Nandini Gupta

ngupta@iitk.ac.in
L11
When the secondary is on open circuit

The full-load efficiency of a transformer is nearly 100 per cent

power factors at full load are nearly equal

full-load primary ampere-turns are approximately equal to full-load

secondary ampere-turns
instantaneous value of induced e.m.f. per turn

maximum value of induced e.m.f. per turn

r.m.s. value of induced e.m.f. per turn

 The current taken by the primary winding
is responsible for setting up the magnetic
flux and providing a very small power
component to supply the loss in the core.

1. The core loss and the I2R loss in the primary

winding is negligible.
2. The permeability of the core remain s constant.
 The no-load current, I0, taken by the primary
consists of two components:
1. A reactive or magnetizing component, I0m,
producing the flux and therefore in phase with the
latter.*
2. An active or power component, I0l, supplying
the hysteresis and eddy current losses in the core
and the negligible I2R loss in the primary
winding.

This component is usually very small

compared with I0m, so that the no-load power
factor is very low.
 I1 must have two components:

1. I0m to maintain the useful flux, the

maximum value of which remains constant
within about 2 per cent between no
load and full load.
2. A component, I2′, to neutralize the
demagnetizing effect of the secondary
current, as

We assume a load having a

power factor such that the
secondary current is in phase
with E2
L12
1. Permeability of the core remains
constant.
2. Its core is lossless.
3. It has no leakage fluxes.
4. Its windings have no losses.
 1. The useful flux, ΦU, linked with both
windings and remaining practically
constant in value at all loads.

2. The leakage flux, ΦL, half of which is

linked with the primary winding and
half with the secondary, and its value is
proportional to the load.

The reluctance of the paths of the leakage flux is very high, so that the
value of this flux is relatively small even on full load when the values of I2′
and I2 are about 20–30 times the magnetizing current I0m.
 Non-ideal effects of the primary winding

Iron core excited by an ac mmf

Kh is a proportionality
constant dependent on
the characteristics and
volume of iron ; the
exponent n ranges from
1.5 to 2.5
L13
 equivalent circuit referred to primary

equivalent circuit referred to secondary

equivalent circuit referred to primary

(φe − φ2 )
(φe − φ2 )

very small
1. I2R losses in primary and secondary windings: I21R1 + I22R2.
2. Core losses due to hysteresis and eddy currents.

Since the maximum value of the flux in a normal transformer does not
vary by more than about 2 per cent between no load and full load, it is usual
to assume the core loss constant at all loads.

total losses in transformer =

(power efficiency)

energy efficiency  all-day efficiency

equivalent resistance of the primary and secondary windings
referred to the secondary circuit
Primary supplied at rated voltage and frequency.

The primary current on no load is usually less than 5 per cent

of the full-load current.

Wattmeter reading ≅ the core loss of the transformer.

 The primary supplied with a low voltage
sufficient to circulate full-load currents
in the primary and secondary circuits.

the core loss is negligibly small, since the applied voltage and
therefore the flux are only about one-twentieth to one-thirtieth of
the rated voltage and flux

Wattmeter reading ≅ the copper loss of the transformer.

For any load equal to n × full load,
An auto-transformer is a transformer
having a part of its winding common
to the primary and secondary circuits

effective
turns ratio
the rated current ofthe 240-V winding

The kVA rating as an autotransformer

The higher rating as an autotransformer is

a consequence of the fact that not all the
550 kVA has to be transformed by
electromagnetic induction.
Efficiency is high because the losses are those corresponding to
transforming only 50 kVA.
The input apparent power is

The output apparent power

The apparent power transformed by electromagnetic induction (or

transformer action)

The output transferred by electrical conduction (because of the direct

electrical connection between primary and secondary windings)
l14
A three-phase bank may consist of one three-phase transformer
having all six windings on a common multi legged core and
contained in a single tank
 Three single-phase transformers can be connected to form a three-phase
transformer bank

Rated voltages and currents at the primary and secondary of the three-
phase transformer bank depends upon the connection used.

The rated kVA of the three-phase bank is three times that of the individual
single-phase transformers, regardless of the connection.
 Transformers are often used in instrumentation applications to match the
magnitude of a voltage or current to the range of a meter or other
instrumention (0-120 V rms / 0-5 Arms).

Should accurately measure voltage

while appearing as an open circuit to the
system under measurement, i.e., drawing
negligible current and power. Thus, its load
impedance should be "large".
Zb = ∞

Accurate PT A large magnetizing

reactance and relatively small winding
resistances and leakage reactance.
 Should accurately measure voltage while
appearing as a short circuit to the system
under measurement, i.e., developing
negligible voltage drop and drawing
negligible power. Thus, its load impedance
should be "small“.

An accurate CT has a
large magnetizing
impedance and
relatively small
winding resistances
and leakage reactances.
A typical power system is a complex, interconnected network
of parallel and series circuits containing many transformation steps.
The common technique used by power system engineers is to use a per
unit system of currents, voltages, impedances and power.
In this system, each value is expressed as a fraction of its own nominal
or rated value.

The base value of the voltage is normally the rated line to line voltage of the
system. It is not a constant value throughout a system as a transformer
would have a different rated voltage on the primary to that of the
secondary. Thus a 33/11 kV transformer would have a base voltage on the
11 kV side of 11 kV and on the 33 kV side, of 33 kV.

This applies to voltage, current, impedance and apparent power (V A).

The base value of voltage in volts (rated voltage) is defined as 1 pu voltage
and the base value of current in amps (full-load current) is defined as 1 pu
current.

line to line voltage= 3464 V

full-load current = 500 A,

Zpu has no units; it is simply a number

A transmission line having a per-unit impedance of 0.125 pu means that

the magnitude of the voltage drop along the line when full load current
is flowing is 0.125 pu or 12.5 per cent.
Calculate the ohmic impedance of two 0.1 pu transformers: one is
a 11 kV/400 V transformer having a rating of 2 MV A, the other is a
33 kV/400 V transformer having a rating of 10 MV A.

SB is the rated MV A = 2 MV A

referred to 11 kV
In this case Vbase is 33 kV.
 Every item of power system plant has a nominal rating – often in MV A –
and a per-unit impedance value referred to that rated V A value.
For a complex circuit, when the per-unit method is used, as a first step in
any solution, all per-unit values must be referred to a common V A base,
Sbase (SB). Any convenient V A base may be chosen.

calculate the sending-end voltage VS

Ohmic value method

Per-unit method
Choose 2 MV A as the base power.

The per-unit impedance (reactance) of the 2 MV A transformer remains

at j0.1 pu as the voltage drop within the transformer, when the base power
flows through it, will be 0.1 pu.
For the 10 MVA transformer: Since its voltage drop is 0.1 pu when the
load is 10 MV A then when the load is 2 MV A the voltage drop
will be 0.02 pu.