified this behaviour
due to the interaction of phenolic compounds still present in the bamboo viscose fibres
with the bacterial membrane. Interestingly, attempts are being made for the
antibacterial modification of bamboo viscose fibres using Ag, Cu or ZnO
nanoparticles to ultimately obtain a grafted composite fabric out of it. Chitosan, a
natural bio-polymer, has also been explored for the same with an intention to have a
safe antibacterial agent for the apparel textile material (Sheikh, 2013).
In context of claims made for excellent UV protection property of bamboo
viscose fabrics, several researchers have contradictory opinions. At the time, when the
FTC was taking rigorous actions to verify the validity of the tall claims made by
bamboo fabric retailers, the Competition Bureau had also demanded evidences from
the manufacturers, in support of UV-blocking claims (Competition Bureau, 2009).
Sarkar and Appidi (2009) found untreated bamboo viscose to be incapable of providing
protection against UV radiations, and rather suggested various treatments to impart
both UV-protective and anti-microbial property to it. Observing that untreated bamboo
exhibits optical reflectance, Afrin et al. (2012) tried to analyse its chemical structure to
trace the roots of its UV absorption property. They reported lignin to be the origin of it,
thereby, suggesting that bamboo viscose produced by conventional methods, would be
incapable of providing UV protection since the lignin gets depleted during the
degumming process. On the contrary, Mishra et al. (2012) demonstrated 100 per cent
regenerated bamboo viscose fabric to have an excellent UPF rating. Also, Mahish et al.
(2012) reported that UPF rating of bamboo/polyester blended fabrics increases with
increase in the proportion of bamboo component. Considering the conflicts in the
findings, Hatua et al. (2013) performed a comparative analysis on a set of eighteen
fabrics made out of 100 per cent cotton and 100 per cent bamboo viscose yarns, using
curve fitting technique. Yarns of three different counts (20, 25 and 30 Ne) were taken
and fabrics with three pick densities (50, 60 and 70 PPI) for each count were woven for
both cotton and bamboo viscose. Although the bamboo viscose fabrics demonstrated
higher UPF in comparison to the cotton fabrics woven with same PPI and yarn count, it
was not enough evidence to declare bamboo viscose to be inherently better than cotton
in respect of UV protection. This is because the UPF values for cotton and bamboo
viscose fabrics with comparable cover factor and areal density were found to be similar.
For fabrics woven with same construction parameters, bamboo viscose fabrics
performed better owing to higher areal density and cover factor than their cotton
counterparts. Hence, it can be concluded that bamboo viscose is incapable of providing
better protection than cotton against ultraviolet radiations.
4. Conclusion
As a consequence of the promotion of their unique properties, bamboo products have
established a mark in the apparel textiles industry. The products manufactured from
bamboo viscose dominate the market because of their considerably lower price and
easy-to-maintain processing conditions. However, owing to faulty labelling, the
products made from natural bamboo and from regenerated bamboo fibres are often
confused with each other. Therefore, it is of prime importance to correctly distinguish
between the virgin bamboo fibres from bamboo viscose fibres.
The foremost difference lies in the fact that pure bamboo fibre is obtained directly
from the bamboo stalk, whereas the viscose form is obtained by regeneration of the raw
bamboo cellulose and, thereby, leaving minimal traces of original bamboo in it. The
natural bamboo fibres resemble ramie, hemp and flax in terms of both molecular
structure and performance attributes. For example, it maintains many of the inherent
characteristics of bamboo like UV resistance, antibacterial and deodorant properties,
being highly hygroscopic and yet exhibit breathability, low wrinkle resistance and
launderable. On the other hand, bamboo viscose resembles silk in appearance (sheen,
drape and feel) but not in respect of performance. Also, its morphology and degree of
crystallisation are comparable with those of conventional viscose. An important point
to be noted here is that the chemical processing of bamboo fibres is often questioned
for its eco-friendliness. Though the conventional process is associated with emission
of toxic chemicals in the ambience, but manufacturers have been exploring ways to
minimise it.
In a nutshell, the user should be vigilant while selecting any bamboo
product by first investigating its origin so as to determine its horizon of
applications. Moreover, as both natural bamboo and bamboo viscose can be easily
blended with other fibres, there is a wide scope to exploit the properties of both the
fibres as per the requirements.
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284-287.
15 Bamboo Based Composites:
Material for Future
C.N. Pandey
1. Introduction
Bamboo, a woody grass, has always been known as an enduring, versatile and
renewable resource. There are more than 125 species of bamboos in India spreading
across 18 genera.
In India, bamboos grow in about 9.60 M ha of forestland. In addition, substantial
bamboo resources are cultivated on homestead land, private plantations and in groves.
Sixty six percent of the country's bamboo resources in terms of volume and 28 per cent
in terms area are in the northern region. The total estimated stock of bamboo resource
in the country is 130 Mt. The estimated annual harvest of bamboo in India is around
13.5 Mmt (mmt). Four-fifths of the growing stock of bamboo in India comprise three
species: Dendrocalamus strictus (53%), Bambusa bambos (15%) and Melocanna
baccifera (15%). Species suitable for commercial applications are D. asper (for shoots
and timber), D. hamiltonii (for shoots), D. stocksii (for craft, structural and household
applications) and B. bambos, B. balcooa, B. tulda, B. nutans and D. strictus (for wood
substitutes). According to FAO (2006) the total area under bamboo in India in 1990
was 10,711,000 ha, which was increased to 11,361,000 ha in 2005. Of these, around
1,754,000 ha were under private ownership and the rest in the state owned forests.
In general, there are two types of bamboos (approximate 75 genera or 1,250
species in the world), divided according to their growth pattern. Tropical bamboos
(approximate 45 genera or 750 species) usually grow in clumps which are called
sympodial bamboos. The pattern of clumps can also vary. For example, bamboo culms
within a clump can be closely spaced (B. bambos) or loosely spread out (B. vulgaris).
On the other hand, places like China and Japan host non-clump-forming or runner
bamboos (called monopodial bamboos) that send out long underground rhizomes.
Individual shoots come out of these underground rhizomes. Sympodial bamboos grow
306 C.N. Pandey
faster than monopodial bamboos and have a higher yield; they can fully rejuvenate
within a few years of cutting.
In India, clump-forming bamboo (sympodial bamboos) constitutes over 67 per
cent of the total growing stock. M. baccifera, a non clump-forming bamboo, accounts
for 20 per cent of the growing stock and is found in the northeastern states
(ICFRE, 2001).
The annual bamboo harvest in India is reported to be 13.5 Mmt; however, annual
production worked out to be 5 Mmt in 2003-2004 (air dry) considering that, on average,
250 air-dried culms weigh one tonne and the price is around Rs. 1,600 (auction rate
about US$40). It has been estimated that 50 per cent of this production is used by the
paper and pulp industries and the rest is consumed for rural construction, scaffolding,
handicrafts, etc., India reportedly taps into only one- tenth of its bamboo potential and
its share in the global market is only about 4 per cent (PIB, 2004).
The decline in timber availability and the emergence of new technologies and
product options have spurred interest in bamboo-based composites and wood
substitutes. Many bamboo-based composites provide promising linkages between
the organized and unorganized sectors, for instance, resin-bonded boards (organized)
made from hand woven mats (unorganized). This highlights the potential for
employment, especially in areas that are relatively disadvantaged. The highest priority,
because of the employment intensity and the linkages between industrial scale units
and the cottage sector, needs to be accorded to mat-based composites.
Extensive studies have been carried out in IPIRTI on the use of bamboo/bamboo
composites, such as bamboo mat board (BMB), bamboo mat veneer composite
(BMVC), bamboo mat corrugated sheet (BMCS), bamboo mat ridge cap (BMRC),
bamboo mat moulded skin board (BMMSB), etc. which can lead to reduction in
pressure on non-renewable building material, reduce pollution and lead to substantial
energy conservation. In other words bamboo and bamboo composites emerge as
potential structural and eco-friendly building material. The NMBA efforts to develop
and commercialize the new range of products and applications have increased the value
added utilization capacity of the bamboo sector (excluding pulp and paper, incense
sticks and handicrafts) from 10,000 t per annum during 2004 to about 190,000 t per
annum during 2006 (Pande and Pandey, 2008).
Bamboo is a tall, hollow, cylindrical grass containing nodes at uniform interval
along its full length. The fibres remain aligned along their length whereas at nodes
fibres grow across the length and form diaphragm within the hollow cylindrical part of
the bamboo. Bamboo in its natural form has several uses especially mature bamboo
which is very strong and durable. Split bamboo is very susceptible to fungus and
termite attack unless given proper preservative treatment. To convert bamboo into
Bamboo Based Composites: Material for Future 307
panel or wood - like products preliminary processing of bamboo is required which

converts hollow, cylindrical bamboo into basic raw materials slivers/bamboo mat or
strips to be used for further processing into useful products. Bamboo can also be split
open, crushed and glued to panel products.
2. Bamboo Processing
Processing of bamboo into panel and structural products, housing components, other
utility items, furniture from bamboo laminates, etc. involves two steps (a) primary
processing of bamboo, e.g., bamboo to bamboo mat (Fig. 2.1.) and (b) industrial
processing or processing into basic or useful component, e.g., bamboo mat board,
bamboo laminates, etc. (Fig. 2.2.).
Fig. 2.1. Bamboo primary processing unit in the IPIRTI.
Fig. 2.2. Pilot plant in IPIRTI for manufacture of bamboo mat board
(2.44 m ×1.22 m size).
308 C.N. Pandey
2.1. Primary Processing

