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⎛ q⋅V ⎞
I = Io ⋅ ⎜ e n ⋅K ⋅T − 1⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
where:
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This equation shows that the current crossing a diode depends not only
on its supply voltage, but also on temperature. Another important
parameter characterizing a semiconductor diode is differential resistance
rd.
This resistance is defined as the ratio between a slight voltage variation
and the corresponding current variation, in the range of a working point;
this parameter is represented graphically as the inverse of the slope of
the curve of Fig. 3.1.
The graphic symbol of a diode is shown in Fig. 3.2:
Diodes will turn on only when they are forward biased. Consequently,
when a diode is powered with alternating voltage, the circuit will be
crossed by current only during the positive half wave, because the
negative half wave will prevent it. Fig. 3.3a shows the simplest circuit
that uses the diode as rectifier.
Current will cross the circuit during half period (duration of a half
wave) and generate a positive voltage hald wave across the load
resistance.
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The average value Vm of the voltage rectified across load R will result
from the following formula:
Vm = VM/π = 0.318 VM
Vrms = VM/2
As the “acceptor” atoms are located in the P zone and “donor” atoms in
N zone, near the junction some free electrons will spread from N zone to
P zone, whereas some positive charges (holes) will migrate from P zone
to N zone. As soon as they cross the junction, the holes recombine with
the electrons of N zone, and the electrons entering the P zone will
recombine with the holes.
Thus the free carriers adjacent at the junction will disappear in the
recombination process, and consequently a zone without charge carriers,
called transition region or space-charge region (Fig. 3.5), is created
around the junction.
This space charge, positive in N zone and negative in P zone (refer also
to Fig. 3.6), will determine an electric field and consequently a potential
barrier that will oppose the diffusion process.
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Fig. 3.6 – Trends of charge and of potential
Then the generated potential (with the polarities of Fig. 3.6) will oppose
the diffusion of holes from P zone to N zone, and of electrons from N
zone to P zone, whereas it will favour the passage of holes from N zone
to P zone, and of electrons from P zone to N zone.
Therefore, some electric charges of this last type (minority carriers),
generated by thermal effect, can cross the junction freely, producing an
electric current, called minority carrier current or filed current.
Once balanced and in open circuit condition, the two diffusion and field
currents are perfectly equal, so that the resulting current I is equal to
zero.
The free electrons of N region are repelled by the negative pole of the
battery and sent towards the junction. At the same time, also the holes
of P regions are addressed towards the junction as a result of the field
produced by the positive pole of the battery. Consequently the result is a
current that crosses the junction in forward direction (P-N): its value
will rise as the applied e.m.f. increases.
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3.4 REVERSE BIASED P-N JUNCTION
Then it has a negative direction (N→P) and is called "leakage current "
or "reverse current". It does not depend considerably on the applied
voltage and it takes very low values: its highest value does not exceed
few microamperes for germaniun and few nanoamperes for silicon.
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3.6 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIERS E1UK
The half-wave rectifier shown in fig. 3.9 represents the simplest ac/dc
configuration.
Ripple:
Reverse peak voltage across the diode: URRM = 3.14 UdAV = 1.41 (2U2)
Where:
- Podc: average (AVG) power on the load
- Poac: root-mean-square (RMS) value of the
power on the load
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3.7 FULL-WAVE RECTIFIERS M2UK
These rectifiers use center tap transformers that supplies the diodes with
two partial voltages of equal value as it is shown in fig.3.11.
When referred to the center tap (neutral), voltages 2U1 and 2U3 are in
phase opposition, consequently, during each half wave only the diode
whose anode is connected with the end of the winding being positive
with respect to the center tap can turn on: the current crossing the load is
supplied by diode D1, during the positive half wave, and by diode D2,
during the negative half wave, always with the same polarity.
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The characteristics parameters of this circuit, with resistive load, are
determined by the following formulae:
Ripple:
Where:
- Podc: average (AVG) power on the load
- Poac: root-mean-square (RMS) value of the power on the
load
- Higher efficiency
- Lower ripple across the load
- Higher average voltage across the load
- Diodes can turn on with lower RMS current
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3.8 SINGLE PHASE BRIDGE RECTIFIERS (Graetz bridge)
Examining the circuit will lead to state that two diodes: D1 and D2, are
forward connected and they alternate with two other diodes: D3 and D4,
reverse connected. Two diodes turn on during each half wave of the
input sine wave (D1 and D4 during the first half wave of Fig.3.14; D2
and D3 in the following half wave). Load is crossed by current during
both positive and negative half waves of supply voltage 2U2, always
with the same polarity.
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The characteristics parameters of this circuit, with resistive load,
are determined by the following formulae:
UdRMS = 2U2
Root-mean-square value of DC voltage
Ripple:
Reverse peak voltage across the diode: URRM = 1.57 UdAV = 1.41 (2U2)
Where:
- Podc: average (AVG) power on the load
- Poac: root-mean-square (RMS) value of the power on the
load
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3.9 THREE-PHASE HALF-WAVE RECTIFIERS
Each diode will turn on only when its own anode is positive witrh
respect to its cathode. The phase shift of the 3 three-phase voltages will
lead to the turning on/off cycle of diodes. With resistive load, each
diode will turn on for 120° of the cycle of its phase and that highly
reduces the ripple for the interaction of the 3 phases.