The traditional method of bamboo processing practised by craftsmen in villages is
purely a manual processing operation using only one tool called 'Dao' or knife. All
processing activities like cross-cutting, splitting, slab, sliver, stick making, etc., are
done with the help of this tool.
The manual processing of bamboo is very labour intensive, tedious, and
monotonous. It also leads to the production of poor quality slivers, sticks, etc., and
generates more wastage of raw materials.
The machinery employed in bamboo preliminary processing for production of
slivers and laminates are bamboo cross-cutting machine, bamboo splitting machine
with knives, bamboo splitting machine with circular saws, bamboo width sizing, knot
removing and planing machine, bamboo four side planing machine, one side planing
machine, bamboo slab making machine, bamboo sliver making machine. These
machines are presently made by a few Indian manufacturers.
2.1.1. Bamboo cross-cutting machine

This machine is used for making a straight, smooth and square cut across the culms
without development of any additional splits on the culms and leads to drastic reduction
in raw material wastage. A tungsten carbide tipped (TCT) saw is used for cross-cutting
bamboo culms and it needs periodic re-sharpening. There is a provision in the machine
where the desired length of bamboo to be cross-cut can be preset. Safety guards are
provided on the machine to take care of the safety aspects during operation.
2.1.2. Bamboo splitting machine with knives

The main function of this machine is to carry out splitting of bamboo culms with knives
to the desired width. The tool used for splitting is called knife ring. Knife rings are
available with knives placed at different interspaces and the one that suits the diameter
of bamboo culms and the intended width of split can be selected. The bamboo culms are
pressed and moved fast against the knife ring with a pushing device moving on a sliding
bed, which result in instantaneous and simultaneous splitting action. Safety guards are
provided on the machine and should be in place to take care of safety in operation.
However, adequate precautions are taken during operation of the machine to prevent
accidents and injury.
2.1.3. Bamboo splitting machine with circular saws

This machine is employed for splitting bamboo using circular saws to get parallel width.
The advantage of this machine is that uniform width can be obtained for splits even if there
is tapering in diameter of bamboo culms. Uniformity in split width is a very essential
requirement in the manufacture of bamboo laminates or floor tiles. In this machine, two
parallel mounted TCT saws set to the desired split width, do the cutting action.
2.1.4. Bamboo width sizing, knot removing and planing machine

This machine is very effective in carrying out the planing operation as the work is done
by two carbide cutters. There is also provision in the machine to do other functions
such as width sizing and knot removal, with the help of sizing knife and knot removing
knife, respectively.
2.1.5. Bamboo four-side planing machine

Planing of all four sides of bamboo strips is done by this machine with the help of four
carbide cutters for the production of bamboo laminates. The width and thickness of the
strips can be set in this machine and smooth surfaces and uniform size for all strips are
thereby obtained.
2.1.6. Bamboo one-side planing machine

The planing of bamboo laminate after hot pressing operation is carried out in this
machine. At one pass, one surface of the laminate is planed using a planing cutter to a
smooth surface.
2.1.7. Bamboo slab making machine

This machine is utilized for the production of slabs as preparatory step to the
manufacture of slivers for mat making. A horizontally mounted slicing knife (HCHR),
whose position can be altered depending upon the thickness of slab, does the cutting
action. The thickness of slab is normally set to 2.4 mm or in multiples of final sliver
thickness.
2.1.8. Bamboo sliver making machine

The slivers used for weaving mats are produced in this machine. A horizontally
mounted slicing knife, whose position is moved up or down depending upon the
desired thickness of sliver, does the cutting action. The normal thickness of sliver is
about 0.6 to 0.8 mm.
Bamboo mat based panel or bamboo laminates will find many uses, especially
where plywood is being used at present. However, such products can be further
processed into utility items or structural component by further processing. Such
utility items may be a box from bamboo mat panel or furniture from bamboo
laminates. The secondary products can be made in a cottage industry or a small
sister unit adjoining to a bamboo processing units. An improved version of
310 C.N. Pandey
carpenter shop can act as such units and can be situated where big bamboo mat panel
or laminates are manufactured.
2.1.9. Bamboo treatment

Harvested bamboo is susceptible to borer and fungal attacks. Various treatment
practices have been developed, but there is great scope for applied research in this area.
Processes of bamboo treatment at preprocessing stage either by boiling in water and
chemical treatment have been well established. There is a need to develop facility for
bamboo treatment and seasoning before sending it for industrial use so as to resist
deterioration before use.
2.2. Industrial Processing (Products and Technologies Developed at

IPIRTI)
2.2.1. Bamboo mat board
Use of any new material depends upon its suitability for various applications vis-a-vis
the materials already in use. Development of appropriate application technology plays
an important role in acceptance of any new material. BMB is essentially a layered
composite (Fig. 2.2.1.1.) comprising several layers of woven mats having excellent
internal bond strength, and are resistant to decay, insects and termite attack. They have
physical and mechanical properties at par with waterproof plywood and are fire resistant.
Their mechanical properties depend upon the material used for making mats, i.e.,
bamboo slivers, the weaving pattern and the adhesive used for bonding (IPIRTI, 1993).
However, these properties can be altered by changing the weaving pattern of
bamboo slivers used in mat making used for making board in order to get required
values for MOR, MOE, tensile strength, etc. Thus, it can be inferred that the strength
and stiffness of BMB is related to the weaving pattern of the mats. However, modulus
of rigidity (MOR) or shear modulus of BMB in the plane of the board is very high and is
comparable to the required values for structural plywood as per Indian specifications
IS: 10701. It is interesting to note that MOR of BMB far exceeds that of both structural
plywood and wood. This is attributable to the herringbone weave pattern. Clearly,
BMB has high in-plane rigidity and hence, high racking strength and is more flexible
than equivalent plywood. This property of BMB can be advantageously used in many
engineering applications. In fact, BMB has been found useful as sheathing material in
structural and semi structural uses such as walling, partitions, roof sheeting, door skins,
box furniture, built up hollow beams, gussets, and containers. Investigations have also
been undertaken at the IPIRTI with regard to suitability of BMB for manufacture of
secondary parts of aircraft and gliders as substitute for speciality plywood made from
Dysoxylum malabaricum and Palaquirn ellipticum.
BMB meet all the requirements prescribed in the relevant Indian specifications
and have in fact much higher cross sectional shear strength compared to plywood.
2.2.2. Bamboo mat veneer composite

In Bamboo mat veneer composite (BMVC), wood veneers are placed in between the
layers of bamboo mats (Fig. 2.2.2.1.). The properties of BMVC depend upon the
mechanical properties of wood veneers that are placed in between bamboo mat
layers, in addition to the properties of the bamboo mats and the adhesives used in
bonding.
Investigations have shown that strength of a panel made by plantation timber is
substantially enhanced when made in combination with bamboo mats. MOE and
MOR of BMVC are higher than equivalent plywood and this depends on the number of
layers of veneers for a given thickness of BMVC. Due to the presence of woven
bamboo mats, BMVC has different mechanical properties along and across the length
of the board (BIS, 1999).
The properties are comparable to those of structural plywood. Hence, for all
practical purposes BMVC can be used in a way similar plywood for structural
applications. BMVC will be economical in higher thickness as compared to BMB.
2.2.3. Bamboo mat moulded products

Considering the flexibility of bamboo mats due to 'Herringbone' weave pattern, an
idea was mooted to produce moulded products like trays, chair seats, etc. (Fig.
2.2.3.1.) in various forms like rectangular, round, as well in different sizes. A process
was developed including the moulds to produce such products get them in finished
form which can be subsequently finished with coating materials to enhance the
appearance and acceptability by the consumers. The moulded products like trays, were
found to be highly durable and leak proof which can be conveniently used for various
applications like the ones based on metals, plastics, etc. The technology for the
manufacture of bamboo mat tray has been transferred to two units, one in Pune and the
other one in Bangalore (IPIRTI, 1983).
2.2.4. Bamboo mat corrugated sheets

The idea of development of corrugated sheets was a result of development of bamboo
mat moulded products like trays to enhance stiffness for the BMB developed through
corrugation techniques (Fig. 2.2.4.1.). Roofing materials such as asbestos cement
corrugated sheeting (ACCS), corrugated fibre reinforced plastics (CFRPs).
Corrugated aluminium sheeting (CAS) and corrugated galvanized iron sheeting
(CGIS), which have been established for several decades, are being subjected to
312 C.N. Pandey
scientific scrutiny on several counts, including their impact on workers' health and
environment, the energy requirement for their manufacture and sustainable supply of
raw materials. Of late, priority is being given, and rightly so, to 'green' building
materials based on renewable resources. Scaling up of the pilot scale technology for its
industrial adoption has been successfully carried out under a project funded by
Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Govt. of India. The
comparative strength properties of BMCS with other existing roofing sheets
are given in Table 2.2.4.1. Bureau of Indian Standards has brought out a
standard on the specification of bamboo mat corrugated sheets for roofing
[IS:15476-2004].
Table 2.2.4.1. Strength properties of BMCS in comparison with other existing roofing sheets
Particular Thick- Width Max Load bearing Weight of sheet
ness (mm) load capacity (2.44m x 1.05 m)
(mm) (N) (N/mm) (kg)
BMCS [4 3.7 400 1,907 4.77 9.78
layers]
GI Sheet 0.6 400 1,937 4.84 10.43
Aluminium 0.6 405 669 1.67 3.92
sheet
ACCS 6.0 330 1,800 5.45 21.5
A few demonstration structures have been put up in several parts of the country by
utilizing BMCS developed and produced at IPIRTI's pilot plant. The process of BMCS
has been standardized and the plant has been commissioned for commercial production
of BMCS. Commercially available coating compositions have also been evolved to
ensure the durability of BMCS. Some demonstration structures are under observation
and is reported that the demand for such sheets are steadily increasing presumably
based on the advantages over its counterparts.
2.2.5. Bamboo mat ridge cap

Recently, a technology has been developed at IPIRTI in collaboration with BMTPC for
the production of bamboo mat ridge cap. (Fig. 2.2.5.1.). The main raw material for the
production of ridge cap is mat from bamboo. The product is both environment- and
people-friendly. The product is dimensionally stable, fire resistant, non permeable,
boiling water proof, anti-termite and weather resistant, and compatible with bamboo
mat corrugated sheet. The existing units producing bamboo mat corrugated sheets can
convert one of the daylights in hydraulic hot press with specially designed die of size
2.4 m x 0.43 m for regular production of bamboo mat ridge caps. Technology is
available for commercialization.
2.2.6. Bamboo mat overlaid particle board

Processes have been developed for overlaying wood/rice husk particle boards with
bamboo mats (Fig. 2.2.6.1.). The overlaying is found to improve physical and
mechanical properties of the boards as well as the appearance. The bamboo mat
overlaid particle boards may be suitable even for semi structural applications. The
results obtained from bamboo mat overlaid wood particle board in comparison with
the data on wood particle boards indicated that water absorption and swelling
properties of bamboo mat overlaid wood particle board improved considerably
enhancing the durability of such panels even under adverse climatic conditions.
Mechanical strength properties of wood particle board increased considerably
due to bamboo mat overlaying, e.g., MOR over 150 per cent, MOE over 65 per cent
and screw holding power by around 50 per cent suggesting the utilization of BMWPB
for enlarged end use applications. Water absorption and swelling properties of
BMRHP are improved over 100 per cent indicating the durability of such panels even
under adverse climatic conditions. Mechanical strength properties of RHPB increased
considerably due to bamboo mat overlaying, e.g., MOR: over 115 per cent; MOE: over
60 per cent: Screw holding power by 60 per cent suggesting the utilization of BMRHB
for enlarged end use applications.
2.2.7. Bamboo wood

Development of appropriate technologies for the manufacture of both horizontal and
vertical laminates using synthetic resin like UF, MUF and PF resins have been developed
(Fig. 2.2.7.1.). Design and development of machinery for exerting side pressure for
making laminates has also been made. Preliminary tests carried out on these laminates
shows that it is superior to plantation timbers. End use application such as furniture, other
household component and flooring have been developed and put to use (IPIRTI, 2003).
2.2.8. Bamboo mat moulded skin board

IPIRTI has developed a process for the manufacture of Bamboo mat moulded skin board
(BMMSB) (Fig. 2.2.8.1.). Having high strength and stiffness, there is reduction in timber
consumption like battens, face veneers, etc. The cost of the door is 15 per cent less than
that of HDF doors with additional strength properties like high impact resistance leading
to import substitution, high density, moulded fibre board used as doors (Uday et al., 2008).
2.2.9. High density shuttering grade BMB

High density shuttering grade bamboo mat boards developed in IPIRTI will be an
alternate to compreg manufactured at present. It has high physical mechanical
properties and can be used wherever compreg is used (Fig. 2.2.9.1.).
314 C.N. Pandey
2.2.10. Flexi-ply with bamboo mat as core

IPIRTI has developed a technology for flexi-ply with the inner layer of veneer being
replaced by bamboo mat (Fig. 2.2.10.1.). This reduces the possibility of breakage
when rolled. Plywood of 3 mm and higher thickness have the tendency to break when
rolled, i.e., due to the non flexibility of the product. The flexi-ply developed in
combination with bamboo mat has flexibility even with 8 mm thick panels. The flexi-
ply so developed has great potential for applications in cabins of hemispherical shapes
and arch panels.
2.2.11. Application of bamboo based products in housing

Development of best construction techniques for house using bamboo and its
composites and plantation wood were carried out in the IPIRTI. Houses built in
the institute campus with industrial products from bamboo for various purposes
are displayed in Fig. 2.2.11.1. It is meant to promote the techniques for the
awareness and the information of regulatory bodies/housing associations
(Jagadeesh et al., 1998).
Fig. 2.2.1.1. Bamboo mat board. Fig. 2.2.2.1. Bamboo mat veneer composite.
Fig. 2.2.3.1. Bamboo mat moulded products.

Fig. 2.2.4.1. Bamboo mat Fig. 2.2.5.1. Bamboo mat ridge cap.
corrugated sheets.
Fig. 2.2.6.1. Bamboo mat overlaid Fig. 2.2.7.1. Bamboo wood.

particle board.
Fig. 2.2.8.1. Bamboo mat moulded skin board.
Fig. 2.2.9.1. High density shuttering grade BMB. Fig. 2.2.10.1. Flexi-ply with
bamboo mat as core.
316 C.N. Pandey
Demonstration house Two bedroom guest house
Double storeyed house Prefab house

Fig. 2.2.11.1. Houses built in IPIRTI campus with bamboo products.
3. The Industrial Processing Parameters

The industrial processing parameters including type of adhesives, application of the
resin and pressing conditions are dealt with here. Woven bamboo mats form the raw
material base for all mat based composites. Till date, these mats are hand woven by
artisans specially women in rural tribal areas. The generalized flow charts for processing
bamboo mat composites and bamboo wood are displayed in Fig. 3.1. and Fig. 3.2.
3.1. Adhesives
Depending on the end use of the products, two types of thermoset resins are being used
phenol formaldehyde and melamine urea formaldehyde. For bamboo mat board,
corrugated sheets, etc., phenol formaldehyde resin are being used. For products like
floor board, moulded products like tray, MUF resin has been used whereas for the
high density products like chair sheet, compreg manufacture, phenolic resins are
being used.
3.2. Resin Application

Bamboo strips can be resin coated with brush or roller coater. But for bamboo mat such
coating is not suitable. Specially designed resin applicator is being used, so that resin
Fig. 3.1. Process flow chart for bamboo mat composites.
Fig. 3.2. Process flow chart for the manufacture of bamboo wood.
can penetrate into intersliver spaces. Moisture plays a vital role in the curing of resin on
bamboo surfaces. Conditioning of the glued mat/strips to bring glued surface to
desired moisture content and equilibrium distribution of the same is necessary before
hot pressing.
3.3. Hot Press Conditions