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The characteristics parameters of this circuit, with resistive load, are
determined by the following formulae:
Ripple:
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3.10 6-PHASE RECTIFIERS
Diodes will turn on at the intersections of phase voltages and each diode
will turn on for 1/6 of the period: that will involve a partial use of the
same diode and this is the reason why this type of rectifier is not used
very often.
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The characteristics parameters of this circuit, with resistive load, are
determined by the following formulae:
Ripple:
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3.11 THREE-PHASE BRIDGE RECTIFIERS B6U
When the voltages are applied to the circuit, only one diode at a time
can turn on in the upper part of the bridge (D1, D2, D3). In this case, the
diode will turn on only when its own anode is connected with the phase
of highest value at that time.
The same will occur in the lower part of the bridge (D4, D5, D5): only
one diode at a time can turn on; in this case, the diode will turn on only
when its own cathode is connected with the phase of lowest value at that
time.
Current will cross the load with the same polarity, always through two
diodes: one of the upper part and one of the lower part.
For instance (refer to Fig. 3.19), when 2U2 is the phase of highest value,
current will cross diode D1 and the load, in sequence; then current will
come back crossing diodes D5 and D6 in sequence.
Each diode will turn on for 60° of the period of the phase powering it.
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Fig. 3.20 - Waveforms of voltages and currents crossing the circuit
Ripple:
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3.12 TABLE OF SINGLE-PHASE RECTIFIERS AND OF THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
Single-phase
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
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OUTPUT CURRENT
TRANSFORMER STATES
Root-mean-square value of 2·22Edc 1·11Edc 1·11Edc
secondary voltage across (center tap) (total)
transformer branch ET (rms)
Root-mean-square value R 1·57Idc 0·785Idc 1·11Idc
of secondary current
across transformer branch L 0·707Idc Idc
IT (rms)
Volt-Amp of secondary R 3·48Edc· Idc 1·74Edc· Idc 1·23Edc· Idc
winding V AS
L 1·57Edc· Idc 1·11Edc· Idc
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Operating peak voltage 3·14Edc 3·14Edc 1·57Edc
versus Edc
versus ET (rms) 1·41ET (rms) 2·82ET (rms) 1·41ET (rms)
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Three-phase
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
Root-mean-square value of
output voltage Erms versus Edc 1·21 Edc 1·05 Edc 1·05 Edc 1·05 Edc
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OUTPUT CURRENT
TRANSFORMER STATES
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Fundamental ripple frequency 3f 6f 6f 6f
fr
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3.14 RMS and TRMS INSTRUMENTS
A lot of measuring instruments (including the cheapest multimeters) are
adjusted to show the root mean square value versus the average value of
a rectified sinusoidal voltage. This method can work only if the signal is
a perfect sine wave, but it gives totally wrong results if the signal is
distorted (that is, it is not a sine wave) or it is crossed by a superimposed
direct current. Error increases as signal harmonics increase.
Some instruments can output the true root mean square value by
sampling the signal and calculating in real time. These instruments,
defined as true RMS, can however be digital (applying the above-
mentioned formula) or more rarely analog; in this last case their
operating principle depends on the type of quantity to be measured, such
as, for example, electric current, magnetic field or something else.
The numerical measure (that is made with digital instruments) of the
root mean square value is however granted within a given passband,
which depends on the sampling frequency of the instrument (refer to
Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem), that is the speed of measurement
and recording of value in a single instant. Complex signals, with fast
leading and trailing edges, have a high harmonic resonance. If the
higher harmonics exceed the maximum frequency that can be managed
by the instrument, the measured root mean square value is wrong.
For example:
Suppose a waveform:
where amplitudes are as follows: 50% of the 3rd harmonic, 30% of the
5th harmonic and 20% of the 7th harmonics.
The root mean square value is:
u(t)AVG = 0,55
The form factor is:
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4. BASE LEVEL: EXERCISES WITH UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIERS.
• Use only the safety connecting cables provided with the equipment.
In the following exercises the measurements in points of the circuit will be carried
out by the signal acquisition module MDAQ. This module supplies 30 safety
terminals (Ø = 2 mm) in optoisolation with the signals of the connected unit.
Optoisolation ensures the electric safety of students and equipment during the
execution of measurements.
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Measurements with the oscilloscope
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Circuit INSULATED from the mains
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Measurement of current
The current I crossing a load R can be measured indirectly when the
voltage drop across a shunt resistance Rs is displayed on the
oscilloscope
The measured voltage U considers the voltage drop across the shunt
resistance RS. This error can be ignored if R >> RS.
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This configuration enables to measure the amplitude of voltage U and of
current I.
The current phase, however, is inverted of 180°. This id the reason why
it is necessary to set the CH2 of the oscilloscope in INV mode in order
to display the current signal correctly.
Note
If a multi-trace oscilloscope is used, connect only a point of the circuit
to oscilloscope's conductive part.
• Isolation amplifier
If available, it is better to use an isolation amplifier as interface
between measuring circuit and oscilloscope, in order to insulate the
measure from circuit voltages.
SAFETY
• Metal parts that generally are not under voltage (for example metal
boxes) must be connected with PE earthing, according to IEC
standards.
• The PE ground cable is provided just for this scope and it must
NEVER be connected with neutral point N!
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