Pressing conditions varies from product to product and also the resin system used for
coating the surfaces.
318 C.N. Pandey
3.4. Temperature
For PF resin based products usual pressing temperature used is 140°-150° C. MUF resin
based products are pressed by employing a temperature of 115°-125° C in the hot press.
3.5. Pressure
Pressure applied varies widely depending on the ultimate density of the products.
Density of bamboo at 12 per cent moisture content, ranges from 0.65 to 0.70. For
products to be obtained with density 0.7-0.75, pressure of 14-16 kg cm-2 was enough.
Where high density products of density 1.2-1.4 were to be obtained hot press pressure
of 80-120 kg cm-2 was used. Where strip based products like laminates, simultaneous
side pressures, vertical and horizontal pressure has to be applied for which a specially
designed hot press has been designed for the purpose and put to use.
3.6. Time
For different types of bamboo based products, hot press had been worked out through
experimentation to find out that farthest glue line from the surface was being cured
during hot pressing and consequently during stabilizing period.
3.7. Finishing of Products

Bamboo mats are thoroughly coated with resin before hot pressing which gets cured at
the surface of mats. Further finishing is not required for many products. Some of the
high density moulded products are overlaid with phenolic and melamine resin based
film for which also further finishing of the surface is not required.
However, most of the strip based products where bamboo forms the surface
requires sanding and further coating to impart aesthetic appearance. For the present
work, melamine resin or polyurethane based resin were applied for surface coating. In
case bamboo based products are overlaid with wood veneer, usual wood finish was
applied as in the case of plywood or particle board.
3.8. Testing of Panels

Test specimens from bamboo mat based and strip based products were conditioned to
moisture content around 10 per cent. Tests were statistically designed for a probability
of 68.3 per cent [one sigma level] and an experimental precision of 3 per cent.
Minimum number of test specimens required for testing was determined from the co-
efficient of variation already established for similar material. A recheck was also
carried out to confirm the validity of these co-efficient of variation. Results for BMB,
BMCS, BMVC, BL, BPB and BMMSB are given in Tables 3.8.1., 3.8.2., 3.8.3., 3.8.4.,
Table 3.8.1. Physical and mechanical properties of BMB of different thicknesses

Property Thickness (mm)
Thickness of the panels (mm) 3 6 6* 8 9
Density (kg m-3) 766 711 935 790 892
I.B. strength (N mm-2)
Dry 2.18 2.42 0.82 1.97 2.2
Wet 1.98 2.14 0. 61 1.73 1.8
Surface strength (N mm-2)
Dry 11.42 11.23 4.9 9.47 13.10
Wet 11.42 10.47 3.47 9.10 10.5
Tensile strength (N mm-2) 22.69 26.59 89.17 29.54 31.4
Compressive strength (N mm-2) 16.77 30.35 50.60 35.30 57.5
MOR (N mm -2) 50.74 56.31 102.57 59.35 68.8
MOE (N mm -2) 3,678 3,220 12,033 3,114 3,930
MORI (N mm -2) 5,881 6,050 3,527 6,066 5,750
*Pattern of weaving is rectangular.
I.B.= Internal bond; MOR= Modulus of rupture; MOE= Modulus of elasticity; MORI= Modulus of rigidity.
Table 3.8.2. Physical mechanical properties of BMVC

Property Structural plywood BMVC (67%)
Thickness (mm) - 21
Density (kgs m-3) 750 602
I.B. strength (N mm-2)
Dry - 2.30
Wet - 1.65
Surface strength (N mm-2)
Dry - 8.00
Wet - 6.80
Tensile strength (N mm-2)
|| 54 36.40
 34 35.80
Compressive strength (N mm-2)
|| 34 43.90
 29 40.20
MOR (N mm-2)
|| 49 68.50
 29 55.40
MOE (N mm-2)
|| 7,355 7,820
 3,923 3,210
MORI (N mm -2) 588 3,316
3.8.5., 3.8.6. and 3.8.7., respectively. Comparative results as per Indian Standard
(wherever available) are also given.
Based on the research carried out at this IPIRTI, it has been established that
various bamboo mat and strip based products developed are comparable to wood
320 C.N. Pandey
Table 3.8.3. Strength properties of bamboo laminates

Property Vertical laminate Horizontal
UF MUF PF laminate (MUF)
Density (kg m-3) 728 745 796 782
MOR (N mm-2) 122.5 149.1 145.2 164.4
MOE (N mm-2) 12028 16570 16800 17300
Compressive strength (N mm-2) 61.7 84.7 96.0 87.9
Block shear strength (N mm-2) 11.89 12.8 12.7 9.65
Screw withdrawal strength (N)
Face 4,999 4,006 4,683 3,235
Edge 2,333 3,659 3,216 5,375
Table 3.8.4. Properties of bamboo strip board

Property Value obtained
-3
Density (kg m ) 921.00
Moisture content (%) 3.9
MOR (N mm-2)
Along 118.56
Across 59.47
MOE (N mm -2)
Along 12,383
Across 3,556
Block shear strength (N mm-2) 5.67
Table 3.8.5. Properties of bamboo mat corrugated sheets

Property
Density (g cm-3)
Load bearing capacity
Dry (N/mm)
Wet (N/mm)
Impermeability
Table 3.8.6. Strength properties of bamboo mat compregs and shuttering grade panels made from
bamboo/plantation timbers in combination.
Test Result Prescribed Prescribed value

obtained value as per IS as per IS 4990
3513
Along Across
Specific gravity 1.10 0.95 to 1.25 - -
Moisture content (%) 8.01 6 to 12 5 to 5
Tensile strength (Mpa) 57.18 59 32.5 22.5
Static bending strength (Mpa) 107.60 59 50 30
Modulus of elasticity (Mpa) 5,701 - 7,500 4,000
Compressive strength (Parallel to laminae) (Mpa) 68.50 75 - -
Compressive strength (Perp to laminae), (Mpa) 181.20 130 - -
Impact strength (Perp. to laminae) (kgm cm-2) 0.55 0.2 - -
Impact strength (Parallel to laminae) (kgm cm-2) 0.60 0.5 - -
Hardness (Rockwell 'H' scale) 96.67 60 - -
based panel products and solid wood and, thus, can replace wood and wood products in
many end uses.
Studies on the suitability of bamboo mat board show that they can be used for non-
load bearing applications similar to plywood in housing, furniture, packaging, storage
and transportation. Utilization of bamboo mat board for load bearing structural
applications similar to structural plywood, concrete shuttering plywood, etc. were not
found suitable due to lower strength and stiffness ratio. However, introduction of wood
veneer in the panel has increased these properties considerably except modulus of
rigidity depending on the number of veneers and their position in the assembly.
Though modulus of rigidity of composite panels has come down considerably as
compared to the values obtained for bamboo mat boards, the composite panels have
still much higher modulus of rigidity (four to nine times) than the values prescribed
for structural plywood and, thus, bamboo mat veneer composites can be used for
structural purposes.
Another important product variant from bamboo mat is bamboo mat corrugated
sheet (BMCS). These are light but strong and possess high resilience. Being
manufactured from bamboo, these are environment and people friendly and are
expected to revolutionize house construction activity, particularly in disaster prone
areas as prefab houses. BMCS withstand 72 hours of boiling in water and no
percolation of water being observed after storing water for over 24 hours when tested
for water permeability. Fire retardant property of BMCS is satisfactory.
322
Table 3.8.7. Strength properties of bamboo mat moulded skin board door in performance tests as per IS 4020

C.N. Pandey
,
,
,
324 C.N. Pandey
BMCS has low thermal conductivity compared to other roofing materials [0.1928
kcal/m0C for BMCS and 0.3422 k cal/m0C for ACCS]. The sheets have been found to be
resistant to decay and termites. BMCS has very high potential in several end use
applications, major use being in roofing as an alternative to asbestos cement, GI
aluminium and plastic roofing sheets. Bamboo mat based moulded as well as high
density products are other variant of products from bamboos.
Moulded trays and chair sheet can replace those made from wood, metal and
plastic. With proper surface protection and/or densification such products assume
enhanced service life and become resistant to bio-degradation and resistant to
flame.
High density bamboo mat board (density upto 1.4) is an excellent replacement of
compreg made from wood veneer. The product meets all physical and mechanical
properties required for wood veneer based compreg. Whereas, wood veneer based
compreg requires prime quality timber, bamboo mat based compreg can be made from
two to three years-old bamboo.
Parallel bamboo strip based products, bamboo laminates and cross laminates are
ideal replacement of solid wood. Physical and mechanical properties of bamboo
parallel laminates are comparable to teak wood and can be used in place of solid wood.
Both vertical and horizontal laminates have been developed and properties
standardized for use in furniture, boxes, walling, flooring, door, etc.
Cross laminates have been designed for flooring three to five ply cross laminates
made in the same fashion as plywood can be of different density and thickness. When
densified upto 0.8 to 0.9, the board can be used for truck flooring. Medium density floor
board having density of 0.7 - 0.75 can be used for house floor. Being cross laminated,
these are dimensionally stable. Floor boards are also resistant to water, termite, mould
and fire. Thus, these are superior to conventional floor board made of wood, particle
board and MDF.
At IPIRTI, door skin has been developed from bamboo mat. It is an ideal substitute
for moulded door skin made of HDF which is being imported. The bamboo door skin
has elegant look and very strong to act as door skin.
Production of moulded door skin from bamboo mats would have the following
significance :
(i) It would substitute wood and wood panel used at present in door manufacture.
(ii) It would substitute import of similar material (masonite skin board).
(iii) It would generate rural employment and economy, in the process of weaving of
bamboo mats.
(iv) It would help in conservation of forest by substituting wood.
One of the great achievements of IPIRTI in utilizing bamboo is the development

of cost effective housing system using bamboo in round/split form and its composite in
combination with other traditional building material bricks and cement. Salient
feature of these houses in relation to bamboo are:
1. Use of round bamboo columns and trussed rafter and main load bearing element.
2. Use of split bamboo grids/chicken mesh and plastered with cement mortar to act
as shear wall for transmitting wind loads and enhance structural stability of the
building.
3. Use of BMB gussets in combination with mild steel bolts for load bearing joints in
roofing structure.
4. Use of bamboo mat corrugated sheets as a roofing material.
All bamboo components are given appropriate eco-friendly preservative
chemical treatment depending on the degree of hazard the particular component has to
encounter in use.
4. Conclusion
As a consequence of industrialization, change in concept on environment and
increasing standard of living, types of products required by people have changed
considerably. In the past, wood used to constitute basic raw material for making many
of our personal and domestic need. Concept on protection of environment has
necessitated to stop felling trees in tropical forest and, thus, use of wood has been
curtailed manifold. Several wood alternatives from non-wood material such as plastic,
metals, and minerals have come into existence. These non-wood alternatives are from
non-renewable sources, with their limited availability, require high energy for
production to make consumer goods leading to more air and water pollution.
Alternatively, almost all products which can be made from wood can also be made
from bamboo. The growth and use of this wonder grass help in fixing atmospheric
carbon while tapping solar energy. They need less energy while processing into
beneficial products. These products are biodegradable and, therefore, do not pollute
the nature. Bamboo in all forms is environment friendly, and it is a renewable raw
material base obtainable at short cycle for making many useful industrial products for
human consumption for the future.
References
BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards). 1999 Indian standard – Bamboo mat veneer
composites for general purposes – Specification IS: 14588. New Delhi, Bureau of
Indian Standards. 8p.
326 C.N. Pandey
resources assessment 2005: Progress towards sustainable forest management.
FAO Forestry Paper No. 147. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations.
ICFRE (Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education). 2001. Timber/bamboo
trade bulletin, No. 14. Dehradun, ICFRE.
IPIRTI (Indian Plywood Industries Research and Training Institute). 1983.
Development of improved and new products from bamboo mats. Technical report
of the project sponsored by the All India Handicrafts Board. 100p.
IPIRTI (Indian Plywood Industries Research and Training Institute). 1993. Bamboo
mat board (India) 3-p-89-0228. Final technical report. 188p.
IPIRTI (Indian Plywood Industries Research and Training Institute). 2003.
Investigation analysis for the development of technology package for bamboo
boards (Bamboo laminates). Final technical report.
Jagadeesh, H.N.; Guruvareddy, H.; Bansal, A.K. 1998. Affordable and earthquake
resistant houses from bamboo. In: International Workshop on Engineered
Bamboo Housing for Earthquake Prone Areas, Dehradun, 23-26 November 1998.
Proceedings. India.
Pande, S.K.; Pandey, S. 2008. Bamboo for the 21st century. International Forestry
Review, 10(2): 134-136.
PIB (Press Information Bureau). 2004. The wonderful natural resource. Press release
on bamboo. New Delhi, Press Information Bureau, Government of India.
Uday, D.N.; Mathews, K.C.; Sujatha, D.; Mamatha, B.S.; Anand, N. 2008.
Development of bamboo mat moulded skin board for hollow core doors. IPIRTI
Technical Report No. 108.
16 Bamboos: Importance for
Mitigation and Adaptation
to Climate Change
Mohit Gera and Neelu Gera
1. Introduction
The fifth assessment report of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
reported that the global surface temperatures had risen by 0.89°C over the period
1901-2012 and about 0.72°C over the period 1951-2012. It is most likely that the
human activities had caused more than half of the observed increase in temperature
during 1951-2010 (IPCC, 2013). The report has predicted that in reference to the
period of 1986-2005, the global surface temperature change by the end of this century
is likely to be in the range of 1.5 to 4.5°C and in the range of 0.3 to 0.7°C for the period
2016-2035. This is expected to cause further warming and induce many changes in the
global climate systems during the 21st century that would very likely be severe than
those observed during the 20th century. As per India's second national communication
to UNFCCC (MoEF, 2012), the projected annual mean surface temperature is
expected to rise between 3.5 to 4.3°C by the end of this century with respect to the
baseline which is the average for the period between 1961 to 1990 and a rise in
temperature is predicted for all seasons. The annual rainfall in the country is likely to
rise between 9 and 16 per cent with respect to the baseline. The changes in key climate
variable, namely, temperature may have significant long term implications on number
of rainy days and extremes of temperatures (MoEF, 2012).
Forests provide a wide range of ecological, social and economic benefits, in the
form of goods and services to society, that are much less easier to quantify. In
particular, forests provide livelihood and are especially important for the large number
of forest-dependent communities. Besides, the demand for timber and related products
will continue to increase as the population expands, requiring more efficient and
sustainable use of natural resources. Forests are the most vulnerable climate
dependent systems, but have also been recognized to have significant and crucial
328 Mohit Gera and Neelu Gera
contribution to address the challenges of mitigation and adaptation in tandem with the
issues of livelihoods, economic growth and development. However, the most recent
report from the International Union of Forest Research Organizations paints a rather
gloomy picture about the future of the world forests in a changed climate, as it suggests
that in a warmer world, the current carbon regulating services of forests as carbon sinks
may be entirely lost as land ecosystems could turn into a net source of carbon dioxide
later in the century (Seppälä et al., 2009).
According to the IPCC, roughly 20-30 per cent of vascular plants on the planet are
estimated to be at an increasingly high risk of extinction as temperature increase by
2 to 3°C above pre-industrial levels (Fischlin et al., 2009). Even small changes in
climate could affect phenological events such as flowering and fruiting that may
escalate into major impacts on forest biodiversity. This is because co-evolution has
produced highly specialized interactions among specific plant and animal species in
natural forests. Overall, it is very likely that even modest losses in biodiversity would
cause consequential changes in the ecosystem services that the forests provide. Climate
change affects forest ecosystems in their structure and morphology, thus, causing an
impact on their functionality. Vulnerability analysis of forest ecosystems in the national
communications demonstrates that climate change can significantly affect the
availability of forest goods and services in terms of quality and quantity (MoEF, 2012).
2. Status of Forests in India

The country is endowed with very rich flora and fauna which constitutes around 8 per cent
of world's biodiversity. Forests account for nearly 80 per cent biodiversity of the country.
The total forest and tree cover of the country as per the 2013 assessment by Forest Survey
of India (FSI) was 78.92 M ha, which is 24.01 per cent of the geographical area of the
country. The bamboo forests cover more than 19,000 km2 which is about 2.48 per cent of
the total recorded forest area. Bamboos, in these areas, constitute more than 50 per cent
of the crop. The areas where bamboos, although predominant, but not less than 25 per
cent, constitute about 1 per cent of the recorded forest area (FSI, 2013).
The FSI (2013) also estimated that the total growing stock of India's forest and
trees outside forests was 5,658.05 Mm3, which comprised of 4,173.36 Mm3 inside the
forests and 1,484.68 Mm3 outside the forests. In the 2013 assessment, the total carbon
stock in forests was estimated to be 6,941 Mt. This is quite low than the world average
of 130.7 m3 ha-1 and South and South-East Asian average of 98.6 m3 ha-1 (FAO, 2010).
3. Likely Impacts of Climate Change on Forests of India

A study by Ravindranath et al. (2006), on analysis of the 35,190 forested grids at
national level reported, that more than two-third forested grids were likely to undergo
Bamboos: Importance for Mitigation and Adaptation to Climate Change 329
vegetation change by the year 2100. The actual impacts may be more as different
species respond differently to the changing climate. A few species may show a steep
decline in population and may even get extinct. These impacts are expected to have
tremendous socio-economic implications for the forest-dependent communities and
the economy of the people. Moreover, the impacts of climate change on forest
ecosystems are likely to be long-term and irreversible. Another study by
Gopalkrishnan et al. (2011) had also reported that a significant part of the Himalayan
biodiversity hotpots was highly vulnerable.
4. Pressures on Forest Resources in India

It is estimated that more than 40 per cent of the forests in India are understocked and
degraded (Bahuguna et al., 2004; Aggarwal et al., 2009). The degraded forest area
actually may be higher than the official estimates. A number of geographical,
demographic and socio-economic factors are responsible for this degradation. The
critical factors such as fragile ecosystems, increasing population with low agricultural
production, large and unproductive bovine population, degraded community forests
and restricted means of livelihoods constitute a vicious cycle of poverty resulting in
tremendous pressure on forests in the country. Some major drivers of deforestation and
forest degradation are discussed below.
4.1. Unregulated Removal of Wood

The public in the country is heavily dependent on the forests for timber and fuel wood.
A large number of rural households use timber for domestic use. This demand along
with informal removals put a tremendous pressure on forests. Likewise, fuel wood is
estimated to account for about 50 per cent total fuel consumption in rural India. As per
MoEF (2009), only about 17 Mm3 of fuelwood are recorded to come from the forests,
leaving a staggering gap of more than 90 per cent of the total consumption. Part of the
gap is absorbed by production from forests and trees outside forests but much of it is
collected in an informal way from the forests. This is an important factor impacting
growing stock and ecological imbalances (MoEF, 2009). The annual increment of
India's forests in terms of fuel wood is estimated to be around 26.3 Mm3 (21 Mt). Of
this around 17 Mt is available on sustained basis. In this way, nearly 86 Mt of fuelwood
is being removed from the forests and plantations in India every year in excess of what
they are capable of producing on sustained basis (PC, 2001).
4.2. Diversion of Forestland for Non-Forestry Purposes

Forests are increasingly being diverted for purposes such as hydel power projects,
industry, road construction, mining, etc. Between 1980 and 2011, a total of 1.13 M ha
of land has been diverted for various developmental activities, of which a major part
was diverted for the hydel power and irrigation projects, mining, road building and
other projects. This is believed to have resulted in problems such as increased soil
erosion and landslides. However, stipulated mandatory provision of compensatory
afforestation and payment of net present value has made the diversion more stringent
(MoEF, 2009).
4.3. Unregulated Grazing

Grazing and trampling of regenerated seedlings by livestock is the biggest threat to
regeneration of vegetation in all forested areas of the country. Out of 445 M cattle in the
country, nearly 270 M graze in forests. FSI estimated (1996) that the requirements of
green and dry fodder were 593 and 482 Mt, respectively. With the increase in cattle
population, the demand for fodder will simultaneously increase. Most of this gap would
be filled by illegal removal such as heavy lopping of trees and cutting of saplings.
MoEF (2009) estimated that as much as 78 per cent of the forest area was subjected to
heavy grazing and other unregulated uses, adversely affecting productivity and natural
regeneration. Presently, India's forests provide 30 per cent of the fodder needs of the
cattle with removal to the extent of 145 Mt of dry fodder and 178 Mt of green fodder
(PC, 2011).
4.4. Unregulated Collection of NTFPs, Including Medicinal Plant Parts

As per MoEF (2009), nearly 400 M people living in and around forests in India were
dependent on NTFPs for sustenance and supplemental income. NTFPs contribute
significantly to the income of about 30 per cent of rural people. More than 80 per cent of
forest dwellers depend on NTFPs for basic necessities. The collection of NTFPs
comprises the main source of wage labour for 17 per cent of landless labourers, and 39
per cent more are involved in NTFPs collection as a subsidiary occupation. The other
major pressure on forest resources is the unsustainable harvesting of NTFPs. A serious
consequence of the low productivity of agriculture and livestock is the over
exploitation of NTFPs including medicinal plant parts to supplement low income.
Extraction of medicinal plant parts for trade and self-consumption has resulted in over-
exploitation of several species, especially herbs.
4.5. Forest Fires

Uncontrolled fires cause tremendous damage to the forest biodiversity of the country.
The forest fire generally spreads in two phases. The first phase occurs during late
March and early April when fresh leaf litter especially in chir pine forests gets
accumulated and burnt. The second phase of fire, which occurs in May-June, is more
serious. It occurs under conditions of high temperature, extreme dryness, strong winds
and virtually no moisture in the forest floor. The most sensitive fire prone areas in
country are pine, bamboo, dry deciduous and scrub forests.
5. Unrecognized Potential of Bamboos

Bamboos are one of the fastest growing grasses belong to family Poaceae. Out of 1,250
bamboo species in the world, 125 indigenous species exist in India with their
distribution all around the country except in middle and higher reaches of the
Himalayas. Bamboo forests occupy an area of about 14 M ha in the country. They are
found in almost all the states of the country, from the tropical to the temperate regions
and the alluvial plains to the high mountains, the only exception where they do not
occur naturally is Kashmir. The principal bamboo genera occurring in India are
Arundinaria, Bambusa, Chimonobambusa, Dendrocalamus, Dinochloa,
Drepanostachyum, Gigantochloa, Indocalamus, Ochlandra, Phyllostachys,
Pleioblastus, Pseudoxytenanthera, Schizostachyum and Thammnocalamus. More
than 50 per cent of the bamboo species occur in eastern India, in Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura and West Bengal.
Other areas rich in bamboos are the Andamans, Bastar region of Chhattisgarh and the
Western Ghats (FSI, 2011). The total estimated green weight of bamboo culms at
national level is 169 Mt.
6. Bamboos and Climate Change

Bamboos are one of the world's strongest and fastest growing woody plants
capable of providing ecological, economic and livelihood security to the people,
distributed over ranges of climate from mild temperate to tropical. It is important for
biomass production and also plays an increasing role in domestic and world
economy. During the last few decades, bamboos have gained world attention
owing to their versatile utility ranging from domestic items to rural housing and raw
materials for industry (Dransfield and Widjaja, 1995). Bamboos' fast growth,
ability to grow on varied soils and climate, renewability and positive socio-economic
impacts make them an excellent species for combating climate change.
On one hand, high growth potential and ability to store large amounts of carbon make
them a very good species for mitigation of climate change by way of carbon
sequestration and on the other hand their environmental and socio-economic services
can help communities in developing countries to adapt to the changing climate.
Research and growth modelling by the International Network of Bamboo and Rattan
(INBAR) had shown that managed bamboos can be an effective carbon sink and
perform better than Chinese fir and eucalypts growing under similar conditions.
Managing bamboos involves the annual, sustainable and selective harvesting of stem
which are turned into products that can hold carbon for many years. The
increasing popularity of durable bamboo products ensures that for the foreseeable
future, productive bamboo systems can be considered as an important carbon sink
(INBAR, 2009).
6.1. Bamboos for Climate Change Mitigation

It is estimated that about 30 Bt of carbon dioxide equivalent is produced each year by
human activity. Bamboos offer one of the quickest ways to remove vast amounts of that
CO2 from the atmosphere. Bamboos minimize CO2 gas and generate upto 25 per cent
more oxygen than an equivalent stand of trees. One hectare of bamboo can sequester up
to 62 t of CO2 yr-1, whereas equivalent of young forest sequesters 15 t of CO2 yr-1. The
Guadua plantations in Costa Rica estimated to absorb 17 t of CO2 ha-1 yr-1 (Janssen,2000).
Another study by INBAR states that over the past 15 years, areas under bamboos in
Asia grew by 10 per cent. China, for example, plans to continue to plant more bamboos
over the next many years. Studies have estimated that the carbon stored in Chinese
bamboo forests will increase from 727.08 Tg C in 2010 to 1,017.54 Tg C in 2050, which
equates to an increase of nearly 40 per cent in 40 years. This represents a significant
contribution to the Chinese forest carbon stock and a range that shows that policies
aiming at combating climate change with bamboos can indeed have significant
promise (Kuehl and Yiping, 2012).
Unlike trees, the culm growth in terms of volume growth in bamboos gets
completed in one year. However, the culm takes another couple of years to mature and
during this period some increase in biomass takes place by way of chemical and
structural changes. In one reported example, air-dried specific gravity of maturing
culms increased by about 60 per cent over five years (Li et al., 2007). Above ground
biomass growth and carbon sequestration in bamboos, therefore, has two components:
growth of newly emerging culms and biomass increase in older culms (Kuehl and
Yiping, 2012). Compared with unmanaged stands, in managed stands, cultivation and
harvesting practices enable much higher biomass production per unit area, at least
doubling productivity. For example, INBAR's modelling shows that a managed moso
bamboo forest accumulates about 300 t of carbon ha-1 after 60 years. Bamboos also
produce the most biomass when managed by cultivation with selective, regular
harvesting of mature culms. With harvested culms made into durable products, a
managed bamboo forest sequesters more carbon than fast growing tree species, such as
Chinese fir (Kuehl and Yiping, 2012). Due to rapid early growth, bamboos sequester
more carbon in the early years of a plantation than comparable forest trees. Unmanaged
bamboo stands do not store high levels of carbon, as their productivity is low and the
accumulated carbon returns quickly to the atmosphere as the older culms decompose
(Kuehl and Yiping, 2012).The characteristics that favour bamboos as potential species
for mitigation are:
6.1.1. Ability to grow under varied ecological conditions

Bamboos grow at altitudes ranging from 0 to 4,000 m amsl. They generally prefer
well-drained sandy loams to loamy clay types of soils derived from river alluvium or
the underlying rock. Most of the bamboos thrive well at annual average temperatures
range of 8.8-36ºC and annual rainfall of 1,270-4,050 mm. However, some species are
also found in the higher rainfall zones, while some can tolerate limited winter frost.
India has one of the richest bamboo resources in the world, second only to China.
About 136 species (125 indigenous and 11 exotics) out the total 1,250 species under 75
genera found in the world are reported from India (FSI, 2011). Commercially, the most
important species include Bambusa balcooa, B. bambos, B. nutans, B. pallida,
B. polymorpha, B. tulda, Dendrocalamus brandisii, D. giganteus, D. hamiltonii,
D. stictus, Melocanna baccifera, Ochlandra travancorica, Schizostachyum dullooa
and Thyrsostachys oliveri.
6.1.2. Bamboo resources and productivity

As per the Forest Survey of India (2011), bamboo covers about 13.96 M ha area in
India. Arunachal Pradesh has the maximum area under bamboos (1.6 M ha) followed
by Madhya Pradesh (1.3 M ha), Maharashtra (1.15 M ha) and Odisha (1.03 M ha).
Occurrence of pure bamboo stands was observed maximum in Mizoram (226 km2)
followed by Arunachal Pradesh (217 km2), Manipur (192 km2) and Nagaland (101
km2). The dense bamboo forests are found maximum in Arunachal Pradesh (8681 km2)
followed by Mizoram (6,116 km2) and Manipur (5,825 km2). The total green weight of
bamboos at national level is estimated to be 169 Mt. The bamboos also grow
abundantly on the areas outside forests with an estimated growing stock of 10.20 Mt.
The Eastern plains contribute maximum weight (4.07 Mt) followed by North-East
(1.07 Mt) and Eastern Deccan (0.09 Mt).
Due to insufficient supply of wood, especially from domestic sources, there is a
need for a viable alternative material that can replace or supplement wood. Bamboos
are such a versatile crop which have multifarious uses and can act as economic
catalyst, but only when avenues are made available for their extraction and utilization.
However, consistent supply of bamboo is the main key for the growth and
development of bamboo based industrial sector. The National Mission on Bamboo
Technology and Trade Development assessed the demand for various applications at
27 Mt against the existing availability of 13.47 Mt in India in 2003 (PC, 2003). The
average per hectare annual productivity of bamboo in India is about 1 t ha-1 which is
much lesser than the world's average.
Bamboos are one of the fastest growing species which, under ideal condition, can
grow upto one meter a day. The biomass of freshly planted bamboo plantation increases
rapidly for initial six to eight years after which emergence and death of culms tend to
become equal. In Assam, the high annual yield is from M. baccifera with 5 t (dry) ha-1,
and the next is from B. tulda with 3.1 t (dry) ha-1. The West coast Paper Mills obtained an
annual yield at Dandeli of 3 t ha-1 from D. strictus and 6 t/ha from B. bambos. B. vulgaris
plantations with 12 m x 12 m spacing yielded almost 10 t ha-1 annum in Madhya Pradesh.
It has been reported that afforestation of ravine lands with nursery transplants of D.
strictus has the potential to provide the highest net annual return when compared to
Dalbergia sissoo and Eucalyptus species. Pure bamboo plantations with intensive cultural
operations and organic fertilization can give substantial increase in yield. It has been
reported that in Taiwan D. giganteus (giant bamboo) gave an annual yield of 20-30 t ha-1
(ICFRE, 1992). The productivity of bamboos in managed stands is much higher due to
best cultivation and harvesting practices. Bamboos also produce the most biomass when
managed by cultivation and selective, regular harvesting of mature culms. If harvested
culms are turned into durable products, a managed bamboo forest sequesters more
carbon than fast growing tree species, such as Chinese fir (Kuehl and Yiping, 2012).
6.1.3. Periodic harvesting and management

Bamboos have well developed rhizome and root systems which get strengthened
during their lifespan. Culms mature in three to four years and naturally die after eight to
ten years, if not harvested. This necessitates periodic removal of mature culm from
each and every bamboo clump and this cycle of removal may vary from two to four
years. The biomass loss due to removal of culms gets replaced by appearance of new
culms within a year. Hence, bamboos allow periodic removal of mature culms on
sustainable basis without losing on biomass during this life time. The bamboos, thus,
provide a highly renewable resource with a high degree of sustainability. This makes
bamboos amenable to sequester accumulated CO2 from the atmosphere during the
entire lifespan. The sequestration rate, however, may be higher during the initial eight
to ten years period of fast growth.
6.1.4. Financial viability

As management of bamboo forests results in greater removal of greenhouse gases
compared to unmanaged stands, managing bamboos has potential to help mitigate
climate change while also increasing yields and quality of culms and, thereby,
generating benefits for both the environment and farmers (Kuehl and Yiping 2012).
Under ideal condition, D. strictus planted at a spacing of 5 m x 5 m, i.e., 400 clumps ha-
1
will produce on the average 2,000 culms ha-1 yr-1 from the 5th year onwards. Nearly 50
per cent of these culms will be fit for marketing as construction bamboos on per piece
basis, while the remaining 50 per cent being fit for bulk sale to proper mills. This
provides a B/C ratio of 2.065 at a discount rate of 10 per cent and 1.068 at a discount
rate of 15 per cent (ICFRE, 1992). At the same time, bamboos have a tremendous
potential to create jobs at the village level as well at the industrial level in countries
where bamboo is indigenous. In many ways socially, economically and
environmentally bamboos appear to provide an ideal material on which a labour
intensive development plan can be based (Janssen, 2000). Way back in 1997, Thatte
(1997) gave data for bamboo plantations in India, with bamboo as anintercrop, where
the total profit per year per hectare was calculated as US$ 800 at 1997 prices.
6.1.5. Multiple uses

Bamboo culms harvested at regular intervals can be utilized for making durable
products like low cost furniture, roofing material, etc. The strength of the culms, their
straightness and lightness, combined with hardness, range in size, hollowness, long
fibre and easy working qualities, make the bamboos suitable for a variety of utilization
purposes. The bamboos are used from food and housing material to a wide range of
value addition and industrial activities, both in rural and urban areas, engaging
millions of farmers, craft persons, industrial workers and others in the secondary and
territory sector. It is an important source of employment in both organized and un-
organized sector. Apart from its traditional uses, bamboos are extensively used for
construction of houses in areas prone to the natural calamities such as earthquakes and
cyclones due to its being light weight, highly elastic and resistant to rupture, etc. (FSI, 2011).
6.1.6. Bamboos as plantation option

Bamboo, due to their incredible adaptability to different climates and ecosystems,
offer a wide range of options to be utilized as a plantation species, particularly on
degraded lands. They can help in conversion of degraded lands into fairly productive
and ecological stable landscapes which can provide economic returns on regular basis.
The ability to provide recurring returns, that too within short span of planting, makes
bamboos excellent species to be planted on community lands, JFM areas and
homesteads due to its wider social acceptability. INBAR estimates that bamboos cover
36 M ha today representing 3.2 per cent of the total forest areas of countries. Studies
show that bamboos could be grown on many millions more hectares of degraded land
in the tropics and subtropics, where it could provide additional incomes to farmers
without affecting their existing crops (Kuehl and Yiping, 2012).
Besides, bamboos in small holding systems also hold great potential in terms of
livelihood generation as well as increasing the potential CO2 sink. A study by Nath and
Das (2011) in Barak Valley of Assam stated that the occurrence of bamboos in all
homesteads coupled with progressive increase in culm density over the years reflects
its potential for carbon storage. The study inferred that harvesting of mature culms was
balanced by carbon gain from new culms produced in the culm. Carbon assimilation
ratio exhibited bamboo farming as an efficient carbon sequestration system other than
pure plantations or natural forests. The study recommended promotion of small
bamboos farming systems to reduce atmospheric greenhouse gas levels to receive
certified emission reduction.
7. Bamboos for Adaptation to Climate Change

Adaptation measures are planned responses aimed at reducing the vulnerability of a
system. It is an adjustment in human and natural systems in response to actual or
expected climate stimuli or their impacts that moderate harm or exploit beneficial
opportunities (IPCC, 2007). The need to include adaptation into forest management
and policies is becoming increasingly recognized, especially in tropical and temperate
areas. In particular, forest stakeholders face challenges related to understanding
vulnerability, identifying adaptation options, and implementing adaptation strategies.
Bamboos, due to their ability to grow in varied climates and ecological conditions,
renewability and multiple utilization, offer some excellent options to be employed for
country's efforts towards climate change adaptation. These species can be integrated
into the climate change adaptation strategies, some of which are discussed below.
Forest ecosystems in India are already subjected to heavy socio-economic
pressures leading to forest degradation, and climate change will be an additional
pressure on forest ecosystems. Climate change can significantly affect the availability
of forest goods and services in terms of quality and quantity. Despite availability of
projections on future climate, there is no certainty about the likely impacts of the
climate change on the forests in India and particularly bamboos. Yet it, is imperative to
begin developing adaptation measures, based on the scientific literature elsewhere
under similar ecological conditions.
7.1. Rehabilitation of Degraded Forests and Afforestation of Wastelands

About 33 per cent of the total recorded forest area in the country is covered by open
forests and scrub-lands (FSI, 2013). The stocking level of this area can be improved
through a combination of plantation and assisted natural regeneration interventions.
While, regeneration of scrub land will require intensive plantation activities, open
forests could be regenerated through a combination of plantation and assisted natural
regeneration. The wastelands can potentially be brought under afforestation activities.

Bamboos can play an important role as a plantation species in these efforts. These
plantations being financially rewarding could be easily adopted by the farmers
provided planting stock, technical knowhow and marketing is provided by the
government efforts. The biggest hurdle to such an initiative is availability of the
required financial resources which mostly come from budgetary support of the
government. Such areas can be taken up under on-going Green India Mission of the
Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Govt. of India (MoEFCC).
Likewise, alternative sources such as funding under REDD-plus can be tapped for
afforestation, reforestation and conservation projects.
7.2. Improving Productivity of Forests and Plantations

Improving the productivity of existing plantations and forest areas is another option to
meet the ever increasing demand from forests. The adoption of silvicultural practices
and improved planting materials can increase the productivity of forests in the country.
As per MoEFCC's estimates productivity can be enhanced to 1.35 m3 ha-1 yr-1 in drier
regions, 7.66 m3 ha-1 yr-1 in moist/wet regions, and 4-5 m3 ha-1 yr-1 in other parts of the country
(MoEFCC, 1999). In the case of bamboo plantations, productivity can potentially be
increased manifold by planting of superior planting stock of bamboos raised through
modern nursery technology as well as through clonal technology. Bamboo
improvement programmes have to be accelerated by more research and funding.
Studies have shown that the productivity from existing bamboo forests can be
increased by simple yet intensive silvicultural practices, such as water conservation,
soil working and maintenance of health and hygiene of clumps, including the process
of thinning of existing clumps. The silvicultural regime can also provide about 10 to 25
unskilled workdays per hectare. These efforts result in a twofold output of bamboo and
better quality of culms (Adkoli, 1996). In a study of bamboo plantations in Rajasthan,
Chauhan et al. (2008) demonstrated that improved and scientific management
techniques can significantly increase the productivity of bamboo plantations.
However, the genetic improvement of bamboo stocks is very limited and needs to be
taken up on an urgent basis.
8. Strengthening Community Forest Management

Strengthening community forest management could be another strategy for
sustainable management of forests. There are more than 100,000 JFM committees in
the country, which are managing around 24.6 M ha (ICFRE, 2010) of the forest area of
the country. Various studies across the country indicate that community forest
management has had a positive impact on vegetation and income, and on the
relationship between local communities and the forest department. The Green India
Mission also envisages empowerment of forest based communities which would be
critical for the success of such interventions. Bamboos can play a significant role here
too, due to their easy renewability and recurring harvests.
9. Diverting Pressures Away from Forests

Yet another opportunity to reduce the pressure on forests is agroforestry and farm
forestry wherein trees may be planted on and along farm boundaries and homesteads in
a manner that does not affect crop productivity. Strategies for promoting farm forestry
should focus on educating and motivating farmers, rationalizing legal barriers on
felling and transport of produce, bringing about market reforms, and fostering farmer-
industry linkages. In Uttarakhand, the districts like Udham Singh Nagar have made good
progress in agroforestry and farm forestry but other districts like Dehradun and Haridwar
should be able to promote agroforestry and farm forestry. The success of species such as
poplar and eucalypts in agroforestry and farm forestry is already evident; however, efforts
are required to include bamboo as a mainstream plant for farm lands. This requires
technical intervention on expanding the utilization and building up the market linkages.
10. Improving Livelihoods of Forest Dependent Communities

Ensuring better livelihood opportunities for forest-dependent people can reduce the
over-exploitation of natural forest resources. Forest based interventions alone cannot
fulfil the livelihood needs of the communities in question. Hence, initiatives to bolster
their livelihood options need to be dovetailed with interventions in the agricultural
sector and other income-generation activities. Rao and Saxena (1996) report that one
tonne of bamboo in the craft sector can generate an average of 150 workdays. This
means that two tonnes of bamboo are enough to employ one person for one year. It is
very encouraging for a village cooperative because one hectare of bamboo plantation
can easily yield 20 t yr-1, thus, providing jobs for 10 people in the community. A study by
Paulose (1995), examining the Kerala State Bamboo Corporation Limited, showed
how it had helped thousands of poor workers by providing them with bamboo from the
state-owned forests and buying the mats they weaved with that bamboo.
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BAMBOOS

ENVIS Centre on Forestry

markers also have helped immensely in understanding their evolution. The

1. Bamboo Systematics with Special Reference to Molecular Taxonomy

2. Assessment of Bamboo Resources of India 15

3. Growth, Behaviour and Silviculture of Bamboos 27

4. Bamboo: Flowering, Seed Germination and Storage 89

5. Anatomy of Indian Bamboos 109

6. Genetic Diversity in Bamboos: Conservation and Improvement for

7. Biotechnology of Bamboos 147

l Tissue Culture Protocol for Dendrocalamus membranaceus 164

8. Macro-Propagation Methods for Vegetative Multiplication of Sympodial

9. Diseases of Bamboos and Their Management 195

10. Viral Diseases of Bamboos 213

11. Insect Pests of Bamboos in India 227

12. Bamboos for Social Forestry 247

13. Bamboo Based Agroforestry Systems 261

14. Bamboo Fibres in Textile Applications 285

15. Bamboo Based Composites: Material for Future 304

A.K. Gupta ICAR- Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation

Abhijit Majumdar Department of Textile Technology

Ajay Thakur Tissue Culture Discipline

Amita Bhattacharya Division of Biotechnology

Anil Sood Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Institute of Himalayan

C. Mohanan Forest Health Division

C.N. Pandey Indian Plywood Industries Research and Training Institute

D.R. Bhardwaj Department of Silviculture and Agroforestry

Devinder Kaur Division of Biotechnology

Falguni Behera Forest Tree Seed Laboratory, Silviculture Division

Geeta Joshi Tree Improvement Division

H.K. Tripathi Forest Survey of India

H.S. Ginwal Genetics and Tree Propagation Division

Harleen Naddha Division of Biotechnology

I.D. Arya Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding Division

Jasmine Brar Division of Biotechnology

K.K. Seethalakshmi Vanchur Kalam

Manisha Thapliyal Forest Tree Seed Laboratory

Mohit Gera Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy

Neelu Gera FRI (Deemed) University

O.P. Chaturvedi ICAR-Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation

Om Prakash Division of Biotechnology

P. Awasthi Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR)

P. Shanmughavel Department of Bioinformatics

P.K. Pande Wood Anatomy Discipline, Botany Division

Pooja Thapa Division of Biotechnology

Prakash Lakchaura Forest Survey of India

Priyanka Sood Division of Biotechnology

R. Kaushal Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute

R.K. Ogra Division of Biotechnology

R.V. Varma Forest Protection Division

Rajesh Kumar Forest Survey of India

Rupali Mehta Division of Biotechnology

S. Tewari Department of Agroforestry, College of Agriculture

Sanchi Arora Department of Textile Technology

Santan Barthwal Genetics and Tree Propagation Division

Sarita Arya Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding Division

Sudhir Chouhan Sheel Biotech Limited

Sudhir Sharma West Coast Paper Mill

Sushma Sharma West Coast Paper Mill

Swapnendu Pattanaik Institute of Forest Biodiversity

V. Hallan Plant Virology Lab

1. Bamboo Systematics – A Historical Perspective

significant monograph 'Bambuseae: The bamboos of British India' by James Sykes